1.
War of the Spanish Succession
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The War of the Spanish Succession was a major European conflict of the early 18th century, triggered by the death in 1700 of the last Habsburg King of Spain, the infirm and childless Charles II. Charles II had ruled over a vast global empire, and the question of who would succeed him had long troubled the governments of Europe, the English, the Dutch and the Austrians formally declared war in May 1702. By 1708, the Duke of Marlborough and Prince Eugene of Savoy had secured victory in the Spanish Netherlands and in Italy, France faced invasion and ruin, but Allied unity broke first. With the Grand Alliance defeated in Spain and with its casualties mounting and aims diverging, French and British ministers prepared the groundwork for a peace conference, and in 1712 Britain ceased combat operations. The Dutch, Austrians, and German states fought on to strengthen their own negotiating position, the Treaty of Utrecht and the Treaty of Rastatt partitioned the Spanish empire between the major and minor powers. The European balance of power was assured, in the late 1690s the declining health of King Charles II of Spain brought to a head the problem of his succession, a problem which had underlain much of European diplomacy for several decades. The empire was in decline, but remained the largest of the European overseas empires, unlike the French crown, the Spanish crowns could all be inherited by, or through, a female in default of a male line. The next in line after Charles II, therefore, were his two sisters, Maria Theresa, the elder, and Margaret Theresa, the younger, Maria Theresa had married Louis XIV in 1660 and by him she had a son, Louis, Dauphin of France. The testament of her father, Philip IV, reiterated this waiver and bequeathed the reversion of the whole of the Spanish dominions to his younger daughter, Margaret Theresa. However the French, using in part the excuse that the dowry promised Maria Theresa was never paid, nor was it clear whether a princess could waive the rights of her unborn children. Leopold I married Margaret Theresa in 1666, at her death in 1673 she left one living heir, Maria Antonia, who in 1685 married Max Emanuel, Elector of Bavaria. Shortly before her death in 1692, she gave birth to a son, if he chose, Louis XIV could attempt to assert his will on Spain by force of arms, but the Nine Years War had been an immense drain on Frances resources. To seek a solution and gain support, Louis XIV turned to his long-standing rival William of Orange. England and the Dutch Republic had their own commercial, strategic and political interests within the Spanish empire, however, the Maritime Powers were in a weakened state and both had reduced their forces at the conclusion of the Nine Years War. Louis XIV and William III, therefore, sought to solve the problem of the Spanish inheritance through negotiation, based on the principle of partition, to take effect after the death of Charles II. However, the bulk of the empire – most of peninsular Spain, the Spanish Netherlands, Sardinia, the Spanish Empire was now divided between the three surviving candidates. By this new treaty Archduke Charles would receive most of Spain, the Spanish Netherlands, Sardinia, and the overseas empire. For Leopold I, however, control of Spain and its empire was less important than Italy
2.
John Wootton
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John Wootton was an English painter of sporting subjects, battle scenes and landscapes, and illustrator. As such, his paintings were very fashionable and were sought after by those among the highest strata of the British society and these included figures such as George II of Great Britain, Frederick, Prince of Wales, and the Duke of Marlborough. He is now somewhat eclipsed in the field of paintings by the later George Stubbs. John Wootton died in London on 13 November 1764, examples of his animal painting can be found in the Tate Gallery, London, the Virginia Museum of Fine Arts, Richmond, the Yale Center for British Art, and in the Elizabethan Great Hall at Longleat. British art English school of painting List of British artists Lee, Sidney, ed. Wootton, London, Smith, Elder & Co. p.440. British Artists and War, The Face of Battle in Paintings and Prints, penguin Books, Yale History of Art series. John Wootton, Landscape and Sporting Art in Early Georgian England, kenwood House, London, the Iveagh Bequest
3.
Oudenaarde
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Oudenaarde is a Belgian municipality in the Flemish province of East Flanders. The municipality comprises the city of Oudenaarde proper and the towns of Bevere, Edelare, Eine, Ename, Heurne, Leupegem, Mater, Melden, Mullem, Nederename, Welden, Volkegem and a part of Ooike. From the 15th to the 18th century, but especially in the 16th century, the towns name, meaning “old field”, still lingers on in “outnal”, an obsolete English term for a kind of brown linen thread. By 1005, the town already had a couple of churches and had become the largest town in the Duchy of Lotharingia, in 1033, Count Baldwin IV of Flanders took the city as a frontier post against emperor Henry III. In 1047, Baldwin V consolidated his father’s victory by having his wife found the Benedictine abbey of Saint Salvator there, by that time, the former merchants and guild artisans of Ename had fled across the Scheldt to the recently founded city of Oudenaarde. In the 11th century, Oudenaarde’s economy flourished, thanks to the proximity of the Scheldt and to the burgeoning, churches, cloisters and hospitals were built. Throughout the Middle Ages, the city was one of the staunchest supporters of the counts of Flanders, defending them against insurrections from the South, the city became known as the residence of the nobles. It built itself a town hall, which we can still admire today. Charles V stayed here for a couple of months in 1522 and fathered a daughter, Margaret of Parma. During the Reformation, the people of Oudenaarde chose Protestantism and allied themselves with Ghent against Charles V, in 1582, after a prolonged siege by Margarets son, Alexander Farnese, the city finally gave in, causing most merchants, workers, and even nobles to flee. Oudenaarde fell under the Counter-Reformation, which for a short while revived the commerce of tapestry, the glory days, however, never came back. The French attacked and took the city three times in less than a century, in 1708, one of the key battles in the War of the Spanish Succession, known as the Battle of Oudenaarde, was fought in the vicinity of the city. Oudenaarde slumbered as a town under the Habsburg regime. Like its neighbours, in the 1790s it suffered religious curtailment imposed by the French Revolution, the city later suffered damage during World War I, which is commemorated by several monuments scattered around town. The Flamboyant Gothic-style Town Hall and its Belfry were designated by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site in 1999, the city hall houses a unique collection of Oudenaarde tapestries. The Church of Our Lady of Pamele, begun in 1234 on the banks of the Scheldt, Oudenaarde is also home to the Centrum Tour of Flanders, a museum dedicated to the Tour of Flanders cycle race. Since 2008 the village of Mater in Oudenaarde has been the home of Belgiums smallest craft brewery, recurring events include a beer fest in June, an open-air musical festival in the summer, and an agricultural fair in February. Every ten years, one of the largest floral displays in Flanders takes place on the market square, the last one took place in 2005
4.
Spanish Netherlands
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Spanish Netherlands, French, Pays-Bas espagnols) was the collective name of States of the Holy Roman Empire in the Low Countries, held in personal union by the Spanish Crown from 1581 to 1714. This region comprised most of modern Belgium and Luxembourg, as well as parts of northern France, the Imperial fiefs of the former Burgundian Netherlands had been inherited by the Austrian House of Habsburg from the extinct House of Valois-Burgundy upon the death of Mary of Burgundy in 1482. The Seventeen Provinces formed the core of the Habsburg Netherlands which passed to the Spanish Habsburgs upon the abdication of Emperor Charles V in 1556. When part of the Netherlands separated to form the autonomous Dutch Republic in 1581 and his granddaughter Mary had confirmed a number of privileges to the States by the Great Privilege signed in 1477. After the government takeover by her husband Archduke Maximilian I of Austria, Maximilian prevailed with the support of Duke Albert III of Saxony and his son Philip the Handsome could assume the rule over the Habsburg Netherlands in 1493. The Habsburgs often used the term Burgundy to refer to their lands, actually until 1795. In 1522 Emperor Charles V concluded a treaty with his younger brother Archduke Ferdinand I of Habsburg, whereby the House of Habsburg split into an Austrian. By the Pragmatic Sanction of 1549, Charles declared the Seventeen Provinces a united, the Seventeen Provinces, de jure still fiefs of the Holy Roman Empire, from that time on de facto were ruled by the Spanish branch of the Habsburgs as part of the Burgundian heritage. Philips despotism and his stern Counter-Reformation measures sparked the Dutch Revolt in the mainly Calvinist Netherlandish provinces, the Spanish branch of the Habsburgs could only retain the rule over the partly Catholic Southern Netherlands, completed after the Fall of Antwerp in 1585. Better times came, when in 1598 the Spanish Netherlands passed to Philips daughter Isabella Clara Eugenia, in the early 17th century, there was a flourishing court at Brussels. Among the artists who emerged from the court of the Archdukes, by the Treaty of the Pyrenees of 1659 the French annexed Artois and Cambrai, and Dunkirk was ceded to the English. By the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle and Nijmegen, further territory up to the current Franco-Belgian border was ceded, including Walloon Flanders, later, in the War of the Reunions and the Nine Years War, France annexed other parts of the region. During the War of the Spanish Succession, in 1706 the Habsburg Netherlands became an Anglo-Dutch condominium for the remainder of the conflict. By the peace treaties of Utrecht and Rastatt in 1713/14 ending the war, the Southern Netherlands fell back to the Austrian Habsburg Monarchy forming the Austrian Netherlands
5.
Kingdom of Great Britain
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The Kingdom of Great Britain, officially Great Britain, was a sovereign state in western Europe from 1 May 1707 to 31 December 1800. It did not include Ireland, which remained a separate realm, the unitary state was governed by a single parliament and government that was based in Westminster. Also after the accession of George I to the throne of Great Britain in 1714, the early years of the unified kingdom were marked by Jacobite risings which ended in defeat for the Stuart cause at Culloden in 1746. On 1 January 1801, the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland were merged to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922, five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the United Kingdom, the name Britain descends from the Latin name for the island of Great Britain, Britannia or Brittānia, the land of the Britons via the Old French Bretaigne and Middle English Bretayne, Breteyne. The term Great Britain was first used officially in 1474, in the instrument drawing up the proposal for a marriage between Edward IV of Englands daughter Cecily and James III of Scotlands son James. The Treaty of Union and the subsequent Acts of Union state that England and Scotland were to be United into one Kingdom by the Name of Great Britain. However, both the Acts and the Treaty also refer numerous times to the United Kingdom and the longer form, other publications refer to the country as the United Kingdom after 1707 as well. The websites of the UK parliament, the Scottish Parliament, the BBC, additionally, the term United Kingdom was found in informal use during the 18th century to describe the state. The new state created in 1707 included the island of Great Britain, the kingdoms of England and Scotland, both in existence from the 9th century, were separate states until 1707. However, they had come into a union in 1603. Each of the three kingdoms maintained its own parliament and laws and this disposition changed dramatically when the Acts of Union 1707 came into force, with a single unified Crown of Great Britain and a single unified parliament. Ireland remained formally separate, with its own parliament, until the Acts of Union 1800, legislative power was vested in the Parliament of Great Britain, which replaced both the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland. In practice it was a continuation of the English parliament, sitting at the location in Westminster. Newly created peers in the Peerage of Great Britain were given the right to sit in the Lords. Despite the end of a parliament for Scotland, it retained its own laws. As a result of Poynings Law of 1495, the Parliament of Ireland was subordinate to the Parliament of England, the Act was repealed by the Repeal of Act for Securing Dependence of Ireland Act 1782. The same year, the Irish constitution of 1782 produced a period of legislative freedom, the 18th century saw England, and after 1707 Great Britain, rise to become the worlds dominant colonial power, with France its main rival on the imperial stage
6.
Habsburg Monarchy
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The Monarchy was a composite state composed of territories within and outside the Holy Roman Empire, united only in the person of the monarch. The dynastic capital was Vienna, except from 1583 to 1611, from 1804 to 1867 the Habsburg Monarchy was formally unified as the Austrian Empire, and from 1867 to 1918 as the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The two entities were never coterminous, as the Habsburg Monarchy covered many lands beyond the Holy Roman Empire, the monarchy had no official name. The entity had no official name, Austrian Empire, This was the official name. Note that the German version is Kaisertum Österreich, i. e. the English translation empire refers to a territory ruled by an emperor, Austria-Hungary, This was the official name. An unofficial popular name was the Danubian Monarchy also often used was the term Doppel-Monarchie meaning two states under one crowned ruler, Crownlands or crown lands, This is the name of all the individual parts of the Austrian Empire, and then of Austria-Hungary from 1867 on. The Hungarian parts of the Empire were called Lands of the Holy Hungarian Crown of Saint Stephen or Lands of Holy Stephens Crown, the Bohemian Lands were called Lands of the St. Wenceslaus Crown. Burgenland came to Austria in 1921 from Hungary, Salzburg finally became Austrian in 1816 after the Napoleonic wars. Vienna, Austrias capital became a state January 1,1922, after being residence, Upper and Lower Austria, historically, were split into Austria above the Enns and Austria below the Enns. Upper Austria was enlarged after the Treaty of Teschen following the War of the Bavarian Succession by the so-called Innviertel, formerly part of Bavaria. Hereditary Lands or German Hereditary Lands or Austrian Hereditary Lands, In a narrower sense these were the original Habsburg Austrian territories, i. e. basically the Austrian lands, in a wider sense the Lands of the Bohemian Crown were also included in the Hereditary lands. The term was replaced by the term Crownlands in the 1849 March Constitution, within the Habsburg Monarchy, each province was governed according to its own particular customs. Until the mid 17th century, not all of the provinces were even necessarily ruled by the same members of the family often ruled portions of the Hereditary Lands as private apanages. An even greater attempt at centralization began in 1849 following the suppression of the revolutions of 1848. For the first time, ministers tried to transform the monarchy into a bureaucratic state ruled from Vienna. The Kingdom of Hungary, in particular, ceased to exist as a separate entity, in this system, the Kingdom of Hungary was given sovereignty and a parliament, with only a personal union and a joint foreign and military policy connecting it to the other Habsburg lands. When Bosnia and Herzegovina was annexed, it was not incorporated into either half of the monarchy, instead, it was governed by the joint Ministry of Finance. Austria-Hungary collapsed under the weight of the various unsolved ethnic problems that came to a head with its defeat in World War I, to these were added in 1779 the Inn Quarter of Bavaria, and in 1803 the Bishoprics of Trent and Brixen
7.
Dutch Republic
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It preceded the Batavian Republic, the Kingdom of Holland, the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, and ultimately the modern Kingdom of the Netherlands. Alternative names include the United Provinces, Seven Provinces, Federated Dutch Provinces, most of the Low Countries had come under the rule of the House of Burgundy and subsequently the House of Habsburg. In 1549 Holy Roman Emperor Charles V issued the Pragmatic Sanction, Charles was succeeded by his son, King Philip II of Spain. This was the start of the Eighty Years War, in 1579 a number of the northern provinces of the Low Countries signed the Union of Utrecht, in which they promised to support each other in their defence against the Spanish army. This was followed in 1581 by the Act of Abjuration, the declaration of independence of the provinces from Philip II. In 1582 the United Provinces invited Francis, Duke of Anjou to lead them, but after an attempt to take Antwerp in 1583. After the assassination of William of Orange, both Henry III of France and Elizabeth I of England declined the offer of sovereignty, however, the latter agreed to turn the United Provinces into a protectorate of England, and sent the Earl of Leicester as governor-general. This was unsuccessful and in 1588 the provinces became a confederacy, the Union of Utrecht is regarded as the foundation of the Republic of the Seven United Provinces, which was not recognized by the Spanish Empire until the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. During the Anglo-French war, the territory was divided into groups, the Patriots, who were pro-French and pro-American and the Orangists. The Republic of the United Provinces faced a series of revolutions in 1783–1787. During this period, republican forces occupied several major Dutch cities, initially on the defence, the Orangist forces received aid from Prussian troops and retook the Netherlands in 1787. After the French Republic became the French Empire under Napoleon, the Batavian Republic was replaced by the Napoleonic Kingdom of Holland, the Netherlands regained independence from France in 1813. In the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814 the names United Provinces of the Netherlands, on 16 March 1815, the son of stadtholder William V crowned himself King William I of the Netherlands. Between 1815 and 1890 the King of the Netherlands was also in a union the Grand Duke of the sovereign Grand Duchy of Luxembourg. After Belgium gained its independence in 1830, the state became known as the Kingdom of the Netherlands. The County of Holland was the wealthiest and most urbanized region in the world, the free trade spirit of the time received a strong augmentation through the development of a modern, effective stock market in the Low Countries. The Netherlands has the oldest stock exchange in the world, founded in 1602 by the Dutch East India Company, while Rotterdam has the oldest bourse in the Netherlands, the worlds first stock exchange, that of the Dutch East-India Company, went public in six different cities. Later, a court ruled that the company had to reside legally in a city so Amsterdam is recognized as the oldest such institution based on modern trading principles
8.
Kingdom of Prussia
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It was the driving force behind the unification of Germany in 1871 and was the leading state of the German Empire until its dissolution in 1918. Although it took its name from the region called Prussia, it was based in the Margraviate of Brandenburg, the kings of Prussia were from the House of Hohenzollern. Prussia was a power from the time it became a kingdom, through its predecessor, Brandenburg-Prussia. Prussia continued its rise to power under the guidance of Frederick II, more known as Frederick the Great. After the might of Prussia was revealed it was considered as a power among the German states. Throughout the next hundred years Prussia went on to win many battles and it was because of its power that Prussia continuously tried to unify all the German states under its rule. Attempts at creation of a federation remained unsuccessful and the German Confederation collapsed in 1866 when war ensued between its two most powerful states, Prussia and Austria. The North German Confederation which lasted from 1867–1871, created a union between the Prussian-aligned states while Austria and most of Southern Germany remained independent. The North German Confederation was seen as more of an alliance of military strength in the aftermath of the Austro-Prussian War, the German Empire lasted from 1871–1918 with the successful unification of all the German states under Prussian hegemony. This was due to the defeat of Napoleon III in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71, in 1871, Germany unified into a single country, minus Austria and Switzerland, with Prussia the dominant power. Prussia is considered the predecessor of the unified German Reich. The Kingdom left a significant cultural legacy, today notably promoted by the Prussian Cultural Heritage Foundation, in 1415 a Hohenzollern Burgrave came from the south to the March of Brandenburg and took control of the area as elector. In 1417 the Hohenzollern was made an elector of the Holy Roman Empire, after the Polish wars, the newly established Baltic towns of the German states including Prussia, suffered many economic setbacks. Many of the Prussian towns could not even afford to attend political meetings outside of Prussia, the towns were poverty stricken, with even the largest town, Danzig, having to borrow money from elsewhere to pay for trade. Poverty in these towns was partly caused by Prussias neighbors, who had established and developed such a monopoly on trading that these new towns simply could not compete and these issues led to feuds, wars, trade competition and invasions. However, the fall of these gave rise to the nobility, separated the east and the west. It was clear in 1440 how different Brandenburg was from the other German territories, not only did it face partition from within but also the threat of its neighbors. It prevented the issue of partition by enacting the Dispositio Achillea which instilled the principle of primogeniture to both the Brandenburg and Franconian territories, the second issue was solved through expansion
9.
Denmark
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Denmark, officially the Kingdom of Denmark, is a Scandinavian country in Europe and a sovereign state. The southernmost and smallest of the Nordic countries, it is south-west of Sweden and south of Norway, Denmark also comprises two autonomous constituent countries in the North Atlantic Ocean, the Faroe Islands and Greenland. Denmark has an area of 42,924 square kilometres. The country consists of a peninsula, Jutland, and an archipelago of 443 named islands, with the largest being Zealand, the islands are characterised by flat, arable land and sandy coasts, low elevation and a temperate climate. The unified kingdom of Denmark emerged in the 10th century as a proficient seafaring nation in the struggle for control of the Baltic Sea, Denmark, Sweden and Norway were ruled together under the Kalmar Union, established in 1397 and ending with Swedish secession in 1523. Denmark and Norway remained under the monarch until outside forces dissolved the union in 1814. The union with Norway made it possible for Denmark to inherit the Faroe Islands, Iceland, beginning in the 17th century, there were several cessions of territory to Sweden. In the 19th century there was a surge of nationalist movements, Denmark remained neutral during World War I. In April 1940, a German invasion saw brief military skirmishes while the Danish resistance movement was active from 1943 until the German surrender in May 1945, the Constitution of Denmark was signed on 5 June 1849, ending the absolute monarchy which had begun in 1660. It establishes a constitutional monarchy organised as a parliamentary democracy, the government and national parliament are seated in Copenhagen, the nations capital, largest city and main commercial centre. Denmark exercises hegemonic influence in the Danish Realm, devolving powers to handle internal affairs, Home rule was established in the Faroe Islands in 1948, in Greenland home rule was established in 1979 and further autonomy in 2009. Denmark became a member of the European Economic Community in 1973, maintaining certain opt-outs, it retains its own currency, the krone. It is among the members of NATO, the Nordic Council, the OECD, OSCE. The etymology of the word Denmark, and especially the relationship between Danes and Denmark and the unifying of Denmark as a kingdom, is a subject which attracts debate. This is centred primarily on the prefix Dan and whether it refers to the Dani or a historical person Dan and the exact meaning of the -mark ending. Most handbooks derive the first part of the word, and the name of the people, from a word meaning land, related to German Tenne threshing floor. The -mark is believed to mean woodland or borderland, with references to the border forests in south Schleswig. The first recorded use of the word Danmark within Denmark itself is found on the two Jelling stones, which are believed to have been erected by Gorm the Old and Harald Bluetooth
10.
Kingdom of France
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The Kingdom of France was a medieval and early modern monarchy in Western Europe. It was one of the most powerful states in Europe and a great power since the Late Middle Ages and it was also an early colonial power, with possessions around the world. France originated as West Francia, the half of the Carolingian Empire. A branch of the Carolingian dynasty continued to rule until 987, the territory remained known as Francia and its ruler as rex Francorum well into the High Middle Ages. The first king calling himself Roi de France was Philip II, France continued to be ruled by the Capetians and their cadet lines—the Valois and Bourbon—until the monarchy was overthrown in 1792 during the French Revolution. France in the Middle Ages was a de-centralised, feudal monarchy, in Brittany and Catalonia the authority of the French king was barely felt. Lorraine and Provence were states of the Holy Roman Empire and not yet a part of France, during the Late Middle Ages, the Kings of England laid claim to the French throne, resulting in a series of conflicts known as the Hundred Years War. Subsequently, France sought to extend its influence into Italy, but was defeated by Spain in the ensuing Italian Wars, religiously France became divided between the Catholic majority and a Protestant minority, the Huguenots, which led to a series of civil wars, the Wars of Religion. France laid claim to large stretches of North America, known collectively as New France, Wars with Great Britain led to the loss of much of this territory by 1763. French intervention in the American Revolutionary War helped secure the independence of the new United States of America, the Kingdom of France adopted a written constitution in 1791, but the Kingdom was abolished a year later and replaced with the First French Republic. The monarchy was restored by the great powers in 1814. During the later years of the elderly Charlemagnes rule, the Vikings made advances along the northern and western perimeters of the Kingdom of the Franks, after Charlemagnes death in 814 his heirs were incapable of maintaining political unity and the empire began to crumble. The Treaty of Verdun of 843 divided the Carolingian Empire into three parts, with Charles the Bald ruling over West Francia, the nucleus of what would develop into the kingdom of France. Viking advances were allowed to increase, and their dreaded longboats were sailing up the Loire and Seine rivers and other waterways, wreaking havoc. During the reign of Charles the Simple, Normans under Rollo from Norway, were settled in an area on either side of the River Seine, downstream from Paris, that was to become Normandy. With its offshoots, the houses of Valois and Bourbon, it was to rule France for more than 800 years. Henry II inherited the Duchy of Normandy and the County of Anjou, and married Frances newly divorced ex-queen, Eleanor of Aquitaine, after the French victory at the Battle of Bouvines in 1214, the English monarchs maintained power only in southwestern Duchy of Guyenne. The death of Charles IV of France in 1328 without male heirs ended the main Capetian line, under Salic law the crown could not pass through a woman, so the throne passed to Philip VI, son of Charles of Valois
11.
John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough
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General John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough, Prince of Mindelheim, KG, PC, was an English soldier and statesman whose career spanned the reigns of five monarchs. It was not until the accession of Queen Anne in 1702 that Marlborough reached the zenith of his powers and secured his fame and fortune. His marriage to the hot-tempered Sarah Jennings – Annes intimate friend – ensured Marlboroughs rise, first to the Captain-Generalcy of British forces, but his wifes stormy relationship with the Queen, and her subsequent dismissal from court, was central to his own fall. Incurring Annes disfavour, and caught between Tory and Whig factions, Marlborough, who had brought glory and success to Annes reign, was forced from office and went into self-imposed exile. He returned to England and to influence under the House of Hanover with the accession of George I to the British throne in 1714, Marlboroughs insatiable ambition made him the richest of all Annes subjects. His family connections wove him into the fabric of European politics and his leadership of the allied armies consolidated Britains emergence as a front-rank power. He successfully maintained unity among the allies, thereby demonstrating his diplomatic skills, Churchill was the son of Sir Winston Churchill of Glanvilles Wootton in Dorset, by his wife Elizabeth Drake, fourth daughter of Sir John Drake of Ash in the parish of Musbury in Devon. The Churchill family are stated by the Devon historian William George Hoskins to have originated at the estate of Churchill, in the parish of Broadclyst in Devon, although Winston had paid off the fine by 1651, it had impoverished him. From this episode may derive the Churchill family motto, Fiel Pero Desdichado, Winston Churchill and his wife Elizabeth Drake had at least nine children, only five of whom survived infancy. The eldest daughter, Arabella Churchill, was born on 28 February 1649, John Churchill, the two younger sons were George Churchill, an admiral in the Royal Navy, and Charles Churchill, a general who served on campaign in Europe with his eldest brother John. His descendant and biographer the Prime Minister Sir Winston Churchill, asserted that the conditions at Ashe might well have aroused in his mind two prevailing impressions, first a hatred of poverty. And secondly the need of hiding thoughts and feelings from those to whom their expression would be repugnant, after the Restoration of King Charles II in 1660 his fathers fortunes took a turn for the better, although he remained far from prosperous. The Kings own penury meant the old Cavaliers received scant financial reward, thus in 1665, Johns sister Arabella became Maid of Honour to Anne Hyde, the Duchess of York. Some months later John,15, joined her at court serving as page to Annes husband, James, Duke of York, the Duke of Yorks passion for all things naval and military rubbed off on young Churchill. Often accompanying the Duke inspecting the troops in the royal parks, on 14 September 1667, he obtained a commission as Ensign in the Kings Own Company in the 1st Guards, later to become the Grenadier Guards. That is unlikely, and even Sir Winston S. Churchill says There is, indeed, the known facts are that he was commissioned Ensign in September 1667, as above. By February 1671, John Churchill was back in London and duelling with Sir John Fenwick, but his liaisons with the insatiable temptress were indeed dangerous. You are a rascal, said Charles, but I forgive you because you do it to get your bread
12.
Prince Eugene of Savoy
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Born in Paris, Eugene grew up around the French court of King Louis XIV. Based on his physique and bearing, the Prince was initially prepared for a career in the church. Following a scandal involving his mother Olympe, he was rejected by Louis XIV for service in the French army, Eugene moved to Austria and transferred his loyalty to the Habsburg Monarchy. Spanning six decades, Eugene served three Holy Roman Emperors, Leopold I, Joseph I, and Charles VI, however, the Princes fame was secured with his decisive victory against the Ottomans at the Battle of Zenta in 1697, earning him Europe-wide fame. Renewed hostilities against the Ottomans in the Austro-Turkish War consolidated his reputation, with victories at the battles of Petrovaradin, nevertheless, in Austria, Eugenes reputation remains unrivalled. Eugene died in his sleep at his home on 21 April 1736, Prince Eugene was born in the Hôtel de Soissons in Paris on 18 October 1663. His mother, Olympia Mancini, was one of Cardinal Mazarins nieces whom he had brought to Paris from Rome in 1647 to further his, the Mancinis were raised at the Palais-Royal along with the young Louis XIV, with whom Olympia formed an intimate relationship. Yet to her disappointment, her chance to become queen passed by. The King remained strongly attached to Olympia, so much so that many believed them to be lovers, after falling out of favour at court, Olympia turned to Catherine Deshayes, and the arts of black magic and astrology. Embroiled in the affaire des poisons, suspicions now abounded of her involvement in her husbands death in 1673. From the age of ten, Eugene had been brought up for a career in the church, in February 1683, to the surprise of his family, Eugene declared his intention of joining the army. The request was modest, not so the petitioner, he remarked, no one else ever presumed to stare me out so insolently. Denied a military career in France, Eugene decided to service abroad. One of Eugenes brothers, Louis Julius, had entered Imperial service the previous year, when news of his death reached Paris, Eugene decided to travel to Austria in the hope of taking over his brothers command. It was not a decision, his cousin, Louis of Baden, was already a leading general in the Imperial army, as was a more distant cousin, Maximilian II Emanuel. On the night of July 26,1683, Eugene left Paris, by May 1683, the Ottoman threat to Emperor Leopold Is capital, Vienna, was very real. With the Turks at the gates, the Emperor fled for the refuge of Passau up the Danube. It was at Leopold Is camp that Eugene arrived in mid-August, although Eugene was not of Austrian extraction, he did have Habsburg antecedents
13.
Henry de Nassau, Lord Overkirk
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Henry, Count of Nassau, Lord of Overkirk was a Dutch military general and second cousin of King William III of England and his Master of the Horse. Lord of Ouwerkerk and Woudenberg in the Netherlands, he was called by the English Lord Overkirk or Count Overkirk, born in The Hague to Louis of Nassau-Beverweerd and his wife Isabella van Hoorn, Overkirk was baptised there on 16 December 1640. Granted the title Count of Nassau by the Emperor Leopold I in 1679, he joined William IIIs invasion of England in 1688 and he resided in London, notably at Overkirk House, which later became part of 10 Downing Street. Overkirk was one of the Duke of Marlboroughs most trusted generals and he was made Field Marshal of the Dutch States Army in 1704. Overkirk died on 18 October 1708 at Roeselare in modern-day Belgium and is buried the Nassau-LaLecq Crypt at Ouderkerk aan den IJssel and his widow continued to live at Overkirk House until her own death in 1720. The future Lord Overkirk married Frances van Aerssen van Sommelsdijck, daughter of Cornelius, Lord of Sommelsdijk and they had eight children, including five sons, of whom two married and had children. Her widower committed suicide on 4 September 1701, shortly after inheriting the peerage on 2 August 1701 and he was buried with his father on 22 September 1701 at Kilkhampton. Her son, William Henry Granville], became 3rd Earl of Granville, lodewijk van Nassau Lucia van Nassau Henry Nassau dAuverquerque, 1st Earl of Grantham whose two sons both died in his lifetime, making his nephew Hendrik his heir as of 1730. Frans van Nassau, died in the Battle of Almenar Lucia Anna van Nassau married 11 February 1705 Nanfan Coote, 2nd Earl of Bellomont,1674, present at the battle of Seneffe. 1678, present at the battle of St. Denis, where he saved the life of William III,1690, present at the battle of the Boyne 1693, present at the battle of Neerwinden. 1705, commanding the Dutch army while breaking the Lines of Brabant at the Battle of Elixheim,1706, commanding the left wing at the battle of Ramillies, and playing a major part in the victory. 1708, commanding the left wing at the battle of Oudenaarde,1708, Fell ill during the siege of Lille and died 4 days later of disease in camp at nearby Roeselare. Reinildis van Ditzhuyzen, Oranje-Nassau, Een biografisch woordenboek, Haarlem 2004, 122-124
14.
Louis, Dauphin of France (1682-1712)
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Louis, Duke of Burgundy and later Dauphin of France was the eldest son of Louis, Grand Dauphin, and father of Louis XV. Until he became the official Dauphin of France upon his fathers death in 1711, he was known as Le Petit Dauphin to distinguish him from his father, who was known as le Grand Dauphin. Louis was born in the Palace of Versailles, the eldest son of Louis, le Grand Dauphin, at birth, he received the title of Duke of Burgundy. He lost his mother when he was eight and his father never played a major role in politics. Fénelons thoughts and beliefs influenced the young prince throughout his life, at the age of 15, he married his second cousin, Princess Marie-Adélaïde of Savoy, the daughter of Victor Amadeus II, Duke of Savoy and Anne Marie dOrléans. This match had been decided as part of the Treaty of Turin, the wedding took place on 7 December 1697 at the Palace of Versailles. In 1702, at the age of twenty, the Duke of Burgundy was admitted by Louis XIV to the Conseil den haut and his father had only been admitted to the High Council at the age of thirty. In 1708, during the War of the Spanish Succession, Louis was given command of the army in Flanders, with the experienced soldier Louis Joseph, Duke of Vendôme, serving under him. The uncertainty as to which of the two should truly command the army led to delays and the need to refer decisions to Louis XIV, continued indecision led to French inactivity as messages travelled between the front and Versailles, the Allies were then able to take the initiative. The culmination of this was the Battle of Oudenarde, where the Duke of Burgundys mistaken choices and reluctance to support Vendôme led to a decisive defeat for the French. In the aftermath of the defeat, his hesitation to relieve the Siege of Lille led to the loss of the city and these high-ranking aristocrats sought a return to a monarchy less absolute and less centralised, with more powers granted to the individual provinces. They perceived that government should work through councils and intermediary organs between the king and the people, had the Duke of Burgundy succeeded to the throne, he may have applied this concept of monarchy. Louis became Dauphin of France upon the death of his father in 1711, in February 1712, his wife contracted measles and died on February 12. The Duke of Burgundy, who loved his wife and who had stayed by her side throughout the fatal illness, picked up the disease and died on 18 February. He died at the Château de Marly at the age of 29, both of his sons also became infected. The elder, Louis, Duke of Brittany, the latest in a series of Dauphins, the only one to survive was the two-year-old Duke of Anjou, the future King Louis XV. It also ruined the hopes of the faction de Bourgogne, whose members would die of natural death. However, the absenteeism, ineptitude and conflicts of the aristocrats caused this system of governance to fail, and it was soon abandoned in 1718 in favour of a return to absolute monarchy
15.
Siege of Landau (1702)
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The Siege of Landau saw an army from the Holy Roman Empire led by Louis William, Margrave of Baden-Baden lay siege to the fortress city of Landau which was held for the Kingdom of France. The French defenders led by Ezéchiel du Mas, Comte de Mélac resisted vigorously but were forced to surrender after a three-month leaguer and this action of the War of the Spanish Succession occurred at Landau in the state of Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany, located 49 kilometres southwest of Mannheim. The earliest actions from the war were focused in northern Italy in 1701, in the Palatinate, Louis of Baden and an Imperial army crossed the Rhine River at Speyer and moved south to invest Landau. After losing a key position, Mélac and his garrison were forced to capitulate. At this time, the Electorate of Bavaria became a French ally, tipping the balance of power, the next clash was the Battle of Friedlingen on 14 October 1702. Once an Imperial city, Landau was awarded to the Kingdom of France by the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648, in 1689 a fire burned down three-quarters of the city, allowing the French to redesign the streets under the direction of another engineer officer Jacques Tarade. In 1700 Tarade added the Crownwork on a hill on the northwest side of the city as additional protection, the Queich River split Landau into northern and southern parts. The eight-sided fortress was protected by a bastion at each corner, a clever system of locks allowed the defenders to control the depth of water in the ditches. A fast-flowing waterway called the Flaque made assault impossible on two-thirds of the fortress, a single bridge over the Flaque linked Landau with the Crownwork. The first fighting in the War of the Spanish Succession began in Italy, the baffled Catinat was soon transferred to defend Alsace. On 7 September 1701 the Grand Alliance was formed to halt the aggression of the Kingdom of France, the Grand Alliance included the Holy Roman Empire, Kingdom of England, Dutch Republic, Margraviate of Brandenburg, Electoral Palatinate and most German states. Frances allies were the Duchy of Savoy, Electorate of Cologne, in early 1702, Louis William, Margrave of Baden-Baden was given command of the troops of the Swabian, Franconian, Upper Rhenish and Westphalian Imperial Circles and the Electoral Palatinate. In April Louis crossed to the west bank of the Rhine near Speyer, the Imperial army occupied Wissembourg and Lauterbourg before marching on Landau. The Palatine army was camped at Lustadt while 2,000 men under Count Leiningen held Germersheim, Count Friesen was first stationed at Rastatt on the east bank, he crossed to the west bank on 22 April and joined the army of Louis. On 24 April, Louis reconnoitered the fortress and then building an entrenched camp at Langenkandel for his own army. These activities preceded the declaration of war occurred on 15 May. In fact the Holy Roman Empire was not officially at war until 6 October, Louis of Baden was named commander of all troops on the Rhine on 18 June. Louis of Badens Imperial host numbered 25,900 infantry and 10,920 cavalry organized into 41 battalions and 71 squadrons, the largest segment of the army were the Imperial troops, consisting of 8,400 foot and 8,000 horse
16.
Battle of Friedlingen
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The Battle of Friedlingen was fought in 1702 between France and the Holy Roman Empire. The Imperial forces were led by Louis William, Margrave of Baden-Baden, the French were seeking to expand their influence on the eastern bank of the river Rhine. In the autumn of 1702, Villars received orders from Louis XIV to attack Swabia, the French forces needed to join their Bavarian allies and defeat the Imperial troops that stood between them. The French crossed the Rhine at Weil am Rhein, just north of Basle on 14 October 1702, Villars attacked the Imperial army at Friedlingen. The future field marshal Louis William entrenched his army and managed to hold the French for some time and he then retreated in good order to the North. It was a Pyrrhic victory for Villars, French losses were high,1,703 dead and 2,601 wounded, whereas the Imperial forces lost 3,000 dead and 742 wounded. Villars was also prevented from joining the Bavarians, the villages on the eastern bank of the Rhine suffered much damage, especially Weil am Rhein. Ripley, George, Dana, Charles A. eds, the Vinkhuijzen collection of military uniforms, France, 1750-1757. Archived from the original on 8 March 2013, the Wars of Louis XIV 1667-1714, Longman, ISBN 978-0-582-05629-9 Villars writes about the battle of Friedlingen
17.
Siege of Bonn (1703)
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The Siege of Bonn took place in 1703 during the War of the Spanish Succession when an Allied force laid siege to and forced the surrender of the French garrison of the city of Bonn. The Allied forces were part of a field army commanded by John Churchill. The siege was portrayed in a painting by Alexander van Gaelen. It was the siege of the city in thirty years
18.
Battle of Ekeren
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The Battle of Ekeren, June 30,1703 was a battle of the War of the Spanish Succession. The French surrounded a Dutch force, which avoided destruction. This battle ended hope of an allied victory in the Spanish Netherlands in 1703. After taking Bonn on May 15, Marlborough now wanted to conquer Ostend, Antwerp and he ordered the Dutch general, Coehoorn, to march to Ostend and lay siege to it. Dutch general Van Sparre would march south west of Antwerp, Dutch general Obdam would march south from Bergen op Zoom, the United Provinces, however, were not keen to open the ports of Antwerp and Ostend to English commerce and thus to their competition with the Dutch. Therefore, Coehoorn did not besiege Ostend, but plundered the countryside between Ostend and Antwerp, Obdam marched on June 28 from Bergen op Zoom to Antwerp, arriving the next day at Ekeren, seven kilometres from Antwerp. Villeroi was not misled by Marlboroughs diversionary manoeuver, and sent all his troops from Diest to Antwerp to protect it, after hearing of this Marlborough tried to warn Obdam, ordering a withdrawal to Lillo, but he was too late. The Marquis of Bedmar and his Spanish troops were positioned near Wilmarsdonk and this ensured that the Dutch forces were surrounded on all sides by a superior force. Soon Dutch reconnaissance discovered the French dragoons and Obdam immediately sent his cavalry to Hoevenen, but it was too late, an attempt to conquer neighboring Muisbroek also failed. Then the French attacked, and Obdam tried to take Oorderen, the fighting went on for the entire day. By eight oclock there was no sign of Obdam, and Slangenburg decided to attempt an attack on Oorderen. Friesheim sent his men wading through the water, appearing where the French had not expected them to and this action enabled the remaining Dutch troops to break through and retreat in the darkness towards the Netherlands. The battle was a victory for the French, but Boufflers wasnt congratulated at all, Obdam survived and escaped south in the afternoon with thirty horsemen, disguising themselves as Frenchmen. His behaviour was not forgiven by the Dutch military, and his career was destroyed. Slangenburg, for his part, was acclaimed as a Dutch hero and he was also furious at Marlborough, who had been outmanoeuvered by the French and had not come to the aid of the Dutch. The Dutch lost 1,717 killed,1,003 wounded, the French and Spaniards lost 1,750 men. A large part of the battlefield, including the villages of Oorderen, Wilmarsdonk and Lillo, has disappeared under the Port of Antwerp expansion in the 1960s
19.
Battle of Schellenberg
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The Battle of Schellenberg, also known as the Battle of Donauwörth, was fought on 2 July 1704 during the War of the Spanish Succession. The engagement was part of the Duke of Marlboroughs campaign to save the Habsburg capital of Vienna from an advance by King Louis XIVs Franco-Bavarian forces ranged in southern Germany. For this purpose, Marlborough selected the town of Donauwörth, rejecting a protracted siege, Marlborough decided in favour of a quick assault, before the position could be made impregnable. After two failed attempts to storm the barricades, the Allied commanders, acting in unison, finally managed to overwhelm the defenders. It had taken just two hours to secure the bridgehead over the river in a hard fought contest, but following the victory, the deliberate devastation of the Electors lands in Bavaria failed to bring Max Emanuel to battle or persuade him back into the Imperial fold. The Battle of Schellenberg was part of the Grand Alliances campaign of 1704 to prevent the Franco-Bavarian army from threatening Vienna, the capital of Habsburg Austria. However, when the Elector was notified on 5 June of Marlboroughs march from the Low Countries, holy Roman Emperor Leopold I was keen to lure the Elector back into the Imperial fold after he had switched allegiance to fight for King Louis XIV before the war. By 22 June Marlboroughs army had linked up with elements of the Margrave of Badens Imperial forces at Launsheim, by the end of June their combined strength totalled nearly 80,000 men. Once the Allies had combined their forces, the Elector and Marsin moved their 40,000 troops into the camp between Dillingen and Lauingen on the north bank of the Danube. The Schellenberg heights dominate the skyline to the northeast of Donauwörth – the walled town on the confluence of the Wörnitz, the western section of the lines ran steeply downhill from the fort to the city walls. Here, there was little to show in terms of defences, in 1703 Marshal Villars had advised the Elector to fortify his towns. And above all the Schellenberg, that fort above Donauwörth, the importance of which the great Gustavus taught us. DArco was entrusted with 12,000 men, most of whom were drawn from Bavarias best units including the Electors Guards, in addition, Donauwörth was held by a French battalion and two battalions of Bavarian militia. On the night of 1–2 July, the Allies were camped at Armerdingen,15 miles from Donauwörth, dArco knew of the whereabouts of the Allied camp at Armerdingen, and was confident he had at least a full day and night to prepare his defences. At 03,00 on 2 July the Allied advance guard began to camp for the march towards Donauwörth. Marlborough personally oversaw the advance of the assault force of 5, 850-foot. The Dutch General Johan Wijnand van Goor would lead this vanguard, in all, the Allies were deploying 22,000 men in the operation. There was, therefore, no time to be lost, as the Allies marched, work on the defences of Donauwörth and the Schellenberg were proceeding in earnest
20.
Battle of Blenheim
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The Battle of Blenheim, fought on 13 August 1704, was a major battle of the War of the Spanish Succession. The overwhelming Allied victory ensured the safety of Vienna from the Franco-Bavarian army, Louis XIV of France sought to knock Emperor Leopold out of the war by seizing Vienna, the Habsburg capital, and gain a favourable peace settlement. Vienna was also pressure from Rákóczis Hungarian revolt from its eastern approaches. Realising the danger, the Duke of Marlborough resolved to alleviate the peril to Vienna by marching his forces south from Bedburg, after securing Donauwörth on the Danube, Marlborough sought to engage the Electors and Marsins army before Marshal Tallard could bring reinforcements through the Black Forest. However, with the Franco-Bavarian commanders reluctant to fight until their numbers were deemed sufficient, the battle has gone down in history as one of the turning points of the War of the Spanish Succession. Bavaria was knocked out of the war, and Louis hopes for a victory came to an end. France suffered over 30,000 casualties including the commander-in-chief, Marshal Tallard, before the 1704 campaign ended, the Allies had taken Landau, and the towns of Trier and Trarbach on the Moselle in preparation for the following years campaign into France itself. By 1704, the War of the Spanish Succession was in its fourth year, Vienna had been saved by dissension between the two commanders, leading to the brilliant Villars being replaced by the less dynamic Marshal Marsin. In the courts of Versailles and Madrid, Viennas fall was confidently anticipated, a scarlet caterpillar, upon which all eyes were at once fixed, began to crawl steadfastly day by day across the map of Europe, dragging the whole war with it. Marlboroughs march started on 19 May from Bedburg,20 miles north-west of Cologne, the army consisted of 66 squadrons,31 battalions and 38 guns and mortars totalling 21,000 men. This force was to be augmented en route such that by the time Marlborough reached the Danube, whilst Marlborough led his army, General Overkirk would maintain a defensive position in the Dutch Republic in case Villeroi mounted an attack. In this assumption Marlborough proved correct, Villeroi shadowed the Duke with 30,000 men in 60 squadrons and 42 battalions, such a long march would almost certainly involve a high wastage of men and horses through exhaustion and disease. However, Marlborough was convinced of the urgency – I am very sensible that I take a deal upon me, he had earlier written to Godolphin, but should I act otherwise. Whilst Allied preparations had progressed, the French were striving to maintain, Tallard then returned with his own force to the Rhine, once again side-stepping Thüngens efforts to intercept him. The whole operation was a military achievement. On 26 May, Marlborough reached Coblenz, where the Moselle meets the Rhine, If he intended an attack along the Moselle the Duke must now turn west, but, instead, the following day the army crossed to the right bank of the Rhine. There will be no campaign on the Moselle, wrote Villeroi who had taken up a position on the river. A second possible objective now occurred to the French – an Allied incursion into Alsace, with Villeroi shadowing Marlboroughs every move, Marlboroughs gamble that the French would not move against the weakened Dutch position in the Netherlands paid off
21.
Battle of Ramillies
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The Battle of Ramillies /ˈræmɪliːz/, fought on 23 May 1706, was a battle of the War of the Spanish Succession. For the Grand Alliance – Austria, England, and the Dutch Republic – the battle had followed a campaign against the Bourbon armies of King Louis XIV of France in 1705. Although the Allies had captured Barcelona that year, they had forced to abandon their campaign on the Moselle, had stalled in the Spanish Netherlands. Yet despite his opponents setbacks Louis XIV was desirous of peace –, for this end and in order to maintain their momentum, the French and their allies took the offensive in 1706. Encouraged by these early gains Louis XIV urged Marshal Villeroi to go over to the offensive in the Spanish Netherlands and, with victory, gain a fair peace. Accordingly, the French Marshal set off from Leuven at the head of 60,000 men and marched towards Tienen, as if to threaten Zoutleeuw. Also determined to fight an engagement, the Duke of Marlborough, commander-in-chief of Anglo-Dutch forces, assembled his army – some 62,000 men – near Maastricht. With both sides seeking battle, they encountered each other on the dry ground between the Mehaigne and Petite Gheete rivers, close to the small village of Ramillies. In less than four hours Marlboroughs Dutch, English, and Danish forces overwhelmed Villerois, the Dukes subtle moves and changes in emphasis during the battle – something his opponents failed to realise until it was too late – caught the French in a tactical vice. With their foe broken and routed, the Allies were able to exploit their victory. Town after town fell, including Brussels, Bruges and Antwerp, with Prince Eugenes subsequent success at the Battle of Turin in northern Italy, the Allies had imposed the greatest loss of territory and resources that Louis XIV would suffer during the war. Thus, the year 1706 proved, for the Allies, to be an annus mirabilis, after their disastrous defeat at Blenheim in 1704, the next year brought the French some respite. Marlborough had to cope with the death of Emperor Leopold I in May and the accession of Joseph I, the resilience of the French King and the efforts of his generals, also added to Marlborough’s problems. Marshal Villeroi, exerting pressure on the Dutch commander, Count Overkirk, along the Meuse. With Marshal Villars sitting strong on the Moselle, the Allied commander – whose supplies had by now very short – was forced to call off his campaign on 16 June. What a disgrace for Marlborough, exulted Villeroi, to have made false movements without any result, with Marlborough’s departure north, the French transferred troops from the Moselle valley to reinforce Villeroi in Flanders, while Villars marched off to the Rhine. On 11 January 1706, Marlborough finally reached London at the end of his diplomatic tour and it seems that the Duke’s favoured scheme was to return to the Moselle valley and once more attempt an advance into the heart of France. But these decisions soon became academic, shortly after Marlborough landed in the Dutch Republic on 14 April, news arrived of big Allied setbacks in the wider war
22.
Action of 2 May 1707
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The action began when three French ships, the Grifon, Blackoal and Dauphine, grappled HMS Hampton Court, killing her captain, George Clements, and taking her. Claude Forbins 60-gun Mars next attacked HMS Grafton and, when joined by the French ships Blackoal and Fidèle, killed the Captain Edward Acton, the French took 21 merchant ships, besides the two 70-gun ships of the line, and carried them all into Dunkirk. This squadron consisted of 7 sail of the line and 6 privateers, the action began when 3 French ships, Griffon, Blackoal and La Dauphine, grappled Hampton Court and killed Captain Clements. Commodore Wyld took five of his largest merchant ships into his line, for two and a half hours a heavy fire was kept up on both sides, Hampton Court fought desperately and was obliged to surrender. La Dauphine next vigorously attacked Grafton and when joined by the French ships Blackoal and Fidele, claude Forbins 60-gun Mars attacked Commodore Wylds Royal Oak. The ship having eleven feet water in her hold, managed to escape with great loss by running ashore, Mars 60 – Chevalier de Forbin, Chef de division. La Dauphine 56 – Comte de Roquefeuil, salisbury 50 – Chevalier de Vezins. Griffon 50 – Chevalir de Nangis, HMS Royal Oak 76 – Commodore Baron Wylde, Escaped. HMS Hampton Court 70 – Captain George Clements †, Captured, HMS Grafton 70 – Captain Edward Acton †, Captured. The Maritime History of the World, A Chronological Survey of Maritime Events from 5,000 B. C. Battles of the British Navy, from A. D.1000 to 1840 Bell & Daldy publishing, ASIN B00087UD9S Troude, O. Batailles navales de la France, Vol. I
23.
Battle at The Lizard
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Duguay-Trouin and Forbin were two of the most successful French naval commanders and they caused much damage to the allied merchant fleet. On 20 October 1707 a large merchant fleet consisting of 80 to 130 English ships left Plymouth for Portugal with supplies for the war in Spain, there were five escorting English ships under command of Commodore Edwards. The next day near Lizard Point they were spotted by 2 French squadrons of 6 ships each. This battle was almost a complete victory for the French, the 80-gun Cumberland and the 50-gun ships Chester and Ruby were taken, the 80-gun Devonshire defended herself for several hours against seven French ships until she caught fire and blew up, only three men escaping out of 500. French sources speak of 60 ships out of 80, some British of none at all, probably the truth is somewhere in between, Polak in Bibliographie maritime française speaks of 15 merchant ships captured. Battles of the British Navy, from A. D.1000 to 1840, bell & Daldy publishing ASIN, B00087UD9S Jean et Michèle Polak, Bibliographie maritime française Commission Française dHistoire Militaire HMS Chester HMS Devonshire
24.
Battle of Wijnendale
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It ended in a victory for the allies, leading to the taking of Lille. After their great victory in the Battle of Oudenaarde, Marlborough, but Lille was very well defended by modern fortifications designed by Vauban and a garrison of 16,000 men. The allied siege didnt go as well as planned and a lack of ammunition was imminent. To make things worst, the lines from the east were cut by the French, so the only remaining line of supply was by ship from England to the port of Ostend. Marlborough ordered the goods to be shipped to Ostend and a large convoy of 700 slow wagons was organised there to travel further over land to Lille. The convoy was protected by 6,000 infantry and 1,500 cavalry under command of general-major John Richmond Webb. The commander of the French garrison of Bruges, Count de la Mothe, was informed of the convoy, Webb was aware of the advancing French army and knew a confrontation was unavoidable. He drew up a plan to compensate for his numerical disadvantage, using the wooded landscape around Wijnendale, he chose an open spot, flanked on both sides by woods and hedges. He placed his troops in two lines, closing off this open space. Later a third line was formed with reinforcements coming from Oudenburg, meanwhile, behind these lines, the convoy continued slowly towards Lille. Having arrived at the space, de la Mothe, expecting an easy victory. Between 4 and 5 pm the French artillery opened fire, when de la Mothe saw the effects on the enemy were limited, he ordered his infantry forward. The large French force was hampered by the terrain and suffered badly from the fire of the allied first line. Then Webb ordered the Prussian, Hanoverian and Dutch regiments who were hidden in the woods on both flanks, to open fire, despite suffering heavy casualties, de la Mothe ordered a second attack, which initially pushed the allied first line back. But with the help of the line and the continuous fire from the flanks. When the battle was as good as won, allied cavalry under command of William Cadogan arrived at the battlefield and he was sent from Lille by Marlborough, who was worried about the convoy. The toll of this battle was heavy,3,000 to 4,000 French. The allies lost 900 dead and wounded, the convoy reached Lille intact on 29 September, allowing the siege to continue
25.
Battle of Malplaquet
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After a late start to the campaigning season owing to the unusually harsh winter preceding it, the allied campaign of 1709 began in mid June. Villars moved after him, under new orders from Louis XIV to prevent the fall of Mons at all costs – effectively an order for the aggressive Marshal to give battle. After several complicated manoeuvres, the two faced each other across the gap of Malplaquet, south-west of Mons. Boufflers was officially Villars superior but voluntarily serving under him, the allies had about 86,000 troops and 100 guns and the French had about 75,000 and 80 guns, and they were encamped within cannon range of each other near what is now the France/Belgium border. At around 1.00 pm Villars was badly wounded by a ball which smashed his knee. The decisive final attack was made on the now weakened French centre by British infantry under the command of the Earl of Orkney and this enabled the Allied cavalry to advance through this line and confront the French cavalry behind it. A fierce cavalry battle now ensued, in which Boufflers personally led the troops of the Maison du Roi. He managed no less than six times to drive the Allied cavalry back upon the redans, finally, by 3.00 pm Boufflers, realising that the battle could not be won, ordered a retreat, which was made in good order. The Allies had suffered so many casualties in their attack that they could not pursue him, by this time they had lost over 21,000 men, almost twice as many as the French. Villars himself remarked on the enemys Pyrrhic victory via the flip-side of King Pyrrhus famous quote, If it please God to give your majestys enemies another such victory, they are ruined. A first-hand account of the Battle of Malplaquet is given in the book Amiable Renegade, Captain Peter Drake, an Irishman who spent most of his life as a mercenary in the service of various European armies, served the French cause in the battle and was wounded several times. Drake wrote his memoirs at an advanced age, in contrast with the Dukes previous victories, however, the French army was able to withdraw in good order and relatively intact, and remained a potent threat to further allied operations. Nonetheless, news of Malplaquet, the bloodiest battle of the century, stunned Europe. For the last of his four great battlefield victories, the Duke of Marlborough received no letter of thanks from Queen Anne. The rumour post-battle that even Marlborough had died spawned one of the most popular French folk songs of all time, margery Allinghams mystery novel Sweet Danger includes a vital document hidden in the Malplaquet or Pontisbright drum. Battle of Malplaquet at Battlefield Anomalies, the French Army 1600–1900 Battle of Malplaquet at BritishBattles. com Amiable Renegade, The Memoirs of Captain Peter Drake
26.
Battle of Denain
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The Battle of Denain was fought on 24 July 1712, as part of the War of the Spanish Succession. It resulted in a French victory under Marshal Villars against Austrian, the War of Spanish Succession had raged since 1701. After over a decade of war, France was in a dark period, in 1708, after the rout of Oudenaarde, nearly all the strongholds of northern France were under the control of the Austro-British coalition. There was also an economic crisis leading to famine and high mortality in the populace, the command of the French northern army went to Marshal Villars in 1709, who wasted no time in seeing to its reorganization. Frances precarious position had stabilized, the Allies were unable to achieve their goal of forcing harsh terms on the Bourbons. In May 1712, Villars prepared to take the offensive, the French gathered an army of 200,000 men on the northern border, stretching from Arras to Cambrai. The Allied northern army was positioned along the Scarpe between Douai and Marchiennes, occupying the communes of Denain and Landrecies, in June, Prince Eugene besieged and captured Le Quesnoy. The Duke of Ormonde withdrew his forces during the siege, leading to a rift between the British and the rest of the Allies, after a detailed examination of the enemy dispositions, Villars decided in the greatest secrecy to attack Denain. Elements of the French cavalry were sent to seize the bridges crossing the river Selle which ran through le Cateau to join the Scheldt opposite Denain. During the evening a French detachment also took up positions around a mill at Haspres and that night the French infantry began to march towards Prince Eugene’s forces at Landrecies. In response to threat, Prince Eugene reinforced Landrecies, weakening the Allied right wing holding Denain. At dawn, however, Villars swung the line of advance of his army, at seven o’clock the French infantrymen reached Neuville-sur-Escaut and were immediately ordered to seize the bridges across the Scheldt. At eight o’clock, the Allies were surprised to discover the large French presence in the area, the Earl of Albermarle, at the head of the Dutch garrison in and around Denain, warned Prince Eugene, but the Prince of Savoy was not greatly concerned at the time. By one in the afternoon the attack had developed to the point of an assault on the palisade at Denain, the French sappers led the infantry against heavy fire and took Denain at the point of the bayonet. Many defenders were killed and the remaining Dutch infantry attempted to escape across the mill bridge, realizing the gravity of the situation, Prince Eugene attempted to force his way across the Scheldt at Prouvy to help Albemarle. This left the Prince of Savoys army blocked on the flank by the Scheldt. There, Albemarle and his staff were taken prisoner, together with some 4,100 troops, the battle was not immediately recognised to be as decisive as it turned out to be, most of Prince Eugenes army was relatively unscathed. However, with the loss of Denain the Allied position began to unravel, chandler, David G. Marlborough as Military Commander
27.
Battle of Carpi
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The Battle of Carpi was a series of manoeuvres in the summer of 1701, and the first battle of the War of the Spanish Succession that took place on 9 July 1701 between France and Austria. But supply difficulties hampered Eugene, and the French were able to occupy the positions of the Rivoli. There Catinat thought himself secure, as all the country to the east was Venetian and his first object was to cross the Adige without fighting, and also by ravaging the duke of Mantua Charles IVs private estates to induce that prince to change sides. His first dispositions had, of course, been for the defence of the Rivoli approaches, after five weeks cautious manoeuvring on both sides, Eugene found an unguarded spot about 10 km southeast of Legnago near the town of Castagnaro. With the usual precautions of secrecy, he crossed the lower Adige in the night of 8/9 July, Catinat at once concentrated his scattered army backwards on the Mincio, while Eugene turned northward and regained touch with his old line of supply, Roveredo-Rivoli. For some time Eugene was in difficulties for supplies, as the Venetians would not allow his barges to descend the Adige. At last, however, he made his preparations to cross the Mincio close to Peschiera del Garda and well beyond Catinats left and this was executed on 28 July. Catinats cavalry, though coming within sight of Eugenes bridges, offered no opposition and it seems that the marshal was well content to find that his opponent had no intention of attacking the Spanish possessions in the Peninsula, at any rate Catinat fell back quietly to the Oglio. Ripley, George, Dana, Charles A. eds, the Vinkhuijzen collection of military uniforms, France, 1750-1757. Archived from the original on 8 March 2013, attribution This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Hannay, David McDowall
28.
Battle of Chiari
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The Battle of Chiari was fought on 1 September 1701 during the War of the Spanish Succession. Marshal Villeroi replaced Catinat as commander of the Franco–Spanish–Savoyard forces in the theatre, foreseeing Villerois intention of attacking at any price, Eugene entrenched himself in front of the small fortress of Chiari, and waited for the attack. In a battle lasted several hours the Austrians inflicted heavy casualties on Villerois forces. The campaign established Eugene in Lombardy, and helped to persuade the Maritime Powers to come to the aid of the Emperor, within a week of the battle England, the Dutch Republic, and Leopold I, had signed the second treaty of the Grand Alliance. Eugene now effected the passage of the Mincio at Peschiera del Garda, the failure of Catinat to withstand the advance of a much smaller Imperial army evoked indignation at Versailles, leading King Louis XIV to replace Catinat with the ageing duc de Villeroi. Villeroi – with orders to risk a battle – arrived in theatre in late August, Louis XIV needed a victory to assure the continued loyalty of Italy to his grandsons regime. Villeroi joined the army, and his generals – the Duke of Savoy, Catinat, Eugene welcomed the prospect of a decisive battle, and waited on the eastern side of the Oglio to be attacked. The Imperial commander had chosen his ground carefully, entrenching his troops, streams protected his position on three sides, as there was not enough room for a cavalry engagement, Eugene could count on a frontal attack by the French infantry. Villeroi ignored Catinats warning that Eugene was in a strong position, on 1 September the Franco-Spanish infantry advanced. Firing from point-blank range the Austrians drove back the French with a withering fire, with only minor losses the Imperial army had inflicted over 3,000 casualties in the ranks, and over 250 officers. This number would grow rapidly as fever attacked the wounded, Villeroi lost personal control during the battle, and Catinat, despite being wounded, had to organise a retreat. The French dug themselves in only a mile or so away from the Austrians on the side of the Oglio. However, as advanced, conditions deteriorated in both camps, fodder was so short that Eugenes horses were forced to eat fallen leaves. But the French, whose camp was built on ground, suffered most. For his winter quarters Eugene proceeded to reduce the whole Duchy of Mantua, except the capital and Goito, since the beginning of the year Count Wratislaw had been in London as Imperial minister, pressing for assistance. With Eugenes two victories, Leopold I had proved he would fight to protect his interests, giving Wratislaw the arguments he needed to push through the alliance with the Maritime Powers. On 7 September 1701 – within a week of the battle – England, the French were still in Milan, but their position was weak, morale was poor and desertion was high. Louis XIV wrote to Villeroi urging him to work closely with Catinat and, if you do … the King, my grandson, will lose Italy
29.
Battle of Cassano (1705)
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The Battle of Cassano, fought on 16 August 1705, was a battle in the Italian theatre of the War of the Spanish Succession. Both sides suffered casualties, but the French were victorious. In 1705, Vendômes army and a fresh corps from France were engaged in the attempt to subdue Victor Amadeus, Vendômes success led to Amadeus asking the Emperor for a new army. Eugene of Savoy commanded this army, opposed to which was a force under Vendômes brother Philippe, at the start of the battle Philippe was surprised by Eugenes fierce attack on the line of the Adda. Eugene nearly crossed the river until the arrival of Vendôme, which prevented him from crossing, eugene of Savoy was wounded during the battle and left Italy for treatment in Austria. Dessau was also wounded and his Prussian contingent was decimated, the Austrian army had finally to retire towards Tyrol for the winter. Eugenes activity had greatly relieved the pressure on Piedmont, enabled Turin to hold out, the French put off the subjugation of Piedmont until the following year, on Louiss orders. The battle had taken a toll on both sides. It is estimated that on both sides,4000 men were killed,6000 were wounded and an unknown amount drowned in the river, the Wars of Louis XIV, 1667–1714. ISBN 0-582-05629-2 I morti delle tre bocche
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Battle of Calcinato
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The Battle of Calcinato was fought on 19 April 1706 near Calcinato, Italy, during the War of the Spanish Succession, between the forces of Bourbon France and Spain and those of the Austrian Habsburgs. It ended in a victory for Marshal Vendômes French and Spanish army, the latter, repulsed by Vendôme at Cassano, had retired to Brescia and Lake Garda, Vendôme following up and wintering about Castiglione and Mantua. Vandome was now in a position to move his forces to isolate and overwhelm the enemy, the French assault finally began, that day, with the march of Vandomes infantry upon the enemy positions. Passing ditches in the presence of fire, the French pushed into a melee on the Imperialist right wing, throwing it into disorder. Similarly, the French bore the charge of the Imperialist left wing without firing a single piece, and fell upon it in turn. Similarly, he deployed components of his army to Salò and Gavardo, as a result of the disastrous Siege of Turin the French position in Italy deteriorated drastically, and by the end of the year, all French forces had been chased from Italy. The Wars of Louis XIV, 1667–1714
31.
Siege of Turin
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The Siege of Turin was undertaken by Philippe II, Duke of Orléans and General Louis dAubusson de la Feuillade against the Savoyard city of Turin during the War of the Spanish Succession. The French Royal Army was unable to break down Turins defences or obtain the citys surrender, the besiegers were attacked on 7 September by a Habsburg Austrian relief column under Prince Eugene of Savoy and Victor Amadeus, Duke of Savoy and routed at the Battle of the Stura. The siege of Turin was broken and the withdrawal of French forces from northern Italy began, coupled with its twin disaster in Flanders—the destruction of a French army at the Battle of Ramillies—Turin marked 1706 as the annus horribilis for Louis XIV of France. However, in case of defeat, Piedmont and Savoy would be wiped off the European maps, king Louis XIV of France, allied with Spain, replied by invading first Savoy and then Piedmont itself. As the Spanish armies occupied Lombardy, Piedmont found itself surrounded from every side, attacked by three armies, the Savoyards lost Susa, Vercelli, Chivasso, Ivrea and Nice. The last stronghold was the Citadel of Turin, a built in the mid-16th century. In August 1705 the French-Spanish armies were ready to attack, but La Feuillade deemed his troops insufficient and this choice turned out to be wrong, as it allowed the Piedmontese to fortify the city up to the neighbouring hills and to prepare for a long siege. In May, the Franco-Spanish army approached Turin with more than 40,000 men, marshal Sébastien Le Prestre de Vauban, expert of siege techniques, volunteered for the campaign but was dismissed due to his age. But La Feuillade had different ideas and, dismissing Vaubans counsel, old Vauban vocally condemned La Feuillades methods from Paris, publicly offering to have his throat cut if the French succeeded in taking Turin on La Feuillades chosen point of attack. Digging began on 14 May, although La Feuillades lines never fully surrounded Turin, the siege began in June and was pursued for three months against dogged resistance. The besieged, supported by the participation of the population to the battle, offered a strenuous defence. Fighting continued during the summer of 1706. On 17 June Victor Amadeus left Turin to meet Eugene, who was marching from the Trentino with Austrian troops under his command, on 2 September the two Savoyards analyzed the tactical situation from the hill of Superga, which commands Turin and the neighbouring area. The manoeuvre succeeded and the Austrians managed to set up camp between the Dora Riparia and the Stura di Lanzo rivers, Eugene declared, These men are already half defeated. The final clash began at 10 AM on 7 September with an attack against the front of the besiegers. After three failed attacks, the Prussian infantry led by Leopold I, Prince of Anhalt-Dessau was able to break the French right wing because the La Marine Regiment ran out of ammunition. Two attempts to relieve the pocket formed in this way were driven back, the advance of the Allied army towards Pinerolo started in the early afternoon of the same day. Franco-Spanish losses totaled 9,800, including 6,000 captured, marshal Ferdinand de Marsin, adviser to the Duke of Orleans, was fatally wounded and died in Allied custody
32.
Battle of Toulon (1707)
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The Battle of Toulon was fought from 29 July to 21 August 1707 at Toulon, France during the War of the Spanish Succession. During the battle, a French and Spanish force defeated one from Austria, in July 1707, Prince Eugene tried to take the French naval port of Toulon. Eugene had crossed the Var on the 11th, and – although hampered by the negligence and he was in touch with the British fleet under Admiral Shovell by the 16th. Shovell, before he evacuated, bombarded the French harbour and was able to sink two French ships of the line and damage two others. King Louis XIV gave orders that they be sunk and later be refloated and he was concerned that the Royal Navy would burn the ships, the three deckers would lie with only their upper decks showing above the water. Marlborough, Britains Greatest General, Englands Fragile Genius, Harper Perennial,2009 ISBN 0-00-722572-5 Gazetteer Entry
33.
Cesana Torinese
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Cesana Torinese is a comune in the Province of Turin in the Italian region Piedmont, located about 70 kilometres west of Turin, on the border with France. Cesana Torinese is sited on the route of the Roman road leading from the Po Valley to Gaul, during the Dark Ages the road lost its commercial importance but retained its military significance. Cesana was controlled by the counts of Albon and dauphins of Viennois until the half of the 14th century. In 1343, with the concession, the Escarton Republic was born. Cesana thus found itself in Escarton dOulx until 1713, when it was ceded to the Kingdom of Savoy by the Treaty of Utrecht. Between the 14th and 17th centuries the Cesana valley was damaged directly and indirectly by the wars of religion, during the War of the Spanish Succession the territory was attacked and conquered by French troops. In the 18th century Cesanas strategic importance declined until an era when new roads were constructed, in 1928 some previously independent towns were merged with that of Cesana - Désèrtes, Bousson, Fenils, Mollières, Solomiac and Thures. Cesana was also one of the venues for the 2006 Winter Olympics, hosting the biathlon, womens alpine skiing, bobsleigh, luge and it also hosted the biathlon for the 2007 Winter Universiade. Reggio Calabria, Italy Punta Ramiere Official website
34.
Battle of Vigo Bay
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The Battle of Vigo Bay, also known as the Battle of Rande was a naval engagement fought on 23 October 1702 during the opening years of the War of the Spanish Succession. The engagement followed an Anglo-Dutch attempt to capture the Spanish port of Cádiz in September in an effort to secure a base in the Iberian Peninsula. From this station the Allies had hoped to conduct operations in the western Mediterranean Sea, Philips van Almonde convinced Rooke to attack the treasure ships, despite the lateness of the year and the fact that the vessels were protected by French ships-of-the-line. Yet because most of the treasure had been off-loaded before the attack, nevertheless, the victory was a welcome boost to Allied morale and had helped persuade the Portuguese King, Peter II, to abandon his earlier treaty with the French, and join the Grand Alliance. The accession of the Bourbon Philip V to the Spanish throne in 1700 had aroused opposition in Spain. In the Spanish American empire, however, officials and colonists resisted French attempts to take over their trade. The first French squadron sailed in April 1701 under the Marquis de Coëtlogon, but the Spanish governors would not even him to buy victuals. Nevertheless, the weakness of the Spanish navy left the government in Madrid little choice, every effort was made to ensure that the bullion was landed in Spain rather than France, from where it might never return. The naval campaign of 1702 was therefore played out in two distant theatres of America and Spain, linked together by the trail of the Spanish treasure ships across the Atlantic. The American theatre became a scene long remembered in popular English tradition following Admiral Benbows running battle in August off Santa Marta, however, the Royal Navys main effort was not off the Spanish Main, but off the Spanish coasts in Europe. It was hoped that this strategy would encourage Portugal to join the Allies, open the Strait of Gibraltar, and secure English naval power in the Mediterranean. Their allies, the Austrians, were clamouring for a naval presence in the Mediterranean to assist them in achieving their own primary ambitions – the capture of Spains provinces in Italy. To meet these ends, the Anglo-Dutch fleets would first need to seize a port in the Iberian Peninsula from which their ships could operate. The Allies, therefore, resolved upon an expedition, led by Admiral George Rooke, to capture the southern Spanish port of Cádiz, on 11 June 1702, the Spanish silver fleet from New Spain left Veracruz under escort of a French squadron commanded by Admiral Château-Renault. The Spanish vessels were commanded by Manuel de Velasco in his armed galleon, the whole convoy arrived at Havana on 7 July, before striking out across the Atlantic on the 24th. It was clear, therefore, a new harbour would be needed, valesco considered the small port of Los Pasajes, but Château-Renault favoured Brest or La Rochelle, or even Lisbon. A compromise was put forward, and on 23 September the Franco-Spanish fleet entered Vigo Bay in Galicia, there was, however, considerable delay in unloading the cargo. The whole administrative apparatus normally present at unloading, was in Seville and Cádiz, when the unloading eventually began, it was found that means of transporting the goods were lacking
35.
Battle of Cap de la Roque
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During this war the French and Spanish fleet could not face the English and Dutch in an open sea battle and therefore had switched to privateering. The allies were forced to protect their merchant convoys. On May 21,1703 a large merchant fleet consisting of about 110 English and Dutch ships transporting mainly salt, there were five escorting Dutch ships, line ships Muiderberg, Gaesterland and Schermer and frigats Rotterdam and Rozendaal under command of captain Roemer Vlacq on board the Muiderberg. The next day near Cabo da Roca they encountered the squadron of Coëtlogon composed of five warships, Vainqueur, Monarque, Éole, Orgueilleux. Vlack, after signalling the merchantmen to save themselves, lined up his ships to protect the fleet, the Dutch fought valiantly but the French were too strong and ship after ship had to capitulate. Vlack and the Muiderberg fought on until half of the crew was dead or wounded, vlack lost an arm and part of his shoulder, but he only surrendered when the main mast came down and the ship was on the point of sinking. The survivors were evacuated and what was left of the Muiderberg was burnt, thanks to the sacrifice of Vlacq, the convoy got away intact, meaning this Dutch defeat had little impact on the cause of the Grand Alliance. Vlacq, his men and the four ships were taken to Toulon, were Vlacq died of his wounds on July 17,1703. This battle is sometimes called The Battle of the Bay of Biscay, zeegevecht in de Golf van Biskaje
36.
Capture of Gibraltar
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The Capture of Gibraltar by Anglo-Dutch forces of the Grand Alliance occurred between 1–3 August 1704 during the War of the Spanish Succession. This strength helped persuade King Peter II of Portugal to sever his alliance with France and Bourbon controlled Spain, Prince George of Hesse-Darmstadt represented the Habsburg cause in the region. However, in order to compensate for their lack of success the Alliance commanders resolved to capture Gibraltar, following a heavy bombardment the town was invaded by English and Dutch marines and sailors. The governor, Diego de Salinas, agreed to surrender Gibraltar, three days later Prince George entered the town with Austrian and Spanish Habsburg troops in the name of Charles III of Spain. However, the Grand Alliance failed in its objective of replacing Philip V with Charles III as King of Spain but in the peace negotiations Gibraltar was ceded to Britain. At the start of the War of the Spanish Succession Portugal was nominally an ally of the Bourbons, France under Louis XIV, although not a belligerent, Portugals harbours were closed to the enemies of the Bourbon powers – principally the vessels of England and the Dutch Republic. However, following the Anglo-Dutch naval victory at Vigo Bay in 1702 the balance of forces had swung in favour of the Grand Alliance. Having now the ability to cut off Portugals food supplies and trade it was not hard for the Allied diplomats to induce King Peter II to sign the Methuen Treaties of May 1703 and join the Alliance. Once Peter II had committed himself to war the Alliance fleets gained access to Portugals harbours, known to his supporters as Charles III of Spain, the young pretender arrived in Lisbon – via London – with George Rookes fleet on 7 March 1704, amid great celebrations. Apart from the failed Grand Alliance attempt take Cádiz in 1702, and the subsequent attack on the Spanish treasure fleet in Vigo Bay, with Portugals change of allegiance, however, the war moved towards Spain. In May 1704 the court at Lisbon received news that French, but without supply for their forces, the coming summer heat made it impossible for them to continue with the campaign, and Philip V returned to Madrid on 16 July to a heros welcome. However, the heat did not affect the war at sea where the Alliance was in a position of strength, using Lisbon as an improvised forward base Admiral Rooke’s Anglo-Dutch fleet ventured into the Mediterranean Sea in May 1704. After seeing the Levant trading fleet safely through the Strait of Gibraltar Rooke headed towards Nice to put himself in touch with Victor Amadeus II, accompanying Rooke was Prince George of Hesse-Darmstadt who had enjoyed popularity amongst the Catalans as their governor at the end of the Nine Years War. Moreover, the dissidents were incensed by the size of the Alliance force and had expected the personal appearance of Charles III, ultimatums for Velesco to surrender on pain of bombardment were ignored, and the plans for an insurrection from within the city’s walls failed to materialize. Rooke, fearing an attack from a French squadron, was impatient for departure, Prince George could do little more than order his local followers – a thousand in all – to disperse to their homes. The marines embarked on 1 June without loss, meanwhile, the comte de Toulouse, one of Louis XIV’s illegitimate sons, was sailing towards the Straits with the fleet from Brest. News from Lisbon of the French manoeuvres reached Rooke on 5 June, determined to prevent the junction of the Toulon and Brest fleets Rooke decided to risk a battle. Rooke met Shovell on 27 June off Lagos, Peter II and ‘Charles III’ sent word from Lisbon that they now wished another attempt to be made on Cádiz
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Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Oudenarde". Encyclopædia Britannica. 20 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 377–378.
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "
