1.
Farsala
–
Farsala, known in Antiquity as Pharsalos, is a city in southern Thessaly, in Greece. Farsala is located in the part of Larissa regional unit. Farsala is an economic and agricultural centre of the region, cotton and livestock are the main agricultural products, and many inhabitants are employed in the production of textile. Farsala is famous for its distinctive halva, but even more so for its significance in ancient history, Farsala lies at the southern edge of the Thessalian Plain,4 km south of the river Enipeas. The Greek National Road 3 and the Greek National Road 30 pass through the town, the Palaiofarsalos railway station, on the line from Athens to Thessaloniki and head of the branch line to Kalambaka, is located in the village of Stavros,12 km to the west. Farsala is located 38 km south of Larissa,41 km east of Karditsa,44 km north of Lamia and 49 km west of Volos. The municipality Farsala has an area of 739.74 km2, the municipal unit Farsala has an area of 121.433 km2, and the community Farsala has an area of 57.928 km2. The Homeric Phthia of the Mycenaean period, capital of the Kingdom of the Myrmidons and of Peleus, father of Achilles, has sometimes identified with the later city of Pharsalos. A Cyclopean Wall which protected a city still exists today near modern Farsala, the Pharsalos of the historic era was built over a hillside of the Narthacius mountains at an elevation of some 160 m, where modern Farsala stands. It was one of the cities in Thessaly and was the capital of the Phthian tetrarch. In the Persian Wars it sided with the Athenians, a distinctive tribe of the city was that of Echecratidon. In the early 4th century BC, the city was a part of the Thessalian Commons, later, it joined the Macedonian Kingdom under Philip II. The area became a theatre of war where the Aetolians and the Thessalians clashed with the Macedonians, especially during the Second, after the defeat of the Macedonian Kingdom, Pharsalos and the whole area became a part of the Roman Republic. The whole area suffered great destruction during the Roman Civil War, the Battle of Pharsalus, where Julius Caesar defeated Pompey and changed the course of the Roman Republic forever, took place in 48 BC in the fields of the Pharsalian Plain. The geographer Strabo speaks of two towns, Old Pharsalos, Παλαιοφάρσαλος and Pharsalos, existing in historical times. His statement that the Thetideion, the temple to Thetis south of Skotoussa, was both the Pharsaloi, the Old and the New”, seems to imply that Palaeopharsalos was not itself close by Pharsalos. Although the battle of 48 BC is called after Pharsalos, four ancient writers – the author of the Bellum Alexandrinum, Frontinus, Eutropius, if that town had been close to Pharsalos he would have sacked both, and Livy would have written “Pharsalus” instead of “Palaeopharsalus”. The British scholar F. L. Lucas demonstrated that the battle of 48 BC must have been north of the Enipeus
Farsala
–
O: helmeted head of
Athena
Farsala
–
Farsala municipality map
Farsala
–
The Battle of Farsala by
Georgios Roilos (1867–1928).
2.
Julius Caesar
–
Gaius Julius Caesar, known as Julius Caesar, was a Roman politician, general, and notable author of Latin prose. He played a role in the events that led to the demise of the Roman Republic. In 60 BC, Caesar, Crassus, and Pompey formed an alliance that dominated Roman politics for several years. Their attempts to power as Populares were opposed by the Optimates within the Roman Senate. Caesars victories in the Gallic Wars, completed by 51 BC, extended Romes territory to the English Channel, Caesar became the first Roman general to cross both the Channel and the Rhine, when he built a bridge across the Rhine and crossed the Channel to invade Britain. These achievements granted him unmatched military power and threatened to eclipse the standing of Pompey, with the Gallic Wars concluded, the Senate ordered Caesar to step down from his military command and return to Rome. Caesar refused the order, and instead marked his defiance in 49 BC by crossing the Rubicon with the 13th Legion, leaving his province, Civil war resulted, and Caesars victory in the war put him in an unrivalled position of power and influence. After assuming control of government, Caesar began a programme of social and governmental reforms and he centralised the bureaucracy of the Republic and was eventually proclaimed dictator in perpetuity, giving him additional authority. But the underlying political conflicts had not been resolved, and on the Ides of March 44 BC, a new series of civil wars broke out, and the constitutional government of the Republic was never fully restored. Caesars adopted heir Octavian, later known as Augustus, rose to power after defeating his opponents in the civil war. Octavian set about solidifying his power, and the era of the Roman Empire began, much of Caesars life is known from his own accounts of his military campaigns, and from other contemporary sources, mainly the letters and speeches of Cicero and the historical writings of Sallust. The later biographies of Caesar by Suetonius and Plutarch are also major sources, Caesar is considered by many historians to be one of the greatest military commanders in history. Caesar was born into a family, the gens Julia. The cognomen Caesar originated, according to Pliny the Elder, with an ancestor who was born by Caesarean section. The Historia Augusta suggests three alternative explanations, that the first Caesar had a head of hair, that he had bright grey eyes. Caesar issued coins featuring images of elephants, suggesting that he favored this interpretation of his name, despite their ancient pedigree, the Julii Caesares were not especially politically influential, although they had enjoyed some revival of their political fortunes in the early 1st century BC. Caesars father, also called Gaius Julius Caesar, governed the province of Asia and his mother, Aurelia Cotta, came from an influential family. Little is recorded of Caesars childhood, in 85 BC, Caesars father died suddenly, so Caesar was the head of the family at 16
Julius Caesar
–
The
Tusculum portrait, perhaps the only surviving statue created during Caesar's lifetime.
Julius Caesar
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Gaius Marius, Caesar's uncle
Julius Caesar
–
Dictator
Lucius Cornelius Sulla stripped Caesar of the priesthood.
Julius Caesar
–
The extent of the Roman Republic in 40 BC after Caesar's conquests.
3.
Pompey
–
Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, usually known in English as Pompey /ˈpɒmpiː/ or Pompey the Great, was a military and political leader of the late Roman Republic. He came from a wealthy Italian provincial background, and his father had been the first to establish the family among the Roman nobility, Pompeys immense success as a general while still very young enabled him to advance directly to his first consulship without meeting the normal requirements for office. His success as a commander in Sullas Second Civil War resulted in Sulla bestowing the nickname Magnus. He was consul three times and celebrated three triumphs, after the deaths of Julia and Crassus, Pompey sided with the optimates, the conservative faction of the Roman Senate. Pompey and Caesar then contended for the leadership of the Roman state, when Pompey was defeated at the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC, he sought refuge in Egypt, where he was assassinated. His career and defeat are significant in Romes subsequent transformation from Republic to Empire, Pompeys family first gained the position of Consul in 141 BC. Pompeys father, Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo, was an equestrian from Picenum. He fought the Social War against Romes Italian allies and he supported Sulla, who belonged to the optimates, the pro-aristocracy faction, against Marius, who belonged to the populares, in Sullas first civil war. He died during the siege of Rome by the Marians in 87 BC, either as a casualty of an epidemic and his twenty-year-old son Pompey inherited his estates, and the loyalty of his legions. Pompey had served two years under his fathers command, and had participated in the part of the Social War. When his father died, Pompey was put on due to accusations that his father stole public property. As his father’s heir Pompey could be held to account and he discovered that this was committed by one of his fathers freedmen. Following his preliminary bouts with his accuser, the took a liking to Pompey and offered his daughter. Another civil war broke out between the Marians and Sulla, Cassius Dio added that Pompey had sent a detachment to pursue him, but he outstripped them by crossing the River Phasis. He reached the Maeotis and stayed in the Cimmerian Bosporus and he had his son Machares, who ruled it and gone over to the Romans, killed and recovered that country. Meanwhile, Pompey set up a colony for his soldiers at Nicopolitans in Cappadocia, in Plutarchs account Pompey was invited to invade Armenia by Tigranes’ son, who rebelled against his father. The two men received the submission of several towns, when they got close Artaxata Tigranes, knowing Pompey’s leniency, surrendered and allowed a Roman garrison in his palace. Pompey offered the restitution of the Armenian territories in Syria, Phoenicia, Cilicia, Galatia and he demanded an indemnity and ruled that the son should be king of Sophene
Pompey
–
Pompey the Great in middle age,
marble bust in the
Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek,
Copenhagen,
Denmark.
Pompey
–
Roman statue of Pompey, at the Villa Arconati a Castellazzo di Bollate (Milan, Italy). It was brought there from Rome in 1627 by Galeazzo Arconati.
Pompey
–
Bust of Pompey in the
Residenz, Munich
Pompey
–
Pompey
4.
Legionary
–
The Roman legionary was a professional heavy infantryman of the Roman army after the Marian reforms. Legionaries had to be Roman citizens under the age of 45 and they enlisted in a legion for twenty-five years of service, a change from the early practice of enlisting only for a campaign. The last five years were on veteran lighter duties, regular trained legionaries were known as milites and were the equivalent in rank of the modern private. Included in the ranks, aside from the milites, were the immunes, specialist soldiers with secondary roles such as engineer, artilleryman, drill and weapons instructor, carpenter and these men were still fully trained legionaries, however, and would fight in the ranks if called upon. They were excused from some of the more arduous tasks such as drill and fatigues, as discipline was important, infractions were heavily punished by the centurions. However, honors, rewards and promotions were awarded to legionaries who distinguished themselves in battle or through exemplary service. Legionary is also a used for members of various military forces which have been accorded the title of legion. In the 18th and early 19th century this designation was sometimes accorded to units which comprised both mounted and foot components, more recently the title has been used by the French Foreign Legion, the Spanish Foreign Legion and the Polish Legions. Members of these modern legions are often called légionnaires, the French term for legionary, the term was also used by the Romanian far right paramilitary group known in English as the Iron Guard. List of Roman army unit types Military history of ancient Rome Foreign legions Castra Roman Republic Roman Empire Punic Wars List of Roman legions Sumner, G. arms and Armour of the Imperial Roman Soldier. Roman Legionary,58 BC - AD69, the Roman Recruit looks at the life, duties and equipment of a Roman legionary
Legionary
–
A recreation of the appearance of Roman legionaries wearing the
lorica segmentata, 1st-3rd century.
5.
Auxiliaries (Roman military)
–
The Auxilia constituted the standing non-citizen corps of the Imperial Roman army during the Principate era, alongside the citizen legions. By the 2nd century, the Auxilia contained the number of infantry as the legions and in addition provided almost all of the Roman armys cavalry. The auxilia thus represented three-fifths of Romes regular land forces at that time, like their legionary counterparts, auxiliary recruits were mostly volunteers, not conscripts. The Auxilia were mainly recruited from the peregrini, free provincial subjects who did not hold Roman citizenship and constituted the vast majority of the population in the 1st and 2nd centuries. In contrast to the legions, which only admitted Roman citizens, reliance on the various contingents of non-Italic troops, especially cavalry, increased when the Roman Republic employed them in increasing numbers to support its legions after 200 BC. The Julio-Claudian period saw the transformation of the Auxilia from motley levies to a corps with standardised structure, equipment. By the end of the period, there were no significant differences between legionaries and auxiliaries in terms of training, and thus, combat capability. Auxiliary regiments were stationed in provinces other than that in which they were originally raised, for reasons of security. The regimental names of many auxiliary units persisted into the 4th century, but by then the units in question were different in size, structure, despite its formidable strength, the legion had a number of deficiencies, especially a lack of cavalry. Around 200 BC, a legion of 4,200 infantry had an arm of only 300 horse. In addition the legion lacked missile forces such as slingers and archers, until 200 BC, the bulk of a Roman armys cavalry was provided by Romes regular Italian allies, commonly known as the Latin allies, which made up the Roman military confederation. This was Romes defence system until the Social War of 91–88 BC, the Italian forces were organised into alae. Since a pre-Social War consular army always contained a number of legions and alae. The overall cavalry element, c. 12% of the force, was greater than in most peninsular Italian forces. The Roman/Latin cavalry was sufficient while Rome was in conflict with other states in the mountainous Italian peninsula, which also disposed of limited cavalry resources. The decisive Roman victory at Zama in 202 BC, which ended the war, owed much to the Numidian cavalry provided by king Massinissa, from then, Roman armies were always accompanied by large numbers of non-Italian cavalry, Numidian light cavalry and, later, Gallic heavy cavalry. For example, Caesar relied heavily on Gallic and German cavalry for his Conquest of Gaul, as the role of native cavalry grew, that of Roman/Latin cavalry diminished. In the early 1st century BC, Roman cavalry was phased out altogether, after the Social War, the socii were all granted Roman citizenship, the Latin alae abolished, and the socii recruited into the legions
Auxiliaries (Roman military)
–
Roman auxiliary infantry crossing a river, probably the
Danube, on a pontoon bridge during the emperor
Trajan 's
Dacian Wars (101–106 AD). They can be distinguished by the oval shield (clipeus) they were equipped with, in contrast to the rectangular
scutum carried by legionaries. Panel from
Trajan's Column, Rome
Auxiliaries (Roman military)
Auxiliaries (Roman military)
–
Roman cavalry
spatha, a longer sword (median blade length: 780 mm [30.7 in]), designed to give the rider a longer reach than the gladius
Auxiliaries (Roman military)
6.
Siege of Massilia
–
As Caesar marched to Hispania, the Massiliots closed their gates to him, having allied with Ahenobarbus and the Optimates. Roused by their actions, he commenced a siege against Massilia, leaving the newly raised 17th, 18th. These were the legions that would be wiped out at Teutoburg Forest 58 years later. He also placed Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus in charge of his fleet there, after the siege had begun, Ahenobarbus arrived in Massilia to defend it against the Caesarian forces. In late June, Caesars ships, although they were less skillfully built than those of the Massiliots, gaius Trebonius, Caesars legatus, conducted the siege using a variety of siege machines including siege towers, a siege-ramp, and a testudo-ram. Gaius Scribonius Curio, careless in guarding the Sicilian Straits. He fought a naval battle with Decimus Brutus in early September. Caesar built a tower,30 ft. square and six stories in height, under the very walls of the city. The walls of the tower were of brickwork 5 ft. thick, when the lowest storey was built it was covered with a solid fireproof roof which was not secured to the walls but rested upon them like a lid. The eaves projected considerably, and from them screens were hung on all sides, by means of screws the whole canopy, roof and screens, was now raised to the height of one storiey and the workmen proceeded to build the walls of that storiey under its protection. This process was repeated in the same manner until the height of the tower was attained. The Massiliots valiantly defended against the machines and works. They threw down burning pitch and pine-shavings and the Caesarians undermined the foundations of their city walls. At one point they seemed likely to surrender and declare a truce, the citys inhabitants were then near surrender. At the final surrender of Massilia, Caesar showed his usual leniency, the siege is the setting for Last Seen in Massilia in the Roma Sub Rosa detective series by Steven Saylor
Siege of Massilia
–
map of the siege
7.
Battle of Ilerda
–
The Battle of Ilerda took place in June 49 BC between the forces of Julius Caesar and the Spanish army of Pompey the Great, led by his legates Lucius Afranius and Marcus Petreius. Unlike many other of the battles of the war, this was more a campaign of maneuvre than actual fighting. After having driven the optimates from Italy, in March 49 BC, on his way to Spain, Caesar was delayed when in April the port city of Massilia rebelled under Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus. When he arrived on the Spanish border, Caesar was able to seize the Pyrenees passes from the republicans, near Ilerda, the Pompeians made camp on a hill and Caesar endeavoured to camp about 400 paces from the foot of the hill. As night came, Caesar withdrew his army behind the ditch, the next day was spent creating the rest of the ditch and the rampart which would form the defenses of Caesars camp. For this operation Caesar kept a part of his force on guard, in the midst of the plain there was a portion of rising ground which Caesar wanted to occupy. The contest for this led to a protracted battle. Both armies sent detachments towards the hill and the Pompeians occupied it first and this, combined with their skirmish-like combat technique overwhelmed the Caesarian detachment, and his troops were forced to give ground, eventually retreating to safety. This minor reverse would result in a renewed attack spurned by Caesar, as Caesar tells it, Caesar, contrary to his expectation, finding the consternation like to spread through the whole army, encouraged his men, and led the ninth legion to their assistance. He soon put a stop to the vigorous and insulting pursuit of the enemy, obliged them to turn their backs, still however they supported themselves by their courage and patience, and were not disheartened by the many wounds they received. The enemys forces increased every moment, fresh cohorts being sent from the camp through the town, Caesar was likewise obliged to detach small parties to maintain the battle, and bring off such as were wounded. The pursuit was continued to the walls of Lerida, and some out of fear took shelter in the town. Thus the engagement was attended with various turns of fortune, Caesar lost about seventy men in the first encounter, among whom was Q. Fulginius, first centurion of the Hastati of the fourteenth legion, upwards of six hundred were wounded. On Afraniuss side was slain T. Caecilius, first centurion of a legion, also four centurions of inferior degree, the spring storms and the melting snow from the mountains then caused flooding, which particularly affected the lower situated Caesarians whose camp was flooded. This meant that the Caesarian troops were unable to forage and famine struck the army, Caesar ordered a pursuit which overtook the retreating rear guard of the republican army and he was able to block the route on which the republicans were retreating. The two armies again camped close to other and confraternization between the two armies started. Petreius, wanting to stop this confraternization, had the Caesarian soldiers who had wandered into the republican camp rounded up, after this the republicans again retreated towards Ilerda, only to become besieged by the Caesarians in their new camp
Battle of Ilerda
8.
Battle of Utica (49 BC)
–
Curio defeated the Pompeians and Numidians and drove Varus back into the town of Utica. Having pushed through Italy in an attempt to reach Pompey and detach him from the Republican leadership, he was unable to prevent them taking ship at Brundisium, instead of pursuing them, Caesar decided to deal with the Pompeian forces holding important western provinces. So in March 49 BC, while he marched to Hispania, prior to Curio’s departure, this force was supplemented by an additional legion and 1,000 Gallic cavalry. As Curio had little experience in war, he appointed a military subordinate. By this point Africa was held by Attius Varus, who, Varus had previously been the Propraetor of Africa some years before, and now decided to take possession of the province in Pompey’s name. Using his local knowledge, and the local connections built up through his clientela, when Tubero finally appeared off Utica to take up his post, Varus drove him off and forced him to leave. In the interim, Curio had crossed into Sicily, forcing out a leading Republican senator, Marcus Porcius Cato, with the opposition in Sicily suppressed with no fighting, Curio decided to remain there, wanting to hear of developments in Spain before committing himself to the African campaign. After ordering his fleet to sail to Utica, Curio began his march there around the gulf, within three days he had reached the southern bank of the Bagradas river. Leaving the infantry there with Rebilus, he took his cavalry and rode northward to scout out a camp near Utica, turning south, he noticed a stream of fugitives fleeing to the safety of Utica’s walls, and he decided to attack the crowds to instil panic. This forced Varus to send 1,000 Numidian troops to their rescue, the two forces clashed and the Numidians, unused to close fighting, were repulsed, losing 120 men in the process, as the remainder of the troops retreated to the town. He ordered the captains of the vessels to remove their cargoes and place them on the shore, after threatening to kill them, they complied and promptly set sail after they had emptied their holds. Returning victorious to his camp on the Bagradas, the legions acclaimed him as Imperator and his soldiers were still preparing their camp when patrols reported seeing large Numidian reinforcements on their way, King Juba having sent them to reinforce Varus’s position. When they came into view, Curio, who had not bothered to send out scouts and he urgently sent out his cavalry to impede the Numidian advance, while he impatiently recalled his legionaries from the trenches and began to line them up in battle formation. His cavalry engaged the Numidians who, approaching in a fashion, were caught unawares and were dispersed with heavy losses. Before Curio could send his legions in, the Numidian cavalry had escaped from the slaughter, the following night, two centurions, accompanied by twenty-two men, deserted Curio’s camp and made their way to Varus. They told him that Curio’s troops were deeply unhappy with their commander, Varus agreed with this strategy and the following morning, he assembled his troops and led them out of their camp. The two armies were separated by a valley some 70 metres in width, between the town and a morass, with Curio’s right flank and Varus’s left touching by the morass. Varus’s brother, Sextus Quintilius Varus, a senator, emerged from Varus’s troops and urged Curio’s troops not to fight for their commander, the troops listened in silence, and Varus returned to his camp, with Curio again doing the same
Battle of Utica (49 BC)
–
Map showing Curio's campaign in Africa
9.
Battle of Dyrrhachium (48 BC)
–
The Battle of Dyrrachium on 10 July 48 BC was a battle of Caesars Civil War in the area of the city of Dyrrachium. It was fought between Julius Caesar and the led by Gnaeus Pompey with the backing of the majority of the Roman Senate. The battle was a victory for Pompey, albeit not a decisive one, the battle preceded the Battle of Pharsalus which was the decisive battle of the Civil War. By the end of Julius Caesars first year as consul he had accumulated a large list of lawsuits, Roman law gave government officials immunity from prosecution but only during their term of office while they held lawful Imperium. Once he became a private citizen Caesar knew he would be vulnerable, what was not usual was the length of Caesars term as proconsul, which was for five years instead of the usual one. In this way he would maintain his imperium and thereby not be vulnerable to lawsuits, however, the Senate ordered him to resign command of his army. Caesar replied that he would agree to resign his command if Pompey followed suit. Offended, the Senate demanded he immediately disband his army, or be declared an enemy of the people, Caesar responded by marching on Rome and he forced the unprepared Pompey and his allies to flee to Greece, starting the Great Roman Civil War. Caesar did not immediately give chase to Greece and instead consolidated power in Rome and he had other problems as well, Pompey had left him with no ships to cross the Adriatic, and Spain had begun to mobilize against Caesar. After gathering the remainder of his forces from Transalpine Gaul he marched into Spain and he then turned his full attention to Pompey. As it was winter Bibulus was unprepared and Caesar was able to sail through the blockade easily, Bibulus however was able to block Caesars attempt to sail his reinforcements stuck at Brindisi. Bibulus died while conducting this blockade and no overall commander was appointed by Pompey. At some point Lucius Scribonius Libo attempted to make the more secure by seizing the island off Brindisi preventing Caesars reinforcements from sailing anywhere. However, Libo could not sustain this position because of a lack of water, Caesars blunder had put him in the worst possible position any army could find itself in. His army had no way to resupply from Rome due to the blockade, he couldnt resupply locally as Greece was pro-Pompey and closed their gates to Caesar. So dire was his situation that he made attempts to discuss peace with Pompey but was refused at every channel. Realizing he was going to have to fight his way out and his luck was not with him and the rough seas and storms forced him back. However, his Master of the Horse Marc Antony fired up his troops and after several attempts evaded Libos blockade and it was now a race against time as both Caesar and Pompey rushed to meet Antony
Battle of Dyrrhachium (48 BC)
–
Caesar's forces
10.
Battle of Thapsus
–
The Battle of Thapsus was an engagement in Caesars Civil War that took place on April 6,46 BC near Thapsus. The Republican forces of the Optimates, led by Quintus Caecilius Metellus Scipio, were defeated by the veteran forces loyal to Julius Caesar. It was followed shortly by the suicides of Scipio and his ally, in 49 BC, the last Republican civil war was initiated after Julius Caesar defied senatorial orders to disband his army following the conclusion of hostilities in Gaul. He crossed over the Rubicon river with the 13th Legion, a violation of Roman Law. The Optimates fled to Greece under the command of Pompey since they were incapable of defending the city of Rome itself against Caesar, led by Caesar, the Populares followed, but were greatly outnumbered and defeated in the Battle of Dyrrhachium. Still outnumbered, Caesar recovered and went on to defeat the Optimates under Pompey at Pharsalus. Pompey then fled to Egypt, where to Caesars consternation, Pompey was assassinated, the remaining Optimates, not ready to give up fighting, clustered in the African provinces and organized a resistance. Its leaders were Marcus Cato and Caecilius Metellus Scipio, other key figures in the resistance were Titus Labienus, Publius Attius Varus, Lucius Afranius, Marcus Petreius and the brothers Sextus and Gnaeus Pompeius. King Juba I of Numidia was a local ally. After the pacification of the Eastern provinces, and a visit to Rome, Caesar followed his opponents to Africa. After landing, Caesars forces were engaged by the Optimates led by Petreius and Labienus, the result was ultimately indecisive and both sides retreated. The Optimates gathered their forces to oppose Caesar with astonishing speed and their army included 40,000 men, a powerful cavalry force led by Caesars former right-hand man, the talented Titus Labienus, forces of allied local kings and 60 war elephants. The two armies engaged in small skirmishes to gauge the strength of the force, during which two legions switched to Caesars side. Meanwhile, Caesar expected reinforcements from Sicily, in the beginning of February, Caesar arrived in Thapsus and besieged the city, blocking the southern entrance with three lines of fortifications. The Optimates, led by Metellus Scipio, could not risk the loss of position and were forced to accept battle. Metellus Scipios army circled Thapsus in order to approach the city by its northern side, anticipating Caesars approach, it remained in tight battle order flanked by its elephant cavalry. Caesars position was typical of his style, with him commanding the right side, the threat of the elephants led to the additional precaution of reinforcing the cavalry with five cohorts. One of Caesars trumpeters sounded the battle, Caesars archers attacked the elephants, causing them to panic and trample their own men
Battle of Thapsus
–
Scheme of the battle: 17th-century engraving after
Palladio. The elephants are individually depicted
Battle of Thapsus
–
Thapsus in relation to Rome
11.
Battle of Munda
–
The Battle of Munda, in southern Hispania, was the final battle of Caesars civil war against the Roman Republic, and against the leaders of the Optimates. With the military victory at Munda, and the deaths of Titus Labienus and Gnaeus Pompeius, Caesar was politically able to return in triumph to Rome, and then govern as the elected Roman dictator. Subsequently, the assassination of Julius Caesar began the Republican decline that led to the Roman Empire, the conservative republicans had initially been led by Pompey, until the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC and Pompeys death soon afterwards. However, in April 46 BC, Caesars forces destroyed the Pompeian army at the Battle of Thapsus, after this, military opposition to Caesar was confined to Hispania. Soon they were joined by the remains of the Pompeian army and these forces were commanded by the brothers Gnaeus Pompeius and Sextus and by the talented general Titus Labienus, who had been one of the most trusted of Caesar’s generals during the Gallic Wars. Using the resources of the province they were able to raise an army of three legions and these were the two original veteran legions, and one additional legion recruited from Roman citizens and local inhabitants in Hispania. They took control of almost all Hispania Ulterior, including the important Roman colonies of Italica, Caesar’s generals Quintus Fabius Maximus and Quintus Pedius did not risk a battle and remained encamped at Oculbo, about 35 miles east of Corduba, requesting help from Caesar. Thus, Caesar was forced to move from Rome to Hispania to deal with the Pompeius brothers and he brought two trusted veteran legions and some newer legions, but in the main was forced to rely on the recruits already present in Hispania. Caesar covered the 1,500 miles from Rome to Obulco in less one month. Caesar had called for his great-nephew Octavian to join him, capitalizing on his surprise arrival Caesar was able to relieve the stronghold of Ulipia but was unable to take Corduba, which was defended by Sextus Pompeius. Under Labienus’ advice, Gnaeus Pompeius decided to avoid an open battle, after a short siege, Caesar took the fortified city of Ategua, this was an important blow to the Pompeian confidence and morale, and some of the native allies started to desert to Caesar. The two armies met in the plains of Munda in southern Spain, the Pompeian army was situated on a gentle hill, less than one mile from the walls of Munda, in a defensible position. Caesar led a total of eight legions, with 8,000 horsemen, while Pompeius commanded thirteen legions,6,000 light-infantrymen, after an unsuccessful ploy designed to lure the Pompeians down the hill, Caesar ordered a frontal attack. The fighting lasted for 8 hours without an advantage for either side, causing the generals to leave their commanding positions. As Caesar himself later said he had many times for victory. Caesar took command of his wing, where his favorite Legio X Equestris was involved in heavy fighting. With Caesar’s inspiration the tenth legion began to push back Pompeius forces, aware of the danger, Gnaeus Pompeius removed a legion from his own right wing to reinforce the threatened left wing. However, as soon as the Pompeian right wing was thus weakened, king Bogud of Mauritania and his cavalry, Caesars allies, attacked the rear of the Pompeian camp
Battle of Munda
–
Caesar's campaign to Munda
12.
Pharsalus
–
Farsala, known in Antiquity as Pharsalos, is a city in southern Thessaly, in Greece. Farsala is located in the part of Larissa regional unit. Farsala is an economic and agricultural centre of the region, cotton and livestock are the main agricultural products, and many inhabitants are employed in the production of textile. Farsala is famous for its distinctive halva, but even more so for its significance in ancient history, Farsala lies at the southern edge of the Thessalian Plain,4 km south of the river Enipeas. The Greek National Road 3 and the Greek National Road 30 pass through the town, the Palaiofarsalos railway station, on the line from Athens to Thessaloniki and head of the branch line to Kalambaka, is located in the village of Stavros,12 km to the west. Farsala is located 38 km south of Larissa,41 km east of Karditsa,44 km north of Lamia and 49 km west of Volos. The municipality Farsala has an area of 739.74 km2, the municipal unit Farsala has an area of 121.433 km2, and the community Farsala has an area of 57.928 km2. The Homeric Phthia of the Mycenaean period, capital of the Kingdom of the Myrmidons and of Peleus, father of Achilles, has sometimes identified with the later city of Pharsalos. A Cyclopean Wall which protected a city still exists today near modern Farsala, the Pharsalos of the historic era was built over a hillside of the Narthacius mountains at an elevation of some 160 m, where modern Farsala stands. It was one of the cities in Thessaly and was the capital of the Phthian tetrarch. In the Persian Wars it sided with the Athenians, a distinctive tribe of the city was that of Echecratidon. In the early 4th century BC, the city was a part of the Thessalian Commons, later, it joined the Macedonian Kingdom under Philip II. The area became a theatre of war where the Aetolians and the Thessalians clashed with the Macedonians, especially during the Second, after the defeat of the Macedonian Kingdom, Pharsalos and the whole area became a part of the Roman Republic. The whole area suffered great destruction during the Roman Civil War, the Battle of Pharsalus, where Julius Caesar defeated Pompey and changed the course of the Roman Republic forever, took place in 48 BC in the fields of the Pharsalian Plain. The geographer Strabo speaks of two towns, Old Pharsalos, Παλαιοφάρσαλος and Pharsalos, existing in historical times. His statement that the Thetideion, the temple to Thetis south of Skotoussa, was both the Pharsaloi, the Old and the New”, seems to imply that Palaeopharsalos was not itself close by Pharsalos. Although the battle of 48 BC is called after Pharsalos, four ancient writers – the author of the Bellum Alexandrinum, Frontinus, Eutropius, if that town had been close to Pharsalos he would have sacked both, and Livy would have written “Pharsalus” instead of “Palaeopharsalus”. The British scholar F. L. Lucas demonstrated that the battle of 48 BC must have been north of the Enipeus
Pharsalus
–
O: helmeted head of
Athena
Pharsalus
–
Farsala municipality map
Pharsalus
–
The Battle of Farsala by
Georgios Roilos (1867–1928).
13.
Roman Republic
–
It was during this period that Romes control expanded from the citys immediate surroundings to hegemony over the entire Mediterranean world. During the first two centuries of its existence, the Roman Republic expanded through a combination of conquest and alliance, by the following century, it included North Africa, most of the Iberian Peninsula, and what is now southern France. Two centuries after that, towards the end of the 1st century BC, it included the rest of modern France, Greece, and much of the eastern Mediterranean. By this time, internal tensions led to a series of wars, culminating with the assassination of Julius Caesar. The exact date of transition can be a matter of interpretation, Roman government was headed by two consuls, elected annually by the citizens and advised by a senate composed of appointed magistrates. Over time, the laws that gave exclusive rights to Romes highest offices were repealed or weakened. The leaders of the Republic developed a tradition and morality requiring public service and patronage in peace and war, making military. Many of Romes legal and legislative structures can still be observed throughout Europe and much of the world in modern nation states, the exact causes and motivations for Romes military conflicts and expansions during the republic are subject to wide debate. While they can be seen as motivated by outright aggression and imperialism and they argue that Romes expansion was driven by short-term defensive and inter-state factors, and the new contingencies that these decisions created. In its early history, as Rome successfully defended itself against foreign threats in central and then northern Italy, with some important exceptions, successful wars in early republican Rome generally led not to annexation or military occupation, but to the restoration of the way things were. But the defeated city would be weakened and thus able to resist Romanizing influences. It was also able to defend itself against its non-Roman enemies. It was, therefore, more likely to seek an alliance of protection with Rome and this growing coalition expanded the potential enemies that Rome might face, and moved Rome closer to confrontation with major powers. The result was more alliance-seeking, on the part of both the Roman confederacy and city-states seeking membership within that confederacy. While there were exceptions to this, it was not until after the Second Punic War that these alliances started to harden into something more like an empire and this shift mainly took place in parts of the west, such as the southern Italian towns that sided with Hannibal. In contrast, Roman expansion into Spain and Gaul occurred as a mix of alliance-seeking, in the 2nd century BC, Roman involvement in the Greek east remained a matter of alliance-seeking, but this time in the face of major powers that could rival Rome. This had some important similarities to the events in Italy centuries earlier, with some major exceptions of outright military rule, the Roman Republic remained an alliance of independent city-states and kingdoms until it transitioned into the Roman Empire. It was not until the time of the Roman Empire that the entire Roman world was organized into provinces under explicit Roman control
Roman Republic
–
Route of Pyrrhus of Epirus
Roman Republic
–
Roman consul accompanied by two
lictors
Roman Republic
–
Gaius Gracchus, tribune of the people, presiding over the
Plebeian Council
Roman Republic
–
A Roman
denarius struck in 56 BC showing on one side the bust of the
Goddess Diana, and on the reverse the Roman general
Lucius Cornelius Sulla is offered an olive branch by his ally
Bocchus I as the captive
Jugurtha kneels beside Sulla with his hands bound.
14.
Roman Senate
–
The Roman Senate was a political institution in ancient Rome. It was one of the most enduring institutions in Roman history, during the days of the kingdom, it was little more than an advisory council to the king. The last king of Rome, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, was following a coup détat led by Lucius Junius Brutus. During the early Republic, the Senate was politically weak, while the executive magistrates were quite powerful, since the transition from monarchy to constitutional rule was most likely gradual, it took several generations before the Senate was able to assert itself over the executive magistrates. By the middle Republic, the Senate had reached the apex of its republican power, the late Republic saw a decline in the Senates power, which began following the reforms of the tribunes Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus. After the transition of the Republic into the Principate, the Senate lost much of its power as well as its prestige. Following the constitutional reforms of the Emperor Diocletian, the Senate became politically irrelevant, when the seat of government was transferred out of Rome, the Senate was reduced to a municipal body. This decline in status was reinforced when the emperor Constantine the Great created an additional senate in Constantinople, the Senate in Rome ultimately disappeared at some point after AD603, although the title senator was still used well into the Middle Ages as a largely meaningless honorific. However, the Eastern Senate survived in Constantinople, until the ancient institution finally vanished there c. 14th century, the senate was a political institution in the ancient Roman kingdom. The word senate derives from the Latin word senex, which means old man, the early Roman family was called a gens or clan, and each clan was an aggregation of families under a common living male patriarch, called a pater. When the early Roman gentes were aggregating to form a common community, over time, the patres came to recognize the need for a single leader, and so they elected a king, and vested in him their sovereign power. When the king died, that power naturally reverted to the patres. The senate is said to have created by Romes first king, Romulus. The descendants of those 100 men subsequently became the patrician class, Romes fifth king, Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, chose a further 100 senators. They were chosen from the leading families, and were accordingly called the patres minorum gentium. Romes seventh and final king, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, executed many of the men in the senate. During the years of the monarchy, the senates most important function was to new kings. While the king was elected by the people, it was actually the senate who chose each new king
Roman Senate
Roman Senate
–
Ancient Rome
Roman Senate
–
The
Curia Julia in the
Roman Forum, the seat of the imperial Senate.
15.
Epirus
–
Epirus is a geographical and historical region in southeastern Europe, now shared between Greece and Albania. It is currently divided between the region of Epirus in northwestern Greece and the counties of Gjirokastër, Vlorë, the largest city in Epirus is Ioannina, seat of the region of Epirus, with Gjirokastër the largest city in the Albanian part of Epirus. A rugged and mountainous region, Epirus was the north-west area of ancient Greece. It was inhabited by the Greek tribes of the Chaonians, Molossians, and Thesprotians, and home to the sanctuary of Dodona, the oldest ancient Greek oracle, and the most prestigious one after Delphi. Unified into a state in 370 BC by the Aeacidae dynasty, Epirus achieved fame during the reign of Pyrrhus of Epirus. Epirus subsequently became part of the Roman Empire along with the rest of Greece in 146 BC, following the fall of Constantinople to the Fourth Crusade, Epirus became the center of the Despotate of Epirus, one of the successor states to the Byzantine Empire. Conquered by the Ottoman Empire in the 15th century, Epirus became semi-independent during the rule of Ali Pasha in the early 19th century, but the Ottomans re-asserted their control in 1821. Following the Balkan Wars and World War I, southern Epirus became part of Greece, the name Epirus is derived from the Greek, Ἤπειρος, Ḗpeiros, meaning mainland or terra firma. It is thought to come from an Indo-European root *apero- coast, and was applied to the mainland opposite Corfu. The local name was stamped on the coinage of the unified Epirote commonwealth, the Albanian name for the region, which derives from the Greek, is Epiri. The historical region of Epirus is generally regarded as extending from the end of the Ceraunian mountains, located just south of the Bay of Aulon. The northern boundary of ancient Epirus is alternatively given as the mouth of the Aoös river, epiruss eastern boundary is defined by the Pindus Mountains, that form the spine of mainland Greece and separate Epirus from Macedonia and Thessaly. To the west, Epirus faces the Ionian Sea, the island of Corfu is situated off the Epirote coast but is not regarded as part of Epirus. The definition of Epirus has changed over time, such that modern administrative boundaries do not correspond to the boundaries of ancient Epirus, the region of Epirus in Greece only comprises a fraction of classical Epirus and does not include its easternmost portions, which lie in Thessaly. Epirus is a rugged and mountainous region. It is largely made up of the Pindus Mountains, a series of limestone ridges that are a continuation of the Dinaric Alps. The Pindus mountains form the spine of mainland Greece and separate Epirus from Macedonia, the ridges of the Pindus are parallel to the sea and generally so steep that the valleys between them are mostly suitable for pasture rather than large-scale agriculture. Altitude increases as one moves east, away from the coast, reaching a maximum of 2, 637m at Mount Smolikas, most of Epirus lies on the windward side of the Pindus, and the prevailing winds from the Ionian Sea make the region the rainiest in mainland Greece
Epirus
–
Map of ancient Epirus by
Heinrich Kiepert, 1902
Epirus
–
Coin of the Epirote League, depicting Zeus (left) and a lightning bolt with the word "ΑΠΕΙΡΩΤΑΝ" - Epirotes (right).
Epirus
–
NASA satellite image of Epirus.
Epirus
–
Mount Smolikas (2637m), the highest point in Epirus.
16.
Mark Antony
–
Antony was a supporter of Julius Caesar, and served as one of his generals during the conquest of Gaul and the Civil War. Antony was appointed administrator of Italy while Caesar eliminated political opponents in Greece, North Africa, the Triumvirs defeated Caesars murderers, the Liberatores, at the Battle of Philippi in 42 BC, and divided the government of the Republic between themselves. Antony was assigned Romes eastern provinces, including the client kingdom of Egypt, then ruled by Cleopatra VII Philopator, relations among the Triumvirs were strained as the various members sought greater political power. Civil war between Antony and Octavian was averted in 40 BC, when Antony married Octavians sister, Octavia, despite this marriage, Antony carried on a love affair with Cleopatra, who bore him three children, further straining Antonys relations with Octavian. Lepidus was expelled from the association in 36 BC, and in 33 BC disagreements between Antony and Octavian caused a split between the remaining Triumvirs. Their ongoing hostility erupted into war in 31 BC, as the Roman Senate, at Octavians direction, declared war on Cleopatra. Later that year, Antony was defeated by Octavians forces at the Battle of Actium, Antony and Cleopatra fled to Egypt, where they committed suicide. With Antony dead, Octavian was the master of the Roman world. In 27 BC, Octavian was granted the title of Augustus, marking the stage in the transformation of the Roman Republic into an empire. A member of the plebeian Antonia gens, Antony was born in Rome on January 14,83 BC. His father and namesake was Marcus Antonius Creticus, son of the noted orator by the name who had been murdered during the Marian Terror of the winter of 87–86 BC. His mother was Julia Antonia, a distant cousin of Julius Caesar, Antony was an infant at the time of Lucius Cornelius Sullas march on Rome in 82 BC. According to the Roman orator Marcus Tullius Cicero, Antonys father was incompetent and corrupt, in 74 BC he was given military command to defeat the pirates of the Mediterranean, but he died in Crete in 71 BC without making any significant progress. Lentulus, despite exploiting his political success for financial gain, was constantly in debt due to the extravagance of his lifestyle and he was a major figure in the Second Catilinarian Conspiracy and was summarily executed on the orders of the Consul Cicero in 63 BC for his involvement. His death resulted in a feud between the Antonia and the famous orator, Antonys early life was characterized by a lack of proper parental guidance. According to the historian Plutarch, he spent his teenage years wandering through Rome with his brothers and friends gambling, drinking, Antonys contemporary and enemy, Cicero, claimed he had a homosexual relationship with Gaius Scribonius Curio. There is little information on his political activity as a young man, although it is known that he was an associate of Publius Clodius Pulcher. He may also have involved in the Lupercal cult as he was referred to as a priest of this order later in life
Mark Antony
–
Antony's brother Lucius, on a coin issued at
Ephesus during his consulship in 41 BC
Mark Antony
–
Bust of Mark Antony in
Vatican City
Mark Antony
–
Bust of Pharaoh
Ptolemy XII Auletes.
Mark Antony
–
Cato the Younger, a member of the
Optimates faction, was one of the chief architects of the decree which provoked Caesar into civil war.
17.
World War I
–
World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
World War I
–
Clockwise from the top: The aftermath of shelling during the
Battle of the Somme,
Mark V tanks cross the
Hindenburg Line,
HMS Irresistible sinks after hitting a
mine in the
Dardanelles, a British
Vickers machine gun crew wears
gas masks during the Battle of the Somme,
Albatros D.III fighters of
Jagdstaffel 11
World War I
–
Sarajevo citizens reading a poster with the proclamation of the
Austrian annexation in 1908.
World War I
–
This picture is usually associated with the arrest of
Gavrilo Princip, although some believe it depicts Ferdinand Behr, a bystander.
World War I
–
Serbian Army
Blériot XI "Oluj", 1915.
18.
Thessaly
–
Thessaly is a traditional geographic and modern administrative region of Greece, comprising most of the ancient region of the same name. Before the Greek Dark Ages, Thessaly was known as Aeolia, Thessaly became part of the modern Greek state in 1881, after four and a half centuries of Ottoman rule. Since 1987 it has formed one of the countrys 13 regions and is further sub-divided into 5 regional units and 25 municipalities, the capital of the region is Larissa. Thessaly lies in central Greece and borders the regions of Macedonia on the north, Epirus on the west, Central Greece on the south, the Thessaly region also includes the Sporades islands. In Homers epic, the Odyssey, the hero Odysseus visited the kingdom of Aeolus, the Plain of Thessaly, which lies between Mount Oeta/Othrys and Mount Olympus, was the site of the battle between the Titans and the Olympians. According to legend, Jason and the Argonauts launched their search for the Golden Fleece from the Magnesia Peninsula, Thessaly was home to extensive Neolithic and Chalcolithic cultures around 6000–2500 BC. Mycenaean settlements have also discovered, for example at the sites of Iolcos, Dimini. In Archaic and Classical times, the lowlands of Thessaly became the home of baronial families, in the summer of 480 BC, the Persians invaded Thessaly. The Greek army that guarded the Vale of Tempe evacuated the road before the enemy arrived, not much later, Thessaly surrendered to the Persians. The Thessalian family of Aleuadae joined the Persians subsequently, in the 4th century BC, after the Greco-Persian Wars had long ended, Jason of Pherae transformed the region into a significant military power, recalling the glory of Early Archaic times. Shortly after, Philip II of Macedon was appointed Archon of Thessaly, the Avars had arrived in Europe in the late 550s. They asserted their authority over many Slavs, who were divided into numerous petty tribes, many Slavs were galvanized into an effective infantry force, by the Avars. In the 7th century the Avar-Slav alliance began to raid the Byzantine Empire, laying siege to Thessalonica, relations between the Slavs and Greeks were probably peaceful apart from the initial settlement and intermittent uprisings. Being agriculturalists, the Slavs probably traded with the Greeks inside towns and it is likely that the re-Hellenization had already begun by way of this contact. This process would be completed by a newly reinvigorated Byzantine Empire, with the abatement of Arab-Byzantine Wars, the Byzantine Empire began to consolidate its power in those areas of mainland Greece occupied by Proto-Slavic tribes. Following the campaigns of the Byzantine general Staurakios in 782–783, the Byzantine Empire recovered Thessaly, apart from military expeditions against Slavs, the re-Hellenization process begun under Nicephorus I involved transfer of peoples. Many Slavs were moved to other parts of the such as Anatolia. In return, many Greeks from Sicily and Asia Minor were brought to the interior of Greece, to increase the number of defenders at the Emperors disposal, even non-Greeks such as Armenians were transferred to the Balkans
Thessaly
–
First Ancient Theatre, Larissa.
Thessaly
–
Pineios river with the church of
St. Achilles, patron saint of
Larissa, in the background.
Thessaly
–
"The Hyperian Fountain at
Pherae ",
Edward Dodwell.
19.
Commentarii de Bello Civili
–
Commentarii de Bello Civili, or Bellum Civile, is an account written by Julius Caesar of his war against Gnaeus Pompeius and the Senate. It closes with Pompey assassinated, Caesar attempting to mediate rival claims to the Egyptian throne, Caesars authorship of the Commentarii de Bello Civili is not disputed. The Latin title Commentarii de Bello Civili is often retained as the title of the book in English translations of the work, the title itself is Latin for Commentaries on the Civil War. It is sometimes shortened to just Civil Wars, About the Civil Wars, Caesar organized his commentaries into three separate books, at that time written on individual scrolls. Each book is subdivided into numbered paragraphs, the books cover a two-year period discussing the Roman Civil War during 49 and 48 BC. As governor of Gaul, Caesar presents himself as the victim of a conspiracy occurring in Rome led by his enemies, including Gnaeus Pompeius, Scipio. Throughout the commentaries he presents his cause as a one to restore order. He also commonly presents himself as a liberal on the epicurean model. Caesar omits many details of the campaigns, focusing in large part on the larger strategic situation. Caesar explains how he was wronged by Pompeius and his cohorts and he proceeds with his army to invade Italy from Gaul. Pompeius attempts to raise an army in southern Italy, but is forced to retreat with the army to Greece, Caesar and his army follow Pompeius across the Adriatic Sea to Greece after a mop up operation in Italy and in Spain. In Greece Pompeius initially has the position, with more troops. Caesar writes a lengthy monologue about the superiority of his army of elite veterans of the pacification of Gaul, and dismisses Pompeius tactics and he points out that Pompeius army was drawn largely from the provinces and was poorly trained. After Caesar successfully outmanoeuvred Pompeiuss army in the eastern Balkans, Pompeius, Caesar describes Scipio as a maniacal and untrustworthy but weak villain concerned only with destroying Caesar. Scipio raises an army of his own from his provinces in Asia Minor. The book climaxes with the Battle of Pharsalus in June 48, the lengthy battle and siege resulted in a decisive victory by Caesars army. Pompeius and his cohorts flee to other areas of the Republic in an attempt to reverse their fortunes, Caesar then leads his army across the Mediterranean Sea in pursuit of Pompeius, who had landed in Egypt. There Pompeius was murdered, according to Caesar, by the Egyptians, Caesar ends the book with an epilogue on the Egyptians lack of justification for killing Pompeius
Commentarii de Bello Civili
–
Commentarii de Bello Civili (Commentaries on the Civil War)
20.
Frontinus
–
Sextus Julius Frontinus was one of the most distinguished Roman senators of the late 1st century AD. He is best known to the world as an author of technical treatises, especially De aquaeductu. In AD70, he participated in the suppression of the Rhineland revolt, between that date and being appointed governor of Britain to succeed Quintus Petillius Cerialis a few years later, Frontinus was appointed suffect consul. While governor of Britain, he subjugated the Silures of South Wales and is thought to have campaigned against the Brigantes. He was succeeded by Gnaeus Julius Agricola, the father-in-law of the famous historian Tacitus, birley believes it is fair to speculate that Frontinus was with Domitian during the German campaign of 83. An inscription at Hieropolis in Phrygia, as well as a number of coins of Smyrna, in 97, he was appointed Water Commissioner of the aqueducts at Rome by the emperor Nerva, an office only conferred upon persons of very high standing. He was also a member of the College of Augurs, the following year Frontinus held a second consulship as suffect in February, with Trajan as his colleague, and two years later he was made consul ordinarius with Trajan. Birley notes, This exceptional honour underlines the high regard in which he was held, and suggests, further, that Trajan had a debt to repay. He died in 103 or 104, a based on Pliny the Younger writing to his friends that he was elected to the college of augurs to fill the vacancy Frontinus death had created. Frontinuss chief work is De aquaeductu, in two books, a report to the emperor on the state of the aqueducts of Rome. It presents a history and description of the water-supply of Rome, including the laws relating to its use, Frontinus describes the quality of water delivered by each, mainly depending on their source, be it river, lake, or spring. One of the first jobs he undertook when he was appointed water commissioner was to prepare maps of the system so that he could assess their condition before undertaking their maintenance and he says that many had been neglected and were not working at their full capacity. He was especially concerned by diversion of the supply by unscrupulous farmers and tradesmen and they would insert pipes into the channel of the aqueducts to tap the supply. He, therefore, made a survey of the intake and the supply of each line. Lead pipe stamps bearing the name of the owner were also used to prevent such water theft, distribution of the water depended in a complex way on its height entering the city, the quality of the water, and its rate of discharge. Thus, poor-quality water would be sent for irrigation, gardens, or flushing, intermediate-quality water would be used for the many baths and fountains. However, Frontinus criticized the practice of mixing supplies from different sources and he was very concerned by leaks in the system, especially those in the underground conduits, which were difficult to locate and mend, a problem still faced by water engineers today. The aqueducts above ground needed care to ensure that the masonry was kept in good condition and it was, he said, essential to keep trees at a distance so that their roots would not damage the structures
Frontinus
–
Remains of aqueducts Aqua Claudia and Aqua Anio Novus, integrated into the Aurelian Wall as a gate in 271 AD.
Frontinus
–
Remains of Aqua Claudia
21.
Orosius
–
Paulus Orosius — less often Paul Orosius in English — was a Gallaecian Chalcedonian priest, historian and theologian, a student of Augustine of Hippo. It is possible that he was born in Bracara Augusta, then capital of the Roman province of Gallaecia, in order to meet with them Orosius travelled to cities on the southern coast of the Mediterranean Sea, such as Hippo Regius and Alexandria. These journeys defined his life and intellectual output, Orosius did not just discuss theological matters with Saint Augustine, he also collaborated with him on the book City of God. In addition, in 415 he was chosen to travel to Palestine in order to information with other intellectuals. He was also able to participate in a Church Council meeting in Jerusalem on the same trip, the date of his death is also unclear, although it appears to have not been earlier than 418, when he finished one of his books, or later than 423. Part of its importance comes from the fact that the author shows his historiographical methodology, the book is a historical narration focusing on the pagan peoples from the earliest time up until the time Orosius was alive. Orosius was an influential figure both for the dissemination of information and for rationalising the study of history. Despite the importance of his books many questions regarding his life. This is particularly true for sources of information regarding his birth and death, however, his life has been widely studied and there are a number of authors who propose dates for both events. The main biographical references for Orosius come from the writings of Gennadius of Massilia and Braulio of Zaragoza, in addition, Orosius is mentioned in letters written by Saint Augustine. While there is no doubt regarding his surname of Orosius, there are questions regarding the use of the name Paulus. Basically the problem is that it is not completely certain if he used this name or if he was simply called Orosius and whether Paulus has been added with the passing of time. This could have happened given that the initial P for priest was always placed next to his name, however, this idea is flawed as authors writing immediately after Orosius’s death use the name Paulus. Whatever the truth of the matter this subject has been widely studied, the subject of his birthplace is still disputed although a broad consensus has now been reached. Basically there are four theories regarding his birthplace, that can be summarised as follows, Born in Braga, if he was not born in Braga, it is likely he was born in the area around the town. This idea is supported by Orosius’s own works and two written by Saint Augustine, the 166th and the 169th. Born in Tarragona, this theory has been put forward because in his Histories Orosius talks of Tarraconem nostra, the 19th-century author Teodoro de Mörner held this opinion, but nowadays it does not seem reasonable to support the idea solely based on one indication. Originated in A Coruña, this is a new theory solely based on the fact that Orosius twice mentioned it in the geographical section of his Histories
Orosius
–
Paulus Orosius, shown in a miniature from the Saint-Epure codex.
Orosius
–
Panorama of present day Braga, the most likely birthplace for Orosius.
Orosius
–
The Commonitorium and the Histories are a response, at least in their origins, to the direct influence that
Saint Augustine exercised over Orosius.
Orosius
–
Page from a manuscript of Orosius’s Histories held in
Florence.
![[icon]](/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg){kind=small}
