1.
Battle of Martinique (1779)
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Parker was awaiting the arrival of Admiral George Brydges Rodney, who was to lead the 1780 campaign, and his fleet was largely at rest, with crews ashore and repairs being made to some vessels. Around 8 am on 18 December, HMS Preston, which was stationed in the channel between the two islands, gave a signal indicating the arrival of an unknown fleet. Parker immediately scrambled, and managed to get five ships of the line and a 50-gun frigate out to meet the arriving fleet, which turned out to be a French supply fleet destined for Martinique. Before La Motte was able to some of his ships to meet them, Parker managed to capture nine of the convoy ships. Parker, who has called on all his ships, now has 13 ships of the line, La Motte left the anchorage at Fort Royal with his flagship Annibal and two ships of the line, Vengeur and Réfléchi. As his arrival was to the windward, he was able to cover the arrival of the convoy ships. The British fleet, with HMS Conqueror in the lead, began beating against the wind to closing with the French fleet. By 5 pm, Conqueror came with the range of Annibals guns, the defense of La Motte-Picquet is facilitated by the shore batteries firing on the vessels of Parker. Parker finally called his fleet off at 6,45 pm, the loss to the French convoy was significant with thirteen ships captured or driven ashore. Parker was however satisfied with his squadrons conduct and the prizes captured but was also with the French, La Mottes conduct during the battle impressed Hyde Parker sufficiently to make him send a congratulatory letter to his adversary when they had occasion to communicate via a truce flag
2.
American Revolutionary War
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From about 1765 the American Revolution had led to increasing philosophical and political differences between Great Britain and its American colonies. The war represented a culmination of these differences in armed conflict between Patriots and the authority which they increasingly resisted. This resistance became particularly widespread in the New England Colonies, especially in the Province of Massachusetts Bay. On December 16,1773, Massachusetts members of the Patriot group Sons of Liberty destroyed a shipment of tea in Boston Harbor in an event that became known as the Boston Tea Party. Named the Coercive Acts by Parliament, these became known as the Intolerable Acts in America. The Massachusetts colonists responded with the Suffolk Resolves, establishing a government that removed control of the province from the Crown outside of Boston. Twelve colonies formed a Continental Congress to coordinate their resistance, and established committees, British attempts to seize the munitions of Massachusetts colonists in April 1775 led to the first open combat between Crown forces and Massachusetts militia, the Battles of Lexington and Concord. Militia forces proceeded to besiege the British forces in Boston, forcing them to evacuate the city in March 1776, the Continental Congress appointed George Washington to take command of the militia. Concurrent to the Boston campaign, an American attempt to invade Quebec, on July 2,1776, the Continental Congress formally voted for independence, issuing its Declaration on July 4. Sir William Howe began a British counterattack, focussing on recapturing New York City, Howe outmaneuvered and defeated Washington, leaving American confidence at a low ebb. Washington captured a Hessian force at Trenton and drove the British out of New Jersey, in 1777 the British sent a new army under John Burgoyne to move south from Canada and to isolate the New England colonies. However, instead of assisting Burgoyne, Howe took his army on a campaign against the revolutionary capital of Philadelphia. Burgoyne outran his supplies, was surrounded and surrendered at Saratoga in October 1777, the British defeat in the Saratoga Campaign had drastic consequences. Giving up on the North, the British decided to salvage their former colonies in the South, British forces under Lieutenant-General Charles Cornwallis seized Georgia and South Carolina, capturing an American army at Charleston, South Carolina. British strategy depended upon an uprising of large numbers of armed Loyalists, in 1779 Spain joined the war as an ally of France under the Pacte de Famille, intending to capture Gibraltar and British colonies in the Caribbean. Britain declared war on the Dutch Republic in December 1780, in 1781, after the British and their allies had suffered two decisive defeats at Kings Mountain and Cowpens, Cornwallis retreated to Virginia, intending on evacuation. A decisive French naval victory in September deprived the British of an escape route, a joint Franco-American army led by Count Rochambeau and Washington, laid siege to the British forces at Yorktown. With no sign of relief and the situation untenable, Cornwallis surrendered in October 1781, Whigs in Britain had long opposed the pro-war Tory majority in Parliament, but the defeat at Yorktown gave the Whigs the upper hand
3.
Auguste Louis de Rossel de Cercy
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Auguste-Louis de Rossel de Cercy was a French painter of the 18th century. De Cercy was born in Dompierre-sur-Mer in 1736, and was a Marquis and he died in 1804 in Paris. Works by Auguste-Louis de Rossel de Cercy
4.
Martinique
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Like Guadeloupe, it is an overseas region of France, consisting of a single overseas department. One of the Windward Islands, it is north of Saint Lucia, southeast of Puerto Rico, northwest of Barbados. As with the overseas departments, Martinique is one of the eighteen regions of France. As part of France, Martinique is part of the European Union, the official language is French, and virtually the entire population also speak Antillean Creole. Martinique owes its name to Christopher Columbus, who sighted the island in 1493, the island was then called Jouanacaëra-Matinino, which came from a mythical island described by the Tainos of Hispaniola. According to historian Sydney Daney, the island was called Jouanacaëra by the Caribs, when Columbus returned to the island in 1502, he rechristened the island as Martinica. The name then evolved into Madinina, Madiana, and Matinite, finally, through the influence of the neighboring island of Dominica, it came to be known as Martinique. The island was occupied first by Arawaks, then by Caribs, the Carib people had migrated from the mainland to the islands about 1201 CE, according to carbon dating of artifacts. They were largely displaced, exterminated and assimilated by the Taino, Martinique was charted by Columbus in 1493, but Spain had little interest in the territory. On 15 September 1635, Pierre Belain dEsnambuc, French governor of the island of St. Kitts, dEsnambuc claimed Martinique for the French King Louis XIII and the French Compagnie des Îles de lAmérique, and established the first European settlement at Fort Saint-Pierre. DEsnambuc died in 1636, leaving the company and Martinique in the hands of his nephew, in 1637, his nephew Jacques Dyel du Parquet became governor of the island. In 1636, the indigenous Caribs rose against the settlers to drive them off the island in the first of many skirmishes. The French successfully repelled the natives and forced them to retreat to the part of the island. When the Carib revolted against French rule in 1658, the Governor Charles Houël du Petit Pré retaliated with war against them, many were killed, those who survived were taken captive and expelled from the island. Some Carib had fled to Dominica or St. Vincent, where the French agreed to them at peace. They were quite industrious and became quite prosperous, from September 1686 to early 1688, the French crown used Martinique as a threat and a dumping ground for mainland Huguenots who refused to reconvert to Catholicism. Over 1,000 Huguenots were transported to Martinique during this period, usually under miserable and those that survived the trip were distributed to the island planters as Engagés under the system of serf peonage that prevailed in the French Antilles at the time. Many of them were encouraged by their Catholic brethren who looked forward to the departure of the heretics, by 1688, nearly all of Martiniques French Protestant population had escaped to the British American colonies or Protestant countries back home
5.
West Indies
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Indigenous peoples were the first inhabitants of the West Indies. In 1492, Christopher Columbus became the first European to arrive at the islands, after the first of the voyages of Christopher Columbus to the Americas, Europeans began to use the term West Indies to distinguish the region from the East Indies of South Asia and Southeast Asia. In the late century, French, English and Dutch merchants and privateers began their operations in the Caribbean Sea, attacking Spanish and Portuguese shipping. These African slaves wrought a demographic revolution, replacing or joining with either the indigenous Caribs or the European settlers who were there as indentured servants. The Dutch, allied with the Caribs of the Orinoco would eventually carry the struggles deep into South America, first along the Orinoco and these interconnected commercial and diplomatic relations made up the Western Caribbean Zone which was in place in the early eighteenth century. In 1916, Denmark sold the Danish West Indies to the United States for US$25 million in gold, the Danish West Indies became an insular area of the US, called the United States Virgin Islands. Between 1958 and 1962, the United Kingdom re-organised all their West Indies island territories into the West Indies Federation and they hoped that the Federation would coalesce into a single, independent nation. West Indian is the term used by the U. S. government to refer to people of the West Indies. Tulane University professor Rosanne Adderly says he phrase West Indies distinguished the territories encountered by Columbus, … The term West Indies was eventually used by all European nations to describe their own acquired territories in the Americas. Despite the collapse of the Federation … the West Indies continues to field a joint cricket team for international competition, the West Indies cricket team includes participants from Guyana, which is geographically located in South America. More than Slaves and Sugar, Recent Historiography of the Trans-imperial Caribbean, a Concise History of the Caribbean. Martin, Tony, Caribbean History, From Pre-colonial Origins to the Present
6.
Kingdom of Great Britain
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The Kingdom of Great Britain, officially Great Britain, was a sovereign state in western Europe from 1 May 1707 to 31 December 1800. It did not include Ireland, which remained a separate realm, the unitary state was governed by a single parliament and government that was based in Westminster. Also after the accession of George I to the throne of Great Britain in 1714, the early years of the unified kingdom were marked by Jacobite risings which ended in defeat for the Stuart cause at Culloden in 1746. On 1 January 1801, the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland were merged to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922, five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the United Kingdom, the name Britain descends from the Latin name for the island of Great Britain, Britannia or Brittānia, the land of the Britons via the Old French Bretaigne and Middle English Bretayne, Breteyne. The term Great Britain was first used officially in 1474, in the instrument drawing up the proposal for a marriage between Edward IV of Englands daughter Cecily and James III of Scotlands son James. The Treaty of Union and the subsequent Acts of Union state that England and Scotland were to be United into one Kingdom by the Name of Great Britain. However, both the Acts and the Treaty also refer numerous times to the United Kingdom and the longer form, other publications refer to the country as the United Kingdom after 1707 as well. The websites of the UK parliament, the Scottish Parliament, the BBC, additionally, the term United Kingdom was found in informal use during the 18th century to describe the state. The new state created in 1707 included the island of Great Britain, the kingdoms of England and Scotland, both in existence from the 9th century, were separate states until 1707. However, they had come into a union in 1603. Each of the three kingdoms maintained its own parliament and laws and this disposition changed dramatically when the Acts of Union 1707 came into force, with a single unified Crown of Great Britain and a single unified parliament. Ireland remained formally separate, with its own parliament, until the Acts of Union 1800, legislative power was vested in the Parliament of Great Britain, which replaced both the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland. In practice it was a continuation of the English parliament, sitting at the location in Westminster. Newly created peers in the Peerage of Great Britain were given the right to sit in the Lords. Despite the end of a parliament for Scotland, it retained its own laws. As a result of Poynings Law of 1495, the Parliament of Ireland was subordinate to the Parliament of England, the Act was repealed by the Repeal of Act for Securing Dependence of Ireland Act 1782. The same year, the Irish constitution of 1782 produced a period of legislative freedom, the 18th century saw England, and after 1707 Great Britain, rise to become the worlds dominant colonial power, with France its main rival on the imperial stage
7.
Kingdom of France
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The Kingdom of France was a medieval and early modern monarchy in Western Europe. It was one of the most powerful states in Europe and a great power since the Late Middle Ages and it was also an early colonial power, with possessions around the world. France originated as West Francia, the half of the Carolingian Empire. A branch of the Carolingian dynasty continued to rule until 987, the territory remained known as Francia and its ruler as rex Francorum well into the High Middle Ages. The first king calling himself Roi de France was Philip II, France continued to be ruled by the Capetians and their cadet lines—the Valois and Bourbon—until the monarchy was overthrown in 1792 during the French Revolution. France in the Middle Ages was a de-centralised, feudal monarchy, in Brittany and Catalonia the authority of the French king was barely felt. Lorraine and Provence were states of the Holy Roman Empire and not yet a part of France, during the Late Middle Ages, the Kings of England laid claim to the French throne, resulting in a series of conflicts known as the Hundred Years War. Subsequently, France sought to extend its influence into Italy, but was defeated by Spain in the ensuing Italian Wars, religiously France became divided between the Catholic majority and a Protestant minority, the Huguenots, which led to a series of civil wars, the Wars of Religion. France laid claim to large stretches of North America, known collectively as New France, Wars with Great Britain led to the loss of much of this territory by 1763. French intervention in the American Revolutionary War helped secure the independence of the new United States of America, the Kingdom of France adopted a written constitution in 1791, but the Kingdom was abolished a year later and replaced with the First French Republic. The monarchy was restored by the great powers in 1814. During the later years of the elderly Charlemagnes rule, the Vikings made advances along the northern and western perimeters of the Kingdom of the Franks, after Charlemagnes death in 814 his heirs were incapable of maintaining political unity and the empire began to crumble. The Treaty of Verdun of 843 divided the Carolingian Empire into three parts, with Charles the Bald ruling over West Francia, the nucleus of what would develop into the kingdom of France. Viking advances were allowed to increase, and their dreaded longboats were sailing up the Loire and Seine rivers and other waterways, wreaking havoc. During the reign of Charles the Simple, Normans under Rollo from Norway, were settled in an area on either side of the River Seine, downstream from Paris, that was to become Normandy. With its offshoots, the houses of Valois and Bourbon, it was to rule France for more than 800 years. Henry II inherited the Duchy of Normandy and the County of Anjou, and married Frances newly divorced ex-queen, Eleanor of Aquitaine, after the French victory at the Battle of Bouvines in 1214, the English monarchs maintained power only in southwestern Duchy of Guyenne. The death of Charles IV of France in 1328 without male heirs ended the main Capetian line, under Salic law the crown could not pass through a woman, so the throne passed to Philip VI, son of Charles of Valois
8.
George Brydges Rodney, 1st Baron Rodney
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George Brydges Rodney, 1st Baron Rodney, KB was a British naval officer. He is best known for his commands in the American War of Independence and it is often claimed that he was the commander to have pioneered the tactic of breaking the line. Rodney came from a distinguished but poor background, and went to sea at the age of fourteen and his first major action was the Second Battle of Cape Finisterre in 1747. He made a large amount of money during the 1740s, allowing him to purchase a large country estate. During the Seven Years War, Rodney was involved in a number of operations such as the raids on Rochefort and Le Havre. He became well known for his role in the capture of Martinique in 1762, following the Peace of Paris, Rodneys financial situation stagnated. He spent large sums of money pursuing his political ambitions, by 1774 he had run up large debts and was forced to flee Britain to avoid his creditors. He was in a French jail when war was declared in 1778, thanks to a benefactor, Rodney was able to secure his release and return to Britain where he was appointed to a new command. Rodney successfully relieved Gibraltar during the Great Siege and defeated a Spanish fleet during the 1780 Battle of Cape St. Vincent and he then was posted to the Jamaica Station, where he became involved in the controversial 1781 capture of Sint Eustatius. Later that year he returned home suffering from ill health. During his absence the British lost the crucial Battle of the Chesapeake leading to the surrender at Yorktown, to some Rodney was a controversial figure, accused of an obsession with prize money and nepotism. This was brought to a head in the wake of his taking of Saint Eustatius for which he was criticised in Britain. Orders for his recall had been sent when Rodney won a victory at the Battle of the Saintes in April 1782. On his return to Britain, Rodney was made a peer and was awarded a pension of £2,000. He lived in retirement until his death in 1792, George Brydges Rodney was born either in Walton-on-Thames or in London, though the family seat was Rodney Stoke, Somerset. He was most likely sometime in January 1718. He was baptized in St Giles-in-the-Fields on 13 February 1718 and he was the third of four surviving children of Henry Rodney and Mary Rodney, daughter of Sir Henry Newton. His father had served in Spain under the Earl of Peterborough during the War of the Spanish Succession, a major investment in the South Sea Company ruined Henry Rodney and impoverished the family
9.
Ships of the line
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However, the introduction of the ironclad frigate in about 1859 led swiftly to the decline of the steam-assisted ships of the line. The term ship of the line has fallen into disuse except in historical contexts, after warships, the heavily armed carrack, first developed in Portugal for either trade or war in the Atlantic Ocean, was the precursor of the ship of the line. Other maritime European states quickly adopted it in the late 15th and these vessels were developed by fusing aspects of the cog of the North Sea and galley of the Mediterranean Sea. Over time these castles became higher and larger, and eventually were built into the structure of the ship and this aspect of the cog remained in the newer-style carrack designs and proved its worth in battles like that at Diu in 1509. The Mary Rose was an early 16th century English carrack or great ship and she was heavily armed with 78 guns and 91 after an upgrade in the 1530s. Built in Portsmouth in 1510–1512, she was one of the earliest purpose-built men-of-war in the English navy and she was over 500 tons burthen, had a keel of over 32 m and a crew of 200 sailors,185 soldiers and 30 gunners. Although the pride of the English fleet, she sank during the battle of the Solent,19 July 1545. Henri Grâce à Dieu, nicknamed Great Harry, was another early English carrack, contemporary with Mary Rose, Henri Grâce à Dieu was 165 feet long, weighing 1, 000–1,500 tons and having a complement of 700–1,000. It is said that she was ordered by Henry VIII in response to the Scottish ship Michael, launched in 1511. She was originally built at Woolwich Dockyard from 1512 to 1514 and was one of the first vessels to feature gunports and had twenty of the new heavy bronze cannon, in all she mounted 43 heavy guns and 141 light guns. She was the first English two-decker, and when launched she was the largest and most powerful warship in Europe, but she saw little action. She was present at the Battle of the Solent against Francis I of France in 1545 but appears to have more of a diplomatic vessel. Indeed, the ships were almost as well known for their ornamental design as they were for the power they possessed. Carracks fitted for war carried large-calibre guns aboard, because of their higher freeboard and greater load-bearing ability, this type of vessel was better suited than the galley to gunpowder weapons. Because of their development for conditions in the Atlantic, these ships were more weatherly than galleys, the lack of oars meant that large crews were unnecessary, making long journeys more feasible. Their disadvantage was that they were reliant on the wind for mobility. Galleys could still overwhelm great ships, especially when there was wind and they had a numerical advantage. Another detriment was the forecastle, which interfered with the sailing qualities of the ship
10.
Action of 17 June 1778
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The Action of 17 June 1778 also known as the Fight of Belle Poule and Arethusa was a minor naval action that took place off the coast of France between British and French frigates. The action was celebrated by both France and Great Britain and was the first between the two naval forces during the Anglo-French War before a formal declaration of war was even announced. Admiral Keppel, commanding the British fleet ordered that the French ships be pursued and returned to his flagship by any means since he did not want the French ships to see the British strength. Licorne did so, after being overhauled by two British ships HMS Milford, mounting 28 guns, and HMS America, of 64 guns. Licorne subsequently tried to escape during the night after having meditated on affairs, but surrendered after a combat with America. Meanwhile, Arethusa and the cutter Alert caught up to Belle Poule, the captain of Belle Poule refused the order to sail back to the British fleet. The British fired a shot across his ships bow, to which he responded with a full broadside. Thus a furious, two-hour battle between the two ships with Arethusa, Belle Poule was eager to escape and soon began to inflict serious damage upon Arethusa, which ended up with her topmasts hanging over the side and canvas torn. Soon after Arethusa lay shattered and then lost her main mast, soon the wind fell and with it the shot-torn loftier sails of Belle Poule. However, they held enough wind to drift her out of the reach of Arethusas fire, both ships were close under the French cliffs and Belle Poule struggled into a tiny cove in the rocks. Nothing remained for Arethusa but to cut away her wreckage, hoist what sail she could, meanwhile, Coureur was overtaken by the British cutter Alert, and after some resistance finally cooperated with being taken to Keppels flagship. Arethusa suffered 44 casualties from her 198-man crew, but the masts and this battle was the first between British and French naval forces during the Anglo-French War and took place around three weeks before the formal declaration of war by France. Admiral Keppel himself was surprised by the reaction of the French captains as he intended to speak with them. The battle was celebrated in France as a victory, ladies of the high society invented the hairstyle Belle Poule. With the capture of Licorne and Hirondelle it was viewed as a victory in Britain and became the subject of a traditional Sea shanty. Arethusa is also the subject of a song on the Decemberists album Her Majesty the Decemberists, the Royal Navy in European Waters During the American Revolutionary War. The Royal Navy, v.4, A History - From the Earliest Times to 1900, the American Revolution, A Global War
11.
Battle of Ushant (1778)
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The battle, which was the first major naval engagement in the Anglo-French War, ended indecisively and led to political conflicts in both countries. The British had a fleet of thirty ships-of-the-line, four frigates, the French fleet had thirty-two ships-of-the-line, seven frigates, five corvettes and one lugger, commanded by Vice-Admiral Comte dOrvilliers, who had sailed from Brest on 8 July 1778. Keppel sighted the French fleet west of Ushant at just after 12,00 on 23 July, Keppel immediately ordered his battleships into line and set off in pursuit. At around 19,00, the French fleet went about, Keppel, who did not wish to engage at night, had his ships hove to in response. In the morning, dOrvilliers, found himself to the north-west of the British fleet and cut off from Brest, two of his ships, standing to leeward, escaped into port, leaving him with thirty ships-of-the-line. Keppel tried for three days to bring the French to action but dOrvilliers declined, maintaining his position upwind and heading into the Atlantic. At 06,00 on 27 July, with the British fleet roughly line-abreast, Keppel gave the order for the division, under Sir Hugh Palliser. At 09,00, the French, who had hitherto been sailing in the direction, several miles to windward. As the rearmost ships of the French fleet were tacking however, at 10,15 the British were slightly to leeward, line-ahead on the same course as the French. A little later, a change in wind direction brought about a rain squall which cleared at around 11,00, a further change in wind direction to the south-west gave advantage to the British which dOrvilliers sought to negate by ordering his ships about. The French, now heading towards British in a loose formation, the French ships were a few points off the wind and dOrvilliers ordered them close hauled which caused the French line to veer slightly away from the British. The battle began at 11,20 when the fourth French ship in the line was able to bring her guns to bear, Keppel, who wished to save his salvo for the enemy flagship, received the broadsides of six French ships without reply. Once he had engaged the 110 gun Bretagne, he continued to attack the six ships in the French line. As the British van passed the end of the French line, Harland ordered his ships about so as to chase the French rearguard, pallisers ten ships at the rear had not formed line of battle but were instead in a loose irregular formation. This was in due to Keppels earlier order to break off. Pallisers division therefore was badly mauled, having allowed itself to be attacked piecemeal and it was about this time that Palliser in Formidable, emerged from the battle, downwind of Keppels division. Meanwhile, the French line had tacked and was now heading south on the starboard tack, dOrvilliers did not however attack the British fleet while it was divided into three sections but instead continued his course, passing the British fleet to leeward. By the time ships had joined Keppel, night had fallen and, under cover of darkness
12.
Invasion of Jersey (1779)
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The Invasion of Jersey was a failed French attack on British-held Jersey in 1779, during the Anglo-French War. A letter from Major Moses Corbet, Lieutenant Governor of Jersey, reported that on 1 May 1779, a French force attempted a landing at St Ouens Bay. Early that morning, lookouts sighted five large vessels and a number of boats some three leagues off the coast, proceeding towards the coast in order by a coup de main to effect a landing. Guns on the cutters, and small craft supporting the landing, by fast marching, the 78th Regiment of Foot and Jersey militia had arrived in time to oppose the landing, dragging with them some field artillery through the sand of the beaches. The defenders were able to prevent the landing, suffering only a few men wounded when a cannon burst. As the tide was ebbing, the French warships could not get enough to support any landing, and without their support. By some reports, the first and only vessel that attempted to land was struck with a shot or dashed upon a rock. Twenty got ashore and surrendered,15 or 18 men drowned, the French vessels held off a league from the coast, but eventually left the area. On 2 May, a vessel from Jersey fell in with a convoy under Admiral Mariot Arbuthnot that had left Spithead en route to North America, Arbuthnot sent the convoy to Torbay and proceeded to the relief of Jersey with his ships. However, when he arrived, he found that Captain Ford of HMS Unicorn had the well in hand. Arbuthnot returned to his convoy, but his deviation resulted in the convoy not clearing the Channel until end of June, with consequent hardship for the troops in North America who were awaiting it. In 1787 the British placed a battery of three 24-pounder guns on the spot where the Rector of St Ouen, le Sire du Parcq, had placed guns to repulse the French attack, in 1834, the British built a Martello tower there. Known as Lewis Tower, it survives to this day, during the German occupation of the Channel Islands 1940-1945, the Germans built a large bunker next to Lewis Tower, today it houses the Channel Islands Military Museum. Campbell, John, John Berkenhout, Henry Redhead Yorke, William Stevenson Lives of the British admirals, containing an accurate naval history from the earliest periods
13.
Armada of 1779
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The proposed plan was to seize the Isle of Wight and then capture the British naval base of Portsmouth. Ultimately, no battles were fought in the Channel and the Franco-Spanish invasion never materialized. This threat to Great Britain prompted comparisons to the earlier Spanish Armada of 1588, after the indecisive Battle of Ushant in 1778 between the British Royal Navy and the French Marine Royale, the French were certain that they could have triumphed if their force had been larger. France had allied itself with the Americans in February 1778 and additionally signed a treaty with Spain on 12 April 1779. Then, on 16 June, Spain officially declared war on Great Britain, the ill-fated plan was for the French fleet to meet a Spanish fleet off the Sisarga Islands, near Corunna in north-west Spain, in order to begin an invasion of Britain. The French fleet was commanded by Admiral dOrvilliers, who had led at Ushant. When the French reached the point, the Spanish fleet was absent. Because the French fleet had departed from Brest before they were fully supplied. Scurvy weakened the crew, and in the hot, crowded conditions on board typhus and it was not until 22 July that the Spanish fleet finally arrived, commanded by Don Luis de Córdova, who was to be subordinate to dOrvilliers in the joint enterprise. It consisted of 36 ships of the line, meanwhile, an army of over 40,000 men was slowly being gathered around Le Havre and St. Malo in northern France, with 400 transport boats. On 25 July the Franco-Spanish Armada set sail northwards to take on the British fleet and it soon became apparent that the diseases which had afflicted the French had also spread to the Spanish troops. Three days later, a squadron under American colours but consisting mostly of French ships with French crews set sail from the French port of LOrient and this diversionary fleet was commanded by John Paul Jones, an American captain with an alarming reputation in Britain. Unknown to dOrvilliers, the British fleet was not in the Channel, having learned that the French fleet had gone out into the Atlantic in June, Admiral Hardy was instead patrolling off the Scilly Isles. DOrvilliers considered this an idea, and sent a reply asking the government to reconsider. The next day Ardent met an outlying French squadron of the fleet, but was fooled into thinking it was British. The Franco-Spanish allies hovered off Plymouth, waiting for a reply to dOrvilliers message, on 18 August a gale from the east drove them far to the west and out into the Atlantic. There was one result, as they struggled eastward again, on 25 August the French. They decided to neutralise it quickly, because they were finding it difficult to cope with sickness
14.
Great Siege of Gibraltar
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The Great Siege of Gibraltar was an unsuccessful attempt by Spain and France to capture Gibraltar from the British during the American War of Independence. This was the largest action fought during the war in terms of numbers, at three years and seven months, it is the longest siege endured by the British Armed Forces. In 1738 a dispute between Spain and Great Britain arose over commerce between Europe and the Americas, a short time later, the War of Jenkins Ear began, and both countries declared war on 23 October 1739, each side drawing up plans to establish trenches near Gibraltar. Seeing these first movements, Britain ordered Admiral Vernon to sail from Portobello, the passage of years failed to break the hostilities in the region. Then on 9 July 1746, King Philip V of Spain died in Madrid and his successor, Ferdinand VI, soon began negotiations with Britain on trade. The British Parliament was amenable to such negotiations, and even looked favourably upon lifting the British embargo on Spain, the neutrality adopted by Ferdinand VI quickly ended with his death in 1759. The new king, Charles III, was willing to negotiate with Great Britain. Instead, he signed a Family Compact with Louis XV of France on 15 August 1761, at that time France was at war with Britain, so Britain responded by declaring war on Spain and capturing the Spanish colonial capitals of Manila and Havana. Two years later, after cessation of hostilities, Spain recovered Manila, in the years of peace that followed both France and Spain hoped for an opportunity to launch a war against Britain on more favourable terms and recover their lost colonial possessions. Following the outbreak of the American War of Independence, both states supplied funding and arms to the American rebels, and drew up a strategy to intervene on the American side and defeat Britain. On 12 April 1779, France and Spain signed the Treaty of Aranjuez wherein they agreed to aid one another in recovering lost territory from Britain, then, in June 1779, Spain declared war on Great Britain, France having done so the year before. The Spanish blockade was directed by Martín Álvarez de Sotomayor, Spanish ground forces were composed of two battalions of Royal Guards, another two of Walloon Guards, with artillery and cavalry, about 13,000 in all. The artillery was commanded by Rudesindo Tilly, while the cavalry, antonio Barceló commanded the maritime forces responsible for blockading the bay, and established his base in Algeciras, commanding a fleet of several xebecs and gunboats. A fleet of 11 ships and two frigates were placed in the Gulf of Cadiz under the command of Luis de Córdova y Córdova to block the passage of British reinforcements. All the defences were strengthened, and many of the infantry, including picked men, the garrison included contingents of Hanoverian and Corsican troops. The British had anticipated an attack for some time, and a number of ships had sailed to reinforce and supply Gibraltar. The combined Spanish and French fleets blockaded Gibraltar from the sea, while on the side a enormous army constructed forts, redoubts, entrenchments. General Eliott formed a corps of sharpshooters, as the winter of 1779 came down the garrison began to suffer from want of fresh provisions, which became very scarce and dear
15.
Battle of Flamborough Head
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The Battle of Flamborough Head was a naval battle that took place on 23 September 1779 in the North Sea off the coast of Yorkshire. The battle was led by Continental Navy officer John Paul Jones and it became one of the most celebrated naval actions of the war. The crews included Americans, French volunteers, British sailors previously captured by the Americans and offered the chance to get out of captivity, and many others seeking glory or prize money. On the evening of 22 September, Jones in Bonhomme Richard, accompanied by the brigantine Vengeance, had been off Spurn Head, hoping to catch a few prizes emerging from the Humber estuary. He decided to head northward during the hours of darkness, and rendezvous with his frigates Alliance and Pallas, shortly after midnight, two vessels were seen, so signal lanterns were set. The strangers did not give the response that would identify them as members of his squadron. Early in the afternoon the squadron sighted a brig in Bridlington Bay, so at about 3,30 pm. Shortly after the schooner was dispatched, Alliance, which had been ahead of the others, hoisted a signal. At least two large vessels had been sighted in the distance, so the schooner was immediately recalled by firing a gun. Some ships left the convoy before Britain came in sight, heading for northern ports such as Leith, early in the afternoon, as they approached Flamborough Head, the lookouts of the foremost ships saw the danger in Bridlington Bay for themselves. Hastily tacking, they attempted to run for the safety of Scarborough, Serapis put on all sail to get between the fleeing merchant vessels and a potential attack from the Franco-American squadron, while the smaller Countess of Scarborough shepherded the convoy. About 4 pm, with the convoy to his north. As the squadron caught up, the Royal Navy vessels made sure to position themselves so that the enemy could not easily sail round them to reach the slower merchant ships. As the situation became clear Alliance gradually slowed, allowing the rest of Jones’s squadron to catch up, about 6 pm, Commodore Jones ordered Pallas to ride directly in his wake, to confuse the opposition about the squadron’s strength. Half an hour later he hoisted signals ordering all vessels to form a line of battle. Captain Landais, who unlike Jones had a deal of formal training in naval leadership and tactics. He used Alliances superior handling to sail off to one side, finally, a little after 7 pm, Bonhomme Richard was within pistol-shot of the battle-ready Serapis. In the gathering dark, Pearson then hailed the potentially hostile ship to ask pertinent questions, its name
16.
Action of 6 October 1779
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The battle ended in a French victory when Quebec was destroyed by an explosion. France along with Spain joined on the side of the Americans, Britain did not attempt a close blockade of French ports rather a screen of frigates kept a vigil while the ships of the line stayed at anchor at places like Torbay and Spithead. One of those frigates, operating off Guernsey, was the thirty-two gun, Quebec had submerged on a rock and had to throw excess weight overboard to refloat her, sacrificing his 12-pound cannon. When repaired in Portsmouth there were no replacements at the time so ship, on 6 October, Quebec working with the cutter HMS Rambler of ten guns spotted a frigate and a cutter. By 8, 00am they were found to be the French Iphigénie-class, 32-gun Surveillante, under captain Couëdic de Kergoaler, Quebec cleared for action and by 8,30 in the light wind the French frigate had opened fire. Within an hour Quebec opened fire after she became parallel with Surveillante, Farmer was wounded as was the first lieutenant who had to have his arm amputated after part of it was shot away and remarkably soon went back to duty. Couëdic was wounded twice within two hours but not seriously when all of Surveillantes masts and rigging progressively crashed down, Quebec seeing an opportunity was about to finish the French ship but her severely damaged and weakened masts all came down within a space of a half an hour. Quebecs main and foremasts went over the side but the mizzen mast came down on the engagement side blocking many of the gunports with the sails. The ships drifted together with Surveillantes bowsprit becoming entangled in the wreckage of Quebecs mizzen mast, Quebecs gun captains kept up her rate of fire by shooting through the wreckage. Couëdic saw his opportunity to board and take Quebec but they were repulsed with heavy losses including Couëdic who had now a third wound. By now a stalemate had ensued both sides priority was now taken to sorting the damage and casualties were heavy, however, a turn of events began, a fire which had begun on Quebecs mangled and tangled sails covering the gun ports and as a result of cannon fire. The fire soon spread out of control and soon took a hold of Surveillante, Couëdic though managed to break free of Quebec by chopping off the wreckage that entangled both ships and the fire on the French ship was brought under control. However, on Quebec the situation was serious, the fire had spread within the ship itself and had become totally uncontrollable, Farmer ordered the magazine to be flooded but this was now futile and by 6pm the fire reached the magazine. British sailors jumped into the water as some knew the inevitable would happen, Farmer ordered the ship to be abandoned and panic ensued. Within moments Quebec exploded taking whatever was left of her complement including Farmer himself. Surveillante managed to be out of way but was so badly shot up the vessel did not have a boat that was seaworthy. The cutters had fought their own battle and they too had battered themselves into submission. When Quebec exploded the task of rescuing survivors became a priority, the British cutter Rambler had her sails and rigging so badly damaged she was unable to pursue or let alone even intervene, she sent out a boat instead to help
17.
Action of 9 August 1780
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The Spanish and French force captured almost all the British vessels, which dealt a severe blow to the commerce of Great Britain. The British convoy, led by Sir John Moutray, captain of HMS Ramillies, on 9 August, they encountered the Spanish fleet. The Spaniards captured 52 of 55 British vessels, making it one of the most complete naval captures ever made, the British lost 80,000 muskets, equipment for 40,000 troops,294 cannons, and 3,144 men. The financial impact of the losses were estimated to be around £1,500,000, the action also helped to derail a secret British diplomatic effort to make peace with Spain. The loss was still remembered in Great Britain 30 years later. The British convoy sailed from Portsmouth, and consisted of 55 sailing vessels, the convoy included East Indiamen, West Indiamen,18 victuallers, military storeships, and transports carrying the 90th Regiment of Foot. The troops were intended for service in the West Indies, and they had tents, besides arms, ammunition, and a train of artillery, the five East India vessels carried a large quantity of naval-stores to supply the British squadron in that area. On the morning of 2 August, the fell in with the Channel Fleet. The Channel Fleet accompanied the convoy for several hours, to a point 112 leagues off the Isles of Scilly, one of these frigates intercepted the convoy on the night of 8 August. The news was greeted with caution, because there was doubt as to whether the ships were the Channel Fleet or the British convoy, the deputy Spanish commander, José de Mazarredo, called for an immediate attack. He reasoned that there was no reason for the British fleet to be sailing so far from the Channel, the British convoy mistook the lanterns at mast head of the Santísima Trinidad for those of their own commander, and fooled by a ruse of war, they steered accordingly. At daybreak, they found themselves intermingled with the Spanish fleet, Admiral de Cordova enveloped them, and hoisted signals to launch a general chase. The British loss was the worst disaster in the history of the East India Company, the 120-gun ship of the line Santísima Trinidad, the flagship of Admiral de Córdova, fired on Mountstuart and Godfrey to induce them to strike. Gatton was also attacked by the Purísima Concepción and set on fire, but the fire was brought under control. A frigate flotilla, commanded by Santiago de Liniers, and part of the Concepción squadron, HMS Ramillies, two frigates and a few West India ships broke contact and sailed away. The official Spanish report identifies the two frigates as the 36-gun HMS Thetis and HMS Southampton, All the ships, including the five East Indiaman, were incorporated into the Spanish navy. This was an intelligence failure, for the British Admiralty did not learn of the capture of the British convoy until 4 August. The Spaniards behaved with great humanity to their prisoners, repaying the generous treatment which their countrymen had been given by Admiral Rodney and this Spanish victory, compounded by the serious storm losses in the Caribbean, produced a financial crisis among marine insurance underwriters throughout Europe
18.
Battle of Jersey
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The Battle of Jersey was an attempt by French forces to invade Jersey and remove the threat the island posed to French and American shipping in the Anglo-French War. Jersey provided a base for British privateers, and France, engaged in the war as an ally of the United States and its commander, Baron Philippe de Rullecourt, died of wounds sustained in the fighting. The battle is remembered for the death of the British officer Major Peirson. Large numbers of privateers operated out of the island, causing chaos amongst French merchant shipping, Jersey privateers even operated off the coast of America. The French government decided to neutralize this threat, aware of the military importance of Jersey, the British government had ordered that the island be heavily fortified. King George III granted approval and funding on 5 July 1778, perhaps four towers had been completed by the time of the Battle of Jersey, none where the French would land. Gun batteries, forts and redoubts already existed around the coast, all adult males had for centuries been required by law to serve in the Jersey Militia which in 1780 comprised some 3,000 men in five regiments, including artillery and dragoons. Regular army units—the entire 95th Regiment of Foot, five each of the 83rd Regiment of Foot and 78th Seaforth Highlanders. A total force amounted to about 6,250 troops of all types were available on the island, a naval force, the Jersey Squadron, was also based in the island, but was on a cruise against the Dutch at the time of the invasion. On 1 May 1779, during the Anglo-French War a French force under the command of the French born Prince of Nassau-Siegen attempted a landing at St Ouens Bay. Early that morning lookouts sighted five large vessels and a number of boats some three leagues off the coast, proceeding towards the coast to effect a landing. Guns on the cutters and small craft supporting the landing fired grapeshot at the defenders on the coast, the defenders were able to prevent the landing, suffering only a few men wounded when a cannon burst. The French vessels withdrew, first holding off a league from the coast before leaving the area entirely, De Rullecourt was an adventurer and a colonel in the French Army. King Louis XVI had promised de Rullecourt the rank of General and the Cordon rouge as soon as he had control of the town of Saint Helier, officially the expedition was a private affair. However, funding, equipment, transport and troops were provided by the French government, in order to conceal their involvement, the government went so far as to order the desertion of several hundred regular troops to De Rullecourts forces. On 5 January 1781 the expedition set out from Granville, consisting of some 2,000 soldiers in four divisions, there was a storm which scattered some ships and only 1,200 initially made it to Jersey. Jersey still celebrated 6 January as Old Christmas Night, and the French landed undetected, the 800 men of the first division landed at La Rocque, Grouville, on the south east coast and passed close by the guards without being noticed. A French officer even said that he had slept beneath the guards, the guards were subsequently put on trial, where it was found they had abandoned their post to go drinking
19.
Invasion of Minorca (1781)
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The ultimate result was the ceding of the island to Spain in the Treaty of Paris in 1783. At the eastern end of the island of Minorca is the port of Mahón, one of the best deep-water anchorages in the Mediterranean Sea. For a naval power with no Mediterranean coast, possession of Minorca, therefore, was of major strategic advantage, the narrow entrance to the port was guarded by a fort, known to the British as St. Although the French won that battle, they lost the Seven Years War in 1763, the Spanish government renewed its alliance with France against Britain by means of the Treaty of Aranjuez, with the recapture of Minorca as one of its main aims. An invasion of Minorca was therefore planned during the first few months of 1781, largely by Don Luis Berton de los Blats, Duque de Crillon. On 25 June 1781, a French force of about 20 warships, commanded by Admiral Guichen, left Brest on a coastal patrol, which happened to involve sailing into the Mediterranean. They were going to provide protection for the invasion fleet. The Spanish invasion fleet, departed Cadiz on 23 July 1781, initially heading westward to appear as if its destination was America, but turned in the night and passed Gibraltar on 25 July. Facing contrary winds in the Mediterranean, by 29 July the convoy was beginning to break up, at some time over the next few days the Spanish were discreetly joined by the French warships. The combined fleet left La Subida on 5 August, came within sight of Alicante on 14 August, then in the night of 17 August headed away from the Spanish coast and sailed parallel to Formentera. On 18 August, as it passed the island of Cabrera, south of Majorca. That night, the wind blew from the south-east, and the fleet had to take precautions to avoid being blown aground on Majorca, but Minorca was sighted the next morning. The Mesquida force was to move rapidly to the town of Mahón, the Alcaufar force was to block the road that led from the British residential suburb, Georgetown, to the fort of St. Philips Castle. At about the time, a third force was to land on Degollador beach at Ciudadela. Finally, a detachment would be landed at Fornells, to take the artillery fort there. This plan had one basic flaw – the assumption that the British would believe a vast convoy approaching Minorca had friendly intentions. So, about 10,30 am, the fleet rounded Aire island, at the south-east tip of Minorca, a little after 11,30, the leading vessel of the fleet, San Pascual passed St. Philips Castle, its crew at battle stations. Finally, around 1,00 pm, San Pascual arrived at Mesquida, and the rest of the fleet gradually caught up, at 6,00 pm, the Spanish flag was raised on the beach, and received a 23-gun salute
20.
Battle of Ushant (1782)
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This was the third battle that occurred in this region during the course of the war. Vice-Admiral Samuel Barrington, was sent out with a fleet consisting of twelve sail of the line, on 20 April, the fleet was northeast of Ushant when the frigate HMS Artois under Captain John Macbride sent a signal after discovering the French fleet. Barrington then made the signal for the 84-gun ship HMS Foudroyant in the lead under Captain John Jervis with other ships, at sunset Foudroyant had got far ahead of her consorts, and near enough to the French ships and made them out to be a convoy. The squadron soon afterwards separated and the largest ship, the 1, 778-ton Pégase which Foudroyant was pursuing, also bore up. A hard squall with hazy weather, coming on about the same time Foudroyant lost sight of the fleet, broadsides from Foudroyant caused significant damage and after engaging about three-quarters of an hour, Foudroyant boarded Pégase, and compelled her commander Chevalier de Sillans to surrender. Out of a crew of 700 men, she had upwards of 100 killed and wounded while the rest had surrendered, only two or three men were wounded in Foudroyant including Jervis himself. With other ships arriving up, Pégase was taken possession of, on board the British sailors found a deal of carnage. Her mizzen mast and fore topmast sell overboard soon after the action, the 90-gun HMS Queen, captained by Frederick Maitland, signaled to assist the ship. Queen engaged the ship protecting the convoy fired at her with a broadside which was returned only one gun. Maitland immediately took possession and found her to be Actionnaire, a French ship of sixty-four guns armed en flûte and she had on board two hundred and sixty seamen and five hundred and fifty soldiers of whom nine were killed and twenty wounded, with most being captured. Twelve of the convoy were taken, four of them by the frigate HMS Prudente commanded by Lord Charles FitzGerald, Jervis meanwhile also captured four transports, Fidelité, Belonne, Lionne, and Duc de Chartres. There were also lower masts for four seventy-fours, with sails and rigging complete besides her own masts, the capture of half the convoy in addition was a huge blow to the Bali de Suffren. The British loss was minimal with only a total of five men were wounded, Pégase though had been severely damaged, particularly in her masts and yards. Her mizzen mast and fore topmast sell overboard foon aster the action was used in the Royal Navy and she served as a prison ship from 1799, and was used in this role until 1815 when she was broken up. She was called Le Marquis de Castries and was a French privateer pierced for twenty guns but mounting only eighteen six pounders. Vice Admiral Barrington with the ships under his command returned to Spithead on 26 April, allen, Joseph, Battles of the British navy, Volume 2. London, H. G. Bohn,1852 Demerliac, Alain La Marine De Louis XVI, ISBN 2-906381-23-3 Lavery, Brian The Ship of the Line – Volume 1, The development of the battlefleet 1650–1850. Dictionnaire des bâtiments de la flotte de guerre française de Colbert à nos jours, sea Power and the American Revolution, 1775-1783
21.
Action of 4 September 1782
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The Action of 4 September 1782 was a small naval engagement which was fought off the Île de Batz between a French naval frigate Hébé and a Royal Naval frigate HMS Rainbow. This battle was notable as the first proper use of a carronade, on 4 September the 44 gun frigate HMS Rainbow under Captain Henry Trollope armed entirely with carronades was off the French coast near the Île de Batz when a frigate was sighted. Having then chased the vessel it turned to be a French frigate Hébé, Hébé of 1,063 tons was a new ship of the class of the same name whose armament consisted of 38 guns, twenty six of which were 18-pounder long guns. It was commanded by the Chevalier de Vigny and had on board 360 men, Hébé had left Saint-Malo on 3 September and was heading to Brest escorting a small convoy. At 7 am, having arrived within gunshot of the French ship, an hour and a half later the ships manoeuvred for position and Captain Trollope then having got alongside, engaged Hébé firing a single broadside. The effect was devastating, Hébés wheel was shot away and one sixty-eight pound ball shot away her foremast, Vigny examined the fragments of the hollow carronade shot and concluded that if she was firing 32-pounders as chase pieces she was actually a ship of the line in disguise. He fired one broadside, pour lhonneur du pavillon, ”, the surrender of Hébé after slight resistance was not surprising taking into consideration the advantage provided by the unusual armament of the Rainbow. Rainbow lost only one man killed and two slightly wounded, the French lost five killed, including the second captain, and several wounded out of a crew of 360 men. The captured ship was integrated into the Royal Navy as HMS Hebe. After being renamed HMS Blonde in 1805 it was broken up in 1811. More importantly for the Navy, Hebe would serve as a model for a new series of British frigates, the Leda class, the new class would include HMS Surprise, HMS Trincomalee, HMS Unicorn, and a second HMS Hebe. The Illustrated Companion to Nelsons Navy, the Command of the Ocean, A Naval History of Britain 1649–1815. Origins of the Leda class frigate, archived from the original on 21 April 2013
22.
Battle of Cape Spartel
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The Battle of Cape Spartel was an indecisive naval battle between a Franco-Spanish fleet under Admiral Luis de Córdova y Córdova and a British fleet under Admiral Richard Howe. These forces met on 20 October 1782 after Howe successfully resupplied Gibraltar, when Spain entered the American War of Independence in 1779, one of its principal objectives was the capture of Gibraltar from Great Britain. Shortly after war was declared, forces of Spain and France began the Great Siege of Gibraltar, blockading land access to the peninsula, Britain successfully resupplied Gibraltar in both 1780 and 1781, and recognized the need to do so again in 1782. The matter was seen as a critical by British political and military leaders, the British Channel Fleet, which was under the command of Admiral Richard Howe, had a number of conflicting objectives to manage in the summer 1782. These ships returned to port on 4 September, the convoy that sailed on 11 September included 35 ships of the line, a large convoy of transports destined for Gibraltar, and additional convoys destined for the East and West Indies. Admiral Howes orders were to deliver the supplies to Gibraltar and then to return to England, because of bad weather and contrary winds, the fleet destined for Gibraltar did not arrive at Cape St. Vincent until 9 October. The Franco-Spanish fleet tasked with the blockade of Gibraltar was anchored in Algeciras Bay and it consisted of 49 ships of the line, and was under the command of Spanish Admiral Luis de Córdova. The Spanish ships were not in good condition, Admiral Howe met with all of his captains, and gave detailed instructions for ensuring the safe arrival of the transports. On 11 October the transports began entry into the straits, followed by covering fleet, four transports successfully anchored at Gibraltar, but the remainder were carried by the strong currents into the Mediterranean. Taking advantage of a WNW wind, de Córdovas fleet sailed in pursuit, the British regrouped about 50 miles east of Gibraltar off the Spanish coast on 13 October, but sailed south toward the Moroccan coast upon the approach of the allied fleet. With a fair wind on the 15th the British reentered the straits, on 19 October the allied fleet was sighted to the east of Gibraltar. Admiral Howe, seeking to avoid battle in the straits, weighed anchor and sailed west, once clear of the straits, he reduced the fleets sails, offering de Córdova, who held the weather gage, the option of doing battle. On the 20th, de Córdova signalled general chase, disregarding division places, the British line of battle was to starboard of the Franco-Spanish. At around 1 pm, and after Cordovas flagship, the 120-gun Santísima Trinidad reached the centre of the combined line, the British reduced sail in order to tighten their line of battle. At 5,45 the van of the Franco-Spanish fleet opened fire, the British returned fire, while Howe signalled retreat all sail, making at least 14 Franco-Spanish ships redundant, among them two three-deckers. No British ships were engaged, despite the efforts of de Córdovas ships. On the 21st, both fleets were some 12 miles apart, de Córdova made repairs and was ready to resume the action. However, no battle took place the day as Howe had sailed back to Britain in line with his orders
23.
Action of 12 December 1782
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The Action of 12 December 1782 was a naval engagement fought off the coast of Spain near Ferrol, in which the British 40-gun fifth rate HMS Mediator successfully attacked a convoy of five armed ships. Mediator succeeded in capturing one American privateer, the Alexander, the convoy was part of Pierre Beaumarchaiss supply chain to the American colonists. The Frenchman Pierre Beaumarchais founded an enterprise, Roderigue Hortalez and Co. supported by France. The French and Spanish supplied the American rebels with weapons, munitions, clothes, Beaumarchais contracted for the transport of the supplies in convoys. Even so, the Royal Navy captured many of the transport vessels, baumarchais assembled one convoy in December 1782. He met his captains in Bordeaux and then supervised the loading of his vessels, the plan was to sail for Port-au-Prince, Saint Domingue and then on to America to supply the American colonists. The convoy consisted of five ships, Alexander was a corvette that Beaumarchais purchased in 1781 a Bordeaux. She was under the command of Commander Stephen Gregory, who had an American privateer commission issued in France and sailed under a French ensign and she had a mixed American and French crew of 102 men and was armed with twenty-four long 9-pounder guns. She was of about 500 tons burthen and carried a cargo of stores, Aimable Eugénie, which was named after Beaumarchais daughter, was under the command of Nicolas Baudin. She mounted 36 guns and had a crew of 130 men, Beaumarchais had bought her at Nantes in March 1782 for £t300,000. Ménagère, which was under the command of François Jérome Foligné-Deschalonges, had a burthen of 600 tons and was a two decked vessel, launched in 1775 or 76. She was a former 64-gun ship of the line, and now armed en flûte, with twenty-six 12-pounders on her deck and four 6-pounders on her forecastle. She had a crew of 212 men and carried 100 tons of gunpowder plus naval stores, Dauphin Royal was under the command of Antoine Chambert. She was a transport purchased and armed at Bordeaux for the Marine Royale and she was of 300 tons burthen, armed with twenty-eight guns and carried a crew of 120 men. The convoy also included an unknown American privateer brig with 14 guns, on 9 December 1782 the convoy sailed from the mouth of the Gironde for the West Indies and from there America. On 12 December, at 7, 00am, HMS Mediator, at 8, 00am the convoy formed in line of battle. Notwithstanding this formidable array, Captain Luttrell continued bearing down and at 10, Luttrell saw that the shot came from the upper deck only and rightly concluded that the French vessel had no lower-deck guns. Mediator bore up in order to bring the ship to action
24.
Battle of St. Lucia
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On 7 September 1778, the French governor of Martinique, the marquis de Bouillé, surprised and captured the British island of Dominica. On 4 November, French Admiral Jean Baptiste Charles Henri Hector, comte dEstaing sailed for the West Indies from the port of Boston. On that same day, Commodore William Hotham was dispatched from Sandy Hook, New York, Hotham sailed with five men of war, a bomb vessel, some frigates, and a large convoy. The convoy Hotham was escorting consisted of 59 transports carrying 5,000 British soldiers under Major General Grant, the French fleet was blown off course by a violent storm, preventing it from arriving in the Caribbean ahead of the British. Admiral Samuel Barrington, the British naval commander stationed on the Leeward Islands, grants men were not permitted to disembark and spent the next several days aboard their transports. Barrington and Hotham sailed for the island of St. Lucia on the morning of 12 December, Grant and Prescott took control of the high ground around the bay, while Medows continued on and took Vigie the following morning. On 14 December the French fleet under d’Estaing arrived, forcing Admiral Barrington to move his ships into line of battle, Barrington in a defensive strategy placed his transports inside the bay but behind his battle line which took him the entire evening of 14 December. By 1100 hours the day, most of the transports had been safely tucked behind his line. At 1100 hours 15 December Admiral d’Estaing approached St. Lucia with ten ships of the line, d’Estaing then moved to engage Barrington from the rear, and a warm conflict raged between the two fleets, with the British supported by two shore batteries. D’Estaing was repulsed but succeeded in reforming his line of battle, at 1600 hours d’Estaing renewed his assault by attacking Barrington’s centre with twelve ships of the line. Again, heavy fire was exchanged and the French were eventually repulsed for a second time, on 16 December Admiral d’Estaing appeared to be preparing for a third assault against Admiral Barrington’s line, but then sailed away towards the windward. On the evening of 16 December d’Estaing anchored in Gros Islet Bay, three assaults were made but British control of the high ground meant each was repulsed. The French troops were re-embarked, and when dEstaings fleet left on 29 December, the island surrendered
25.
Capture of St. Lucia
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The Capture of St Lucia was the result of a campaign by British land and naval forces to capture the island of St Lucia, which was a French Colony. Britains actions followed the capture of the British controlled island of Dominica by French forces after an invasion in September 1778. Realising that another British fleet would arrive shortly with reinforcements, the French garrison surrendered, the remaining French troops were evacuated and the French fleet returned to Martinique, leaving the island in the hands of the British. France formally recognised the United States on February 6,1778, britain declared war on France on March 17,1778, which led to the Anglo-French War. On September 7,1778, the French governor of Martinique, Marquis de Bouille, launched an attack on the British held Island of Dominica. On November 4, Commodore William Hotham was sent from Sandy Hook, New York, Hotham sailed with five men of war, a bomb vessel, some frigates, and a large convoy. The convoy consisted of 59 types of transport carrying 5,000 British soldiers under Major General Grant, Admiral Samuel Barrington, the British naval commander stationed on the Leeward Islands, joined the newly arrived Commodore Hotham on December 10 on the island of Barbados. Grants men were not permitted to disembark and spent the several days aboard their transports. Barrington and Hotham sailed for the French island of St. Lucia on the morning of December 12, with the idea of capturing it, the French Admiral Jean Baptiste Charles Henri Hector Comte dEstaing had also sailed for the West Indies from the port of Boston on November 4. However the French fleet was blown off course by a violent storm, upon the British ships arrival on December 13, Major General James Grant ordered Brigadier General William Medows to land with a force of 1,400 at Grand Cul-de-Sac. This force consisted of the companies from several regiments and the 5th Foot. They quickly scaled the heights on the side of the bay. Brigadier-General Prescott landed shortly afterward with the 27th, 35th, 40th, on December 14, Medows group took the fort at Morne Fortune and the capital, Castries, while Prescotts force remained in support. On 13 December Admiral Barrington received news of the imminent arrival of the French Fleet, Barrington placed his transports inside the bay, but behind his battle line which took the entire evening of 14 December. By 1100 hours the day, most of the transports were safely behind his line By the evening of December 14. The Battle of St. Lucia or the Battle of the Cul de Sac was fought between the British invasion fleet and French relief fleet on December 15,1778, for control of the Island of St. Lucia. At 1100 hours 15 December Admiral d’Estaing approached St. Lucia with ten ships of the line, d’Estaing then moved to engage Barrington from the rear, and a “warm conflict” raged between the two fleets, with the British supported by two shore batteries. D’Estaing was repulsed but succeeded in reforming his line of battle, at 1600 hours d’Estaing renewed his assault by attacking Barrington’s centre with twelve ships of the line
26.
Capture of Saint Vincent
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The Capture of Saint Vincent was a French invasion that took place between the 16th and 18th of June 1779, during the American Revolutionary War. British Governor Valentine Morris and military commander Lieutenant Colonel George Etherington disagreed on how to react, consequently, both leaders were subjected to inquiries over the surrender. The period of French control began by capturing the island, which resulted in a solidified Black Carib control over parts of the island. The area remained under Carib control until the Second Carib War of 1795, at about the same time a British fleet under Admiral William Hotham also arrived, augmenting the fleet of Admiral Samuel Barrington. The British then captured French-held St. Lucia, despite dEstaings attempt at relief, the British used St. Lucia to monitor the major French base at Martinique, where dEstaing was headquartered. The British fleet was reinforced in January 1779 by ten ships of the line under Admiral John Byron. Throughout the first half of 1779 both fleets received further reinforcements, after which the French fleet was superior to that of the British. Furthermore, Byron departed St. Lucia on June 6 in order to provide services to British merchant ships gathering at St. Kitts for a convoy to Europe. DEstaing and Governor the marquis de Bouillé seized the opportunity to begin a series of operations against nearby British possessions and their first target was the isle of Saint Vincent, just south of St. Lucia. The political situation on Saint Vincent was somewhat tense, the island was divided roughly in half between land controlled by white planters and that controlled by the local Black Carib population. The line dividing these territories ran from the islands north-west to its south-east, neither side had been happy with the compromise agreement, and its terms were a continuing source of friction. The British had, uniquely among its Caribbean possessions, had to establish a chain of outposts to protect the planter population, Saint Vincents colonial government and defences were in some disarray. Governor Valentine Morris had assumed office in 1776 when the isle was granted a separate government, in addition to the difficult relations with the Caribs, the British population was also sympathetic to the cause of colonial independence. Governor Morris had spent his own funds instead on improvements, contributing to financial difficulties he would run into later, etheringtons estate was on territory on the Carib side of the island, and its grant was a major source of annoyance to the Caribs. Governor de Bouillé had established contact with the Caribs, and was supplying them with arms. In late August 1778 French officials met with Carib leader Joseph Chatoyer, dEstaing organized a force of 300 to 500 troops, including French regulars drawn from the regiments Champagne, Viennois, and Martinique, and about 200 volunteer militia from Martinique. The force was embarked on a fleet consisting of the frigate Lively, the corvettes Lys and Balleastre, du Rumain sailed from Martinique on 9 June, and reached the waters off Saint Vincent on the 16th. One of the privateers was driven ashore on the side of the island
27.
Capture of Grenada (1779)
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The Capture of Grenada was an amphibious expedition by France that took place in July 1779 during the American Revolutionary War. Charles Hector, comte DEstaing, led French forces against the British-held West Indies island of Grenada, the French landed on July 2 and the assault lasted through July 4. The French forces assaulted the British fortifications on Hospital Hill, which overlooked the islands capital, British cannons on the hill were captured and turned against Fort George. British Governor Lord Macartney opened negotiations to surrender, Admiral dEstaing controversially rejected Macartneys terms of capitulation, insisting he instead adopt the harsh terms he had written. Macartney rejected these terms, choosing to surrender unconditionally, DEstaing thereafter permitted his forces to loot the town, and Macartney was sent to France as a prisoner of war. On July 5, French forces re-embarked when word arrived that a British fleet under Admiral John Byron was approaching, the two fleets battled the next day. The French severely damaged several British ships, but eventually both fleets returned to their bases. Under the terms of the Treaty of Paris, France returned Grenada to British control at the end of the war, at about the same time a British fleet under Admiral William Hotham also arrived, augmenting the West Indies fleet of Admiral Samuel Barrington. The British then captured French-held St. Lucia, despite dEstaings attempt at relief, the British used St. Lucia to monitor the French on Martinique, where dEstaing was based. The British fleet was reinforced in January 1779 by 10 ships of the line under Admiral John Byron. Throughout the first half of 1779, both received further reinforcements, after which the French fleet became superior to that of the British. Furthermore, Byron departed St. Lucia on June 6 in order to provide services to British merchant ships gathering at St. Kitts for a convoy to Europe. DEstaing and the French governor-general at Martinique, the Marquis de Bouillé and their first target, the isle of Saint Vincent, fell on June 18, and dEstaing turned his attention to other islands. He had hoped to capture Barbados, a key British possession, at the time, Grenada was one of Britains richest colonies, producing significant quantities of sugar on its plantations. Lord Macartney, the British governor, had been alerted to the possibility of a French attack, Macartney had 101 soldiers drawn from the 48th Regiment of Foot and 24 artillery men at his disposal. He also had over 400 militia and volunteers, but he did not consider these forces dependable and he ordered the construction of significant fortifications on Hospital Hill, a prominence overlooking the capital of the island, St. Georges. The steep hillsides were fortified by walls, and the hilltop had a palisade surrounding a series of entrenchments. The French fleet anchored off the Grenada coast just north of St. Georges on July 2, the troops that dEstaing landed that day consisted of the 1, 400-man Irish Dillon Regiment and 700 troops drawn from the regiments Champagne, Foix, Auxerrois, and Hainault
28.
Battle of Grenada
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The Battle of Grenada took place on 6 July 1779 during the Anglo-French War in the West Indies between the British Royal Navy and the French Navy, just off the coast of Grenada. The British fleet of Admiral John Byron had sailed in an attempt to relieve Grenada, incorrectly believing he had numerical superiority, Byron ordered a general chase to attack the French as they left their anchorage at Grenada. Because of the attack and the French superiority, the British fleet was badly mauled in the encounter. Naval historian Alfred Thayer Mahan described the British loss as the most disastrous and that the British Navy had encountered since Beachy Head, in 1690. At about the time, a British fleet under Admiral William Hotham also arrived. The British then captured French-held St. Lucia, despite dEstaings attempt at relief, the British used St. Lucia to monitor the major French base at Martinique, where dEstaing was headquartered. The British fleet was reinforced in January 1779 by ten ships of the line under Admiral John Byron. Throughout the first half of 1779, both received further reinforcements, after which the French fleet was slightly superior to that of the British. Furthermore, Byron departed St. Lucia on June 6 in order to provide services to British merchant ships gathering at St. Kitts for a convoy to Europe. DEstaing and Governor the marquis de Bouillé seized the opportunity to begin a series of operations against nearby British possessions and their first target, the isle of Saint Vincent, fell on 18 June, and dEstaing turned his attention to other islands. He had hoped to capture the key British possession, Barbados, the French fleet arrived off Grenada on July 2, and stormed its main defences beginning late on July 3. Terms of capitulation were agreed on July 4, Admiral Byron had been alerted to the French action at Saint Vincent, and was sailing with a force to recapture it. When news arrived that the French were at Grenada, he changed course to meet them. The British fleet consisted of 21 ships of the line and 1 frigate, because he was escorting troop transports and was short of frigates, three ships of the line were assigned duty to escort the transports. Admiral dEstaing was warned on July 5 of Byrons approach, and his fleet consisted of 25 ships of the line and a large number of frigates and smaller vessels. Admiral Byron was unaware of dEstaings full strength, since during his absence dEstaing had been reinforced by a squadron from Europe under Toussaint-Guillaume Picquet de la Motte. The French were anchored off St. Georges Town on the southwest of the island, DEstaing weighed anchor at 4,00 am when the British fleet was spotted, ordering his ships to form a line of battle in order of speed, heading roughly northward. This masked the true strength of the French fleet as each ship left the cluster at the anchorage, believing his force to be superior, Byron gave the order for general chase, approaching the anchorage from the northeast
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Action of 30 September 1780
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The Action of 30 September 1780 was a minor naval engagement off the Bermudas, where HMS Pearl captured the LEspérance, a French frigate of 32 guns launched in 1779. HMS Pearl under the command of George Montagu was sent out to North America, as Pearl closed Montagu cleared for action and engaged close for two hours, then maintained a running fight for a further two hours and more when the frigate struck. LEspérance lost 20 killed and 24 wounded as well as the crew & marines captured, while Pearls loses were six killed, the captured French frigate was put into Royal Naval service and renamed HMS Clinton. Battles of the British Navy, Volume 1, the Royal Navy, v.4, A History - From the Earliest Times to 1900
30.
Invasion of Tobago
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The Invasion of Tobago was a French invasion of the British-held island of Tobago during the American Revolutionary War. On May 24,1781, the fleet of Comte de Grasse landed troops on the island under the command of General Marquis de Bouillé, by June 2,1781, they had successfully gained control of the island. In March 1781, France sent a fleet consisting of 20 ships of the line. They arrived off the coast of Martinique on 28 April, the French drove off the British fleet led by Sir Samuel Hood, which had been blocking Fort Royal. Hood and the British station commander Admiral George Brydges Rodney joined forces on May 11,1781 between St. Kitts and Antigua to discuss the French threat, de Grasse met with Martiniques governor, Marquis de Bouillé, and developed a plan for capturing Tobago. The French forces were to be divided, with one convoy accompanied by a number of battle ships to head for Tobago. The forces used in the diversion would then be withdrawn and sent to Tobago, led by de Bouillé and accompanied by de Grasse, the St. Lucia platoon withdrew from Martinique on May 8,1781. The Tobago-bound platoon, led by Blanchelande and accompanied by two ships of the line and a number of frigates, departed on May 9,1781. Bouillés force, numbering between 1,200 and 1,500, landed at Gros Islet, a village at the tip of St. Lucia. They surprised the small British garrison there, taking about 100 prisoners and this prompted General Anthony St Leger, the islands lieutenant governor, to organise the defence of Castries and fortify the slopes of Morne Fortune above that port. Two nights later, the French troops reembarked on the transports, troops numbering 3,000 were then embarked, and the fleet sailed for Tobago on May 25. Rodney was alerted to the landing, but rather than sailing his fleet to St. Lucia, he sailed for Barbados. He was not informed of the French withdrawal from St. Lucia until he was en route to Barbados, on May 24, the detachment of General Blanchelande arrived at Tobago. Under cover fire from the Pluton and the Experiment, his troops landed near the port of Scarborough and they quickly overran the towns forts, and Governor George Ferguson led his remaining forces into the hills. These forces, three to four hundred regulars and four to five hundred militia, established a position fortified by cannons on the interior ridge. Blanchelande followed, but decided to wait for reinforcements rather than attack the position, Rodney learned of the attack on Tobago on May 27, while at Barbados. He detached Francis Samuel Drake and six ships of the line and some troops on May 29 to provide relief to Ferguson, de Grasse had arrived at Tobago on May 30, Drake, greatly outnumbered, retreated, losing only one small ship. De Grasse then landed troops on both sides of the island the day, and Bouillé made a junction with Blanchelande outside the British line of defence
31.
Siege of Brimstone Hill
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The French invasion of Saint Kitts also known as the Siege of Brimstone Hill was a siege of the Anglo-French War. The Comte de Grasse, who delivered de Bouillés troops and supported the siege, was outmanoeuvred and deprived of his anchorage by Admiral Hood, even though Hoods force was inferior by one-third, de Grasse was beaten off when he attempted to dislodge Hood. Hoods attempts to relieve the siege were unsuccessful, and the garrison capitulated after one month. About a year later, the Treaty of Paris restored Saint Kitts, de Grasse set sail from Martinique, reaching Saint Kitts by 11 January. The British had already retired into their stronghold under Brigadier General Fraser, so the French landing forces disembarked without opposition, concerted with the Governor, an attack upon Barbados was mounted. Foiled in the attempt by the violence of the trade-wind, they turned to leeward against Saint Kitts, on 24 January, twenty-two British warships under Admiral Hood were sighted near Nevis intending to reinforce Saint Kitts. De Grasse attacked the anchored British fleet on both the morning and afternoon of 26 January but was beaten off, disembarkation proceeding apace, during these naval engagements the French suffered 107 killed and 207 wounded, compared to 72 dead and 244 injured among the British. The governor sent artillery and ammunition to Fraser which were intercepted by the inhabitants, defending the fort at Brimstone Hill were the 1st Battalion of the 1st Foot, flank companies of the 15th Foot, Royal Artillery detachment, and many militia. By 12 February Frasers little garrison, having lost over one hundred and fifty killed and wounded, additionally, there were breaches in the walls, and many of the militia petitioned to surrender. Fraser had no alternative but to negotiate a surrender, which included marching out with the honors or war, clark G. Reynolds Navies in history US Naval Institute Press ISBN 1-55750-716-3 David F. Marley. Wars of the Americas, A Chronology of Armed Conflict in the New World,1492 to the Present ABC-CLIO ISBN 0-87436-837-5 Black, a Military History of Britain, From 1775 to the Present Praeger Publishers. The French Army in the American War of Independence Osprey Publishing ISBN 1-85532-167-X
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Battle of Saint Kitts
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When Hood returned to the West Indies in late 1781 after the Battle of the Chesapeake, he was for a time in independent command owing to Rodneys absence in England. The French Admiral, the Comte de Grasse, attacked the British islands of Saint Kitts and Nevis landing 6,000 men on St. Kitts and laying siege to the fortress on Brimstone Hill. Hood hoping to salvage the situation made for St Kitts with reinforcements, the British fleet on 24 January consisted of twenty-two sail of the line, and was close off the south-east end of Nevis. They ran into and captured the French 16-gun cutter Espion which carried a large amount of ammunition for the besieging French forces at Brimstone Hill. At daybreak on 25 January, the French fleet was discovered having stood to the southward of Basseterre, comprising one 110 gun ship, twenty-eight two-decked ships, and two frigates. Hood stood towards the French fleet with the apparent intention of bringing on action, no sooner had Hood effected this maneuver he was aided by a favourable change in wind and was able to guide his fleet within the anchorage of Basseterre, which the French admiral had just quit. Hood ordered his fleet in an L formation and then ordered his fleet to lay anchor, Comte de Grasse, in frustration made three distinct and vigorous attacks upon the British fleet on 26 January but was repulsed with great damage to his ships. Losses on both sides were light but the French fleet had suffered considerable damage, Hood managed to stay in the position for another two weeks without further incident. Despite outmaneuvering de Grasse, Hood was unable to stop the island from surrendering to the French, the main factor was the successful French siege of Brimstone Hill fortress. The surrender occurred on 12 February and Hood left on the 14th, Hood then joined forces with the recently arrived Admiral George Rodney. The royal navy, a history from the earliest time to the present, Volume 3 Jaques, Tony Dictionary of Battles and Sieges, A-E Greenwood 2006 ISBN 978-0-313-33536-5 Marley, F. David. Wars of the Americas, A Chronology of Armed Conflict in the New World,1492 to the Present ABC-CLIO, Naval Chronology, or, An Historical Summary of Naval & Maritime Events, From the Time of the Romans, to the Treaty of Peace,1802
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Capture of Demerara and Essequibo
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The Capture of Demerara and Essequibo was a French military expedition sent in January 1782 as part of the American Revolutionary War. In 1781, Admiral Lord Rodney sent two sloops from his fleet at Sint Eustatius to take possession of the Dutch colonies of Essequibo, in 1782, the French successfully took possession of these settlements, compelling British Governor Robert Kinston to surrender. The peace of Paris, which occurred in 1783, restored these territories to the Dutch, in December 1781, Great Britain declared war on the Dutch Republic, bringing it formally into the 4th Anglo-Dutch War. In early 1781, a large British fleet, under Admiral Lord Rodney, was sent to the West Indies. After having made some seizures in the Caribbean Islands, Rodney sent two sloops to take possession of the colonies of Essequebo and Demerara, which they accomplished without much difficulty. The colonies had already de facto surrendered to six British privateer ships by the time the two vessels arrived. The governor, Van Schuilenburg, was not satisfied by Dutch protection and surrendered to the British, the vast quantity of produce which had accumulated due to a lack of shipping proved to be of great value. French naval Captain Armand Guy Simon de Coëtnempren, Comte de Kersaint, with his 32-gun flagship Iphigénie, as a result, Essequebo and Berbice also surrendered to the French on 1 and 5 February. The French seized five Royal Navy vessels, the 20-gun Orinoque, 16-gun Barbuda, 18-gun Sylph, 16-gun Stormont, the Count de Kersaint became governor of the three rivers and their settlements and inhabitants. They also doubled the capitation tax and these burdens were felt severely by the colonists. The peace of Paris, which occurred in 1783, restored these territories to the Dutch, when Demerara surrendered to the French, the British naval commander being at that place signed the capitulation. To this the following answer was returned, Lt. -Gov, the History of British Guiana, Comprising a General Description of the Colony, A narrative of some of the principal events from the earliest period of products and natural history. Hadden, James Haddens Journal and Orderly Books, annals of the Wars of the Eighteenth Century, Compiled from the Most Authentic Histories of the Period. Chartrand, Rene The French Army in the American War of Independence, Wars of the Americas, A Chronology of Armed Conflict in the New World,1492 to the Present
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Battle of the Saintes
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The battle is named after the Saintes, a group of islands between Guadeloupe and Dominica in the West Indies. The French fleet defeated here by the Royal Navy was the fleet that had blockaded the British Army during the Siege of Yorktown, the French suffered heavy casualties and many were taken prisoner, including the Comte de Grasse. Four French ships of the line were captured and one was destroyed, Rodney was credited with pioneering the tactic of breaking the line in the battle, though this is disputed. De Grasse and his fleet played a part in that victory. On arrival in Saint Domingue in November 1781, he was notified that the plan was given the go ahead to proceed with the conquest of Jamaica. Jamaica was the largest and most profitable British island in the Caribbean, mainly because of sugar, sugar made up 20% of all British imports and was worth five times as much as tobacco. As well as the expulsion of the British from the West Indies by the French and Spanish. The invasion itself though was perceived in the courts at Paris and Madrid as an alternative to the Spanish and French attempts to take Gibraltar, while de Grasse waited for reinforcements to undertake the Jamaica campaign, he captured St. Kitts in February 1782. These included seventeen ships of the line and gave the British a slight numerical advantage, in addition, de Grasse was to rendezvous with 15,000 troops at Saint Domingue earmarked for the conquest by landing on Jamaicas north coast. Rodney, on learning of this, sailed from St Lucia in pursuit with 36 ships of the line the following day, the British hulls by this time had been given copper sheathing to protect them from marine growth and fouling as well as salt water corrosion. This dramatically improved speed and sailing performance as a whole in good wind, on 9 April 1782, the copper-hulled British fleet soon caught up with the French, who were surprised by their speed. De Grasse ordered the French convoy to head into Guadeloupe for repair, after an inconclusive encounter in which both sides suffered damage, de Grasse soon realized that the main British fleet would soon be upon them. He broke off the engagement to return to protect the merchant convoy, in the following days the two fleets faced each other parallel but both sides kept their distance as they repaired their ships. On 12 April, the French were sighted a short distance away, a French straggler, Zélé, was spotted and was chased by four British ships as De Grasse made for Guadeloupe. He bore up with his fleet to protect the ship which led him to Guadeloupe and at the same time Rodney recalled his chasing ships and made the signal for line of battle. Rear-Admiral Hoods van division were still making repairs from the three days earlier, so he directed his rear division, under Rear Admiral Francis S. Drake. At 7,40, HMS Marlborough, under Captain Taylor Penny, led the British line, as the battle progressed, the strong winds of the previous day and night began to temper and became more variable. At 8 am, Formidable opened fire and engaged the French center and as she slowed, duelled with de Grasses flagship, the rest of the ships soon followed, raking the French as they did so, causing huge casualties amongst the soldiers and sailors
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Battle of the Mona Passage
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The Battle of the Mona Passage was a naval engagement on 19 April 1782 between a British fleet under Rear-Admiral Sir Samuel Hood, and a small French fleet. It took place in the Mona Passage, the strait separating Hispaniola and Puerto Rico, the British overtook and captured four ships, two of which were 64-gun ships of the line. Rear-Admiral Sir Samuel Hood fought under Rodney during the battle, and was critical of his commander for not pushing home his victory against the retreating enemy fleet. The British fleet made its way to Jamaica, from where Rodney ordered Hood to seek out any disabled or damaged French ships that had escaped the battle, Hoods division of thirteen ships set out toward Saint-Domingue. Both of these ships were in the Mona Passage, making sail for Cap-Français along with smaller ships. Hood chased down the French ships, the faster copper-sheathed British ships outpacing the damaged French ships. HMS Valiant captured both Jason and Caton at the cost of four men killed and six wounded, whilst HMS Magnificent captured the frigate Aimable at the cost of four killed, champion captured the frigate Astrée, which however managed to escape with minimal damage. The captured French ships were back to England for further use. Jason was renamed HMS Argonaut, while Caton was used as a prisoner of war hospital ship and she continued in this role well into the Napoleonic Wars. Aimable was renamed HMS Aimable and served in the Royal Navy until 1811, cérès, a former British sloop by the same name, became HMS Raven, the French recaptured her in January 1783 and sold her in 1791. Battles of the British Navy publisher Henry Bohn 1852, London, demerliac, Alain La Marine De Louis XVI, Nomenclature Des Navires Français De 1774 À1792. A Few Bloody Noses, The American Revolutionary War, lavery, Brian The Ship of the Line - Volume 1, The development of the battlefleet 1650–1850. Winfield, Rif British Warships in the Age of Sail 1714-1792, Design, Construction, Careers, ships of the Old Navy, HMS Aimable
36.
Action of 18 October 1782
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Outmanoeuvring her larger opponents, Scipion obtained a favourable position that allowed her to rake HMS London, causing severe damage and escaping. The British resumed the chase, and Scipion struck a rock in Samaná Bay, becoming a total loss
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Hannay, David (1911). "Guichen, Luc Urbain de Bouëxic, Comte de". In Chisholm, Hugh. Encyclopædia Britannica. 12 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 686–687.
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the