1.
Western Front (World War II)
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The Western Front of the European theatre of World War II encompassed Denmark, Norway, Luxembourg, Belgium, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, France, Italy, and Germany. World War II military engagements in Southern Europe and elsewhere are generally considered under separate headings, the Western Front was marked by two phases of large-scale combat operations. The second phase consisted of ground combat, which began in June 1944 with the Allied landings in Normandy. The Phoney War was a phase of World War II marked by a few military operations in Continental Europe in the months following the German invasion of Poland. Although the great powers of Europe had declared war on one another, neither side had yet committed to launching a significant attack and this was also the period in which The United Kingdom and France did not supply significant aid to Poland, despite their pledged alliance. While most of the German Army was fighting against Poland, a much smaller German force manned the Siegfried Line, there were only some local, minor skirmishes. The British Royal Air Force dropped propaganda leaflets on Germany and the first Canadian troops stepped ashore in Britain, while Western Europe was in a strange calm for seven months. In their hurry to re-arm, Britain and France had both begun to buy large numbers of weapons manufacturers in the United States at the outbreak of hostilities. The non-belligerent United States, contributed to the Western Allies by discounted sales of military equipment, German efforts to interdict the Allies trans-Atlantic trade at sea ignited the Battle of the Atlantic. However, when the Allies made a counter-landing in Norway following the German invasion, the Kriegsmarine, nonetheless, suffered very heavy losses during the two-months of fighting required to seize all of mainland Norway. In May 1940, the Germans launched the Battle of France, the Western Allies soon collapsed under the onslaught of the so-called blitzkrieg strategy. The majority of the British and elements of the French forces escaped at Dunkirk, with the fighting ended, the Germans began to consider ways of resolving the question of how to deal with Britain. If the British refused to agree to a treaty, one option was to invade. However, Nazi Germanys Kriegsmarine, had suffered losses in Norway. With the Luftwaffe unable to defeat the RAF in the Battle of Britain and these were built in anticipation of an Allied invasion of France. Because of the massive logistical obstacles a cross-channel invasion would face, on 19 August 1942, the Allies began the Dieppe Raid, an attack on Dieppe, France. Most of the troops were Canadian, with some British contingents, the raid was a disaster, almost two-thirds of the attacking force became casualties. However, much was learned as a result of the operation – these lessons would be put to use in the subsequent invasion
2.
Belgium
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Belgium, officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a sovereign state in Western Europe bordered by France, the Netherlands, Germany, Luxembourg, and the North Sea. It is a small, densely populated country which covers an area of 30,528 square kilometres and has a population of about 11 million people. Additionally, there is a group of German-speakers who live in the East Cantons located around the High Fens area. Historically, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg were known as the Low Countries, the region was called Belgica in Latin, after the Roman province of Gallia Belgica. From the end of the Middle Ages until the 17th century, today, Belgium is a federal constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. It is divided into three regions and three communities, that exist next to each other and its two largest regions are the Dutch-speaking region of Flanders in the north and the French-speaking southern region of Wallonia. The Brussels-Capital Region is a bilingual enclave within the Flemish Region. A German-speaking Community exists in eastern Wallonia, Belgiums linguistic diversity and related political conflicts are reflected in its political history and complex system of governance, made up of six different governments. Upon its independence, declared in 1830, Belgium participated in the Industrial Revolution and, during the course of the 20th century, possessed a number of colonies in Africa. This continuing antagonism has led to several far-reaching reforms, resulting in a transition from a unitary to a federal arrangement during the period from 1970 to 1993. Belgium is also a member of the Eurozone, NATO, OECD and WTO. Its capital, Brussels, hosts several of the EUs official seats as well as the headquarters of major international organizations such as NATO. Belgium is also a part of the Schengen Area, Belgium is a developed country, with an advanced high-income economy and is categorized as very high in the Human Development Index. A gradual immigration by Germanic Frankish tribes during the 5th century brought the area under the rule of the Merovingian kings, a gradual shift of power during the 8th century led the kingdom of the Franks to evolve into the Carolingian Empire. Many of these fiefdoms were united in the Burgundian Netherlands of the 14th and 15th centuries, the Eighty Years War divided the Low Countries into the northern United Provinces and the Southern Netherlands. The latter were ruled successively by the Spanish and the Austrian Habsburgs and this was the theatre of most Franco-Spanish and Franco-Austrian wars during the 17th and 18th centuries. The reunification of the Low Countries as the United Kingdom of the Netherlands occurred at the dissolution of the First French Empire in 1815, although the franchise was initially restricted, universal suffrage for men was introduced after the general strike of 1893 and for women in 1949. The main political parties of the 19th century were the Catholic Party, French was originally the single official language adopted by the nobility and the bourgeoisie
3.
Canada
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Canada is a country in the northern half of North America. Canadas border with the United States is the worlds longest binational land border, the majority of the country has a cold or severely cold winter climate, but southerly areas are warm in summer. Canada is sparsely populated, the majority of its territory being dominated by forest and tundra. It is highly urbanized with 82 per cent of the 35.15 million people concentrated in large and medium-sized cities, One third of the population lives in the three largest cities, Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver. Its capital is Ottawa, and other urban areas include Calgary, Edmonton, Quebec City, Winnipeg. Various aboriginal peoples had inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years prior to European colonization. Pursuant to the British North America Act, on July 1,1867, the colonies of Canada, New Brunswick and this began an accretion of provinces and territories to the mostly self-governing Dominion to the present ten provinces and three territories forming modern Canada. With the Constitution Act 1982, Canada took over authority, removing the last remaining ties of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II being the head of state. The country is officially bilingual at the federal level and it is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many other countries. Its advanced economy is the eleventh largest in the world, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources, Canadas long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture. Canada is a country and has the tenth highest nominal per capita income globally as well as the ninth highest ranking in the Human Development Index. It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic freedom, Canada is an influential nation in the world, primarily due to its inclusive values, years of prosperity and stability, stable economy, and efficient military. While a variety of theories have been postulated for the origins of Canada. In 1535, indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona, from the 16th to the early 18th century Canada referred to the part of New France that lay along the St. Lawrence River. In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada collectively named The Canadas, until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841. Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the name for the new country at the London Conference. The transition away from the use of Dominion was formally reflected in 1982 with the passage of the Canada Act, later that year, the name of national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day
4.
Nazi Germany
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Nazi Germany is the common English name for the period in German history from 1933 to 1945, when Germany was governed by a dictatorship under the control of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party. Under Hitlers rule, Germany was transformed into a fascist state in which the Nazi Party took totalitarian control over all aspects of life. The official name of the state was Deutsches Reich from 1933 to 1943, the period is also known under the names the Third Reich and the National Socialist Period. The Nazi regime came to an end after the Allied Powers defeated Germany in May 1945, Hitler was appointed Chancellor of Germany by the President of the Weimar Republic Paul von Hindenburg on 30 January 1933. The Nazi Party then began to eliminate all opposition and consolidate its power. Hindenburg died on 2 August 1934, and Hitler became dictator of Germany by merging the powers and offices of the Chancellery, a national referendum held 19 August 1934 confirmed Hitler as sole Führer of Germany. All power was centralised in Hitlers person, and his word became above all laws, the government was not a coordinated, co-operating body, but a collection of factions struggling for power and Hitlers favour. In the midst of the Great Depression, the Nazis restored economic stability and ended mass unemployment using heavy military spending, extensive public works were undertaken, including the construction of Autobahnen. The return to economic stability boosted the regimes popularity, racism, especially antisemitism, was a central feature of the regime. The Germanic peoples were considered by the Nazis to be the purest branch of the Aryan race, millions of Jews and other peoples deemed undesirable by the state were murdered in the Holocaust. Opposition to Hitlers rule was ruthlessly suppressed, members of the liberal, socialist, and communist opposition were killed, imprisoned, or exiled. The Christian churches were also oppressed, with many leaders imprisoned, education focused on racial biology, population policy, and fitness for military service. Career and educational opportunities for women were curtailed, recreation and tourism were organised via the Strength Through Joy program, and the 1936 Summer Olympics showcased the Third Reich on the international stage. Propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels made effective use of film, mass rallies, the government controlled artistic expression, promoting specific art forms and banning or discouraging others. Beginning in the late 1930s, Nazi Germany made increasingly aggressive territorial demands and it seized Austria and Czechoslovakia in 1938 and 1939. Hitler made a pact with Joseph Stalin and invaded Poland in September 1939. In alliance with Italy and smaller Axis powers, Germany conquered most of Europe by 1940, reichskommissariats took control of conquered areas, and a German administration was established in what was left of Poland. Jews and others deemed undesirable were imprisoned, murdered in Nazi concentration camps and extermination camps, following the German invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, the tide gradually turned against the Nazis, who suffered major military defeats in 1943
5.
10th Canadian Infantry Brigade
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The 10th Canadian Infantry Brigade was a formation of the Canadian Army in both World War I and World War II. The brigade fought on the Western Front during World War I and it formed part of the 4th Canadian Division. The 10th Brigade was part of the Canadian Expeditionary Force raised during the First World War and it participated in every major Canadian engagement from the Somme to the last 100 days. The 10th Canadian Infantry Brigade consisted of four battalions, and formed part of the 4th Division, the battalions were the 47th Battalion, the 48th Battalion, the 49th Battalion and the 50th Battalion. The 10th Canadian Infantry Brigade was first assembled at Nanaimo, British Columbia in October 1940, in April 1941 it was moved east to the Niagara area, exchanging places with the 13th Canadian Infantry Brigade. During World War II, it was part of the Canadian 4th Armoured Division and it was present for Operation Totalize, Operation Tractable, and the Battle of Falaise. After reaching the River Seine, they advanced along the French coast to Belgium, after France and Belgium the Brigade still part of 4th Armoured was involved in the critical Battle of the Scheldt, to open the port of Antwerp, to Allied shipping. Next came Operation Veritable clearing the land between the Rhine and Roer rivers and their last major operation of the war the Battle of the Reichswald. The 10th Canadian Infantry Brigade was tasked to cross the Ghent Canal about five kilometers south of Bruges at a village called Oostkamp in early September 1944. Directly across the canal from Oostkamp was another village named Moerbrugge. The canal is about 20 metres wide and very deep, opposition was not expected so only one battalion was chosen for the crossing, The Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders of Canada, the Argylls. The 3-inch mortars of the Argylls and the 4. 2-inch mortars of the Rangers were in support, lieutenant Charles Pearson, The Lincoln and Welland Regiments World War II Campaign A first-hand account of the battle written by a member of C Company of the Argylls is available at
6.
Allied advance from Paris to the Rhine
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The Allied advance from Paris to the Rhine was a phase in the Western European Campaign of World War II. This roughly corresponds with the official United States military European Theater of Operations Rhineland, German forces had been routed during the Allied break-out from Normandy. The Allies advanced rapidly against an enemy that put up little resistance, but after the liberation of Paris in late August 1944, the Allies paused to re-group and organise before continuing their advance from Paris to the River Rhine. The pause allowed the Germans to solidify their lines—something they had been unable to do west of Paris, while Montgomery and Bradley each favored relatively direct thrusts into Germany, General Eisenhower disagreed. The rapid advance through France had caused considerable logistical strain, made worse by the lack of any major port other than the relatively distant Cherbourg in western France. Although Antwerp was seen as the key to solving the Allied logistics problems, as the campaign progressed, all the belligerents, Allied as well as German, felt the effects of the lack of suitable replacements for front-line troops. There were two major obstacles to the Allies. The first was the natural barriers made by the rivers of eastern France, the second was the Siegfried Line, which fell under the command, along with all Wehrmacht forces in the west, of Generalfeldmarschall Gerd von Rundstedt. Although the breakout from Normandy had taken longer than planned, the advances until September had far exceeded expectations, Bradley, for example, by September had four more divisions than planned and all of his forces were 150 miles ahead of their expected position. One effect was that insufficient supplies could be delivered to the fronts to maintain the advance. Much war material still had to be brought ashore across the invasion beaches, the availability of Cherbourg had been valuable until the breakout, but then the shortage of transport to carry supplies to the rapidly advancing armies became the limiting factor. Although fuel was pumped from Britain to Normandy via the Pluto pipeline, this still had to reach the fronts. The railways had been destroyed by Allied attacks and would take much effort to repair. In an attempt to address this shortage of transport, three newly arrived U. S. infantry divisions—the 26th, 95th, and 104th—were stripped of their trucks in order to haul supplies. Advancing divisions of the U. S. 12th Army Group left all their artillery and half their medium artillery west of the Seine. Four British truck companies were loaned to the Americans, unfortunately,1,500 other British trucks were found to have critical engine faults and were unusable, limiting assistance from that quarter. The Red Ball Express was an attempt to expedite deliveries by truck, the 6th Army Group advancing from southern France were supplied adequately from Toulon and Marseille because it had captured ports intact and the local railway system was less damaged. This source supplied about 25% of the Allied needs, the U. S. supply organization—Communications Zone —is perceived to have failed to expedite solutions and to have been far too bureaucratic, employing 11,000 staff
7.
Clearing the Channel Coast
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Clearing the Channel Coast was a World War II task undertaken by the First Canadian Army in August 1944, following the Allied Operation Overlord and the break-out and pursuit from Normandy. The Canadian advance took them from Normandy to the Scheldt river in Belgium, en route, they were to capture the Channel ports needed to supply the Allied armies and clear the Germans from the Channel littoral and launch sites for the V-1 missiles. Resistance did occur in most of the Channel ports, designated on 4 September as fortresses by Adolf Hitler, Le Havre, Boulogne and Calais were subjected to full-scale assaults, as a result. A further assault was called off at Dunkirk, freeing resources for the Battle of the Scheldt when the First Canadian Army cleared the mouth of the Scheldt, Dieppe and Ostend were taken without opposition. The Germans were chased out of much of northern France, fighting in the Falaise pocket ended by 22 August 1944 and the First Canadian Army was freed to move north-eastwards up the coast. The I British Corps had started to advance eastwards from the River Dives along the coast on 16 September, reconnaissance had been ordered on 19 August and the authorization for a full advance and pursuit by the Canadians was issued on 23 August. There was significant resistance in the Canadian sector, Adolf Hitler had ordered that most of the Channel ports be established as fortresses and prepared for extended sieges. Since the Allies needed the port facilities to supply their advance, they could not be sealed off, the Germans had established artillery positions capable of shelling Dover, threatening allied shipping and there were launch sites for the V-1 flying bombs bombarding London. The composition of the First Canadian Army varied to meet changing demands but in terms it was composed of the II Canadian Corps. Within these formations, at times, were Czech, Polish, French, Dutch. After Normandy, the Polish and Czech formations were augmented by countrymen who had been conscripted into the German Army, the First Canadian Army had fought several battles in Normandy, resulting in depleted commanders and manpower at all levels. This was particularly serious in the rifle companies. The I British Corps, attached to the First Canadian Army, had the 7th Armoured Division and the 49th Infantry Division, 51st Division, the infantry divisions had not performed satisfactorily in Normandy and had been relegated to defensive positions on the eastern flank of the bridgehead. The 6th Airborne Division had landed in Operation Tonga on D-Day and despite its lack of heavy weapons and it had suffered many casualties and Major-General Richard Gale, had been ordered to harry the German retreat yet conserve its manpower for the rebuilding that was due. The I British Corps advanced along the Channel coast, with the II Canadian Corps on the right, most German divisions had been destroyed or shattered in the Falaise Pocket but divisions deployed east of the Allied bridgehead were largely intact. German troops within the cities were generally second-rate and included some Austrian and other nationalities. The First Canadian Army advance to the Seine was dubbed Operation Paddle and it had been hoped by the Allied commanders that a defeat comparable with the Falaise Pocket could be inflicted on the Germans, by trapping them against the Seine and the sea. To this end, the US Third Army advanced northwards to Elbeuf, across the Second Army line of advance, to cut off the route towards Paris and was a partial success
8.
Operation Astonia
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Operation Astonia was the codename for the Allied effort to capture the German-held Channel port of Le Havre, France, during World War II. Fought from 10–12 September 1944, its objective was to secure the citys harbor facilities intact to aid the Allied supply system on the Continental Europe. However, due to damage the port was not ready for use until mid October 1944. The attack was carried out by the British 49th Infantry Division, after a substantial softening up Royal Navy bombardment ships and heavy raids by the Royal Air Force the city fell within three days of the first infantry assault. On D-Day,6 June 1944, Allied troops landed at beaches in the Normandy area of the north coast of France in Operation Overlord to begin the liberation of France. Plans for the required four ports on the French coast to be captured to allow Allied forces to be reinforced and supplied, Le Havre, Dieppe, Calais. Dieppe was evacuated by the Germans and occupied by the 2nd Canadian Division on 1 September 1944. Considered one of the strongest fortifications in the Atlantic Wall, Le Havre was also aided by strong natural defences that included bodies of water preventing access from the south, plans called for a massive naval and air bombardment to soften up the fortifications. Two Royal Navy vessels, the battleship HMS Warspite and the monitor HMS Erebus, in addition, aircraft of the Royal Air Force dropped 8,200 long tons of high explosive bombs on the city between September 5 and September 7. The attack plan was to penetrate the German defences to allow forces to attack, then further these gains. The 49th Infantry Division penetrated the north-eastern section of the Le Havre perimeter first, the assault was costly for the specialised armour, however, with the 79th Armoured Division losing 34 Crab anti-mine flail tanks, two command tanks and 6 AVRE vehicles. While there had been few military casualties during Le Havres successful capture, civilian loss was also high, but had been avoidable. Faced with the Allied policy of surrender, Colonel Wildermuth had been ordered by Hitler to defend Fortress Le Havre to the last man. Recognizing an indiscriminate pre-assault aerial bombardment would kill many innocent Frenchmen he appealed to British humanity, loss of French life was extensive, with some 2,000 dead to 19 Germans lost during the air campaign alone. The Canadians in Northwest Europe, 1944-1945, churchills Secret Weapons, The Story of Hobarts Funnies. The Polar Bears, Montys Left Flank, From Normandy to the Relief of Holland with the 49th Division, ellis, Major L. F. Butler, Sir James, ed. Victory in the West, Volume II, The Defeat of Germany, history of the Second World War, United Kingdom Military Series. Uckfield, UK, Naval & Military Press, a photographic record of the storm of iron & fire, Le Havre 1944
9.
Operation Wellhit
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Operation Wellhit was the World War II operation by the 3rd Canadian Division to take the fortified port of Boulogne in northern France. At first, the 9th Canadian Infantry Brigade had hoped to take Boulogne as part of its advance up the coast, the defences, however, brought them to a halt five miles from the city. The operation took from 17 to 22 September 1944, Boulogne was one of several Channel ports to be designated as a fortress by Adolf Hitler. In the event, none of the strongpoints fought to the end and their commander, Ferdinand Heims own appreciation of the situation was realistic. The city and port of Boulogne is sited at the mouth of the River Liane, which flows north, north westwards into the sea, the Liane splits the urban area, with the western side forming a high peninsula between the river and the coast. High ground surrounds the city, with prominent heights, which had been fortified over the centuries, the most significant fortifications and artillery batteries were at La Tresorerie, at Mont Lambert, Herquelingue and various fortifications south of Outreau on the peninsula. Heim had been appointed as only a few weeks before Boulogne became isolated by the allies advance through northern France. The towns fixed defences were strong but little had been done on the landward side apart from some hastily built field defences, the allied advance into Germany depended upon supplies of materiel to the front, which was seriously constrained by the lack of convenient ports. Boulogne could not, therefore, merely be contained until a general surrender of German forces, it had to be won, the Canadians gained useful intelligence on the German defences through information from evacuated civilians and with the help of the local French Resistance. In the days preceding the attack, attempts were made, by air and artillery bombardment, there was also a large bombardment in the final ninety minutes, employing several hundred heavy and medium bombers and a creeping barrage. In addition, bomb craters proved to be a hindrance to armoured vehicles supporting the infantry attacks. Canadian assessments, however, noted that, within the bombardment area, progress was significantly quicker than elsewhere, the outline of the attack was that the northern and southern defences would be contained or diverted while the main attack would drive into Boulogne from the east. Since German artillery at La Tresorerie posed a threat to the main assault, once the main urban area had been captured, 8th Brigade would clear the area around Wimille, Wimereux and Fort de la Crèche and 9th Brigade would clear the Outreau peninsula. In both attacks, infantry had been transported in Kangaroos, the 8th Brigade captured Rupembert and its radar installation, intact, and consolidated in Marlborough. Mont Lambert was appreciated by both sides as the key to Boulogne. The 9th Brigades early advance had been rapid but, once its defenders had recovered from the bombardments, they gave a defence with artillery. Much of Mont Lambert was in Canadian control by nightfall, La Tresorerie proved more difficult than expected - the attack was impeded in a minefield - but its artillery did not interfere with the main attacks. The guns at La Tresorerie were captured by the North Shore Regiment, the 9th Brigades North Nova Scotias finally subdued Mont Lambert by 11am, the loss of which General Heim believed would make defence of the port impossible
10.
Operation Undergo
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Operation Undergo was the 3rd Canadian Infantry Divisions operation to take the fortified French port of Calais in September 1944. A subsidiary operation was executed to silence and capture the batteries at Cap Gris Nez. The operation was part of the Allied effort to capture the Channel ports, in the event, although the city had been declared a fortress, when pressed, its second-rate garrison needed little persuasion to surrender. This reluctance to fight to the end was repeated at Cap Gris Nez, the 7th and 8th Canadian Infantry Brigades started the main attack from the south west of Calais and cleared the outer defences on the citys southern and western sides. The 8th Brigade were then transferred to the side and the inner defensive lines were attacked from both sides. The Germans called for a truce which, after some misunderstanding, in the meantime, the 9th Brigade took the heavy batteries on Cap Gris Nez. Across northern France, the German army was in retreat after their military disaster at Falaise. There were no reserve defences to fall back on, as Hitler had forbidden their construction, most of them had been designated as Fortresses, to be fortified and held by their garrisons for as long as was possible. The garrison troops, however, were not first class, morale of the isolated troops was low, they were susceptible to Allied propaganda, many were Volksdeutsche, and Hiwis. A. Gunners showed any sign of good morale-and were also the only element of the whole garrison. On the other hand, after his capture Schroeder was assessed by his interrogators as a mediocre and accidental leader, the French coast goes northwards from Boulogne and turns sharply at Cap Gris Nez to a line roughly south to north-east. This alignment continues to beyond the Belgian border, there are no large natural harbours, but important docks have been formed in the low-lying land at Calais. In 1944 the Germans had 42 heavy guns in the vicinity of Calais and these were, from the south, Battery Lindemann, Battery Wissant, Battery Todt, Grosser Kurfurst and Gris Nez. The Germans had broken the drainage systems, causing much of the area to flood. To this they had added large barbed wire entanglements, minefields, kangaroo personnel carriers would be used to deliver infantry as close to their objectives as possible. The assaults were planned to approach Calais from the west and south-west, avoiding the worst inundations, the 8th Brigades western attack was against the positions at Escalles, near Cape Blanc Nez, and Noires Mottes. The 7th Brigade was to assault the garrisons of Belle Vue, Coquelles, the eastern side of the city was screened by The Cameron Highlanders of Ottawa to prevent a breakout. Meanwhile, the 9th Brigade would take over from the 7th Reconnaissance Regiment at Cape Gris Nez, Montgomery had been directed to bring Antwerp into operation and, in turn, he pressed Crerar
11.
Battle of Geel
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The Battle of Geel, also known as the Battle of the Geel Bridgehead, was a major battle between British and German troops in Belgium during the Second World War. It occurred between 8–23 September 1944, in and around the Flemish town of Geel, and was one of the largest and bloodiest battles to occur during the Liberation of Belgium. The first phase of the fighting took place at the Albert Canal, south of Geel, on the German side of the Canal was Kampfgruppe Dreyer of the 85th Infantry Division on its way to be reinforced with two Luftwaffe Regiments. On 8 September, the 50th Division attacked across the canal, the 69th Brigade crossed over and later that evening the 151st Brigade had established a bridgehead. The Germans counterattacked repeatedly but by morning on the 9th the two bridgeheads were connected which allowed armoured cars to cross over, by evening on the 9th, a Bailey bridge allowed the Sherman tanks of the Sherwood Rangers Yeomanry to also cross. On the 10th, the 6th Durham Light Infantry of the 151st brigade supported by the Sherwood Rangers then pushed into Geel. They took up positions around the marketplace, while the German defenders of the city retreated to north of the rail station. The next day a full attack inflicted heavy losses on the British forces in the town, the 151st were forced to withdraw to their initial positions at the Albert Canal. The Germans however pressed their counterattack too far and in return suffered heavy losses, on the 12th the badly battered 50th Division received orders to pull out and move to the recently captured Joes Bridge, to free Guards Armoured Division to spearhead Operation Market-Garden. On that same day, the 50th Division was replaced by the 15th Division, during the night of 13 September, the Germans having feared encirclement and attack from the rear pulled back behind the Maas-Scheldt Canal in the village of Ten Aard. Troops of the 15th Division then reoccupied the town with only light resistance, after eight days of heavy fighting the Scots secured a bridgehead that was repeatedly counter-attacked by the Germans. All assaults were repelled but the Scots were unable to advance any further, the bridgehead was no greater than 900 meters long and 900 meters wide. Each time the Scots tried to expand the bridgehead they were met by heavy German counterattacks, fighting took place until the final German withdrawal on 23 September and Ten Aard was finally liberated. Strategy had changed so that operations were being used in conjunction with Operation Market Garden, the Germans had to withdraw to counter the Allied threat. At the same time the Allies had to further efforts in the East to divert German troops from the offensive. The 53rd division had forced a crossing of the Jonction Canal near Lommel and this was the new starting point for British XII Corps to support the Garden offensive. The Ten Ard bridgehead became unimportant after the German withdrawal and the Scots troops withdrew from the bridgehead in order to be able to prepare for other fronts further to the east, the exact casualties during the battle are unknown. At least 130 civilians were killed, mostly due to allied, the total number of deaths was probably between 1000-1100, with the number of wounded significantly higher
12.
Battle of Nancy (1944)
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The battle resulted in U. S. forces fighting their way across the Moselle and liberating Nancy. When the Third Army began its attempt to capture Nancy, it had recently recovered from a severe fuel shortage which had caused it to halt on the Meuse River for five days. During this time, German defenders in the area had reinforced their positions, while the XX Corps in the north was tasked with the capture of Metz, Nancy, the other major city in the region, was assigned to the XII Corps. This left only the U. S. 4th Armored Division, panzerkorps - General der Panzertruppe Heinrich Freiherr von Lüttwitz 3. Panzergrenadierdivision - Generalmajor Hans Hecker 8, grenadierdivision - - Generalmajor Johannes Bruhn 1119. The 4th Armored Division would then sweep around from the northern Pont-à-Mousson to assault Nancy from the east, at Pont-à-Mousson, the American 317th Infantry dispensed with reconnaissance and preliminary artillery bombardments, hoping to use tactical surprise instead. American forces made two crossing attempts, the first in the daylight and the second at night, but both were repulsed and the assault was called off by General Eddy. Luftwaffe-Regiment around Marbache, the U. S. 318th Infantry had a fight through the woods as they tried to seize the high ground which commanded the vicinity. After a two-day battle, they managed to dislodge the German defenders and capture the hill, though the initial crossing attempts largely failed, by 7 September the situation had started to improve for the Americans. This new plan was scheduled to take place on 11 September, dieulouard, located about four miles south of Pont-à-Mousson, was chosen as the new crossing site for the northern thrust of the encircling maneuver. The new plan would have the 317th Infantry Regiment cross first and secure a foothold, then for the 318th Infantry to follow, a heavy bridge would then be laid and CCA would be able to strike and capture Château-Salins, an important rail centre in the region. Because the 319th Infantry was still engaged in combat at Toul, because of the formidable terrain held by the German forces, extra support was called in. On 10 September, the IX Bomber Command destroyed a bridge at Custines to prevent enemy reinforcements from Nancy, in order to feint the enemy, artillery and air strikes were primarily directed at Pont-à-Mousson. The infantry crossings took place on September 12 and met only weak resistance. So fast was the advance elements of CCA were able to cross on the very same day. The reason for this ease was the Americans had crossed in a region near where two separate German divisions linked up and were thinly posted, most of the reserves in the area had already been sent north to engage the U. S. XX Corps. The German assault to destroy the bridge began about 01,00 on 13 September, panzergrenadier-Regiment forced a retreat of the American infantry and pushed them almost back to the bridge itself. An American battalion commander assembled enough troops and medium tanks to stop the Germans at le Pont de Mons
13.
Battle of Arracourt
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The Battle of Arracourt was a major clash between U. S. and German armored forces near the town of Arracourt, Lorraine, France, between 18–29 September 1944, during World War II. With local superiority in troops and tanks, the Germans anticipated quick defeat of the defending Combat Command A of the U. S. 4th Armored Division, for the battle, German units deployed 262 tanks and assault guns. It initially comprised two corps headquarters, the 11th Panzer Division, and the 111th and 113th Panzer Brigades. At the time of the battle, the U. S. 4th Armored Divisions Combat Command A, under Colonel Bruce C. Clarke, consisted primarily of the 37th Tank Battalion, the 53rd Armored Infantry Battalion, two armored field artillery battalions, and a towed 155 mm howitzer field artillery battalion, the 191st. CCA formed part of the 4th Armored Division under General John S. Wood, in addition to a numerical advantage over CCA, the 5th Panzer Armys Panther tanks were superior to U. S. M4 Shermans in both armor protection and main gun range. Only in close air support did U. S. forces enjoy a significant advantage, on 18 September, with the weather deteriorating and heavy fog settling in, U. S. tactical air forces were unable to locate and destroy advancing German armored units. However, while shielding the German advance from air observation and attack, the first German attack, mounted by the 111th Panzer Brigade, fell on the 2nd Mechanized Cavalry Group and the 4th Armored Divisions Reserve Command at Lunéville on 18 September 1944. In sharp fighting, the understrength U. S. forces, augmented by reinforcements from both the U. S. 4th and 6th Armored Divisions, managed to back the attack. The Fifth Panzer Army, having failed to take Lunéville quickly, simply bypassed it, the battle that resulted was one of the largest armored engagements ever fought on the Western Front. At 0800 on 19 September, company-sized elements of the 113th Panzer Brigade penetrated CCA outposts on the east, poor tactical deployment of the German tanks soon exposed their weaker side armor to Shermans which flanked and knocked out 11 panzers using the fog as cover. As 5th Panzer Army was not equipped with integral scouting units, a combination of concealed defensive positions, command of local terrain elevations, and adroit fire-and-maneuver tactics allowed CCA to negate the superior armor and firepower of the German AFVs. The fog that had allowed German forces tactical surprise and protection from U. S. air attack negated the superior range of their tank guns. From 20 to 25 September, Fifth Panzer Army ordered the 111th Panzer Brigade, an Army observation pilot, Major Bazooka Charlie Carpenter took to the air with his bazooka-armed L-4 Cub, USAAF serial number 42-15188 nicknamed Rosie the Rocketer, to attack the enemy. At first, Carpenter was unable to spot the enemy due to low clouds and heavy fog, which finally lifted around noon. Returning to base to reload, Carpenter flew two more sorties that afternoon, firing no fewer than sixteen bazooka rockets at German Panther tanks and armored cars, several of which were hit. Carpenters actions that day were later credited and verified by ground troops with knocking out two German tanks and several armored cars, while killing or wounding a dozen or more enemy soldiers. Carpenters actions also forced the German tank formation to retreat to its position, in the process enabling a trapped 4th Armored water point support crew to escape capture
14.
Operation Market Garden
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Operation Market Garden was an unsuccessful Allied military operation, fought in the Netherlands and Germany in the Second World War. Field Marshal Montgomerys strategic goal was to encircle the heart of German industry, the northern end of the pincer would circumvent the northern end of the Siegfried Line giving easier access into Germany. The aim of Operation Market Garden was to establish the end of a pincer ready to project deeper into Germany. Allied forces would project north from Belgium,60 miles through the Netherlands, across the Rhine, the operation made massed use of airborne forces, whose tactical objectives were to secure the bridges and allow a rapid advance by armored ground units to consolidate north of Arnhem. The operation required the seizure of the bridges across the Maas, several bridges between Eindhoven and Nijmegen were captured at the beginning of the operation. Lieutenant-General Brian Horrocks XXX Corps ground force advance was delayed by the failure of the airborne units to secure bridges at Son. German forces demolished the bridge over the Wilhelmina Canal at Son before being secured by the 101st Airborne Division, the 82nd Airborne Divisions failure to capture the main road bridge over the river Waal at Nijmegen before 20 September also delayed the advance of XXX Corps. At the furthest point of the operation at Arnhem, the British 1st Airborne Division encountered initial strong resistance. The delays in capturing the bridges at Son and Nijmegen gave time for German forces, including the 9th and 10th SS panzer divisions who were present at time, to organize. In the ensuing battle, only a small force managed to capture the end of the Arnhem road bridge and after the ground forces failed to relieve them. The remainder of the 1st Airborne Division were trapped in a small pocket west of the bridge, the Allies had failed to cross the Rhine and the river remained a barrier to their advance into Germany until offensives at Remagen, Oppenheim, Rees and Wesel in March 1945. The failure of Market Garden to form a foothold over the Rhine ended Allied expectations of finishing the war by Christmas 1944. After major defeats in Normandy in the summer of 1944, remnants of German forces withdrew across the Low Countries and eastern France towards the German border by the end of August. To the south, the U. S. 12th Army Group under Lieutenant General Omar Bradley was nearing the German border and had ordered to orient on the Aachen gap with Lieutenant General Courtney Hodges U. S. First Army, in support of Montgomerys advance on the Ruhr, Third Army, under Lieutenant General George S. Patton, moved eastward towards the Saar. At the same time, the U. S. 6th Army Group under General Jacob L. Devers was advancing towards Germany after their landings in southern France. The Overlord plan had foreseen this, calling for the exploitation of ports in Brittany to move the supply points forward as the armies moved, Eisenhower persisted with his plans to capture these ports, but some argued that the capture of Le Havre and Antwerp made this unnecessary. Although over-the-beach supply operations outperformed expectations, September saw deteriorating weather and rising seas, deep-water ports were therefore required, Cherbourg was useful, but far from the front
15.
Battle of Fort Driant
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The Battle of Fort Driant was a constituent battle in the 1944 Battle of Metz, during the Lorraine Campaign and the greater Siegfried Line Campaign. Fort Driant was located five miles southwest of Metz, just west of the Moselle River, originally built in 1902 and named after Colonel Émile Driant, the fort was continuously reinforced throughout World War II by both the French and German armies. Fort Driant was made from reinforced concrete, it was also surrounded by a deep dry moat. It housed five main gun batteries of 150mm guns, infantry trenches, from its commanding position, it could direct heavy fire in the Moselle Valley. The fort could also bring down flanking fire that produced heavy casualties amongst the men of General Walton Walkers XX Corps, Metz was to be the linchpin in the Germans defensive strategy. An army had not directly taken the city since 1552 and it had been captured after a 54-day siege during the Franco-Prussian War and had been fortified by the Germans in World War I. However, the string of fortresses were left in ruins, third army arrived at Metz, they were quickly drawn into a stalemate with the German defenders for weeks over control of the city and its perimeter. Upon sustaining heavy losses attacking the fortifications, it was clear to the Americans that Fort Driant would have to be taken to establish control of the fortifications around the city. Patton declared the fort an easy target, and committed elements of the 5th Infantry Division to the attack, at 14,15 on September 27,1944 P-47 Thunderbolts from the XIX Tactical Air Command began bombing Fort Driant. Companies E and G of the 11th Infantry Regiment, and the attached Company C, small arms fire, machine guns and mortars immediately began firing upon the advancing troops. Most of the fort was below ground, causing the tank destroyers to be ineffective against the heavily armored pillboxes. The bulldozers and snakes proved to be of help as during the second attack the bulldozer experienced mechanical difficulties. Upon reaching the perimeter, the German defenders were ready, fierce hand-to-hand fighting with grenades and bayonets broke out between the two sides. E Company managed to capture the southernmost barracks or barracks R, the passage was heavily defended by machine guns and sniper fire, making exploitation of the tunnel an impossibility. The Germans lost roughly a quarter of the fort before the Americans withdrew having 21 officers and 485 men, a further attack on Fort Driant was deemed too costly as German fire proved too accurate. By October 9, Patton chose to bypass Driant, the men of the 5th Infantry Division were thought to be becoming battle fatigued, and other line correcting operations were taking place around Metz with much greater success. When Metz fell in December 1944, Fort Driant capitulated to the 5th Infantry Division at 3, 45pm on December 8, surrendering uncaptured. It was discovered among the prisoners there were several units of the 17th SS Panzer Grenadier Division, along with the remnants of the German 1217th Grenadier Regiment
16.
Battle of Metz
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The Battle of Metz was a battle fought during World War II at the city of Metz, France, from late September 1944 through mid-December between the U. S. Third Army commanded by Lieutenant General George Patton and the German Army commanded by General Otto von Knobelsdorff, strong German resistance resulted in heavy casualties for both sides. The city was captured by U. S. forces and hostilities ceased on November 22. Metz is located between the rivers Moselle and Seille, the fortifications of Metz consisted of several forts and observation posts with connecting entrenchments and tunnels. The city had fallen to the German forces when France was defeated in 1940, following the fall of France, the city was immediately annexed to the Third Reich. Most of the Nazi dignitaries assumed it was obvious that Metz, at that time, the Wehrmacht did not consider it an important location and the citys defenses were reduced with many guns and equipment removed. By the end of August 1944, German forces in Lorraine had managed to reestablish a defensive line, Third Army had come to a halt in face of the German defenses, resulting in a brief pause of operations in this area of the western front. According to an issued by Hitler in March 1944, fortress commanders were ordered to allow their forts to be surrounded if necessary and hold them. Metz was required to follow this order by early September, since the U. S, Third Army led by General George S. Patton had reached Verdun and was posing a threat to the Sarre region of Germany. The German command intended to more time for the strengthening of the West Wall through this strategy. The defense was undertaken by the German First Army, commanded by General Otto von Knobelsdorff, the number of German troops positioned in the vicinity of Metz was equivalent to four and a half divisions. On 18 September, U. S. reconnaissance units encountered Wehrmacht Panzergrenadiers again, the U. S. forces had not expected the German forces to be in the area, and had to bring together their units that were spread out. Several small scale attacks were made by the U. S. forces after this encounter, the first U. S. attack was launched by the 5th Infantry Division, in which they attempted to capture a bridgehead to the north of Metz. This attack was repelled by the German forces, as was another attack on the city that followed, in another attack, the US forces captured a small bridgehead across the Moselle to the south of Metz. By the end of September, German forces positioned to the north were relocated in the area of Metz. A number of troops were withdrawn from Metz. Following this new development, the XII Corps launched another attack but was countered by the German defenders, in the following two weeks, the U. S. forces limited themselves to small scale attacks and patrolling in the Metz area. During this time, the XX Corps underwent a training program, by this time, the U. S. command had decided to attack Metz from its rear, coming from the east
17.
Battle of Overloon
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The battle, which resulted in an Allied victory, ensued after the Allies launched Operation Aintree. The Allies went on to liberate the town of Venray, German forces attacked this salient from a bridgehead west of the bend in the river Meuse near the city of Venlo. The bridgehead was established by retreating German forces who were reinforced with troops arriving from nearby Germany by crossing the Meuse in Venlo, the western edge of this bridgehead ran through the Peel, a region with bogs and several canals blocking an Allied advance. The Allies decided to attack the bridgehead from the north, and this meant they had to capture Overloon and Venray, the battle of Overloon ensued as the Allies in Operation Aintree advanced from nearby positions south toward the village of Overloon. After a failed attack on Overloon by the U. S. 7th Armored Division, the British 3rd Infantry Division, the U. S. 7th Armored Division was moved south of Overloon to the Deurne – Weert area. Here they were attached to the British Second Army, and ordered to make demonstration attacks to the east in order to divert forces from the Overloon. Suffering heavy losses the British captured Overloon and moved towards Venray, the advance on Venray resulted in heavy losses, especially around the Loobeek creek, which was swollen due to heavy autumn rains and was flooded and mined by the Germans. Casualties were heavy here among the 1st Battalion, Royal Norfolk Regiment which was serving in 185th Infantry Brigade of the British 3rd Division, during the battle, the village of Overloon was destroyed. In and around Overloon, some 2,500 soldiers died, dozens of tanks, mainly American, were destroyed. Despite the fact that both Overloon and eventually Venray were taken by the Allies, the advance toward the bend of the Meuse near Venlo was postponed. The offensive was resumed, and by early December the German bridgehead west of the Meuse was destroyed. }The tanks and other armoured vehicles which were left on the battlefield have been preserved and in Overloon a museum. Today, two museums occupy the museum grounds, which have been renamed Liberty Park. The National War and Resistance Museum of the Netherlands focuses on the Dutch experience of war, two memorials have been erected on the battle site. On the banks of the Loobeek creek, where it is crossed by the road between Overloon and Venray, stands the Norfolk monument, dedicated to the 1st Battalion of the Royal Norfolk Regiment, the liberation of Venray is one of their battle honours. There is also another memorial in the grounds of Liberty Park. The text of the memorial, Dutch, STA EEN OGENBLIK STIL bezoeker en bedenk dat de grond waarop gij nu vertoeft eens een van de felst omstreden sectoren was van het slagveld Overloon, bitter is hier gevochten in man tegen man gevechten. Vele jonge levens ontkomen aan de slagvelden van Nettuno en Normandië vonden onder deze bomen hun einde, english translation, TAKE PAUSE FOR A MOMENT visitor, and consider that the ground you are now on was once one of the most fiercely contested sectors of the Overloon battlefield. Many young lives, having escaped from the battlefields of Nettuno and Normandy, met their ends under these trees
18.
Battle of Aachen
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The Battle of Aachen was a major combat action of World War II, fought by American and German forces in and around Aachen, Germany, between 2–21 October 1944. Although most of Aachens civilian population was evacuated before the battle began, much of the city was destroyed and both sides suffered heavy losses. It was one of the largest urban battles fought by U. S. forces in World War II, the battle ended with a German surrender, but their tenacious defense significantly disrupted Allied plans for the advance into Germany. By September 1944, the Western Allies had reached Germanys western border, on 17 September, British, American, and Polish forces launched Operation Market Garden, an ambitious attempt to bypass the Siegfried Line by crossing the Lower Rhine River in the Netherlands. The failure of this operation, and a supply problem brought about by the long distances involved in the rapid drive through France. In September, the Wehrmacht high commands reinforcement of the Siegfried Line brought total troop strength up to an estimated 230,000 soldiers, at the start of the month, the Germans had had about 100 tanks in the West, by the end, they had roughly 500. As men and equipment continued to flow into the Siegfried Line they were able to establish an average depth of 3.0 miles. Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force, under the command of General Dwight D. Eisenhower, set their sights on the occupation of the Ruhr, Germanys industrial heartland. General George S. Pattons Third Army was given the task of occupying the French region of Lorraine, hodges had initially hoped to bypass the city itself, believing it to be held only by a small garrison, which would presumably surrender once isolated. The ancient, picturesque city of Aachen had little value in itself. Its population of around 165,000 had not been subject to bombing by the Allies. As such, it was of immense psychological value, in several areas, German defenses were over 10 miles deep. It was, in the words of historian Stephen Ambrose, undoubtedly the most formidable man-made defense ever contrived, fighting around Aachen began as early as the second week of September, in a period known to the Germans as the First Battle of Aachen. At this time, the city was defended by the 116th Panzer Division, the proximity of Allied forces had caused the majority of the citys government officials to flee before the evacuation of its citizens was complete. He was replaced by General Gerhard Wilck, the United States VII Corps continued to probe German defenses, despite the resistance encountered on 12–13 September. Between 14–16 September the US 1st Infantry Division continued its advance in the face of strong defenses and repeated counterattacks, ultimately creating a half-moon arc around the city. This slow advance came to a halt in late September, due to the problem. The Wehrmacht took advantage of the brief respite on the front by pulling the 1st, 2nd and 12th SS Panzer Divisions, as well as the 9th and 116th Panzer Divisions, off the line
19.
Battle of the Scheldt
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Led by Guy Simonds, the battle took place in northern Belgium and southwestern Netherlands during World War II from October 2 to November 8,1944. The well-established Wehrmacht defenders staged an effective delaying action, during which the Germans flooded the Scheldt Estuary, both land and water were mined, and the Germans defended their line of retreat with artillery and snipers. But the advance halted with the British in possession of Antwerp, little was done about the blocked port of Antwerp during September because Operation Market Garden was to form a buffer between Germany and Antwerp, which it succeeded in doing. In the meantime, German forces in the Scheldt were able to deploy defensively, the first attacks occurred on September 13. In early October after operation Market Garden, Allied forces led by the Canadian First Army set out to bring the give the port of Antwerp access to the sea, Montgomery then decided that the importance of Antwerp was such that the actual capture of Dunkirk could be delayed. Under command at that time was Canadian II Corps, with the Polish 1st Armoured Division, 49th and 52nd Divisions attached, Montgomery promised the support of RAF Bomber Command in attacking the German fortifications and that of the USAAF 8th Air Force On the day concerned. The 51st Infantry Division was to give up its transport to enable the movement of forces into position for the battle, abandoning the capture of Dunkirk freed the 2nd Canadian Infantry Division. The plan for opening the Scheldt estuary involved four main operations conducted over daunting geography, the first task was to clear the area north of Antwerp and secure access to South Beveland. Second was to clear the Breskens pocket north of the Leopold Canal, third, dubbed Operation Vitality, was the capture of South Beveland. The final phase would be the capture of Walcheren Island, which had been fortified into a powerful German stronghold, as part of the Atlantic Wall, Walcheren Island was considered to be the strongest concentration of defences the Nazis had ever constructed. The Polish 1st Armoured Division headed for the Dutch-Belgian border further east, an attack was mounted in the vicinity of Moerkerke, crossing the canals and establishing a bridgehead before counter-attacks forced a withdrawal with heavy casualties. The 1st Polish Armoured Division enjoyed greater success to the east as it advanced northeast from Ghent, on October 2, the Canadian 2nd Division began its advance north from Antwerp. Stiff fighting at Woensdrecht ensued on October 6, the objective of the first phase, the Germans—reinforced by Battle Group Chill—saw the priority in holding there, controlling direct access to South Beveland and Walcheren Island. There were heavy casualties as the Canadians attacked over open, flooded land, driving rain, booby traps and land mines made advance very difficult. On October 13, what would come to be known as Black Friday, the Calgary Highlanders were to follow up with a more successful action, and their Carrier Platoon succeeded in taking the rail station at Korteven. Heavy fighting at Hoogerheide also ensued, but by October 16, Woensdrecht was secured, cutting the link to South Beveland. The Canadians had achieved their first objective, but suffered heavy casualties, at this point, recognizing the opportunity, Field-Marshal Sir Bernard Montgomery issued a directive that made the opening of the Scheldt estuary the top priority of 21st Army Group. To the east, the British Second Army attacked westward to clear the Netherlands south of the Maas River, meanwhile, Simonds concentrated forces at the neck of the South Beveland peninsula
20.
Operation Clipper
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During the Second World War, Operation Clipper was an Allied offensive by British XXX Corps to reduce the Geilenkirchen salient in mid-November 1944. Clipper was the preliminary to the wider Allied operation, named Operation Queen to gain control of the Roer valley, Geilenkirchen is situated on the Wurm river, some 20 km north of Aachen. The surrounding area is undulating, alternating between woodland, farmland and industrial villages, the area was crossed by a network of passable minor roads, some major roads and a railway line. The Wurm is the geographic feature. The salient was a German position on the Siegfried Line at the boundary between the British 2nd Army and the U. S. 9th Army and it was a restriction to the movement of Allied forces and a potential threat. Anglo-American cooperation was prompted by the availability of British artillery and specialised armour, a two-pronged attack was planned on the salient and the temporary attachment of the 84th Infantry Division to XXX Corps, avoided problems of divided command. The operation was planned to take four phases, Second, at midday, the British 43rd Division—commanded by Major-General Ivor Thomas—was to advance and capture the high ground north and west of the town. The final objectives were the villages of Hoven, Müllendorf, Würm, the German defenders consisted of the bulk of 176th Division, northwest of Geilenkirchen and the 183rd Volksgrenadier Division, in the town and southeast of it. General der Infantrie Günther Blumentritt—commander of the XII SS Corps—had placed the bulk of his artillery in the area, south-east of Geilenkirchen, deep minefields had been laid from Geilenkirchen to Jülich, via Immendorf and Puffendorf, about 10 km. The area was at the point where a new section of the Westwall, built while Aachen held out, Westwall used the compact, stone-built buildings in the villages, which had been fortified, and purpose-built concrete bunkers. At 06,00, before dawn, on 18 November, giant searchlights of the 357th Searchlight Battery, Royal Artillery provided hazy indirect light for the mine-clearing flail tanks supporting the infantry. These tanks moved toward the German mine field between Geilenkirchen and Immendorf, but, on the wet ground, mud lessened the flails′ effectiveness and so engineers followed with mine detectors. After a brief bombardment, the 334th Infantry Regiment advanced through the cleared strips at 07,00. When the attack resumed, supported by British Sherman tanks, there was steady progress, the British attack north and west of the town also achieved its objectives by nightfall. The Worcestershire Regiment advanced on Tripsrath, capturing its intermediate objectives of Rischden and intervening woods with little opposition, the preparatory bombardment had reduced the Germans′ will to resist and rain had exposed much of the minefields. The rain, however, also made it difficult to bring up-armoured support, anti-tank guns, an unsupported British advance on a copse—using universal carriers—was engaged by two self-propelled guns and forced back, with heavy casualties. Given the first day′s success, XXX Corps′ commander—Lieutenant General Brian Horrocks—directed that the last two phases—3 and 4—should be combined on the 19th, in order to facilitate this, the U. S. 84th continued its advance toward Süggerath, instead of consolidating overnight. A reconnaissance patrol toward Beeck, however, reported an impending German counter-attack on Prummern by two companies of the 9th Panzer Division′s 10th Panzergrenadier Regiment, with six tanks
21.
Operation Queen
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Operation Queen was an American operation during World War II at the Western Front at the German Siegfried Line. The operation was aimed against the Rur River, as a point for a subsequent thrust over the river to the Rhine into Germany. It was conducted by the First and Ninth U. S. Armies, the offensive commenced on 16 November 1944 with one of the heaviest Allied tactical bombings of the war. However, Allied advance was slow, against heavy German resistance. By mid-December the Allies finally reached the Rur and tried to capture its important dams, the ensuing Battle of the Bulge led to the immediate cessation of the Allied offensive efforts into Germany until February 1945. In June 1944, the Allies conducted the invasion in Northern France, after the Allied breakout from Normandy, the German Wehrmacht was involved in a string of disastrous battles in July and August, most notably the Falaise pocket. Following those events, the German defense in northern and western France disintegrated, the Allies therefore launched a high risk plan for a direct thrust through the Netherlands into Germany, called Operation Market Garden. This overly ambitious plan failed, as the Wehrmacht was able to reorganize itself, by mid-September, the Allied advance abruptly ended, as the Allies suffered from a logistics crisis, outrunning their supply lines. This gave the Germans further time to prepare for the upcoming Allied offensives, the Germans now could man the fortifications of the Westwall, although its old bunkers were more a symbolic than a real obstacle for the Allies. In the north in Belgium, the Allies were still involved in the Battle of the Scheldt, in the center, the Battle of Aachen was fought from 2–21 October at the German border. The heavy German resistance upset Allied plans for a fast resumption of the rapid advance, as preparation for Operation Queen, a preliminary offensive into the Hürtgen Forest had to be carried out, to secure the flanks against a possible German counterattack out of the forest. The goal was to clear a pathway to the important road junction at Düren, the 9th Infantry Division was already engaged in the forest since September, so only moderate German resistance was expected. On 2 November, three days before the start of Operation Queen, the offensive against the town of Schmidt was launched by the 28th Division against the German 275th Division. The First Army – already stationed near the Hürtgen Forest – had to carry out the effort through the Hürtgen Forest toward the Rur River. The Ninth Army had to advance north of the forest through the Rur plains, the British XXX Corps – together with units from the U. S. XIII Corps – had to reduce the Geilenkirchen salient in the north in a different operation named Operation Clipper. The long term target after the Rur was crossed was to reach the Rhine and establish bridgeheads at Krefeld, the entire operation was codenamed Operation Queen. At the same time the RAF Bomber Command was to hit the traffic centres of Jülich and Düren hard, initially, the starting date of the offensive was set for 5 November, later 10 November, but because of bad weather it was delayed until 16 November. The ground offensive was to immediately after the air raids, allowing the defenders no time to reestablish fortifications, supply routes
22.
Military history of Canada during World War II
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The military history of Canada during the Second World War begins with the German invasion of Poland on 1 September 1939. While the Canadian Armed Forces were eventually active in every theatre of war, most combat was centred in Italy, Northwestern Europe. Over the course of the war, more than 1.1 million Canadians served in the Canadian Army, Royal Canadian Navy, Royal Canadian Air Force, more than 44,000 lost their lives and 54,000 were wounded. The financial cost was $21.8 billion between 1939 and 1950, by the end of the war Canada had the worlds fourth largest air force, and fifth largest navy. The Canadian Merchant Navy completed over 25,000 voyages across the Atlantic,130,000 Allied pilots were trained in Canada in the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan. On D-Day,6 June 1944 the 3rd Canadian Infantry Division landed on Juno beach in Normandy, the Second World War had significant cultural, political and economic effects on Canada, including the conscription crisis in 1944 which affected unity between francophones and anglophones. The war effort strengthened the Canadian economy and furthered Canadas global position, however, the 1931 Statute of Westminster transformed Canada into a fully sovereign state, theoretically co-equal with Britain and the other Dominions of the British Commonwealth. As late as 1936 King had told Parliament Our country is being drawn into situations to a degree that I myself think is alarming. Both the government and the public remained reluctant to participate in a European war, in part because of the memories of the Conscription Crisis of 1917 that divided French, both King and opposition leader Robert James Manion stated their opposition to conscripting troops for overseas service in March 1939. Nonetheless, King had not changed his view of 1923 that Canada would participate in a war by the Empire whether or not the United States did and it had been clear that Canada would elect to participate in the war before the invasion of Poland on 1 September 1939. Unlike 1914 when war came as a surprise, the government had prepared various measures for price controls, rationing, and censorship, and the War Measures Act of 1914 was re-invoked. After two days of debate, the House of Commons approved an Address in Reply to the Speech from the Throne on 9 September 1939 giving authority to declare war to Kings government. A small group of Quebec legislators attempted to amend the bill, Woodsworth was the only Member of Parliament to vote against the bill and it thus passed by near-acclamation. The Senate also passed the bill that day, the Cabinet drafted a proclamation of war that night, which Governor-General Lord Tweedsmuir signed on 10 September. King George VI approved Canadas declaration of war with Germany on Sept.10, Canada later also declared war on Italy, Japan, and other Axis powers, enshrining the principle that the Statute of Westminster conferred these sovereign powers to Canada. Though Canada was the oldest Dominion in the British Commonwealth, it was, for the most part, Canada, with a population somewhere between 11 and 12 million, eventually raised very substantial armed forces. Around 10% of the population of Canada joined the army. After the long struggle of the Great Depression of the 1930s, Canada informally followed the British Ten Year Rule that reduced defence spending even after Britain abandoned it in 1932
23.
Battle of France
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The Battle of France, also known as the Fall of France, was the German invasion of France and the Low Countries in 1940 during the Second World War. Italy entered the war on 10 June 1940 and attempted an invasion of France, the German plan for the invasion of France consisted of two main operations. After the withdrawal of the BEF, the German forces began Fall Rot on 5 June, the sixty remaining French divisions made a determined resistance but were unable to overcome the German air superiority and armoured mobility. German tanks outflanked the Maginot Line and pushed deep into France, German forces occupied Paris unopposed on 14 June after a chaotic period of flight of the French government that led to a collapse of the French army. German commanders met with French officials on 18 June with the goal of forcing the new French government to accept an armistice that amounted to surrender and this led to the end of the French Third Republic. France was not liberated until the summer of 1944, in 1939, Britain and France offered military support to Poland in the likely case of a German invasion. In the dawn of 1 September 1939, the German Invasion of Poland began, France and the United Kingdom declared war on 3 September, after an ultimatum for German forces to immediately withdraw their forces from Poland was met without reply. Following this, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and Canada, on 7 September, in accordance with their alliance with Poland, France began the Saar Offensive with an advance from the Maginot Line 5 km into the Saar. France had mobilised 98 divisions and 2,500 tanks against a German force consisting of 43 divisions, the French advanced until they met the then thin and undermanned Siegfried Line. On 17 September, the French supreme commander, Maurice Gamelin gave the order to withdraw French troops to their starting positions, following the Saar Offensive, a period of inaction called the Phoney War set in between the belligerents. Adolf Hitler had hoped that France and Britain would acquiesce in the conquest of Poland, on 6 October, he made a peace offer to both Western powers. On 9 October, Hitler issued a new Führer-Directive Number 6, the plan was based on the seemingly more realistic assumption that German military strength would have to be built up for several years. For the moment only limited objectives could be envisaged and were aimed at improving Germanys ability to survive a long war in the west. Hitler ordered a conquest of the Low Countries to be executed at the shortest possible notice to forestall the French and it would also provide the basis for a long-term air and sea campaign against Britain. On 10 October 1939, Britain refused Hitlers offer of peace and on 12 October, colonel-General Franz Halder, presented the first plan for Fall Gelb on 19 October. This was the codename of plans for a campaign in the Low Countries. Halders plan has been compared to the Schlieffen Plan, the given to the German strategy of 1914 in the First World War. It was similar in both plans entailed an advance through the middle of Belgium
24.
Battle of Britain
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The Battle of Britain was a military campaign of the Second World War, when the Royal Air Force defended the United Kingdom against the German Air Force attacks from the end of June 1940. It is described as the first major campaign fought entirely by air forces, the primary objective of the Nazi German forces was to compel Britain to agree to a negotiated peace settlement. In July 1940, the air and sea blockade began with the Luftwaffe mainly targeting coastal shipping convoys, ports and shipping centres, such as Portsmouth. On 16 July Hitler ordered the preparation of Operation Sea Lion as an amphibious and airborne assault on Britain. Nazi Germany was unable to sustain daylight raids, but their continued night bombing operations on Britain became known as the Blitz. Its first Chief of the Air Staff Hugh Trenchard was among the military strategists in the 1920s like Giulio Douhet who saw air warfare as a new way to overcome the stalemate of trench warfare, interception was near impossible with fighter planes no faster than bombers. Their view was that the bomber will always get through, Germany was forbidden military air forces by the 1919 Treaty of Versailles, but developed aircrew training in civilian and sport flying. In 1926 the secret Lipetsk fighter-pilot school began operating, a winter 1933–34 war game indicated a need for fighters and anti-aircraft protection as well as bombers. On 1 March 1935 the Luftwaffe was formally announced, with Walther Wever as Chief of Staff, the list excluded bombing civilians to destroy homes or undermine morale, as that was considered a waste of strategic effort, but the doctrine allowed revenge attacks if German civilians were bombed. A revised edition was issued in 1940, and the central principle of Luftwaffe doctrine was that destruction of enemy armed forces was of primary importance. In the Spanish Civil War, the Luftwaffe in the Condor Legion tried out air fighting tactics, wolfram von Richthofen become an exponent of air power providing ground support to other services. The difficulty of hitting targets prompted Ernst Udet to require that all new bombers had to be dive bombers. Priority was given to producing large numbers of aeroplanes. The speed with which German forces defeated most of the armies in Norway in early 1940 created a significant political crisis in Britain. In early May 1940, the Norway Debate questioned the fitness for office of the British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain, on 10 May, the same day Winston Churchill became British Prime Minister, the Germans initiated the Battle of France with an aggressive invasion of French territory. The Germans were so convinced of an imminent armistice that they began constructing street decorations for the parades of victorious troops. Instead, Churchill used his skilful rhetoric to harden public opinion against capitulation, the Battle of Britain has the unusual distinction that it gained its name before being fought. In secret conference on 23 May 1939 Hitler set out his rather contradictory strategy that an attack on Poland was essential, if this is impossible, then it will be better to attack in the West and to settle Poland at the same time with a surprise attack
25.
Operation Gauntlet
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The objective was to destroy the rich coal mines there together with associated equipment and stores, which it was correctly assumed the Germans intended to make use of. These mines on Norwegian territory were owned and operated by Norway and by the Soviet Union, German forces had completed their occupation of Norway in June 1940 and in June 1941, the Soviet Union had been invaded in Operation Barbarossa. The British Prime Minister Winston Churchill immediately declared common cause with the USSR, the Soviets requested a British naval presence off northern Russia and Rear Admiral Philip Vian visited Murmansk to assess the local situation. Due to logistical and other circumstances the British presence was limited to submarines, political pressure continued for an active British presence and Force K was formed at Scapa Flow to operate in the Arctic under the command of Philip Vian. At the end of July 1941, Vians Force visited Spitsbergen to ascertain the situation not knowing whether or not a German military presence was on the islands, there was not, and both the Norwegian and Soviet settlers were cooperative. All this had been done without alerting the Germans, who remained in ignorance of Allied activity. Lt. Tamber maintained normal radio contacts with the mainland and encouraged the despatch of colliers to collect coal, eventually three ships were held at Longyearbyen. En route to Britain, the Force visited Bear Island, destroyed the station there. This action finally alerted the Germans to Allied activity and, thereafter, Vian returned to London to discuss the possibilities with the Chiefs of Staff. His advice was that a military occupation would be possible but the location was unsuitable as a naval base, Winston Churchill applied pressure for a plan to be devised quickly. Originally a ground force of two battalions had been allocated to the landings, but this was reduced to one on confirmation that there were no Germans in the area. The troops mainly comprised elements of the 2nd Canadian Infantry Brigade, under Brigadier A. E. Potts, with 3 Field Company, RCE attached, a party of Norwegian servicemen based in the United Kingdom. There was demolition and logistic support from British Army units including a detachment from the Kent Fortress Royal Engineers and this was a total force of 645 All Ranks, including 527 Canadians. The force sailed on August 19, the troops landed on the 25 August and, as hoped, met no opposition throughout and were enthusiastically greeted by the islanders. These French had escaped from German prison camps and were taken on board for passage to the United Kingdom. Meanwhile, the rest of Force K and the parties had moved on to Longyearbyen. On 3 September the ships returned from Arkhangelsk and all forces ashore embarked together with some 800 locals and 15 sled dogs, two radio stations were destroyed which, up to this point, had continued to broadcast normally and even falsely reported fog to deter any German observation planes. The demolition teams completed all their tasks destroying the mines, equipment not taken away,1,000 tons of steam coal was left in case needed by Allied ships who might stop there in the future
26.
Dieppe Raid
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The raid took place on the northern coast of France on 19 August 1942. The assault began at 5,00 a. m. and it involved 5,000 Canadians,1,000 British troops, and 50 United States Army Rangers. Objectives included seizing and holding a major port for a short period, upon retreat, the Allies also wanted to destroy coastal defences, port structures and all strategic buildings. The raid had the objectives of boosting morale and demonstrating the firm commitment of the United Kingdom to open a western front in Europe. Virtually none of these objectives were met, Allied fire support was grossly inadequate and the raiding force was largely trapped on the beach by obstacles and German fire. Less than 10 hours after the first landings, the last Allied troops had all either killed, evacuated. Instead of a demonstration of resolve, the bloody fiasco showed the world that the Allies could not hope to invade France for a long time, some intelligence successes were achieved, including electronic intelligence. Of the 6,086 men who made it ashore,3,367 were either killed, wounded or captured, the Royal Air Force failed to lure the Luftwaffe into open battle, and lost 106 aircraft, compared to 48 lost by the Luftwaffe. The Royal Navy lost 33 landing craft and one destroyer, the events at Dieppe influenced preparations for the North African and Normandy landings. This was accompanied by development of techniques and equipment for amphibious warfare, in late 1941 a scheme was put forward for the landing of 12 divisions around Le Havre based on a withdrawal of German troops to counter Soviet success in the east. From this came a proposed test of the scheme in the form of Operation Rutter, when these missions involved two or three fighters, they were known as rhubarbs, and rodeos if they involved more than three aircraft. In the second half of 1941, the offensive over France was greatly stepped up, leading to the losses of 411 British or Canadian aircraft in the rhubarb. In response, in the spring of 1942 the Luftwaffe deployed the new Focke-Wulf Fw 190 fighter to its airfields in France. The Fw 190 fighters were greatly superior to the Supermarine Spitfires and Hawker Hurricanes used by the British and Canadian pilots and it was largely because of pressure from the RAF to fight the greatest air battle over the French coast that Operation Rutter/Jubilee went ahead. Dieppe, a town in the Seine-Inférieure department of France, is built along a long cliff that overlooks the English Channel. The River Scie is on the end of the town. In 1942, the Germans had demolished some seafront buildings to aid in defence and had set up two large artillery batteries at Berneval-le-Grand and Varengeville-sur-Mer. One important consideration for the planners was that Dieppe was within range of the Royal Air Forces fighter aircraft, there was also intense pressure from the Soviet government to open up a second front in Western Europe
27.
Normandy landings
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The Normandy landings were the landing operations on Tuesday,6 June 1944 of the Allied invasion of Normandy in Operation Overlord during World War II. The largest seaborne invasion in history, the operation began the liberation of German-occupied northwestern Europe from Nazi control, planning for the operation began in 1943. Adolf Hitler placed German Field Marshal Erwin Rommel in command of German forces, the amphibious landings were preceded by extensive aerial and naval bombardment and an airborne assault—the landing of 24,000 American, British, and Canadian airborne troops shortly after midnight. Allied infantry and armoured divisions began landing on the coast of France at 06,30, the target 50-mile stretch of the Normandy coast was divided into five sectors, Utah, Omaha, Gold, Juno, and Sword. Strong winds blew the landing craft east of their positions, particularly at Utah. Casualties were heaviest at Omaha, with its high cliffs, at Gold, Juno, and Sword, several fortified towns were cleared in house-to-house fighting, and two major gun emplacements at Gold were disabled, using specialised tanks. The Allies failed to any of their goals on the first day. Carentan, St. Lô, and Bayeux remained in German hands, and Caen, German casualties on D-Day have been estimated at 4,000 to 9,000 men. Allied casualties were at least 10,000, with 4,414 confirmed dead, museums, memorials, and war cemeteries in the area now host many visitors each year. Between 27 May and 4 June 1940, over 338,000 troops of the British Expeditionary Force, after the German Army invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941, the Soviet leader Joseph Stalin began pressing his allies for the creation of a second front in western Europe. In late May 1942 the Soviet Union and the United States made a joint announcement that a. full understanding was reached with regard to the urgent tasks of creating a front in Europe in 1942. Instead of a return to France, the Western Allies staged offensives in the Mediterranean Theatre of Operations. By mid-1943 the campaign in North Africa had been won, the Allies then launched the invasion of Sicily in July 1943, and subsequently invaded Italy in September the same year. By then, Soviet forces were on the offensive and had won a victory at the Battle of Stalingrad. The decision to undertake a cross-channel invasion within the year was taken at the Trident Conference in Washington in May 1943. Initial planning was constrained by the number of landing craft, most of which were already committed in the Mediterranean. At the Tehran Conference in November 1943, Roosevelt and Churchill promised Stalin that they would open the second front in May 1944. Four sites were considered for the landings, Brittany, the Cotentin Peninsula, Normandy, as Brittany and Cotentin are peninsulas, it would have been possible for the Germans to cut off the Allied advance at a relatively narrow isthmus, so these sites were rejected
28.
Juno Beach
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Juno or Juno Beach was one of five beaches of the Allied invasion of German-occupied France in the Normandy landings on 6 June 1944 during the Second World War. The beach spanned from Courseulles, a village just east of the British beach Gold, to Saint-Aubin-sur-Mer, the beach was defended by two battalions of the German 716th Infantry Division, with elements of the 21st Panzer Division held in reserve near Caen. The invasion plan called for two brigades of the 3rd Canadian Division to land on two beach sectors—Mike and Nan—focusing on Courseulles, Bernières and Saint-Aubin and it was hoped that the preliminary naval and air bombardments would soften up the beach defences and destroy coastal strong points. Close support on the beaches was to be provided by amphibious tanks of the 2nd Canadian Armoured Brigade, the 3rd Canadian Divisions D-Day objectives were to capture Carpiquet Airfield and reach the Caen–Bayeux railway line by nightfall. Several assault companies—notably those of the Royal Winnipeg Rifles and The Queens Own Rifles of Canada—took heavy casualties in the minutes of the first wave. Strength of numbers, as well as coordinated fire support from artillery and armoured squadrons, the reserves of the 7th and 8th brigades began deploying at 08,30, while the 9th Brigade began its deployment at 11,40. The subsequent push inland towards Carpiquet and the Caen–Bayeux railway line achieved mixed results, the sheer numbers of men and vehicles on the beaches created lengthy delays between the landing of the 9th Brigade and the beginning of substantive attacks to the south. The 7th Brigade encountered heavy initial opposition before pushing south and making contact with the British 50th Division at Creully, the 8th Brigade encountered heavy resistance from a battalion of the 716th at Tailleville, while the 9th Brigade deployed towards Carpiquet early in the evening. Resistance in Saint-Aubin prevented the Royal Marines from establishing contact with the British 3rd Division on Sword, in 1942, the Western Allies agreed to open a second front in Western Europe to take pressure off the beleaguered Red Army in the Soviet Union. In August 1942 Anglo-Canadian forces attempted an abortive landing—Operation Jubilee—at the French port of Dieppe, the attack was poorly planned and ended in disaster,4,963 soldiers were killed, wounded or captured. Following the Anglo-American victory against Field Marshal Erwin Rommel in North Africa in May 1943, British, American and Canadian troops invaded Sicily in July 1943, by December the Allies progress had slowed facing tenacious German resistance and the difficult geography of the Italian Peninsula. After gaining valuable experience in amphibious assaults and inland fighting, Allied planners returned to the plans to invade Northern France, under the direction of General Dwight D. Eisenhower and Frederick Morgan, plans for the invasion of France coalesced as Operation Overlord. The attack was scheduled for Monday,5 June 1944. Eight further sectors were added when the invasion was extended to include Utah on the Cotentin Peninsula. Sectors were further subdivided into beaches identified by the colours Green, Red, after delays due to both logistical difficulties and poor weather, the D-Day of Overlord, the largest amphibious operation ever, was postponed 24 hours to 6 June 1944. Eisenhower and Montgomery, commander of 21st Army Group, aimed to capture Caen within the first day, and liberate Paris within 90 days. Operation Neptune, the phase of Overlord, called for a five-division front spread across 50 miles of coastline. Eisenhower and General Bernard Montgomery hoped to have eight infantry divisions, the landing zone was divided into five landing areas, with the Americans attacking Utah and Omaha, and the British attacking Gold and Sword
29.
Battle of Le Mesnil-Patry
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The Battle of Le Mesnil-Patry was the last attack by an armoured battle group conducted by Canadian troops in Normandy in June 1944. The battle was a German defensive success but the greater German objective of defeating the invasion by a counter-offensive also failed, the Allies began to accumulate supplies to conduct attrition attacks, rather than persist with mobile operations by large numbers of tanks supported by infantry. Canadian offensive operations in the area of the 3rd Canadian Infantry Division ceased, apart from raiding and reconnaissance patrols, on 6 June 1944, Allied forces invaded France in Operation Neptune, the landings of Operation Overlord. A force of several thousand ships transported assault forces to the beaches in Normandy, the D-Day landings succeeded but the Allies were unable to capture Caen as planned. 101st Airborne Division, 82nd Airborne Division and the British 6th Airborne Division with an attached Canadian airborne battalion, on 9 June, The Queens Own Rifles of Canada had come under the 7th Brigade and moved to occupy Bray. On 10 June, plans were laid for an attack to fill a gap between the 7th and 9th Brigades, in the valley of the Mue river between Cairon and Rots. The 69th Infantry Brigade of the 50th Division, attacked further west near Bronay,1 mi north-east of Le Mesnil-Patry, an attack by the 7th Armoured Division through Tilly-sur-Seulles on Villers-Bocage and Évrecy, required that all German units further east be engaged to prevent them moving westwards. The 2nd Canadian Armoured Brigade issued orders in the morning of 10 June to the 10th Armoured Regiment, at 7,30 a. m. on 11 June, the attack toward Cheux was ordered to begin as soon as possible that day. The 6th CAR tried to get ready, In the morning we were told we were moving at 11,00 a. m. Sunday 11 June, I knew one tank would he left behind, but was told later that only eighteen took part in the shoot. Some of the 1st Hussar troops thought it would be a quiet HE shoot with the artillery, the operation was to begin at the front positions of 7th Canadian Brigade, where a company of the Regina Rifles was astride the railway and in Norrey. The commanders of the first phase asked for time to prepare but were refused, because of the importance of the attacks by the 7th Armoured. A Canadian success could force the Germans out of Cristot and ease the advance of the 50th Division, much of SS-Panzergrenadier Regiment 26, commanded by Obersturmbannführer Wilhelm Mohnke would be destroyed. An opportunity would be created to advance to the Odon or turn east toward Carpiquet, when the 1st Hussars were established at Le Mesnil-Patry, the 10th and 27th CAR could attack southwards to the high ground and make Caen untenable. The 6th CAR had recently received twenty replacement tanks and crews, the 6th CAR advanced south across the highway and railway tracks, with B Squadron forward, carrying D Company of the Queens Own Rifles the backs of the tanks. South of the railway was a knocked out Panther, A couple of nervous troops immediately deployed upon sighting it, the road was narrow with high abutments. Our infantry had sown mines on both sides of the road Bretteville–Norrey, and they had not been lifted, there was no time to wait for them to accomplish this. We changed our start line as soon as this intelligence was received and B Squadron went on its way followed by C and A squadrons and Regimental Headquarters close to the rear. The Canadian column reached Norrey-en-Bessin at 2,00 p. m. to find that the Canadian troops there had not been informed of the attack, the flat grain fields towards Le Mesnil-Patry had not been occupied and there had been no sign of a German withdrawal
30.
Operation Windsor
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Operation Windsor, was a Canadian attack, which was part of the Battle of Normandy during the Second World War. The attack was undertaken by the 3rd Canadian Infantry Division to take Carpiquet, the attack was originally intended to take place during the later stages of Operation Epsom, to protect the eastern flank of the main assault but was postponed for a week. On 4 July, the 8th Canadian Infantry Brigade and a battalion of the 3rd Canadian Infantry Division attacked Carpiquet. The village was captured by mid-afternoon but German resistance in the south defeated two attacks on the airfield, despite significant Allied tank and air support. Caen was an Operation Overlord goal for I Corps of the Anglo-Canadian Second Army, German resistance prevented the town from being captured on D-Day, a result considered possible by Lieutenant-General Miles Dempsey the Second Army commander. VIII Corps advanced 6 miles through extensive field fortifications but the Germans were able to contain the offensive, after the Allied advance to the west of Caen, the I SS Panzer Corps held positions to the north and west of the city. Field defences on the River Orne and the vicinity of Carpiquet,3.5 mi north-west of the Caen town centre, the village was made an objective of the 3rd Canadian Infantry Division, under the command of Major-General R. F. L. Keller. Carpiquet airfield was on a 1.2 mi expanse of level ground, the airfield had been fortified with minefields, field gun and machine gun emplacements, manned by I Battalion, SS-Panzergrenadier Regiment 26, an anti-aircraft battery and fifteen tanks. Tank and machine-gun support was to be provided by Canadian 10th Armoured Regiment, The Sherbrooke Fusiliers, two squadrons of Hawker Typhoon fighter-bombers and three squadrons of specialized tanks from the British 79th Armoured Division were added later. On the evening of 3 July, the battleship HMS Rodney bombarded the buildings around Carpiquet from the Bay of the Seine at 26,200 yards range, to the south, the RWR was to advance and seize the hangars of Carpiquet airfield. At the same time as the Canadian attack, the 43rd Division was to further south down the north side of the Odon to capture Verson. Once the regiments had captured Carpiquet, the QWR would push through, the capture of the airfield would enable further Anglo-Canadian attacks against Caen. As dawn broke on 4 July the artillery opened fire on German positions in and around Carpiquet. At 05,00 two Canadian infantry battalions advanced on Carpiquet, while the Sherbrooke Fusilier squadron staged the diversion to the north, in the centre, the Chaudières avoided much of the fire directed at the North Shores as they advanced on Carpiquet. By 06,32, both battalions had reached the outskirts of the village and met tanks of the 12th SS Panzer Division, in the village, a house-to-house fight began and tanks of the 10th Canadian Armoured Regiment assisted the infantry in overrunning German positions. To the south, the RWR advanced slowly towards the airfield, with German mortar fire inflicting many casualties on the infantry, several Sherman tanks were knocked out and by mid-day the RWR were forced to withdraw halfway to their original positions. Unaware that the RWR had failed to control of the airfield. The battalion moved forward into Carpiquet village, which was occupied by the Chaudières and The North Shore, Infantry attacks, flame-throwers, petard-tanks and the immolation of one strong point forced twelve surviving defenders to surrender, the remaining garrison surrendered after determined resistance
31.
Operation Charnwood
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Operation Charnwood was an Anglo-Canadian offensive that took place from 8 to 9 July 1944, during the Battle for Caen, part of the larger Operation Overlord, in the Second World War. The operation was intended to at least partially capture the German-occupied city of Caen, the British and Canadians advanced on a broad front and by the evening of the second day had taken Caen up to the Orne and Odon rivers. Supported by three armoured brigades, the British I Corps made gradual progress against the 12th SS Panzer Division Hitlerjugend and the 16th Luftwaffe Field Division. By the end of the day the 3rd Canadian Division and the British 3rd Infantry Division and 59th Infantry Division had cleared the villages in their path and reached the outskirts of the city. Moving into Caen at dawn the following morning, the Allies encountered resistance from remnants of German units who were beginning a withdrawal across the Orne. Carpiquet airfield fell to the Canadians during the morning and by 18,00. The remaining bridges were defended or impassable and with German reserves positioned to oppose their crossing, with the capture of northern Caen and the many casualties inflicted on the German defenders, Operation Charnwood was a mutually costly tactical success for the Allies. Operationally, the Germans retired from north of the Orne River, the Germans established another defensive line along two ridges to the south of the city. The Allies maintained the initiative and began Operation Jupiter the next day and Operation Goodwood and Operation Atlantic a week later, the Norman city of Caen was one of the D-Day objectives for the British 3rd Infantry Division which landed on Sword Beach on 6 June 1944. The terrain between Caen and Vimont was especially attractive to Allied planners, being open, dry and conducive to swift offensive operations, since the Allies greatly outnumbered the Germans in tanks and mobile units, creating the conditions for a fluid, fast moving battle was to their advantage. The 3rd Infantry Division came ashore as planned but was hampered by congestion in its beachhead, diversions en route, the division was unable to assault Caen in force and its lead elements were brought to a halt short of the outskirts. Later attacks failed as the German defenders were reinforced by the 12th SS Panzer Division Hitlerjugend, on 7 June the British began Operation Perch, a pincer attack by I Corps and XXX Corps, to encircle Caen from the east and west flanks. The I Corps attack south of the Orne River was halted by the 21st Panzer Division, in the Battle of Villers-Bocage the 7th Armoured Division vanguard was ordered to retire and the Panzer-Lehr Division held its positions until XXX Corps captured Tilly-sur-Seulles on 19 June. The next British offensive, codenamed Operation Epsom, was launched by VIII Corps on 26 June, after Operation Martlet a preliminary attack on 25 June, VIII Corps advanced to the west of Caen on a 4-mile front from Rauray to Carpiquet. Once across the Odon and Orne rivers, VIII Corps was to make for high ground near Bretteville-sur-Laize, the objective was to seize the German-occupied Château la Londe and Château le Landel. The initial evening assault, led by the 1st Battalion, South Lancashire Regiment was repulsed but the morning further attacks gained the objectives. Contest, Authie and Cussy but this operation was cancelled by Crocker. The area of the Châteaux was later called the bloodiest square mile in Normandy. and 268 men, on 4 July, the 3rd Canadian Infantry Division conducted Operation Windsor, to seize Carpiquet and the adjacent airfield from the 12th SS-Panzer Division
32.
Operation Atlantic
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Operation Atlantic was a Canadian offensive during the Battle of Normandy in the Second World War. The offensive, launched in conjunction with the British-led Operation Goodwood, was part of an effort to seize the French city of Caen. First Army, under Lieutenant General Omar N. Bradley, as it moved on Cherbourg, the terrain between Caen and Vimont was open, dry and conducive to swift offensive operations. Since the Allied forces greatly outnumbered the Germans in tanks and mobile units, on D-Day the 3rd Division was unable to assault Caen in force and was brought to a halt north of the city. Follow-up attacks failed as German resistance solidified, Operation Perch, a pincer attack by I and XXX Corps, began on 7 June, with the intention of encircling Caen from the east and west. The resulting day-long battle saw the vanguard of the British 7th Armoured Division withdraw from the town, further offensive operations were postponed on 19 June, when a severe storm wracked the English Channel for three days, delaying the Allied build-up. The attack was preceded by Operation Martlet, which secured VIII Corps line of advance by capturing the ground on their right. Several days later Second Army launched a new offensive, codenamed Operation Charnwood, Charnwood incorporated a postponed attack on Carpiquet, originally planned for Epsom as Operation Ottawa but now codenamed Operation Windsor. In a frontal assault on 8–9 July the northern half of the city was captured, German forces still held part of the city on the southern side of the Orne river, including the Colombelles steel works, a vantage point for artillery observers. Detailed planning for Operation Goodwood began on Friday 14 July, on 15 July Montgomery issued a written order to Dempsey scaling back the operation. These new orders changed the operation from a deep break-out to a limited attack and it was stressed that II Canadian Corps objectives were now vital, and only following their completion would VIII Corps be free to crack about as the situation demands. Following the capture of areas, the Corps was to be prepared to capture Verrières Ridge. The Atlantic–Goodwood operation was slated to commence on 18 July, two days before the start of Operation Cobra. Preparations for Atlantic were delegated to General Simonds, in his first action as the commander of II Canadian Corps. He planned the operation as an assault, relying on the 2nd and 3rd Canadian Infantry Divisions to capture Vaucelles, Colombelles. On the morning of 18 July, Gen. Rod Kellers 3rd Division would cross the Orne near Colombelles, the 3rd Division would then move to capture Cormelles. The 2nd Division, under the command of Gen. Charles Foulkes, would attack from Caen to the south-east and they would then use Cormelles as a jumping-off point for an attack on the high ground near Verrières Ridge three miles to the south. By mid-afternoon, two companies of the Black Watch had crossed the Orne River, with A Company taking fewer than twenty casualties, additional Battalions from 5th Brigade managed to push southward to Saint-André-sur-Orne
33.
Operation Spring
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Operation Spring was an offensive operation conducted by II Canadian Corps during the Normandy campaign. Specifically, Operation Spring was intended to capture Verrières Ridge and the towns on the slope of the ridge. Caen was captured on July 19,1944 during Operation Goodwood, about 8 kilometers south of Caen, Verrières Ridge blocked a direct advance by Allied forces to Falaise. Initial efforts to take the ridge during Goodwood were thwarted by the I SS Panzer Corps, on July 20,1944, the II Canadian Corps under General Guy Simonds, attempted a similar offensive, codenamed Operation Atlantic. Although initially successful, strong counter-attacks by Dietrichs Panzer Divisions caused the offensive to stall, the second phase required the Calgary Highlanders to move from St. Martin to capture May-Sur-Orne and Bourguebus Ridge, thus securing the flanks of Verrières Ridge. In the third phase, the Black Watch would move from Hill 61 to St. Martin, assemble, each phase of the plan required precise timing. If any phase of the plan was off, it could result in total disaster, the Germans were expecting further attacks on Verrières Ridge and consequently reinforced Verrières Ridge in the days preceding the attack. By the end of July 24,480 tanks,500 field guns, ultra intercepted coding signalling this, and delivered it to Simonds HQ, although it is unknown if he actually received the notice. On July 25, at 0330, The North Nova Scotia Highlanders attacked Tilly-la-Campagne, Simonds had developed a complex lighting system using spotlights reflected off of clouds, thus allowing the North Novas to see the enemy positions. This also meant that the North Novas were clear targets for German defenders and were forced to fight ferociously to gain ground, by 0430, a flare was fired by the lead companies, indicating that the objective had been taken. Within the next hour, Lieutenant-Colonel Charles Petch began to move reinforcements into the village to assist with mopping up the last German defenders, to their west, the The Royal Hamilton Light Infantry, although encountering stiff initial opposition, managed to secure Verrières Village by 0530. John Rockingham reported to Simonds that his battalion had firmly entrenched themselves in the objective, on July 25, the Calgary Highlanders attempted assaults on May-sur-orne and Bourguebus Ridge but found that the assembly area of St. Martin was still occupied by German troops. Two companies of Calgary Highlanders bypassed St. Martin and reached the outskirts of May-Sur-Orne, radio contact was lost after that and both companies had many casualties. Towards the late morning, the Calgary Highlanders secured St. Martin, after two costly attacks, the Calgary Highlanders struggled to hold onto May-Sur-Orne. Phase III required careful timing, two attempts by the Essex Scottish Regiment and South Saskatchewan Regiment, had been costly failures, unfortunately for the Black Watch, things went wrong right from the start. Their armour and artillery support never did show up, and they were four hours late reaching their assembly area of St. Martin, when they did attack Verrières Ridge, they were subject to vicious counter fire from three sides. Within minutes, communications had broken down, and the Black Watch lost all but 15 of its attacking soldiers and it marked the bloodiest day for Canadian forces since Dieppe. For several days German forces, mainly the 9th and 12th SS Panzer divisions, the Calgary Highlanders eventually pulled out of May-sur-Orne and the North Nova scotia Regiment were forced to retreat from Tilly-la-Campagne
34.
Operation Totalize
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Operation Totalize was an offensive launched by Allied troops of the First Canadian Army during the later stages of Operation Overlord, from 8 to 13 August 1944. The goal was to precipitate the collapse of the entire German front, the battle is considered the inaugural operation of the First Canadian Army, which had been formally activated on 23 July. In the early hours of 8 August 1944, II Canadian Corps launched the attack using mechanized infantry and they broke through the German front lines and captured vital positions deep in the German defences. Having advanced 9 mi, the Allies were halted 7 mi north of Falaise, Caen had been an objective of the British forces assaulting Sword Beach on D-Day. However, the German defences were strongest in this sector, positional warfare ensued for the next six weeks. Several attempts by British and Canadian forces to capture Caen were unsuccessful until 9 July, although Operation Goodwood was halted with heavy tank losses, the two operations ultimately secured a bridgehead 6 mi wide and 3 mi deep south of the Orne. The Germans still held the terrain of the Verrières Ridge,5 mi south of the city. Within 48 hours of the end of Operation Goodwood, the 2nd Canadian Infantry Division launched an attack against the formidable German defences on Verrières Ridge and they suffered over 1,300 casualties and territorial gains were minimal. From 25 July to 27 July, another attempt was made to take the ridge as part of Operation Spring, poor execution resulted in around 1,500 Canadian casualties. In total, the Battle of Verrières Ridge had claimed upwards of 2,800 Canadian casualties, also on 25 July the Americans launched their break-out offensive, Operation Cobra, which gained immediate success. By the end of the day of the operation, American forces had advanced 15 mi south of the Cobra start line at several points. On 30 July, American forces captured Avranches, at the base of the Cotentin peninsula, the German left flank was now open and within 24 hours, units of the United States Third Army had entered Brittany and began advancing south and west through open country almost without opposition. Three German Panzer divisions—the 1st SS, 9th SS and 116th—were shifted westward from Verrières Ridge to face this new threat. British General Bernard Montgomery now wanted an attack on the flank of the front to capture Falaise. The First Canadian Army, commanded by Lieutenant General Harry Crerar and it consisted of the British I Corps, responsible for the extreme eastern flank of the Allied lines, and II Canadian Corps south of Caen. The German defensive positions on Verrières Ridge remained very strong, the forward infantry positions were well dug-in, with wide fields of fire. The front line and defences in depth were held by the 89th Infantry Division, 85th Infantry Division, the 12th SS Panzer Division Hitlerjugend with an attached heavy tank battalion, with fifty tanks, was in reserve a further 3 mi back. Some of the infantry were commanded by the German LXXXVI Korps, but most of the sector was under the command of the I SS Panzer Corps, Simonds knew that infantry assaults supported by massed artillery had failed to overcome the German forward lines in Operation Atlantic and Operation Spring
35.
Operation Tractable
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Operation Tractable was the final offensive conducted by Canadian and Polish troops, supported by one brigade of British tanks, as part of the Battle of Normandy during World War II. The goal of this operation was to capture the strategically important French town of Falaise and then the towns of Trun. During two days of continuous fighting, Polish forces using artillery barrages and close-quarter fighting, managed to hold off counter-attacks by seven German divisions. On 21 August, elements of the First Canadian Army relieved the Polish survivors and this led to the surrender and capture of the remaining units of the German 7th Army in the pocket. By the afternoon of 7 August, Operation Lüttich had been defeated by concerted, large-scale fighter-bomber air strikes against the German Panzers, in the process, forces of the German 7th Army became further enveloped by the Allied advance out of Normandy. This offensive was designed to break through the defences in the Anglo-Canadian sector of the Normandy front, Operation Totalize would rely on an unusual night attack using heavy bombers and the new Kangaroo armoured personnel carriers to achieve a breakthrough of German defences. By 10 August, Canadian troops had reached Hill 195, north of Falaise and they were unable to advance farther immediately and they had been unable to capture Falaise. Operation Tractable incorporated lessons learned from Operation Totalize, notably the effectiveness of mechanized infantry units, unlike the previous operation, Tractable was launched in daylight. Their advance would be protected by a large smokescreen laid down by Canadian artillery, field Marshal Bernard Montgomery hoped that Canadian forces would achieve control of Falaise by midnight on August 14. From there, all three formations would advance towards Trun,18 kilometres east of Falaise, with the assistance of the Polish 1st Armoured Division. Once in Trun, a linkup with the American 3rd Army at Chambois could be quickly accomplished, the main opposition to Simondss force was the 12th SS Panzer Division, which included the remnants of two infantry divisions. German forces within the Falaise Pocket approached 350,000 men, had surprise been achieved, the Canadians would likely have succeeded in a rapid break-through. However, on the night of 13/14 August, a Canadian officer lost his way while moving between divisional headquarters and he drove into German lines and was promptly killed. The Germans discovered a copy of Simonds orders on his body, Operation Tractable began at 12,00 on 14 August, when 800 Avro Lancaster and Handley Page Halifax heavy bombers of RAF Bomber Command struck German positions along the front. As with Totalize, many of the bombers dropped their bombs short of their targets, causing 400 Polish. Covered by a smoke screen laid down by their artillery, two Canadian divisions moved forwards, throughout the day, continual attacks by the Canadian 4th and Polish 1st Armoured Divisions managed to force a crossing of the Laison River. Limited access to the points over the Dives River allowed counterattacks by the German 102nd SS Heavy Panzer Battalion. The town of Potigny fell to Polish forces in the late afternoon, by the end of the first day, elements of the Canadian 3rd and 4th Divisions had reached Point 159, directly north of Falaise, although they had been unable to break into the town
36.
Falaise Pocket
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The Falaise Pocket or Battle of the Falaise Pocket was the decisive engagement of the Battle of Normandy in the Second World War. A pocket was formed around Falaise, Calvados, in which the German Army Group B, with the 7th Army, the battle is also referred to as the Battle of the Falaise Gap, the Chambois Pocket, the Falaise-Chambois Pocket, the Argentan–Falaise Pocket or the Trun–Chambois Gap. The battle resulted in the destruction of most of Army Group B west of the Seine river, which opened the way to Paris and the Franco-German border for the Allied armies. Following Operation Cobra, the American breakout from the Normandy beachhead, rapid advances were made to the south, despite lacking the resources to defeat the U. S. S. Four depleted panzer divisions were not enough to defeat the First U. S. Army, Operation Lüttich was a disaster, which drove the Germans deeper into the Allied envelopment. The Germans began to withdraw on 17 August and on 19 August, by the evening of 21 August, the pocket had been sealed, with c. 50,000 Germans trapped inside. Many Germans escaped but losses in men and equipment were huge, two days later the Allied Liberation of Paris was completed and on 30 August, the remnants of Army Group B retreated across the Seine, which ended Operation Overlord. Early Allied objectives in the wake of the D-Day invasion of German-occupied France, included the deep water port of Cherbourg, Cherbourg was not captured by the VII U. S. Corps until 27 June and the German defence of Caen lasted until 20 July, Army advanced down the west side of the Cotentin Peninsula to Avranches. On 25 July the First U. S. Army commander, the First U. S. Army broke through the German defences near St. Lô and by the end of the third day had advanced 15 mi south of its start line at several points. On 30 July, Avranches was captured and within 24 hours the VIII U. S, Corps of the Third U. S. Army crossed the bridge at Pontaubault into Brittany and continued south and west through open country, almost without opposition. The U. S. advance was swift and by 8 August, Le Mans, after Operation Cobra, Operation Bluecoat and Operation Spring, the German army in Normandy was so reduced that only a few SS fanatics still entertained hopes of avoiding defeat. On the Eastern Front, Operation Bagration had begun against Army Group Centre which left no possibility of reinforcement of the Western Front, eight of the nine Panzer divisions in Normandy were to be used in the attack but only four could be made ready in time. The German commanders protested that their forces were incapable of an offensive but the warnings were ignored and Operation Lüttich, the Allies were forewarned by Ultra signals intercepts and although the offensive continued until 13 August the threat of Operation Lüttich had been ended within 24 hours. Operation Lüttich had led to the most powerful remaining German units being defeated at the west end of the Cotentin Peninsula by the First U. S. Army, Bradley said This is an opportunity that comes to a commander not more than once in a century. Were about to destroy a hostile army and go all the way from here to the German border. The First Canadian Army was ordered to capture high ground north of Falaise to trap Army Group B, the Canadians planned Operation Totalize, with attacks by strategic bombers and a novel night attack using Kangaroo armoured personnel carriers. By 10 August, Anglo-Canadian forces had reached Hill 195, north of Falaise, the following day, Simonds relieved the armoured divisions with infantry divisions, ending the offensive. S
37.
Operation Dragoon
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Operation Dragoon was the code name for the Allied invasion of Southern France on 15 August 1944. By July 1944 the landing was reconsidered, as the ports in Normandy did not have the capacity to adequately supply the Allied forces. Concurrently, the French High Command pushed for a revival of the operation that would include large numbers of French troops, as a result, the operation was finally approved in July to be executed in August. The goal of the operation was to secure the ports on the French Mediterranean coast. After some preliminary commando operations, the US VI Corps landed on the beaches of the Côte dAzur under the shield of a naval task force. Hindered by total Allied air superiority and an uprising by the French Resistance. The Germans decided to withdraw towards the north through the Rhône valley, Allied mobile units were able to overtake the Germans and partially block their route at the town of Montélimar. The ensuing battle led to a stalemate, with neither able to achieve a decisive breakthrough, until the Germans were finally able to complete their withdrawal. While the Germans were retreating, the French managed to capture the important ports of Marseille and Toulon, the Germans were not able to hold Dijon and ordered a complete withdrawal from Southern France. Army Group G retreated further north, pursued by Allied forces, the fighting ultimately came to a stop at the Vosges mountains, where Army Group G was finally able to establish a stable defense line. After meeting with the Allied units from Operation Overlord, the Allied forces were in need of reorganizing and, facing stiffened German resistance, Operation Dragoon was considered a success by the Allies. The captured French ports were put into operation, allowing the Allies to solve their supply problems soon after, during planning stages, the 1942 operation was known as Anvil, to complement Operation Sledgehammer, at that time the code name for the invasion of Normandy. Subsequently, both plans were renamed, Sledgehammer becoming Operation Overlord, and Anvil becoming Operation Dragoon, the original idea of an invasion of Southern France had come from General George Marshall, the U. S. Army Chief of Staff already in 1942. Operation Dragoon was controversial from the time it was first proposed, the American military leadership and its British counterparts disagreed on the operation. When first planned, the landings were to take place simultaneously – Overlord in Normandy and it soon became clear that a dual landing was impossible to conduct with the available forces. The expansion of Overlord from a three- to a five-division front required many additional LSTs, at the same time, another Allied amphibious landing in Italy at Anzio had gone badly. All of these resulted in the postponing of Anvil by the Allies, after the landing at Normandy, a revival of Anvil became increasingly attractive to the Allied planners. These factors led to a reconsideration of the plan, despite Churchills objections, the operation was authorized by the Allied Combined Chiefs of Staff on 14 July and then renamed Dragoon on 1 August
38.
Netherlands in World War II
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The direct involvement of the Netherlands in World War II began with its invasion by Nazi Germany on 10 May 1940. The Netherlands had proclaimed neutrality when war broke out in September 1939, just as it had in World War I, on 15 May 1940, one day after the bombing of Rotterdam, the Dutch forces surrendered. The Dutch government and the family escaped and went into exile in London. Following the defeat, the Netherlands was placed under German occupation, active resistance was carried out by a small minority, which grew in the course of the occupation. The occupiers deported the majority of the countrys Jews to Nazi concentration camps, with the cooperation of much of the Dutch police, in fact, the Netherlands saw one of the highest levels of collaboration during the Holocaust of any occupied country. However, the city of Amsterdam organized the only action in protest to the persecution of their Jewish fellow citizens ever in all of the Nazi occupied areas. Most of the south of the country was liberated in the half of 1944. The rest, especially the west and north of the still under occupation, suffered from a famine at the end of 1944. On 5 May 1945, the country was finally liberated by the total surrender of all German forces. Dutch governments between 1929 and 1943 were dominated by Christian and center-right political parties, from 1933, the Netherlands were hit by the Great Depression, which had begun in 1929. Eventually, in 1936, the government was forced to abandon the gold standard, numerous fascist movements emerged in the Netherlands during the Great Depression era, inspired by Italian Fascism or German Nazism. Nazi-style racial ideology had limited appeal in the Netherlands, as did its calls to violence, during World War I, the Dutch government under Pieter Cort van der Linden had managed to preserve the Dutch neutrality throughout the conflict. In the inter-war period, the Netherlands had continued to pursue its Independence Policy, the Dutch government believed it would be able to rely on its neutrality, or at least the informal support of foreign powers, to defend its interests in case of war. The government did, however, begin to work on plans for the defence of the country, in late 1939, with war already declared between the British Empire, France and Nazi Germany, the German government issued a guarantee of neutrality to the Netherlands. Nevertheless, the Dutch military was mobilized from August 1939. Despite its policy of neutrality, the Netherlands was invaded on the morning of 10 May 1940, without a declaration of war, by German forces moving simultaneously into Belgium. The attackers meant to draw Allied forces away from the Ardennes and to lure British and French forces deeper into Belgium, the Luftwaffe also needed the Dutch airfields on the Dutch coast to launch air raids against the United Kingdom. The Dutch military, with insufficient and outdated weapons and equipment, was largely unprepared
39.
Liberation of Arnhem
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Operation Anger, was a military operation to seize the city of Arnhem in April 1945, during the closing stages of the Second World War. It is occasionally referred to as the Second Battle of Arnhem or the Liberation of Arnhem, the Western Allies first tried to liberate Arnhem in September 1944 during Operation Market Garden. Fresh planning to take Arnhem began in the new year as the Canadian First Army sought ways to link up its units advancing into the Netherlands, however it was not until April that the liberation of the city became a distinct possibility. After II Canadian Corps secured the bank of the IJssel river and advanced north. The operation began on 12 April 1945 and proceeded to plan, within four days Arnhem was totally under Allied control, allowing the Canadians to advance further into the Netherlands. Three days later Germany unconditionally surrendered, bringing the war in Europe to a close, in September 1944 the Allies launched Operation Market Garden, an effort to advance around the Siegfried Line and open a route to the Ruhr. After withdrawing south of the Nederrijn the front line stabilised on the “Island” over the winter, the residents of Arnhem and Oosterbeek were evicted from their homes which were then systematically looted of anything of value to aid refugees in Germany. The shattered settlements were then turned into strong defensive positions to resist future Allied advances, the Arnhem road bridge that the British had fought so hard for was bombed by the Allies in October 1944 to deny its use to the Germans. Arnhem itself was shelled by the Allies over the winter and was even hit by short-falling German-fired V-2 rockets. In retaliation for a Dutch railway workers strike supposed to aid the Allies September advance and this prevented food being grown in the north from reaching the south and west of the country and caused thousands of deaths amongst the Dutch population in the Hongerwinter. In February 1945 the Allies launched Operations Veritable and Grenade, striking east from land captured during Market Garden directly into Germany and these paved the way for Operations Plunder and Varsity, crossing the River Rhine further upstream from Arnhem. 21st Army Group then advanced rapidly into north-west Germany, whilst the British 2nd Army advanced west, General Henry Crerar’s Canadian First Army was given the task of liberating the Netherlands. However, after Operation Veritable Crerar saw advantages to seizing Arnhem, after Plunder the II Canadian Corps, commanded by Lieutenant General Guy Simonds, struck west and seized Emmerich, approaching the IJssel from the east. Crerar saw an opportunity to take Arnhem and open a route between the city and Zutphen to the north, and ordered his two Corps commanders to coordinate their advances accordingly, however, he was wary of trying to seize Arnhem before the IJssel had been bridged further north. In March the 49th Division, who had been on the Nijmegen Island since November, on 3 April elements of I Corps crossed the Nederrijn east of the IJssel and met units from II Corps in the town of Westervoort opposite Arnhem. The rest of the Island was cleared within another day and the Allies occupied the southern bank of the Nederrijn in preparation for the assault on Arnhem. The original plan for Operation Anger had called for a crossing of the Nederrijn near Oosterbeek as soon as the river was reached. Alternatively, if the German defenses were considered too strong, a better prepared crossing downstream at Renkum could be made
40.
Operation Veritable
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Operation Veritable was the northern part of an Allied pincer movement that took place between 8 February and 11 March 1945 during the final stages of the Second World War. Ninth Army was incorporated into the 21st Army Group, the objective of the operation was to clear German forces from the area between the Rhine and Maas rivers, east of the German/Dutch frontier, in the Rhineland. It was part of General Dwight D. Eisenhowers broad front strategy to occupy the entire west bank of the Rhine before its crossing, Veritable had been planned for execution in early January,1945 when the ground had been frozen and thus more advantageous to the Allies. Second, Veritable was the arm of a pincer movement. The southern pincer arm, Operation Grenade, by Lieutenant General William Hood Simpsons U. S, ninth Army, had had to be postponed for two weeks when the Germans released the waters from the Roer dams and river levels rose. No military actions could proceed across the Roer until the water subsided, Veritable started on schedule, with XXX Corps advancing through the forest and the 3rd Canadian Infantry Division, in amphibious vehicles, clearing enemy positions in the drowned Rhine flood plain. The Allied advance proceeded more slowly than expected and at greater cost, the fighting was hard, but the Allied advance continued. On 22 February, once clear of the Reichswald, and with the towns of Kleve and Goch in their control, ninth Army near Geldern on 4 March. Fighting continued as the Germans sought to retain a bridgehead on the west bank of the Rhine at Wesel and evacuate as many men, finally, on 10 March, the German withdrawal ended and the last bridges were destroyed. This first required that Allied forces should close up to the Rhine along its whole length, one such proposal, Valediction - an assault south-eastwards from Nijmegen between the Rhine and Maas rivers, initially had been shelved by Montgomery. A conference was convened at Maastricht on 7 December 1944 between Allied generals, to consider ways of maintaining pressure on the Germans throughout the winter, consequently, Valediction was brought forward and allocated to the 1st Canadian Army. British XXX Corps were attached to the Canadians for the operation, at this point, the name Veritable was attached to the operation in place of Valediction. In the event, Veritable was delayed by the diversion of forces to stem the German attack through the Ardennes in December, at this stage, 21st Army Group consisted of the British Second Army, First Canadian Army and the U. S. In ‘’Veritable’’, the reinforced British XXX Corps, under Lieutenant-General Brian Horrocks, would advance through the Reichswald Forest, ninth Army was to execute Operation Grenade, the southern part of the pincer. The First Canadian Army had had a severe time clearing the approaches to Antwerp during the previous autumn and it was, numerically, the smallest of the Allied armies in northern Europe and, despite its name, contained significant British units as part of its structure. For Veritable, it was strengthened by XXX Corps. Guards Armoured Division – Part of XXX Corps reserve at the start of the operation, 11th Armoured Division – transferred across the Maas from the British Second Army as the operation progressed. Assessments by the German High Command were that an Allied advance through the Reichswald would be too difficult, reserves were therefore placed to respond to this
41.
Western Allied invasion of Germany
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The Western Allied invasion of Germany was coordinated by the Western Allies during the final months of hostilities in the European theatre of World War II. This is known as the Central Europe Campaign in United States military histories, by early 1945, events favored the Allied forces in Europe. The failure of this offensive exhausted Germanys strategic reserve, leaving it ill-prepared to resist the final Allied campaigns in Europe, additional losses in the Rhineland further weakened the German Army, leaving shattered remnants of units to defend the east bank of the Rhine. On 7 March, the Allies seized the last remaining bridge across the Rhine at Remagen. During Operation Lumberjack and Operation Plunder in February–March 1945, German casualties are estimated at 400,000 men, on the Eastern Front, the Soviet Red Army had liberated most of Poland and were within striking distance of Berlin. The Soviets also pushed deep into Hungary and eastern Czechoslovakia, and these rapid advances on the Eastern Front destroyed additional veteran German combat units and severely limited German Fuhrer Adolf Hitlers ability to reinforce his Rhine defenses. As such, with the Western Allies making final preparations for their powerful offensive into the German heartland, forty-nine of these divisions were American,12 British, eight French, three Canadian and one Polish. Another seven American divisions arrived during February, along with the British 5th Infantry Division and I Canadian Corps, as the invasion of Germany commenced, General Eisenhower had a total of 90 full-strength divisions under his command, with the number of armored divisions now reaching 25. The Allied front along the Rhine stretched 450 miles from the mouth at the North Sea in the Netherlands to the Swiss border in the south. The Allied forces along this line were organized into three army groups, in the north, from the North Sea to a point about 10 miles north of Cologne, was the 21st Army Group commanded by Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery. Within 21st Army Group the Canadian 1st Army held the left flank of the Allied line, with the British 2nd Army in the center and the U. S. 9th Army to the south. Holding the middle of the Allied line from the 9th Armys right flank to a point about 15 miles south of Mainz was the 12th Army Group under the command of Lieutenant General Omar Bradley, Bradley had two American armies, the U. S. 1st Army on the left and the U. S. 3rd Army on the right, as these three army groups cleared out the Wehrmacht west of the Rhine, Eisenhower began to rethink his plans for the final drive across the Rhine and into the heart of Germany. Originally, General Eisenhower had planned to all his forces up to the west bank of the Rhine. The main thrust beyond the river was to be made in the north by Montgomerys 21 Army Group, 1st Army as it made a secondary advance northeast from below the Ruhr River. If successful, this movement would envelop the industrial Ruhr area. Facing the Allies was Oberbefehlshaber West commanded by Generalfeldmarschall Albert Kesselring, although Kesselring brought an outstanding track record as a defensive strategist with him from the Italian Campaign, he did not have the resources to make a coherent defense. During the fighting west of the Rhine up to March 1945, busch—whose main unit was the German 1st Parachute Army —was to form the right wing of the German defenses
42.
Allied invasion of Sicily
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The Allied invasion of Sicily, codenamed Operation Husky, was a major campaign of World War II, in which the Allies took the island of Sicily from the Axis powers. It was an amphibious and airborne operation, followed by a six-week land campaign and was the beginning of the Italian Campaign. Husky began on the night of 9/10 July 1943, and ended on 17 August, the Italian leader, Benito Mussolini, was toppled from power in Italy and the way was opened for the Allied invasion of Italy. The German leader, Adolf Hitler, canceled a major offensive at Kursk after only a week, in part to divert forces to Italy, resulting in a reduction of German strength on the Eastern Front. The plan for Operation Husky called for the assault of Sicily by two Allied armies, one landing on the south-eastern and one on the central southern coast. The amphibious assaults were to be supported by gunfire, as well as tactical bombing, interdiction. As such, the operation required a complex structure, incorporating land, naval. The overall commander was American General Dwight D. Eisenhower, as Commander-in-Chief of all the Allied forces in North Africa, British General Sir Harold Alexander acted as his second-in-command and as the 15th Army Group commander. The American Major General Walter Bedell Smith was appointed as Eisenhowers Chief of Staff, the overall Naval Force Commander was the British Admiral Sir Andrew Cunningham. The Allied land forces were from the American, British and Canadian armies, the Eastern Task Force was led by General Sir Bernard Montgomery and consisted of the British Eighth Army. The Western Task Force was commanded by Lieutenant General George S. Patton, the two task force commanders reported to Alexander as commander of the 15th Army Group. Seventh Army consisted initially of three divisions, organized under II Corps, commanded by Lieutenant General Omar Bradley. Middleton, sailed from the United States via Oran in Algeria, the 2nd Armored Division, under Major General Hugh Joseph Gaffey, also sailing from Oran, was to be a floating reserve and be fed into combat as required. On 15 July, Patton reorganized his command into two corps by creating a new Provisional Corps headquarters, commanded by his deputy army commander, Major General Geoffrey Keyes. The two divisions of XIII Corps, the 5th and 50th Infantry Divisions, commanded by Major-Generals Horatio Berney-Ficklin and Sidney Kirkman and this request was granted by the British, displacing the veteran British 3rd Infantry Division. The Red Patch Division was added to Leeses XXX Corps to become part of the British Eighth Army, in addition to the amphibious landings, airborne troops were to be flown in to support both the Western and Eastern Task Forces. To the east, the British 1st Airborne Division, commanded by Major-General George F. Hopkinson, was to seize vital bridges and high ground in support of the British Eighth Army. The initial plan dictated that the U. S. 82nd Airborne Division, Allied naval forces were also grouped into two task forces to transport and support the invading armies
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