1.
American Revolutionary War
–
From about 1765 the American Revolution had led to increasing philosophical and political differences between Great Britain and its American colonies. The war represented a culmination of these differences in armed conflict between Patriots and the authority which they increasingly resisted. This resistance became particularly widespread in the New England Colonies, especially in the Province of Massachusetts Bay. On December 16,1773, Massachusetts members of the Patriot group Sons of Liberty destroyed a shipment of tea in Boston Harbor in an event that became known as the Boston Tea Party. Named the Coercive Acts by Parliament, these became known as the Intolerable Acts in America. The Massachusetts colonists responded with the Suffolk Resolves, establishing a government that removed control of the province from the Crown outside of Boston. Twelve colonies formed a Continental Congress to coordinate their resistance, and established committees, British attempts to seize the munitions of Massachusetts colonists in April 1775 led to the first open combat between Crown forces and Massachusetts militia, the Battles of Lexington and Concord. Militia forces proceeded to besiege the British forces in Boston, forcing them to evacuate the city in March 1776, the Continental Congress appointed George Washington to take command of the militia. Concurrent to the Boston campaign, an American attempt to invade Quebec, on July 2,1776, the Continental Congress formally voted for independence, issuing its Declaration on July 4. Sir William Howe began a British counterattack, focussing on recapturing New York City, Howe outmaneuvered and defeated Washington, leaving American confidence at a low ebb. Washington captured a Hessian force at Trenton and drove the British out of New Jersey, in 1777 the British sent a new army under John Burgoyne to move south from Canada and to isolate the New England colonies. However, instead of assisting Burgoyne, Howe took his army on a campaign against the revolutionary capital of Philadelphia. Burgoyne outran his supplies, was surrounded and surrendered at Saratoga in October 1777, the British defeat in the Saratoga Campaign had drastic consequences. Giving up on the North, the British decided to salvage their former colonies in the South, British forces under Lieutenant-General Charles Cornwallis seized Georgia and South Carolina, capturing an American army at Charleston, South Carolina. British strategy depended upon an uprising of large numbers of armed Loyalists, in 1779 Spain joined the war as an ally of France under the Pacte de Famille, intending to capture Gibraltar and British colonies in the Caribbean. Britain declared war on the Dutch Republic in December 1780, in 1781, after the British and their allies had suffered two decisive defeats at Kings Mountain and Cowpens, Cornwallis retreated to Virginia, intending on evacuation. A decisive French naval victory in September deprived the British of an escape route, a joint Franco-American army led by Count Rochambeau and Washington, laid siege to the British forces at Yorktown. With no sign of relief and the situation untenable, Cornwallis surrendered in October 1781, Whigs in Britain had long opposed the pro-war Tory majority in Parliament, but the defeat at Yorktown gave the Whigs the upper hand
2.
Martinique
–
Like Guadeloupe, it is an overseas region of France, consisting of a single overseas department. One of the Windward Islands, it is north of Saint Lucia, southeast of Puerto Rico, northwest of Barbados. As with the overseas departments, Martinique is one of the eighteen regions of France. As part of France, Martinique is part of the European Union, the official language is French, and virtually the entire population also speak Antillean Creole. Martinique owes its name to Christopher Columbus, who sighted the island in 1493, the island was then called Jouanacaëra-Matinino, which came from a mythical island described by the Tainos of Hispaniola. According to historian Sydney Daney, the island was called Jouanacaëra by the Caribs, when Columbus returned to the island in 1502, he rechristened the island as Martinica. The name then evolved into Madinina, Madiana, and Matinite, finally, through the influence of the neighboring island of Dominica, it came to be known as Martinique. The island was occupied first by Arawaks, then by Caribs, the Carib people had migrated from the mainland to the islands about 1201 CE, according to carbon dating of artifacts. They were largely displaced, exterminated and assimilated by the Taino, Martinique was charted by Columbus in 1493, but Spain had little interest in the territory. On 15 September 1635, Pierre Belain dEsnambuc, French governor of the island of St. Kitts, dEsnambuc claimed Martinique for the French King Louis XIII and the French Compagnie des Îles de lAmérique, and established the first European settlement at Fort Saint-Pierre. DEsnambuc died in 1636, leaving the company and Martinique in the hands of his nephew, in 1637, his nephew Jacques Dyel du Parquet became governor of the island. In 1636, the indigenous Caribs rose against the settlers to drive them off the island in the first of many skirmishes. The French successfully repelled the natives and forced them to retreat to the part of the island. When the Carib revolted against French rule in 1658, the Governor Charles Houël du Petit Pré retaliated with war against them, many were killed, those who survived were taken captive and expelled from the island. Some Carib had fled to Dominica or St. Vincent, where the French agreed to them at peace. They were quite industrious and became quite prosperous, from September 1686 to early 1688, the French crown used Martinique as a threat and a dumping ground for mainland Huguenots who refused to reconvert to Catholicism. Over 1,000 Huguenots were transported to Martinique during this period, usually under miserable and those that survived the trip were distributed to the island planters as Engagés under the system of serf peonage that prevailed in the French Antilles at the time. Many of them were encouraged by their Catholic brethren who looked forward to the departure of the heretics, by 1688, nearly all of Martiniques French Protestant population had escaped to the British American colonies or Protestant countries back home
3.
Kingdom of Great Britain
–
The Kingdom of Great Britain, officially Great Britain, was a sovereign state in western Europe from 1 May 1707 to 31 December 1800. It did not include Ireland, which remained a separate realm, the unitary state was governed by a single parliament and government that was based in Westminster. Also after the accession of George I to the throne of Great Britain in 1714, the early years of the unified kingdom were marked by Jacobite risings which ended in defeat for the Stuart cause at Culloden in 1746. On 1 January 1801, the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland were merged to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922, five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the United Kingdom, the name Britain descends from the Latin name for the island of Great Britain, Britannia or Brittānia, the land of the Britons via the Old French Bretaigne and Middle English Bretayne, Breteyne. The term Great Britain was first used officially in 1474, in the instrument drawing up the proposal for a marriage between Edward IV of Englands daughter Cecily and James III of Scotlands son James. The Treaty of Union and the subsequent Acts of Union state that England and Scotland were to be United into one Kingdom by the Name of Great Britain. However, both the Acts and the Treaty also refer numerous times to the United Kingdom and the longer form, other publications refer to the country as the United Kingdom after 1707 as well. The websites of the UK parliament, the Scottish Parliament, the BBC, additionally, the term United Kingdom was found in informal use during the 18th century to describe the state. The new state created in 1707 included the island of Great Britain, the kingdoms of England and Scotland, both in existence from the 9th century, were separate states until 1707. However, they had come into a union in 1603. Each of the three kingdoms maintained its own parliament and laws and this disposition changed dramatically when the Acts of Union 1707 came into force, with a single unified Crown of Great Britain and a single unified parliament. Ireland remained formally separate, with its own parliament, until the Acts of Union 1800, legislative power was vested in the Parliament of Great Britain, which replaced both the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland. In practice it was a continuation of the English parliament, sitting at the location in Westminster. Newly created peers in the Peerage of Great Britain were given the right to sit in the Lords. Despite the end of a parliament for Scotland, it retained its own laws. As a result of Poynings Law of 1495, the Parliament of Ireland was subordinate to the Parliament of England, the Act was repealed by the Repeal of Act for Securing Dependence of Ireland Act 1782. The same year, the Irish constitution of 1782 produced a period of legislative freedom, the 18th century saw England, and after 1707 Great Britain, rise to become the worlds dominant colonial power, with France its main rival on the imperial stage
4.
Kingdom of France
–
The Kingdom of France was a medieval and early modern monarchy in Western Europe. It was one of the most powerful states in Europe and a great power since the Late Middle Ages and it was also an early colonial power, with possessions around the world. France originated as West Francia, the half of the Carolingian Empire. A branch of the Carolingian dynasty continued to rule until 987, the territory remained known as Francia and its ruler as rex Francorum well into the High Middle Ages. The first king calling himself Roi de France was Philip II, France continued to be ruled by the Capetians and their cadet lines—the Valois and Bourbon—until the monarchy was overthrown in 1792 during the French Revolution. France in the Middle Ages was a de-centralised, feudal monarchy, in Brittany and Catalonia the authority of the French king was barely felt. Lorraine and Provence were states of the Holy Roman Empire and not yet a part of France, during the Late Middle Ages, the Kings of England laid claim to the French throne, resulting in a series of conflicts known as the Hundred Years War. Subsequently, France sought to extend its influence into Italy, but was defeated by Spain in the ensuing Italian Wars, religiously France became divided between the Catholic majority and a Protestant minority, the Huguenots, which led to a series of civil wars, the Wars of Religion. France laid claim to large stretches of North America, known collectively as New France, Wars with Great Britain led to the loss of much of this territory by 1763. French intervention in the American Revolutionary War helped secure the independence of the new United States of America, the Kingdom of France adopted a written constitution in 1791, but the Kingdom was abolished a year later and replaced with the First French Republic. The monarchy was restored by the great powers in 1814. During the later years of the elderly Charlemagnes rule, the Vikings made advances along the northern and western perimeters of the Kingdom of the Franks, after Charlemagnes death in 814 his heirs were incapable of maintaining political unity and the empire began to crumble. The Treaty of Verdun of 843 divided the Carolingian Empire into three parts, with Charles the Bald ruling over West Francia, the nucleus of what would develop into the kingdom of France. Viking advances were allowed to increase, and their dreaded longboats were sailing up the Loire and Seine rivers and other waterways, wreaking havoc. During the reign of Charles the Simple, Normans under Rollo from Norway, were settled in an area on either side of the River Seine, downstream from Paris, that was to become Normandy. With its offshoots, the houses of Valois and Bourbon, it was to rule France for more than 800 years. Henry II inherited the Duchy of Normandy and the County of Anjou, and married Frances newly divorced ex-queen, Eleanor of Aquitaine, after the French victory at the Battle of Bouvines in 1214, the English monarchs maintained power only in southwestern Duchy of Guyenne. The death of Charles IV of France in 1328 without male heirs ended the main Capetian line, under Salic law the crown could not pass through a woman, so the throne passed to Philip VI, son of Charles of Valois
5.
George Brydges Rodney, 1st Baron Rodney
–
George Brydges Rodney, 1st Baron Rodney, KB was a British naval officer. He is best known for his commands in the American War of Independence and it is often claimed that he was the commander to have pioneered the tactic of breaking the line. Rodney came from a distinguished but poor background, and went to sea at the age of fourteen and his first major action was the Second Battle of Cape Finisterre in 1747. He made a large amount of money during the 1740s, allowing him to purchase a large country estate. During the Seven Years War, Rodney was involved in a number of operations such as the raids on Rochefort and Le Havre. He became well known for his role in the capture of Martinique in 1762, following the Peace of Paris, Rodneys financial situation stagnated. He spent large sums of money pursuing his political ambitions, by 1774 he had run up large debts and was forced to flee Britain to avoid his creditors. He was in a French jail when war was declared in 1778, thanks to a benefactor, Rodney was able to secure his release and return to Britain where he was appointed to a new command. Rodney successfully relieved Gibraltar during the Great Siege and defeated a Spanish fleet during the 1780 Battle of Cape St. Vincent and he then was posted to the Jamaica Station, where he became involved in the controversial 1781 capture of Sint Eustatius. Later that year he returned home suffering from ill health. During his absence the British lost the crucial Battle of the Chesapeake leading to the surrender at Yorktown, to some Rodney was a controversial figure, accused of an obsession with prize money and nepotism. This was brought to a head in the wake of his taking of Saint Eustatius for which he was criticised in Britain. Orders for his recall had been sent when Rodney won a victory at the Battle of the Saintes in April 1782. On his return to Britain, Rodney was made a peer and was awarded a pension of £2,000. He lived in retirement until his death in 1792, George Brydges Rodney was born either in Walton-on-Thames or in London, though the family seat was Rodney Stoke, Somerset. He was most likely sometime in January 1718. He was baptized in St Giles-in-the-Fields on 13 February 1718 and he was the third of four surviving children of Henry Rodney and Mary Rodney, daughter of Sir Henry Newton. His father had served in Spain under the Earl of Peterborough during the War of the Spanish Succession, a major investment in the South Sea Company ruined Henry Rodney and impoverished the family
6.
Great Siege of Gibraltar
–
The Great Siege of Gibraltar was an unsuccessful attempt by Spain and France to capture Gibraltar from the British during the American War of Independence. This was the largest action fought during the war in terms of numbers, at three years and seven months, it is the longest siege endured by the British Armed Forces. In 1738 a dispute between Spain and Great Britain arose over commerce between Europe and the Americas, a short time later, the War of Jenkins Ear began, and both countries declared war on 23 October 1739, each side drawing up plans to establish trenches near Gibraltar. Seeing these first movements, Britain ordered Admiral Vernon to sail from Portobello, the passage of years failed to break the hostilities in the region. Then on 9 July 1746, King Philip V of Spain died in Madrid and his successor, Ferdinand VI, soon began negotiations with Britain on trade. The British Parliament was amenable to such negotiations, and even looked favourably upon lifting the British embargo on Spain, the neutrality adopted by Ferdinand VI quickly ended with his death in 1759. The new king, Charles III, was willing to negotiate with Great Britain. Instead, he signed a Family Compact with Louis XV of France on 15 August 1761, at that time France was at war with Britain, so Britain responded by declaring war on Spain and capturing the Spanish colonial capitals of Manila and Havana. Two years later, after cessation of hostilities, Spain recovered Manila, in the years of peace that followed both France and Spain hoped for an opportunity to launch a war against Britain on more favourable terms and recover their lost colonial possessions. Following the outbreak of the American War of Independence, both states supplied funding and arms to the American rebels, and drew up a strategy to intervene on the American side and defeat Britain. On 12 April 1779, France and Spain signed the Treaty of Aranjuez wherein they agreed to aid one another in recovering lost territory from Britain, then, in June 1779, Spain declared war on Great Britain, France having done so the year before. The Spanish blockade was directed by Martín Álvarez de Sotomayor, Spanish ground forces were composed of two battalions of Royal Guards, another two of Walloon Guards, with artillery and cavalry, about 13,000 in all. The artillery was commanded by Rudesindo Tilly, while the cavalry, antonio Barceló commanded the maritime forces responsible for blockading the bay, and established his base in Algeciras, commanding a fleet of several xebecs and gunboats. A fleet of 11 ships and two frigates were placed in the Gulf of Cadiz under the command of Luis de Córdova y Córdova to block the passage of British reinforcements. All the defences were strengthened, and many of the infantry, including picked men, the garrison included contingents of Hanoverian and Corsican troops. The British had anticipated an attack for some time, and a number of ships had sailed to reinforce and supply Gibraltar. The combined Spanish and French fleets blockaded Gibraltar from the sea, while on the side a enormous army constructed forts, redoubts, entrenchments. General Eliott formed a corps of sharpshooters, as the winter of 1779 came down the garrison began to suffer from want of fresh provisions, which became very scarce and dear
7.
Battle of Flamborough Head
–
The Battle of Flamborough Head was a naval battle that took place on 23 September 1779 in the North Sea off the coast of Yorkshire. The battle was led by Continental Navy officer John Paul Jones and it became one of the most celebrated naval actions of the war. The crews included Americans, French volunteers, British sailors previously captured by the Americans and offered the chance to get out of captivity, and many others seeking glory or prize money. On the evening of 22 September, Jones in Bonhomme Richard, accompanied by the brigantine Vengeance, had been off Spurn Head, hoping to catch a few prizes emerging from the Humber estuary. He decided to head northward during the hours of darkness, and rendezvous with his frigates Alliance and Pallas, shortly after midnight, two vessels were seen, so signal lanterns were set. The strangers did not give the response that would identify them as members of his squadron. Early in the afternoon the squadron sighted a brig in Bridlington Bay, so at about 3,30 pm. Shortly after the schooner was dispatched, Alliance, which had been ahead of the others, hoisted a signal. At least two large vessels had been sighted in the distance, so the schooner was immediately recalled by firing a gun. Some ships left the convoy before Britain came in sight, heading for northern ports such as Leith, early in the afternoon, as they approached Flamborough Head, the lookouts of the foremost ships saw the danger in Bridlington Bay for themselves. Hastily tacking, they attempted to run for the safety of Scarborough, Serapis put on all sail to get between the fleeing merchant vessels and a potential attack from the Franco-American squadron, while the smaller Countess of Scarborough shepherded the convoy. About 4 pm, with the convoy to his north. As the squadron caught up, the Royal Navy vessels made sure to position themselves so that the enemy could not easily sail round them to reach the slower merchant ships. As the situation became clear Alliance gradually slowed, allowing the rest of Jones’s squadron to catch up, about 6 pm, Commodore Jones ordered Pallas to ride directly in his wake, to confuse the opposition about the squadron’s strength. Half an hour later he hoisted signals ordering all vessels to form a line of battle. Captain Landais, who unlike Jones had a deal of formal training in naval leadership and tactics. He used Alliances superior handling to sail off to one side, finally, a little after 7 pm, Bonhomme Richard was within pistol-shot of the battle-ready Serapis. In the gathering dark, Pearson then hailed the potentially hostile ship to ask pertinent questions, its name
8.
Action of 6 October 1779
–
The battle ended in a French victory when Quebec was destroyed by an explosion. France along with Spain joined on the side of the Americans, Britain did not attempt a close blockade of French ports rather a screen of frigates kept a vigil while the ships of the line stayed at anchor at places like Torbay and Spithead. One of those frigates, operating off Guernsey, was the thirty-two gun, Quebec had submerged on a rock and had to throw excess weight overboard to refloat her, sacrificing his 12-pound cannon. When repaired in Portsmouth there were no replacements at the time so ship, on 6 October, Quebec working with the cutter HMS Rambler of ten guns spotted a frigate and a cutter. By 8, 00am they were found to be the French Iphigénie-class, 32-gun Surveillante, under captain Couëdic de Kergoaler, Quebec cleared for action and by 8,30 in the light wind the French frigate had opened fire. Within an hour Quebec opened fire after she became parallel with Surveillante, Farmer was wounded as was the first lieutenant who had to have his arm amputated after part of it was shot away and remarkably soon went back to duty. Couëdic was wounded twice within two hours but not seriously when all of Surveillantes masts and rigging progressively crashed down, Quebec seeing an opportunity was about to finish the French ship but her severely damaged and weakened masts all came down within a space of a half an hour. Quebecs main and foremasts went over the side but the mizzen mast came down on the engagement side blocking many of the gunports with the sails. The ships drifted together with Surveillantes bowsprit becoming entangled in the wreckage of Quebecs mizzen mast, Quebecs gun captains kept up her rate of fire by shooting through the wreckage. Couëdic saw his opportunity to board and take Quebec but they were repulsed with heavy losses including Couëdic who had now a third wound. By now a stalemate had ensued both sides priority was now taken to sorting the damage and casualties were heavy, however, a turn of events began, a fire which had begun on Quebecs mangled and tangled sails covering the gun ports and as a result of cannon fire. The fire soon spread out of control and soon took a hold of Surveillante, Couëdic though managed to break free of Quebec by chopping off the wreckage that entangled both ships and the fire on the French ship was brought under control. However, on Quebec the situation was serious, the fire had spread within the ship itself and had become totally uncontrollable, Farmer ordered the magazine to be flooded but this was now futile and by 6pm the fire reached the magazine. British sailors jumped into the water as some knew the inevitable would happen, Farmer ordered the ship to be abandoned and panic ensued. Within moments Quebec exploded taking whatever was left of her complement including Farmer himself. Surveillante managed to be out of way but was so badly shot up the vessel did not have a boat that was seaworthy. The cutters had fought their own battle and they too had battered themselves into submission. When Quebec exploded the task of rescuing survivors became a priority, the British cutter Rambler had her sails and rigging so badly damaged she was unable to pursue or let alone even intervene, she sent out a boat instead to help
9.
Battle of Jersey
–
The Battle of Jersey was an attempt by French forces to invade Jersey and remove the threat the island posed to French and American shipping in the Anglo-French War. Jersey provided a base for British privateers, and France, engaged in the war as an ally of the United States and its commander, Baron Philippe de Rullecourt, died of wounds sustained in the fighting. The battle is remembered for the death of the British officer Major Peirson. Large numbers of privateers operated out of the island, causing chaos amongst French merchant shipping, Jersey privateers even operated off the coast of America. The French government decided to neutralize this threat, aware of the military importance of Jersey, the British government had ordered that the island be heavily fortified. King George III granted approval and funding on 5 July 1778, perhaps four towers had been completed by the time of the Battle of Jersey, none where the French would land. Gun batteries, forts and redoubts already existed around the coast, all adult males had for centuries been required by law to serve in the Jersey Militia which in 1780 comprised some 3,000 men in five regiments, including artillery and dragoons. Regular army units—the entire 95th Regiment of Foot, five each of the 83rd Regiment of Foot and 78th Seaforth Highlanders. A total force amounted to about 6,250 troops of all types were available on the island, a naval force, the Jersey Squadron, was also based in the island, but was on a cruise against the Dutch at the time of the invasion. On 1 May 1779, during the Anglo-French War a French force under the command of the French born Prince of Nassau-Siegen attempted a landing at St Ouens Bay. Early that morning lookouts sighted five large vessels and a number of boats some three leagues off the coast, proceeding towards the coast to effect a landing. Guns on the cutters and small craft supporting the landing fired grapeshot at the defenders on the coast, the defenders were able to prevent the landing, suffering only a few men wounded when a cannon burst. The French vessels withdrew, first holding off a league from the coast before leaving the area entirely, De Rullecourt was an adventurer and a colonel in the French Army. King Louis XVI had promised de Rullecourt the rank of General and the Cordon rouge as soon as he had control of the town of Saint Helier, officially the expedition was a private affair. However, funding, equipment, transport and troops were provided by the French government, in order to conceal their involvement, the government went so far as to order the desertion of several hundred regular troops to De Rullecourts forces. On 5 January 1781 the expedition set out from Granville, consisting of some 2,000 soldiers in four divisions, there was a storm which scattered some ships and only 1,200 initially made it to Jersey. Jersey still celebrated 6 January as Old Christmas Night, and the French landed undetected, the 800 men of the first division landed at La Rocque, Grouville, on the south east coast and passed close by the guards without being noticed. A French officer even said that he had slept beneath the guards, the guards were subsequently put on trial, where it was found they had abandoned their post to go drinking
10.
Battle of the Saintes
–
The battle is named after the Saintes, a group of islands between Guadeloupe and Dominica in the West Indies. The French fleet defeated here by the Royal Navy was the fleet that had blockaded the British Army during the Siege of Yorktown, the French suffered heavy casualties and many were taken prisoner, including the Comte de Grasse. Four French ships of the line were captured and one was destroyed, Rodney was credited with pioneering the tactic of breaking the line in the battle, though this is disputed. De Grasse and his fleet played a part in that victory. On arrival in Saint Domingue in November 1781, he was notified that the plan was given the go ahead to proceed with the conquest of Jamaica. Jamaica was the largest and most profitable British island in the Caribbean, mainly because of sugar, sugar made up 20% of all British imports and was worth five times as much as tobacco. As well as the expulsion of the British from the West Indies by the French and Spanish. The invasion itself though was perceived in the courts at Paris and Madrid as an alternative to the Spanish and French attempts to take Gibraltar, while de Grasse waited for reinforcements to undertake the Jamaica campaign, he captured St. Kitts in February 1782. These included seventeen ships of the line and gave the British a slight numerical advantage, in addition, de Grasse was to rendezvous with 15,000 troops at Saint Domingue earmarked for the conquest by landing on Jamaicas north coast. Rodney, on learning of this, sailed from St Lucia in pursuit with 36 ships of the line the following day, the British hulls by this time had been given copper sheathing to protect them from marine growth and fouling as well as salt water corrosion. This dramatically improved speed and sailing performance as a whole in good wind, on 9 April 1782, the copper-hulled British fleet soon caught up with the French, who were surprised by their speed. De Grasse ordered the French convoy to head into Guadeloupe for repair, after an inconclusive encounter in which both sides suffered damage, de Grasse soon realized that the main British fleet would soon be upon them. He broke off the engagement to return to protect the merchant convoy, in the following days the two fleets faced each other parallel but both sides kept their distance as they repaired their ships. On 12 April, the French were sighted a short distance away, a French straggler, Zélé, was spotted and was chased by four British ships as De Grasse made for Guadeloupe. He bore up with his fleet to protect the ship which led him to Guadeloupe and at the same time Rodney recalled his chasing ships and made the signal for line of battle. Rear-Admiral Hoods van division were still making repairs from the three days earlier, so he directed his rear division, under Rear Admiral Francis S. Drake. At 7,40, HMS Marlborough, under Captain Taylor Penny, led the British line, as the battle progressed, the strong winds of the previous day and night began to temper and became more variable. At 8 am, Formidable opened fire and engaged the French center and as she slowed, duelled with de Grasses flagship, the rest of the ships soon followed, raking the French as they did so, causing huge casualties amongst the soldiers and sailors
11.
Battle of Rhode Island
–
The Battle of Rhode Island, also known as the Battle of Quaker Hill, and the Siege of Newport took place on August 29,1778. The battle ended inconclusively, but afterwards Continental forces withdrew to the mainland, the battle was the first attempt at cooperation between French and American forces following Frances entry into the war as an American ally. France formally recognized the United States of America in February 1778 following the surrender of the British Army after the Battles of Saratoga in October 1777, War was declared between France and Great Britain in March 1778. It was not until early June that a fleet of 13 ships of the line left European waters in pursuit, dEstaings crossing of the Atlantic took three months, but Byron was also delayed due to bad weather and did not reach New York until mid August. The British evacuated from Philadelphia to New York City before dEstaings arrival and their North American fleet was no longer on the river when the French fleet arrived at Delaware Bay in early July. DEstaing decided to sail for New York, but its well-defended harbor presented a challenge to the French fleet. The troops reached their destination on July 15, raising the size of Major General Robert Pigots garrison to more than 6,700 men, American and British forces had been in a standoff on Aquidneck Island since the British occupation began in late 1776. In March 1778, Congress approved the appointment of Major General John Sullivan to Rhode Island, by early May, Sullivan had arrived in the state and produced a detailed report on the situation. He began logistical preparations for an attack on Newport, caching equipment and supplies on the shore of Narragansett Bay. British General Pigot was aware of Sullivans preparations and launched an expedition on May 25 that raided Bristol and this destroyed military supplies and plundered the towns. Sullivans response was to make renewed appeals for assistance, which were reinforced by a Congressional declaration after a raid on Freetown on May 31. General Washington wrote to Sullivan on July 17 ordering him to raise 5,000 troops for operations against Newport. Sullivans force at that time amounted to 1,600 troops, Laurens had left Washingtons camp on the 22nd, riding ahead of a column of Continental troops led by the Marquis de Lafayette. News of the French involvement rallied support for the cause, however, these forces took some time to muster, and the majority of them did not arrive until the first week of August. Washington sent Major General Nathanael Greene, a Rhode Island native and reliable officer, Sullivan had been regularly criticized in Congress for his performance in earlier battles, and Washington urged him to take counsel from Greene and Lafayette. Greene wrote to Sullivan on the matter and reinforced the need for a successful operation, dEstaing sailed from his position outside the New York harbor on July 22, when the British judged the tide high enough for the French ships to cross the bar. He initially sailed south before turning northeast toward Newport, the British fleet in New York consisted of eight ships of the line under the command of Lord Richard Howe, and they sailed out after him once they discovered that his destination was Newport. DEstaing arrived off Point Judith on July 29 and immediately met with Generals Greene, the next day, dEstaing sent frigates into the Sakonnet River and into the main channel leading to Newport
12.
Action of 21 July 1781
–
The Action of 21 July 1781 was a naval skirmish off the harbor of Spanish River, Cape Breton, Nova Scotia, during the American Revolution. Two French Navy frigates, led by Admiral Latouche Tréville and La Pérouse, engaged a convoy of 18 British ships, the two French frigates captured two of the British escorts while the remainder of the British convoy escaped. A possible motive for the French attack was to make advances to reclaim Louisburg, the convoy, which consisted of eighteen ships, including nine coal-transporting and four supply ships, was bound for Spanish River on Cape Breton Island to pick up coal for delivery to Halifax. The escorting ships were the frigate Charlestown, the sloops Allegiance and Vulture, an armed transport Vernon, two French frigates Astrée, commanded by La Pérouse, and Hermione, commanded by Latouche Tréville, attacked the convoy. The French severely damaged Charlestonwn, which lost its main mast, the French also significantly damaged Jack, which also lost its captain, and subsequently struck her colors. Captain Rupert George of Vulture led the damaged escorts into a safe harbor, six French and seventeen British sailors were killed. While the British escort was damaged, the convoy was still able to pick up a load of coal at Spanish River and deliver it to Halifax. The French captured the British ship Thorn off Halifax Harbor, along with three merchantmen, which brought back to Boston. The following year, the British recaptured Jack in the Naval battle off Halifax, the French commanders would go on to achieve further acclaim and recognition for their performance. Latouche Tréville became an Admiral and was named a hero of the Napoleonic war, La Pérouse later became a famous explorer. The encounter was painted by Auguste-Louis de Rossel de Cercy, and is on display at the Musée Nationale de la Marine in Rochefort. American Revolution Franco-American alliance Military history of Nova Scotia Gwyn, Julian, Ashore and afloat Gwyn, Julian, Frigates and Foremasts, murdoch, Beamish, A History of Nova-Scotia, or Acadie
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Hannay, David (1911). "Guichen, Luc Urbain de Bouëxic, Comte de". In Chisholm, Hugh. Encyclopædia Britannica. 12 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 686–687.
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the