1.
Battle of Tours
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It was fought in an area between the cities of Poitiers and Tours, in north-central France, near the village of Moussais-la-Bataille, about 20 kilometres northeast of Poitiers. The location of the battle was close to the border between the Frankish realm and then-independent Aquitaine, abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi was killed, and Charles subsequently extended his authority in the south. Details of the battle, including its location and the number of combatants. Notably, the Frankish troops won the battle without cavalry, ninth-century chroniclers, who interpreted the outcome of the battle as divine judgment in his favour, gave Charles the nickname Martellus. Leopold von Ranke felt that Poitiers was the point of one of the most important epochs in the history of the world. There is little dispute that the battle helped lay the foundations of the Carolingian Empire, Most historians agree that the establishment of Frankish power in western Europe shaped that continents destiny and the Battle of Tours confirmed that power. The Battle of Tours followed two decades of Umayyad conquests in Europe which had begun with the invasion of the Visigothic Christian Kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula in 711 and these were followed by military expeditions into the Frankish territories of Gaul, former provinces of the Roman Empire. Umayyad military campaigns had reached northward into Aquitaine and Burgundy, including an engagement at Bordeaux. Most historians assume that the two armies met where the rivers Clain and Vienne join between Tours and Poitiers, the number of troops in each army is not known. However, virtually all Western sources disagree, and estimate the Franks at 30,000, drawing on non-contemporary Muslim sources, Creasy describes the Umayyad forces as 80,000 strong or more. However, Edward J. Schoenfeld, contends that estimates that the Umayyads had over fifty thousand troops are logistically impossible, similarly, historian Victor Davis Hanson believes both armies were roughly the same size, about 30,000 men. Both Davis and Hanson point out both armies had to live off the countryside, neither having a commissary system sufficient to provide supplies for a campaign. Other sources give the following estimates, Gore places the Frankish army at 15,000 -20,000, in spite of wildly varying estimates of the Saracen force, he places that army as around 20,000 -25,000. Other estimates also range up to 80,000, with 50,000 not an uncommon estimate, however, these same casualty figures were recorded in the Liber Pontificalis for Duke Odo the Greats victory at the Battle of Toulouse. The invasion of Hispania, and then Gaul, was led by the Umayyad Dynasty, the Umayyad Caliphate, at the time of the Battle of Tours, was perhaps the worlds foremost military power. Great expansion of the Caliphate occurred under the reign of the Umayyads, Muslim armies pushed east across Persia and west across North Africa through the late 7th century. In 711-18, Tariq ibn Ziyad led forces across the Strait of Gibraltar to conquer the Visigothic Kingdom of Hispania, the Muslim empire under the Umayyads was now a vast domain that ruled a diverse array of peoples. The Frankish realm under Charles Martel was the foremost military power of Western Europe, during most of his tenure in office as commander-in-chief of the Franks, it consisted of north and eastern France, most of western Germany, and the Low Countries
Battle of Tours
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Charles de Steuben 's Bataille de Poitiers en octobre 732 depicts a triumphant
Charles Martel (mounted) facing
'Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi (right) at the Battle of Tours.
2.
Poitiers
–
Poitiers is a city on the Clain river in west-central France. It is a commune and the capital of the Vienne department, Poitiers is a major university centre. The centre of town is picturesque and its streets include predominant historical architecture, especially religious architecture and this battles consequences partly provoked the Jacquerie. The city of Poitiers is strategically situated on the Seuil du Poitou, the Seuil du Poitou connects the Aquitaine Basin to the South to the Paris Basin to the North. This area is an important geographic crossroads in France and Western Europe, poitierss primary site sits on a vast promontory between the valleys of the Boivre and the Clain. The old town occupies the slopes and the summit of a plateau which rises 130 feet above the streams which surround it on three sides, thus Poitiers benefits from a very strong tactical situation. This was an important factor before and throughout the Middle Ages. Inhabitants of Poitiers are referred to as Poitevins or Poitevines, although this denomination can be used for anyone from the Poitou province, as of 2015, the population of Poitiers was 298,339. One out of three people in Poitiers is under the age of 30 and one out of four residents in Poitiers is a student, the climate in the Poitiers area is mild with mild temperature amplitudes, and adequate rainfall throughout the year. The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this type of climate is Cfb, Poitiers was founded by the Celtic tribe of the Pictones and was known as the oppidum Lemonum before Roman influence. The name is said to have come from the Celtic word for elm, after Roman influence took over, the town became known as Pictavium, or later Pictavis, after the original Pictones inhabitants themselves. There is a history of archeological finds from the Roman era in Poitiers. In fact until 1857 Poitiers hosted the ruins of a vast Roman amphitheatre, remains of Roman baths, built in the 1st century and demolished in the 3rd century, were uncovered in 1877. In 1879 a burial-place and tombs of a number of Christian martyrs were discovered on the heights to the south-east of the town, the names of some of the Christians had been preserved in paintings and inscriptions. Not far from these tombs is a dolmen, which is 6.7 metres long,4.9 metres broad and 2.1 metres high. The Romans also built at least three aqueducts and this extensive ensemble of Roman constructions suggests Poitiers was a town of first importance, possibly even the capital of the Roman province of Gallia Aquitania during the 2nd century. The first foundations of the Baptistère Saint-Jean can be traced to that era of open Christian evangelization and he was named Doctor of The Church by Pope Pius IX. In the 4th century, a thick wall 6m wide and 10m high was built around the town and it was 2.5 km long and stood lower on the naturally defended east side and at the top of the promontory
Poitiers
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Historic centre of Poitiers with
Church of Saint-Radegund,
Cathedral of Saint-Pierre and
Palace of Justice in the background
Poitiers
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Charles-de-Gaulle place and its medieval heritage
Poitiers
–
Church of St. Hilary le Grand
Poitiers
–
Church of Notre-Dame la Grande
3.
France
–
France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
France
–
One of the
Lascaux paintings: a horse –
Dordogne, approximately 18,000 BC
France
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Flag
France
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The
Maison Carrée was a temple of the
Gallo-Roman city of Nemausus (present-day
Nîmes) and is one of the best preserved vestiges of the
Roman Empire.
France
–
With
Clovis ' conversion to Catholicism in 498, the
Frankish monarchy,
elective and
secular until then, became
hereditary and of
divine right.
4.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
Geographic coordinate system
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Longitude lines are perpendicular and latitude lines are parallel to the equator.
5.
Kingdom of England
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In the early 11th century the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, united by Æthelstan, became part of the North Sea Empire of Cnut the Great, a personal union between England, Denmark and Norway. The completion of the conquest of Wales by Edward I in 1284 put Wales under the control of the English crown, from the accession of James I in 1603, the Stuart dynasty ruled England in personal union with Scotland and Ireland. Under the Stuarts, the kingdom plunged into war, which culminated in the execution of Charles I in 1649. The monarchy returned in 1660, but the Civil War had established the precedent that an English monarch cannot govern without the consent of Parliament and this concept became legally established as part of the Glorious Revolution of 1688. From this time the kingdom of England, as well as its state the United Kingdom. On 1 May 1707, under the terms of the Acts of Union 1707, the Anglo-Saxons referred to themselves as the Engle or the Angelcynn, originally names of the Angles. They called their land Engla land, meaning land of the English, by Æthelweard Latinized Anglia, from an original Anglia vetus, the name Engla land became England by haplology during the Middle English period. The Latin name was Anglia or Anglorum terra, the Old French, by the 14th century, England was also used in reference to the entire island of Great Britain. The standard title for all monarchs from Æthelstan until the time of King John was Rex Anglorum, Canute the Great, a Dane, was the first king to call himself King of England. In the Norman period Rex Anglorum remained standard, with use of Rex Anglie. The Empress Matilda styled herself Domina Anglorum, from the time of King John onwards all other titles were eschewed in favour of Rex or Regina Anglie. In 1604 James VI and I, who had inherited the English throne the previous year, the English and Scottish parliaments, however, did not recognise this title until the Acts of Union of 1707. The kingdom of England emerged from the unification of the early medieval Anglo-Saxon kingdoms known as the Heptarchy, East Anglia, Mercia, Northumbria, Kent, Essex, Sussex. The Viking invasions of the 9th century upset the balance of power between the English kingdoms, and native Anglo-Saxon life in general, the English lands were unified in the 10th century in a reconquest completed by King Æthelstan in 927 CE. During the Heptarchy, the most powerful king among the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms might become acknowledged as Bretwalda, the decline of Mercia allowed Wessex to become more powerful. It absorbed the kingdoms of Kent and Sussex in 825, the kings of Wessex became increasingly dominant over the other kingdoms of England during the 9th century. In 827, Northumbria submitted to Egbert of Wessex at Dore, in 886, Alfred the Great retook London, which he apparently regarded as a turning point in his reign. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle says that all of the English people not subject to the Danes submitted themselves to King Alfred, asser added that Alfred, king of the Anglo-Saxons, restored the city of London splendidly
Kingdom of England
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The dominions of
Cnut the Great (1014–1035)
Kingdom of England
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Flag
Kingdom of England
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King John signs
Magna Carta at
Runnymede in 1215, surrounded by his baronage. Illustration from Cassell's History of England, 1902.
Kingdom of England
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Fifteenth-century miniature depicting the English victory over France at the
Battle of Agincourt.
6.
Principality of Wales
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The Principality of Wales existed between 1216 and 1536, encompassing two-thirds of modern Wales during its height between 1267 and 1277. For most of its history it was annexed and united to the English Crown, the Principality was formally founded in 1216 at the Council of Aberdyfi and later recognised by the 1218 Treaty of Worcester between Llywelyn the Great of Wales and Henry III of England. The treaty gave substance to the reality of 13th century Wales and England. Although it owed fealty to the Angevin king of England, the principality was de facto independent and its existence has been seen as proof that all the elements necessary for the growth of Welsh statehood were in place. The period of de facto independence ended with Edward Is conquest of the Principality between 1277 and 1283, under the Statute of Rhuddlan the Principality lost its independence and became effectively an annexed territory of the English crown. From 1301, the lands in north and west Wales formed part of the appanage of Englands heir apparent. On accession of the Prince to the English throne, the lands, on two occasions Welsh claimants to the title rose up in rebellion during this period, although neither ultimately succeeded. Additional lands were acquired through vassalage or conquest, and by regaining lands lost to Marcher lords, particularly that of the Perfeddwlad, Powys Fadog, Powys Wenwynwyn, and Ceredigion. Previous Welsh rulers had styled themselves in a variety of ways, the most powerful were often referred to as King of the Britons. The Aberffraw family had long claimed primacy over all other Welsh lords, including over those rulers of Powys, Gruffudd ap Cynans biography was first written in Latin and intended for a wider audience outside Wales. Llywelyn had been at pains to ensure that his heirs and successors would follow the system of inheritance which excluded illegitimate sons. In so doing he excluded his elder bastard son Gruffydd ap Llywelyn from the inheritance, in 1240 Llywelyn died and Henry III of England promptly invaded large areas of his former realm, usurping them from him. However, the two came to peace and Henry honoured at least part of the agreement and bestowed upon Dafydd ap Llywelyn the title Prince of Wales. This title would be granted to his successor Llywelyn in 1267 and was claimed by his brother Dafydd. The traditional numbering of the Princes of Wales begins with Owain Gwynedd who ruled from 1137 until 1170. He was never acknowledged as Prince of Wales, and in fact never used that title and this was demonstrated when Owain Glyndŵr was explicitly crowned as Owain IV of Wales in 1404. The English viewed it differently and considered the title to be bestowed by them and with their grace on only Dafydd ap Llywelyn in 1240. After 1301 the title was granted to the eldest son and heir of an English sovereign, the prodigious Owain Gwynedd succeeded in retaining for his family the primary position in Wales which his father had achieved
Principality of Wales
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Llywelyn ap Iorwerth (Llywelyn Fawr) ruled Gwynedd and most of Wales from 1195 to 1240
Principality of Wales
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Flag of the House of Aberffraw
Principality of Wales
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Edward I creating his son
Edward of Caernarfon Prince of Wales in 1301 (early 14th-century manuscript)
7.
Duchy of Gascony
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The Duchy of Gascony or Duchy of Vasconia, was a duchy in present southwestern France and northeastern Spain, part corresponding to the modern region of Gascony after 824. The Duchy of Gascony, then known as Wasconia, was originally a Frankish march formed to sway over the Basques. In the Hundred Years War, Charles V of France conquered most of Gascony by 1380, the corresponding portion within Spain became part of the Basque Kingdom of Navarre. Gascony was the territory of Roman Gallia Aquitania. This province, by the 2nd century, was extended to much of western Roman Gaul. Thus, the name of the Aquitani came to be transferred to the territory of central-western France later known as the Duchy of Aquitaine, in 293, Diocletian re-created the original province of Caesars Aquitania under the name of Novempopulania or Aquitania Tertia. Around 580, both the Visigothic kingdom and the kingdom of the Franks launched major campaigns against the Basques, in 587 Basques are cited as raiding the plains of Aquitaine, maybe to the west of Toulouse. Chilperic I sent his duke Bladastes stationed in Toulouse, but was defeated and this military push from a stronger centralized authority in Toledo placed more pressure on the Basques to get off the Ebro rich farmland than those already stretching all the way to the Garonne. In this period, the count of Bordeaux Galactorius is cited as fighting the Basques, who are portrayed as hiding out in the mountains, in 602, the Merovingians created a frontier duchy to their southwest during the tripartite wars between Franks, Visigoths, and Basques. A certain Genial was then appointed dux wasconum as a way of handling their relations with the Basques. At the same time, the Visigoths created the Duchy of Cantabria as a buffer against the Basques inhabiting west of current Navarre, about this period duke Francio is reported to vow allegiance to the Franks in Cantabria, an area inhabited by the Basques, but c. 612, the Gothic king Sisebut seems to have conquered the territory, in the years 610 and 612 respectively, the Gothic kings Gundemar and Sisebut launched attacks against the Basques. After a Basque attack in the Ebro valley in the year 621, Swinthila defeated them, however, the Basques relish was short-lived since they were brought to heel by Dagobert. By 626, it is certain that the extended up to the Pyrenees. In 643, there was another rebellion to the north of the Pyrenees and in 642 and 654 they battled against the Visigoths to the south, in Saragossa. From 589 to 684, the Bishop of Pamplona was absent from the Visigothic Councils of Toledo, under Felix and his successors, Frankish overlordship over these lands became merely nominal, and Vasconia became a prominent regional power. Independent dukes Lupus, Odo, Hunald and Waifer succeeded him respectively and their ethnicity is not certain, since records and their names are not conclusive. But the Umayyad invasion of 711 effected a shift in trends
Duchy of Gascony
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Duchy of Vasconia after the Battle of Poitiers (734-743)
Duchy of Gascony
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The duchy of Gascony (green) in 1150
Duchy of Gascony
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Duchy of Vasconia and both sides of the Pyrenees (760)
8.
Duchy of Brittany
–
The Duchy of Brittany was a medieval feudal state that existed between approximately 939 and 1547. The Duchy was established after the expulsion of Viking armies from the region around 939, the Duchy, in the 10th and 11th centuries, was politically unstable, with the dukes holding only limited power outside their own personal lands. The Duchy had mixed relationships with the neighbouring Duchy of Normandy, sometimes allying itself with Normandy, Henry II of England invaded Brittany in the mid-12th century and became Count of Nantes in 1158 under a treaty with Duke Conan IV. Henrys son, Geoffrey, became Duke through his marriage to Constance, the Angevins remained in control until the collapse of their empire in northern France in 1204. The French Crown maintained its influence over the Duchy for the rest of the 13th century, civil war broke out in the 14th century, as rival claimants for the Duchy vied for power during the Breton War of Succession, with different factions supported by England and France. The independent sovereign nature of the Duchy began to come to an end upon the death of Francis II in 1488, the Duchy was inherited by his daughter, Anne, but King Charles VIII of France had her existing marriage annulled and then married her himself. As a result, the King of France acquired the title of Duke of Brittany - jure uxoris, the Duchy was finally merged into the Kingdom of France in 1532 through a vote of the Estates of Brittany. The Ducal crown became united with the French crown in the person of Henry II of France, in modern times the departments have also joined into administrative regions although the administrative region of Brittany does not encompass the entirety of the medieval duchy. The Duchy of Brittany that emerged in the early 10th century was influenced by several earlier polities and these Gallic tribes – termed the Armorici in Latin – had close relationships with the Britonnes tribes in Roman Britain. The reasons for these migrations remain uncertain and these migrations from Britain contributed to Brittanys name. Brittany fragmented into small, warring regna, kingdoms, each competing for resources, the Frankish Carolingian Empire conquered the region during the 8th century, starting around 748 taking the whole of Brittany by 799. The Carolingians tried to create a unitary administration around the centres of Rennes, Nantes, and Vannes using the local rulers, Carolingian technology and culture began to influence Brittany, and the church in Brittany also began to emulate the Frankish model. The greatest influence on the later Duchy, however, was the formation of a unitary Brittany kingdom in the 9th century, in 831 Louis the Pious appointed Nominoe, the Count of Vannes, ruler of the Bretons, imperial missus, at Ingelheim in 831. After the death of Louis in 840, Nominoe rose to challenge the new emperor, Charles the Bald, Charles the Bald created the Marches of Neustria to defend Western Francia from the Bretons and the Vikings. Erispoe fought Charles the Bald, who felt that an attack would successfully challenge the new Breton leader. Erispoe won a victory at the Battle of Jengland and, under their Treaty of Angers in 851, the new kingdom proved fragile and collapsed under Viking attack. In 853 the Viking Godfried left the Seine with his fleet, sailed around the Breton peninsula, Erispoe entered into an alliance with the leader of another Viking fleet, Sidroc, who betrayed him, resulting in Erispoes defeat at the hands of the Vikings. A weakened Erispoe ruled until 857 when he was assassinated and then followed as Breton ruler by his cousin and rival, Salomon, Alan Is military success resulted in a period of peace from Viking invasions and few raids from the Vikings were recorded from 900 through to 907
Duchy of Brittany
–
Duke Alan III
Duchy of Brittany
–
Flag
Duchy of Brittany
–
The attack on
Dinan, from the
Bayeux Tapestry
Duchy of Brittany
–
Seal of
Alan IV, Duke of Brittany
9.
Kingdom of France
–
The Kingdom of France was a medieval and early modern monarchy in Western Europe. It was one of the most powerful states in Europe and a great power since the Late Middle Ages and it was also an early colonial power, with possessions around the world. France originated as West Francia, the half of the Carolingian Empire. A branch of the Carolingian dynasty continued to rule until 987, the territory remained known as Francia and its ruler as rex Francorum well into the High Middle Ages. The first king calling himself Roi de France was Philip II, France continued to be ruled by the Capetians and their cadet lines—the Valois and Bourbon—until the monarchy was overthrown in 1792 during the French Revolution. France in the Middle Ages was a de-centralised, feudal monarchy, in Brittany and Catalonia the authority of the French king was barely felt. Lorraine and Provence were states of the Holy Roman Empire and not yet a part of France, during the Late Middle Ages, the Kings of England laid claim to the French throne, resulting in a series of conflicts known as the Hundred Years War. Subsequently, France sought to extend its influence into Italy, but was defeated by Spain in the ensuing Italian Wars, religiously France became divided between the Catholic majority and a Protestant minority, the Huguenots, which led to a series of civil wars, the Wars of Religion. France laid claim to large stretches of North America, known collectively as New France, Wars with Great Britain led to the loss of much of this territory by 1763. French intervention in the American Revolutionary War helped secure the independence of the new United States of America, the Kingdom of France adopted a written constitution in 1791, but the Kingdom was abolished a year later and replaced with the First French Republic. The monarchy was restored by the great powers in 1814. During the later years of the elderly Charlemagnes rule, the Vikings made advances along the northern and western perimeters of the Kingdom of the Franks, after Charlemagnes death in 814 his heirs were incapable of maintaining political unity and the empire began to crumble. The Treaty of Verdun of 843 divided the Carolingian Empire into three parts, with Charles the Bald ruling over West Francia, the nucleus of what would develop into the kingdom of France. Viking advances were allowed to increase, and their dreaded longboats were sailing up the Loire and Seine rivers and other waterways, wreaking havoc. During the reign of Charles the Simple, Normans under Rollo from Norway, were settled in an area on either side of the River Seine, downstream from Paris, that was to become Normandy. With its offshoots, the houses of Valois and Bourbon, it was to rule France for more than 800 years. Henry II inherited the Duchy of Normandy and the County of Anjou, and married Frances newly divorced ex-queen, Eleanor of Aquitaine, after the French victory at the Battle of Bouvines in 1214, the English monarchs maintained power only in southwestern Duchy of Guyenne. The death of Charles IV of France in 1328 without male heirs ended the main Capetian line, under Salic law the crown could not pass through a woman, so the throne passed to Philip VI, son of Charles of Valois
Kingdom of France
–
The Kingdom of France in 1789.
Ancien Régime provinces in
1789.
Kingdom of France
–
Royal Standarda
Kingdom of France
–
Henry IV, by
Frans Pourbus the younger, 1610.
Kingdom of France
–
Louis XIII, by
Philippe de Champaigne, 1647.
10.
Kingdom of Scotland
–
The Kingdom of Scotland was a state in northwest Europe traditionally said to have been founded in 843, which joined with the Kingdom of England to form a unified Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707. Its territories expanded and shrank, but it came to occupy the third of the island of Great Britain. It suffered many invasions by the English, but under Robert I it fought a war of independence. In 1603, James VI of Scotland became King of England, in 1707, the two kingdoms were united to form the Kingdom of Great Britain under the terms of the Acts of Union. The Crown was the most important element of government, the Scottish monarchy in the Middle Ages was a largely itinerant institution, before Edinburgh developed as a capital city in the second half of the 15th century. The Scottish Crown adopted the conventional offices of western European courts, Parliament also emerged as a major legal institution, gaining an oversight of taxation and policy, but was never as central to the national life as its counterpart in England. In the 17th century, the creation of Justices of Peace, the continued existence of courts baron and the introduction of kirk sessions helped consolidate the power of local lairds. Scots law developed into a system in the Middle Ages and was reformed and codified in the 16th and 17th centuries. Under James IV the legal functions of the council were rationalised, in 1532, the College of Justice was founded, leading to the training and professionalisation of lawyers. David I is the first Scottish king known to have produced his own coinage, Early Scottish coins were virtually identical in silver content to English ones, but from about 1300 their silver content began to depreciate more rapidly than the English coins. At the union of the Crowns in 1603 the Scottish pound was fixed at only one-twelfth the value of the English pound, the Bank of Scotland issued pound notes from 1704. Scottish currency was abolished by the Act of Union, Scotland is half the size of England and Wales in area, but has roughly the same length of coastline. Geographically Scotland is divided between the Highlands and Islands and the Lowlands, the Highlands had a relatively short growing season, which was further shortened during the Little Ice Age. From Scotlands foundation to the inception of the Black Death, the population had grown to a million, following the plague and it expanded in the first half of the 16th century, reaching roughly 1.2 million by the 1690s. Significant languages in the kingdom included Gaelic, Old English, Norse and French. Christianity was introduced into Scotland from the 6th century, in the Norman period the Scottish church underwent a series of changes that led to new monastic orders and organisation. During the 16th century, Scotland underwent a Protestant Reformation that created a predominately Calvinist national kirk, there were a series of religious controversies that resulted in divisions and persecutions. The Scottish Crown developed naval forces at various points in its history, Land forces centred around the large common army, but adopted European innovations from the 16th century, and many Scots took service as mercenaries and as soldiers for the English Crown
Kingdom of Scotland
–
James VI, whose inheritance of the thrones of England and Ireland created a dynastic union in 1603
Kingdom of Scotland
–
Flag
Kingdom of Scotland
–
Coronation of
Alexander III of Scotland at
Scone Abbey; beside him are the
Mormaers of Strathearn and
Fife while his genealogy is recited by a royal poet.
Kingdom of Scotland
–
The
Regiam Majestatem is the oldest surviving written digest of Scots law.
11.
Holy Roman Empire
–
The Holy Roman Empire was a multi-ethnic complex of territories in central Europe that developed during the Early Middle Ages and continued until its dissolution in 1806. On 25 December 800, Pope Leo III crowned the Frankish king Charlemagne as Emperor, reviving the title in Western Europe, more than three centuries after the fall of the Western Roman Empire. The title was revived in 962 when Otto I was crowned emperor, fashioning himself as the successor of Charlemagne, some historians refer to the coronation of Charlemagne as the origin of the empire, while others prefer the coronation of Otto I as its beginning. Scholars generally concur, however, in relating an evolution of the institutions and principles constituting the empire, the office of Holy Roman Emperor was traditionally elective, although frequently controlled by dynasties. Emperor Francis II dissolved the empire on 6 August 1806, after the creation of the Confederation of the Rhine by Napoleon, before 1157, the realm was merely referred to as the Roman Empire. In a decree following the 1512 Diet of Cologne, the name was changed to Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation, by the end of the 18th century, the term Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation had fallen out of official use. As Roman power in Gaul declined during the 5th century, local Germanic tribes assumed control, by the middle of the 8th century, however, the Merovingians had been reduced to figureheads, and the Carolingians, led by Charles Martel, had become the de facto rulers. In 751, Martel’s son Pepin became King of the Franks, the Carolingians would maintain a close alliance with the Papacy. In 768 Pepin’s son Charlemagne became King of the Franks and began an expansion of the realm. He eventually incorporated the territories of present-day France, Germany, northern Italy, on Christmas Day of 800, Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne emperor, restoring the title in the west for the first time in over three centuries. After the death of Charles the Fat in 888, however, the Carolingian Empire broke apart, according to Regino of Prüm, the parts of the realm spewed forth kinglets, and each part elected a kinglet from its own bowels. After the death of Charles the Fat, those crowned emperor by the pope controlled only territories in Italy, the last such emperor was Berengar I of Italy, who died in 924. Around 900, autonomous stem duchies reemerged in East Francia, on his deathbed, Conrad yielded the crown to his main rival, Henry the Fowler of Saxony, who was elected king at the Diet of Fritzlar in 919. Henry reached a truce with the raiding Magyars, and in 933 he won a first victory against them in the Battle of Riade, Henry died in 936, but his descendants, the Liudolfing dynasty, would continue to rule the Eastern kingdom for roughly a century. Upon Henry the Fowlers death, Otto, his son and designated successor, was elected King in Aachen in 936 and he overcame a series of revolts from an elder brother and from several dukes. After that, the managed to control the appointment of dukes. In 951, Otto came to the aid of Adelaide, the queen of Italy, defeating her enemies, marrying her. In 955, Otto won a victory over the Magyars in the Battle of Lechfeld
Holy Roman Empire
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The Holy Roman Empire at its maximal extent, in the 13th century
Holy Roman Empire
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Imperial Banner
Holy Roman Empire
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An illustration from
Schedelsche Weltchronik depicting the structure of the Reich: The Holy Roman Emperor is sitting; on his left are three ecclesiastics; on his right are four secular electors.
Holy Roman Empire
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Double-headed eagle with coats of arms of individual states, symbol of the Holy Roman Empire (painting from 1510)
12.
Edward, the Black Prince
–
Edward of Woodstock KG, called the Black Prince, was the eldest son of King Edward III and Philippa of Hainault, and the father of King Richard II of England. He was the first Duke of Cornwall, the Prince of Wales and he was called Edward of Woodstock in his early life, after his birthplace, and since the 16th century has been popularly known as the Black Prince. He was a military leader, and his victories over the French at the Battles of Crécy. In 1348 he was made a Founding Knight of the Garter, Edward died one year before his father, becoming the first English Prince of Wales not to become King of England. The throne passed instead to his son Richard II, a minor, Richard Barber comments that Edward has attracted relatively little attention from serious historians, but figures largely in popular history. Edward was born on 15 June 1330 at Woodstock Palace in Oxfordshire and he was created Earl of Chester on 18 May 1333, Duke of Cornwall on 17 March 1337 and finally invested as Prince of Wales on 12 May 1343 when he was almost thirteen years old. In England, Edward served as a regent for periods in 1339,1340. He was expected to all council meetings, and he performed the negotiations with the papacy about the war in 1337. He also served as High Sheriff of Cornwall from 1340–1341,1343,1358, Edward had been raised with his cousin Joan, The Fair Maid of Kent. Edward gained permission for the marriage from Pope Innocent VI and absolution for marriage to a blood-relative, the marriage caused some controversy, mainly because of Joans chequered marital history and the fact that marriage to an Englishwoman wasted an opportunity to form an alliance with a foreign power. When in England, Edwards chief residence was at Wallingford Castle in Berkshire and he served as the kings representative in Aquitaine, where he and Joan kept a court which was considered among the most fashionable of the time. It was the resort of exiled kings such as James IV of Majorca, Peter of Castile, thrust from his throne by his illegitimate brother Henry of Trastámara, offered Edward the lordship of Biscay in 1367, in return for the Black Princes aid in recovering his throne. Edward was successful in the Battle of Nájera, in which he defeated the combined French. However Peter did not pay fully and refused to yield Biscay, Edward retreated to Guienne by July. The Black Prince returned to England in January 1371 and died on 8 June 1376, Edward lived in a century of decline for the knightly ideal of chivalry. However, some argue he may have been playing for time to preparation of his archers positions. On the other hand, his tendencies were overridden by expediency on many occasions. The Crécy Campaign on the front, which crippled the French army for ten years
Edward, the Black Prince
–
Edward, Prince of Wales as
Knight of the order of the Garter, 1453, illustration from the
Bruges Garter Book
Edward, the Black Prince
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Edward, the Black Prince, is granted Aquitaine by his father King Edward III. Initial letter "E" of miniature, 1390; British Library, shelfmark: Cotton MS Nero D VI, f.31
Edward, the Black Prince
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Signet ring of the Black Prince in the Louvre
Edward, the Black Prince
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Original Black Prince Heraldic achievements on display in Canterbury Cathedral
13.
Thomas de Beauchamp, 11th Earl of Warwick
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Thomas de Beauchamp, 11th Earl of Warwick, KG was an English nobleman and military commander during the Hundred Years War. In 1348 he became one of the founders and the third Knight of the Order of the Garter, Thomas de Beauchamp was born at Warwick Castle, Warwickshire, England to Guy de Beauchamp, 10th Earl of Warwick and Alice de Toeni. He served in Scotland frequently during the 1330s, being captain of the army against the Scots in 1337 and he was hereditary High Sheriff of Worcestershire from 1333 until his death. In 1344 he was also made High Sheriff of Warwickshire and Leicestershire for life, Warwick was Marshall of England from 1343/4 until 1369, and was one of the commanders at the great English victories at Crécy and Poitiers. Thomas de Beauchamp fought in all the French wars of King Edward III and he was trusted to be guardian of the sixteen-year-old Black Prince. Beauchamp fought at Poitiers in 1356 and at the Siege of Calais and he began the rebuilding of the Collegiate Church of Saint Mary in Warwick using money received from the ransom of a French Archbishop. He died of plague in Calais on 13 November 1369 and was entombed in the Beauchamp Chapel, the chapel contains the finest example of the use of brisures for cadency in medieval heraldry—seven different Beauchamp coats of arms. He married Katherine Mortimer, daughter of Roger Mortimer, 1st Earl of March and his daughters were, by entail, excluded from their grandfathers inheritance. Reinbrun de Beauchamp William de Beauchamp, 1st Baron Bergavenny, inherited the honour of Abergavenny, queen consort Anne Boleyn was a notable descendant of the latter. Roger de Beauchamp Maud de Beauchamp, married Roger de Clifford, 5th Baron de Clifford, by whom she had issue, including Thomas de Clifford, philippa de Beauchamp, married Hugh de Stafford, 2nd Earl of Stafford, by whom she had nine children. Alice Beauchamp, married firstly John Beauchamp, 3rd Baron Beauchamp of Somerset, joan de Beauchamp, married Ralph Basset, 3rd Baron Basset of Drayton. Isabella de Beauchamp, married firstly John le Strange, 5th Baron Strange, upon the latters death, she became a nun. Margaret de Beauchamp, married Guy de Montfort, and after his death, elizabeth de Beauchamp, married Thomas de Ufford KG. Anne de Beauchamp, married Walter de Cokesey, juliana de Beauchamp Katherine de Beauchamp, became a nun at Shouldham Priory. Beauchamps wife Katherine died on 4 August 1369, Beauchamp died three months later, on 13 November 1369, of the Black Death and was buried alongside his wife at St. Marys Church, Warwick, Warwickshire. Beauchamp, Thomas de, eleventh earl of Warwick, peerage. com on Thomas de Beauchamp, Earl of Warwick rootsweb. com
Thomas de Beauchamp, 11th Earl of Warwick
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Thomas de Beauchamp, 11th Earl of Warwick, KG, third founder knight of the
Order of the Garter, shown wearing his garter robes over his tunic showing the arms of Beauchamp
quartering Newburgh. Illustration from the 1430
Bruges Garter Book made by
William Bruges (1375–1450), first
Garter King of Arms
Thomas de Beauchamp, 11th Earl of Warwick
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Thomas de Beauchamp, 11th Earl of Warwick depicted in 1347 as one of the 8 mourners attached to the monumental brass of Sir Hugh Hastings (d. 1347) at
St Mary's Church, Elsing, Norfolk. He displays the arms of Beauchamp on his tunic
Thomas de Beauchamp, 11th Earl of Warwick
Thomas de Beauchamp, 11th Earl of Warwick
14.
Jean III de Grailly, captal de Buch
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Attached to the English side in the conflict, he was made Count of Bigorre by Edward III of England, and was also a founder and the fourth Knight of the Garter in 1348. John was taken to London by the Black Prince and held to ransom, in 1364 he commanded the forces of Charles II of Navarre in Normandy, where he was defeated and captured by Bertrand du Guesclin at Cocherel. After his release the year, he defected to the French side and was made lord of Nemours by Charles V of France. However, he soon re-established his loyalty to the English, and in 1367 he went to Spain with the Black Prince, fighting at the Battle of Nájera. Here he again faced Bertrand du Guesclin, but this time it was du Guesclin who was captured, and he was rewarded for his service by being made the Constable of Aquitaine in 1371. Again fighting for the English, he commanded an English relief force when the French attacked La Rochelle in 1372, while attempting to lift the siege of Soubise his force was surprised by a French force led by Owain Lawgoch, a Welsh soldier of fortune in the French service. The Captal and Sir Thomas Percy, seneschal of Poitou, were captured, the Captal spent the remainder of his life as a prisoner at the Temple in Paris because Charles V believed him too dangerous to ransom back to the English. Froissart gives an account of the Captal de Buchs chivalry and courage at the time of the peasant uprising in 1358 called the Jacquerie, jean de Grailly was a prisoner of the French since 1372. He had refused his freedom as it would have meant taking up arms against the king of England, which he swore never to do. His personal allegiance to Prince Edward of England, the Black Prince, was so strong that upon hearing of his death, he lost all resolve, refused food and died a few days later. Since he left no heirs from his marriage to Rose d Albret, his uncle, Archambaud, count of Foix and of Bigorre took the title Captal de Buch, which passed to his descendants the Counts of Foix. Beltz, George, Memorials of the Most Noble Order of the Garter From its Foundation to the Present time, nicolle, David, and Graham Turner, Poitiers 1356, The Capture of a King, Osprey Publishing,2004. Jones, Michael, ed. Feudal Empires, Norman and Plantagenet, the Book of the Medieval Knight. London, Arms and Armour Press,1985, ISBN 0-85368-715-3 Wagner, John A. Encyclopedia of the Hundred Years War, Greenwood Publishing Group,2006. Froissart on the Jacquerie Encyclopædia Britannica,1911, Captal
Jean III de Grailly, captal de Buch
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Jean III de Grailly, Captal de Buch, KG, illustration from the
Bruges Garter Book, c.1430
Jean III de Grailly, captal de Buch
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The castle of Benauges was hereditary in the Grailly family after having been granted to
Jean I de Grailly in the early 1260s.
Jean III de Grailly, captal de Buch
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Gold
signet ring belonging to Jean III de Grailly in the
British Museum, late 14th Century.
15.
John Chandos
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Sir John Chandos, Viscount of Saint-Sauveur in the Cotentin, Constable of Aquitaine, Seneschal of Poitou, KG was a medieval English knight who hailed from Radbourne Hall, Derbyshire. Chandos was a friend of Edward, the Black Prince. Chandos was a gentleman by birth, but unlike most commanders of the day he held no inherited title of nobility and his death in a minor skirmish was regretted by both sides. Chandos was the son and heir of the lord of the manor of Radbourne, Derbyshire, inevitably, he trained in the arts of war and distinguished himself as a young knight. Chandos was a figure at the Battle of Crécy. As Chief of Staff to Edward, the Black Prince, he designed the strategy that won victory at the Battle of Poitiers in 1356, in 1360, Chandos was created a knight banneret, which allowed him to hold a banner in battle. This came being made the Viscount of Saint-Sauveur by Edward III and this is contrary to the Life of the Black Prince, written by the Herald of John Chandos which suggested that Chandos was made a banneret immediately before the Battle of Najera in 1367. Nevertheless, on occasion, Edward, the Black Prince of Wales. In reward for his service, Chandos was created the lieutenant of France, during the Hundred Years War, he became constable of Aquitaine. Later, however, after disagreeing with Edward over how the Guyennois should be taxed, in 1369, the French launched a successful counterattack, regaining much territory and forcing Edward to recall Chandos, who was appointed seneschal of Poitou and settled in Poitiers. Sir John attempted to deal with the French attempts to regain a foothold in the province, the Breton John Kerlouët and Louis de Saint Julien Trimouille, lord of Lusignan, had occupied La Roche-Posay and Saint-Savin, a few miles from Poitiers. Chandos decided to retake the abbey of Saint-Savin, with an attack under cover of night. The French, unaware of their presence, had decided to follow the route to harass any English troops. The adversaries met at the bridge of Lussac, in the battle, Chandos long coat made him slip on the frost. James de Saint-Martin, a squire in the house of Sir Bagnac struck Chandos with his lance, Chandos uncle Edward Twyford, standing over his wounded nephew, repulsed the attackers. One of his squires pierced both legs of James Saint-Martin with his sword, Saint-Martin died three days later at Poitiers, John Chandos was carried on a large shield to Morthemer, the nearest English fortress. He died in the night, either on the 31st December or the hours of 1st January 1370, after a day and night of agony. It is difficult to determine if John Chandos was killed by Saint-Martins squire or by Guillaume Boitel, according to Froissard, official chronicler of Queen Philippa of England, Edward IIIs spouse, constable Chandos was killed by the squire of Saint-Martin
John Chandos
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For other people named John Chandos, see
John Chandos (disambiguation).
John Chandos
–
The death of Sir John Chandos at Lussac.
16.
John II of France
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John II, called John the Good, was a monarch of the House of Valois who ruled as King of France from 1350 until his death. While John was a prisoner in London, his son Charles became regent and faced several rebellions, to liberate his father, he concluded the Treaty of Brétigny, by which France lost many territories and paid an enormous ransom. In an exchange of hostages, which included his second son Louis, Duke of Anjou, when John was informed that Louis had escaped from captivity, he voluntarily returned to England, where he died in 1364. He was succeeded by his son Charles V, John was nine years old when his father had himself crowned as Philip VI of France. Initially a marriage with Eleanor of Woodstock, sister of King Edward III of England, was considered, Bohemia had aspirations to control Lombardy and needed French diplomatic support. The military clauses stipulated that, in the event of war, the political clauses ensured that the Lombard crown would not be disputed if the king of Bohemia managed to obtain it. Philip selected Bonne of Bohemia as a wife for his son, as she was closer to child-bearing age, and the dowry was fixed at 120,000 florins. John reached the age of majority,13 years and one day, on 27 April 1332, the wedding was celebrated on 28 July at the church of Notre-Dame in Melun in the presence of six thousand guests. The festivities were prolonged by a two months when the young groom was finally knighted at the cathedral of Notre Dame in Paris. Upon his accession as Duke of Normandy in 1332, John had to deal with the reality that most of the Norman nobility was already allied with the English camp, effectively, Normandy depended economically more on maritime trade across the English Channel than on river trade on the Seine. The Duchy had not been English for 150 years, but many landowners had holdings across the Channel, consequently, to line up behind one or other sovereign risked confiscation. Therefore, Norman members of the nobility were governed as interdependent clans and it was split into two key camps, the counts of Tancarville and the counts of Harcourt, which had been in conflict for generations. King Philip, worried about the richest area of the breaking into bloodshed, ordered the bailiffs of Bayeux. Geoffroy dHarcourt raised troops against the king, rallying a number of nobles protective of their autonomy, the rebels demanded that Geoffroy be made duke, thus guaranteeing the autonomy granted by the charter. Royal troops took the castle at Saint-Sauveur-le-Vicomte and Geoffroy was exiled to Brabant, three of his companions were decapitated in Paris on 3 April 1344. In 1342, John was in Avignon at the coronation of Pope Clement VI, by 1345, increasing numbers of Norman rebels had begun to pay homage to Edward III, constituting a major threat to the legitimacy of the Valois kings. The defeat at the Battle of Crécy on 26 August 1346, defections by the nobility, whose land fell within the broad economic influence of England, particularly in the north and west, increased. Consequently, King Philip VI decided to seek a truce, Duke John met Geoffroy dHarcourt, to whom the king agreed to return all confiscated goods, even appointing him sovereign captain in Normandy
John II of France
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Portrait of John painted on wood panel around 1350,
Louvre Museum
John II of France
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A denier d'Or aux fleurs de lys from John's reign (1351)
John II of France
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John II ennobling his knights, BNF
John II of France
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The first
Franc ever minted, the "Franc à cheval", was minted upon Jean le Bon's return from captivity from 5 December 1360, and featured combative imagery. Gold, 24
karat, 3.73g. It conveniently coincided with the account value of one
livre tournois.
17.
Surrender (military)
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Surrender, in military terms, is the relinquishment of control over territory, combatants, fortifications, ships or armament to another power. A surrender may be accomplished peacefully, without fighting, or it may be the result of defeat in battle, a sovereign state may surrender following defeat in a war, usually by signing a peace treaty or capitulation agreement. A battlefield surrender, either by individuals or when ordered by officers, normally, a surrender will involve the handing over of weapons, the commanding officer of a surrendering force symbolically offers his sword to the victorious commander. Flags and ensigns are hauled down or furled, and ships colors are struck or the raising of a flag to the masts signals a surrender. When the parties agree to terms, the surrender may be conditional, that is, the leaders of the surrendering group negotiate privileges or compensation for the time, expense and loss of life saved by the victor through the stopping of resistance. Alternatively, in a surrender at discretion, the victor makes no promises of treatment, an early example of a military surrender is the defeat of Carthage by the Roman Empire at the end of the Second Punic War. Over time, generally accepted laws and customs of war have developed for such a situation, most of which are laid out in the Hague Convention of 1907. Normally, a belligerent will agree to surrender only if completely incapable of continuing hostilities. Traditionally, a ceremony was accompanied by the honors of war. The Third Geneva Convention states that prisoners of war should not be mistreated or abused, US Army policy, for example, requires that surrendered persons should be secured and safeguarded while being evacuated from the battlefield. While not a military law, the Code of the US Fighting Force disallows surrender unless all reasonable means of resistance exhausted. Certain death the only alternative, the Code states, I will never surrender of my own free will, if in command, I will never surrender the members of my command while they still have the means to resist. False surrender is a type of perfidy in the context of war and it is a war crime under Protocol I of the Geneva Convention. False surrenders are usually used to draw the enemy out of cover to attack them off guard, accounts of false surrender can be found relatively frequently throughout history. One of the more infamous examples was the false surrender of British troops at Kilmichael. Capitulation, an agreement in time of war for the surrender to an armed force of a particular body of troops. Debellatio occurs when a war ends because of the destruction of a belligerent state. No quarter occurs when a victor shows no clemency or mercy, under the laws of war, it is especially forbidden
Surrender (military)
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Muslims surrender to Spain:
Boabdil gives the Granada key to Ferdinand and Isabella
Surrender (military)
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Crusaders surrender to
Muslims.
Balian of Ibelin surrendering the city of
Jerusalem to the
Muslim ruler
Saladin, from Les Passages faits Outremer par les Français contre les Turcs et autres Sarrasins et Maures outremarins, ca. 1490.
Surrender (military)
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Surrender of Lord Cornwallis by
John Trumbull, depicting the British surrendering to French (left) and American (right) troops. Oil on canvas, 1820.
Surrender (military)
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General Percival marches to surrender 80,000 British troops after the
Battle of Singapore in
World War II.
18.
Philip the Bold
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Philip the Bold was Duke of Burgundy and jure uxoris Count of Flanders, Artois and Burgundy. The fourth and youngest son of King John II of France and his wife, Bonne of Luxembourg and his vast collection of territories made him the undisputed premier peer of the kingdom of France and made his successors formidable rivals of the kings of France. Born in Pontoise in 1342, Philip gained his cognomen the Bold at the age of 14 and he remained in the custody of the English with his father until the terms of their ransom were agreed to in the Treaty of Brétigny of 1360. His father had been the ruler of the duchy since the death of Duke Philip I in 1361, Philip would rule the duchy as Philip II until his death. He was actually the stepbrother of Philip I of Burgundy, whose mother Joan was married to King John II of France, Philip the Bolds father, Margaret became the widow of Philips stepbrother Duke Philip I of Burgundy while still a child of about 11. As her fathers heiress, Margaret would bring rich possessions to Philip the Bold. From 1379 to 1382, Philip helped his father-in-law Louis II put down revolts in Flanders, particularly in Ghent, the revolts were finally ended in 1385, following the death of Louis II, with the Peace of Tournai. As jure uxoris Count of Flanders, he would keep in mind the interests of the Flemish cities. Philip was very active at the court of France, particularly after the death in 1380 of his brother King Charles V, among Philips acts while regent was the suppression of a tax revolt in 1382 known as the Harelle. The regency lasted until 1388, always with Philip assuming the dominant role, Louis of Bourbon was largely an unimportant figure due to his personality and his status. In 1392, events conspired to allow Philip to seize power once more in France, Charles VIs friend and advisor Olivier de Clisson had recently been the target of an assassination attempt by agents of John V, Duke of Brittany. The would-be assassin, Pierre de Craon, had taken refuge in Brittany, Charles, outraged at these events, determined to punish Craon, and on 1 July 1392 led an expedition against Brittany. While traveling to Brittany, the king, already overwrought by the progress, was shocked by a madman who spent half-an-hour following the procession to warn the king that he had been betrayed. When a page dropped a lance, the king reacted by killing several of his knights and had to be wrestled to the ground, Philip, who was present, immediately assumed command and appointed himself regent, dismissing Charles advisors. He was the ruler of France until 1402. His seizure of power, however, had consequences for the unity of the House of Valois. This struggle only served to enhance the reputation of Philip, since he appeared to be a sober and honest reformer in comparison to the profligate and irresponsible Louis. Although Charles VI confirmed his brother as regent in 1402 in a moment of sanity, Louiss misrule allowed Philip to regain control of France as regent in 1404
Philip the Bold
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Philip the Bold
Philip the Bold
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Flanders, double groat or 'jangelaar', struck in Gent under Philip the Bold (1384-1404) with the arms of Burgundy and Flanders.
Philip the Bold
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Engraving of Philip the Bold
Philip the Bold
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Tomb of Philip the Bold at the Palace of the Dukes of Burgundy at
Dijon
19.
Charles V of France
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Charles V, called the Wise, was a monarch of the House of Valois who ruled as King of France from 1364 to his death. In 1349, as a prince, Charles received from his grandfather King Philip VI the province of Dauphiné to rule. This allowed him to bear the title Dauphin until his coronation, after 1350, all heirs apparent of France bore the title of Dauphin until their coronation. Charles became regent of France when his father John II was captured by the English at the Battle of Poitiers in 1356. With the help of talented advisers known as the Marmousets, his management of the kingdom allowed him to replenish the royal treasury. He established the first permanent army paid with regular wages, which liberated the French populace from the companies of routiers who regularly plundered the country when not employed. Furthermore, the French Navy, led by Jean de Vienne and he was succeeded by his son Charles VI the Mad, whose disastrous reign allowed the English to regain control of large parts of France. Charles was born at the Château de Vincennes outside of Paris, the future king was highly intelligent but physically weak, with pale skin and a thin, ill-proportioned body. This made a sharp contrast to his father, who was tall, strong, as neither the pope nor the emperor wanted to buy, the transaction was concluded with Philip VI. Under the Treaty of Romans, the Dauphiné of Viennois was to be held by a son of the future king John the Good, so it was Charles, the eldest son of the latter, who became the first Dauphin. At the age of twelve, he was confronted with the exercise of power while staying in Grenoble. A few days after his arrival, the people of Grenoble were invited to the Place Notre-Dame, young Charles took his place next to Bishop John of Chissé and received the oath of allegiance of the people. On April 8,1350 at Tain-lHermitage, the Dauphin married his cousin Joanna of Bourbon at the age of 12, the prior approval of the pope was obtained for this consanguineous marriage. The marriage was delayed by the death of his mother Bonne of Luxembourg and his grandmother Joan the Lame, the dauphin himself had been seriously ill from August to December 1349. Gatherings were limited to slow the spread of the then raging in Europe. Despite his young age, the applied to be recognized by his subjects. Charles was recalled to Paris at the death of his grandfather Philip VI, the legitimacy of John the Good, and that of the Valois in general, was not unanimous. His father, Philip VI, had lost all credibility with the disasters of Crecy, Calais, the ravages of the plague, the royal clan had to cope with opposition from all sides in the kingdom
Charles V of France
–
Charles V the Wise
Charles V of France
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The
Château du Louvre, shown in this early fifteenth century illumination, representing the month of October in Les très riches Heures du duc de Berry, was rebuilt during the reign of Charles V – inaugurating a new era of royal architecture
20.
Peter I, Duke of Bourbon
–
Peter I of Bourbon was the second Duke of Bourbon, from 1342 to his death. Peter was son of Louis I of Bourbon, whom he succeeded as Grand Chamberlain of France. Peter I took part in several of the campaigns of the Hundred Years War which broke out in 1337. In the summer of 1339 he took part in Jean de Marigny, in autumn 1341 he took part in the John, Duke of Normandys campaign in Brittany. He was present at the coronation of Pope Clement VI at Avignon 19 May 1342, summer 1342 he was together with the Raoul I of Brienne, Count of Eu given command of the covering force protecting France from attacks from the north while king Philip VI campaigned in Brittany. On 8 August 1345 Peter I was appointed by Philip VI as his lieutenant on the south-west march and his opponent was to be Henry, Earl of Derby who completed disembarking his army at Bordeaux the day after Peter Is appointment. Peter I arrived to take up his lieutenancy in Languedoc in September, Bourbon set up headquarters at Angoulême and begun an extensive recruitment campaign to raise a new army, command of which fell to the Duke of Normandy. However on 21 October the Earl of Derby won another crushing victory outside Auberoche over parts of this force, the Duke of Normandy abandoned his campaign once he heard the news. In early November he disbanded his army and left for the north, the Earl of Derby exploited the absence of a French commander in the field to lay siege to the important fortress-city of La Réole. Bourbon proclaimed the arrière-ban in Languedoc and the provinces in an attempt to find troops to relieve the siege. However the results were poor as many of the recruits were still on their way home from the army just disbanded by John of Normandy. Attempts by John I, Count of Armagnac to raise troops from his domains in the Rouergue also produced little, early January 1346 the garrison of La Réole marched away under truce. Winter 1346 Bourbon kept his winter quarters at the capital of Agen. Spring however opened with the so far greatest French effort in the south-west, in April Normandy laid siege to the town of Aiguillon which controlled the confluence between the Lot and the Garonne. There they still remained in August when John of Normandy was urgently recalled to the north to help stop Edward III who had landed in Normandy, and so the French 1346 campaign in the south ended having accomplished nothing. In July 1347 he took part in negotiations with the English outside Calais in the days just before that citys capitulation. On 8 February 1354 he was together with the Guy, Cardinal of Boulogne appointed as King John IIs commissioners to King Charles II of Navarre, empowered to offer whatever Charles wanted. The treaty concluded 22 February granted to Charles of Navarre a considerable part of Lower Normandy which he was to hold with the rights as the Duke of Normandy
Peter I, Duke of Bourbon
–
Peter I, Duke of Bourbon
21.
Walter VI, Count of Brienne
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Walter VI of Brienne was Count of Brienne, Conversano, and Lecce, and titular Duke of Athens. Walter was the son of Walter V, Duke of Athens, and Jeanne de Châtillon, as grandson of Hugh of Brienne, he was heir to a vast property all around the Mediterranean. After his fathers death at the Battle of Halmyros on 15 March 1311, Walter became Count of Brienne, etc. and he spent most of his life in Italy and France and left Argos-Nauplia to be ruled by guardians. They had barely regained the County of Lecce, and were claiming the Principality of Taranto. His mother Jeanne carried out a struggle against the Catalans during his minority. To strengthen his position, Walter engaged in a marriage to Margaret. At this time, Florence requested King Roberts support in protecting Guelph interests in Italy, Walter VIs almost-princely position in the Angevin court soon won him an appointment as Vicar for Charles of Calabria, an office that he only exercised for a few months in 1325. In 1329, Walter obtained the support of Robert of Naples and Pope John XXII, Walter sailed for the East in 1331, but the price of Roberts support was that he first reduce the Despotate of Epirus, as Vicar-General of the Latin Empire. Here he took Arta and forced the Despot John I Orsini to acknowledge the suzerainty of Naples and his attempts to recover Athens and Boeotia, however, were frustrated by the Venetian alliance with the Catalans and the refusal of the Catalans to give battle. His only son, Walter, died of illness during the campaign and he also occupied himself with his lands in France, and was the Kings Lieutenant in Thiérache in 1339. His wife died in 1340, and he returned to Italy in 1342 when the Florentine ruling class of merchants called upon him to rule the city. The Florentine nobility looked to foreign powers to solve the seemingly impossible financial problems. Although the ruling class invited Walter to rule for a time, the lower classes. Walter VI ruled despotically, ignoring or directly opposing the interests of the very same merchant class that had him to power. These measures both angered the Florentines, and helped alleviate the crisis that had been stewing for years. After only ten months, Walter of Briennes signoria was cut short by conspiracy, Walter VI was not only forced to resign from office, but barely escaped Florence with his life. In 1344 he married Jeanne, the daughter of Raoul I of Brienne and she bore him two daughters, Jeanne and Marguerite, both of whom died young. As he had no surviving children, it was evident that his sisters issue would inherit his possessions and he was appointed Constable of France in 1356 and in that capacity died on 19 September 1356 at the Battle of Poitiers
Walter VI, Count of Brienne
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Walter VI, Count of Brienne
22.
William Douglas, 1st Earl of Douglas
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William Douglas, 1st Earl of Douglas was a Scottish magnate. William Douglas was the son of Sir Archibald Douglas and Beatrice Lindsay, from the time of his fathers death at Halidon Hill, he is described as being a ward of his kinsman and godfather, William Douglas, Knight of Liddesdale and was educated in France. Douglas returned to Scotland, upon reaching his majority in 1348, in 1346-47 following the Battle of Nevilles Cross, King David II, and other nobility, including Liddesdale, were held captive by the English. Edward Baliol used the opportunity to ravage the whole of the south of Scotland, Douglas gathered his men and drove the English out from his ancestral lands of Douglasdale. Douglas went in the style of his uncle, the Good Sir James, Douglas next became one of the commissioners to negotiate with the English for the release of David II of Scotland. In 1353, Edward Baliol was ensconced at Buittle in his territories in Galloway. Douglas led a raid there to him due to Baliols forfeiture of those lands that had been made over to Sir James Douglas in 1324. Following this raid, returning through the Forest, Douglas came across Liddesdale hunting on what Douglas viewed as his desmesne, Liddesdale, once in high standing with the Crown, had fallen into disfavour following his murder of Ramsay and another Knight, Sir David de Barclay. Douglas set upon Liddesdale and killed him, in February 1354, William of Douglas received a new charter from King David bestowing all the lands held by his uncle Sir James, his father Sir Archibald, and Liddesdale itself. In 1355 the truce with England expired and Douglas with the Earl of Dunbar and March, one of Douglas captains, Sir William Ramsay of Dalhousie, was instructed to despoil the lands around Norham and burn the town in an effort to entice the garrison out to battle. Ramsay did so and the English under the constable, Sir Thomas Grey of Heaton and Lord Dacre. Douglas and March meanwhile were encamped seven miles away in woodland to the south of Duns, the English pursuers were ambushed by the Scots force, and completely overwhelmed. King Edward laid waste to the Lothians in an event that would be known as the Burnt Candlemas, following Edwards retreat into England, Douglas arranged a truce with William de Bohun, 1st Earl of Northampton that would last until Michaelmas. He also arranged a Safe conduct to visit the captive King David, following this Douglas crossed with a large following to France and took up arms with Jean le Bon against Edward of Woodstock, the Black Prince. Douglas was present at the Battle of Poitiers where he was knighted by the French King, Douglas fought in the Kings own Battle, but when the fight seemed over Douglas was dragged by his men from the melee. After the defeat there Douglas escaped, but left a number of his men either slain or captive, including his first cousin latterly the 3rd Earl of Douglas, Archibald the Grim. Douglas returned to Scotland by mid Autumn, and was involved in negotiations with the English. Under the auspice of this office, Douglas seized Hermitage Castle in Liddesdale from the English in response to their depredations on Eskdale
William Douglas, 1st Earl of Douglas
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Seal of the 1st Earl of Douglas
23.
War of the Breton Succession
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The War of the Breton Succession was a conflict between the Counts of Blois and the Montforts of Brittany for control of the Duchy of Brittany. It was fought between 1341 and 12 April 1365, the rival kings supported the duke of the principle opposite to their own claims to the French throne—the Plantagenet having claimed it by female succession, and the Valois by male succession. From a legal point of view, Blois had the superior claim, although Montfort was ultimately successful following the Battle of Auray in 1364, it was the French who gained the most from his victory. The dukes had both a historical and ancestral connection to England and were also Earls of Richmond in Yorkshire, Duke Arthur II of Dreux married twice, first to Mary of Limoges, then to Yolande of Dreux, countess of Montfort and widow of king Alexander III of Scotland. From his first marriage, he had three sons, including his heir John III and Guy, count of Penthièvre, from Yolande, Arthur had another son, also named John, who became count of Montfort. John III strongly disliked the children of his fathers second marriage and he spent the first years of his reign attempting to have this marriage annulled and his half-siblings bastardized. When this failed, he tried to ensure that John of Montfort would never inherit the duchy, since John III was childless, his heir of choice became Joan of Penthièvre, la Boiteuse, daughter of his younger brother Guy. In 1337 she married Charles of Blois, the son of a powerful French noble house. But in 1340, John III reconciled himself with his half-brother, on 30 April 1341, John III died. His last words on the succession, uttered on his deathbed, were, For Gods sake leave me alone and do not trouble my spirit with such things. Most of the nobility supported Charles of Blois, so if John of Montfort was to have any chance, John quickly took possession of the ducal capital Nantes and then seized the ducal treasury at Limoges. By the middle of August, John of Montfort was in possession of most of the duchy, up to this point, the succession crisis had been a purely internal affair. But to complicate things further, the Hundred Years War between England and France had broken out four years earlier, in 1337. In 1341, there was truce between the two countries, but there was doubt that hostilities would be renewed when the truce ended in June 1342. Thus, when rumours reached Philip VI of France that John of Montfort had received English agents, Charles of Blois became the official French candidate. Whatever had been his original intentions, John of Montfort was now forced to support Edward III of England as King of France, Edward III was bound by the truce not to take any offensive action in France. Nothing in it, however, hindered France from subduing rebellious vassals, in November, after a short siege and defeat at the Battle of Champtoceaux, John of Montfort was forced to surrender at Nantes by the citizens. He was offered safe conduct to negotiate a settlement with Charles of Blois and it now fell upon Johns wife, Joanna of Flanders, to lead the Montfortist cause
War of the Breton Succession
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Battle of Auray
War of the Breton Succession
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Capture of Charles of Blois
War of the Breton Succession
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A 19th-century painting depicting the "combat of the thirty" (
Octave Penguilly L'Haridon, 1857)
24.
War of the Two Peters
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The War of the Two Peters was fought from 1356 to 1375 between the kingdoms of Castile and Aragon. Its name refers to the rulers of the countries, Peter of Castile, one historian has written that all of the centuries-old lessons of border fighting were used as two evenly matched opponents dueled across frontiers that could change hands with lightning speed. Peter IV of Aragon supported Henry of Trastámara, Henry was, in turn, supported by the French commander Bertrand du Guesclin and his free companies of troops. Peter of Castile was supported by the English, the War of the Two Peters can thus be considered an extension of the wider Hundred Years War as well as the Castilian Civil War. Peter of Castile sought to claim the Kingdom of Valencia, which included parts of Murcia, Elche, Alicante, Peter of Aragon wished to dominate the Mediterranean in opposition to Castile and Castiles ally Genoa. Genoa was an ally of Castile, Peter of Castile, leading the Castilian fleet, caught up to Perellós at Tavira but was unable to capture him. The war lasted from 1356 to 1375, prolonged because Peter of Castile lost his throne to Henry of Trastámara, the war primarily took place on the border between Castile and Aragon, namely Aragonese border towns such as Teruel, which fell to the Castilians. In 1357, Castile penetrated Aragon and conquered Tarazona on March 9, on May 8, at the beginning of 1361, the Castilians conquered the fortresses of Verdejo, Torrijos, Alhama, and other places. However, the peace of Terrer was negotiated on May 18,1361, bernardo de Cabrera, ambassador of the Aragonese king, negotiated the peace. Peter IV married his daughter Constance to Frederick III the Simple, in June 1362, Peter of Castile met with Charles II of Navarre at Soria, and mutual aid was promised. Peter also contracted an alliance with Edward III of England and Edwards son The Black Prince, with these negotiations complete, the Castilian king invaded Aragonese territory without officially declaring war, and the conflict commenced again. The Aragonese king was at Perpignan without troops, and thus caught off guard, the Castilians took the castles of Arize, Atece, Terrer, Moros, Cetina, and Alhama. Peter of Castile was unable to take Calatayud, even though he attacked it with all types of siege machines, without taking his conquests any further, he returned to Seville. In 1363 Castile continued the war against Aragon, and again occupied Tarazona, Peter of Castile received reinforcements from Portugal and Navarre. Meanwhile, the Aragonese king negotiated a treaty with France and a treaty with Henry II of Castile. Pedro of Castile then conquered Cariñena, Teruel, Segorbe, Morvedre, Almenara, Xiva, the papal nuncio Jean de la Grange arranged the peace of Morvedre between the two kings. The peace was not ratified, however, and hostilities continued, the Castilians penetrated the Kingdom of Valencia in 1363, and conquered Alicante, Caudete, Elda, Gandia, and other places. From 1365 to 1369 Peter of Castile was preoccupied with maintaining his position on the Castilian throne against Henry of Trastámara, the Castilian Civil War began in 1366 and Peter of Castile was dethroned
War of the Two Peters
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Pedro of Castile
25.
Castilian Civil War
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The Castilian Civil War was a war of succession over the Kingdom of Castile that lasted from 1351 to 1369. The conflict started after the death of king Alfonso XI of Castile in March 1350 and it became part of the larger conflict then raging between the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of France, the Hundred Years War. Peter was called by his supporters The Just and by his detractors The Cruel, to the higher ranks of the nobility, he was a tyrant, forcing the royal will on hitherto free men. He had greatly extended the authority and had entered into a war with the Crown of Aragon. His illegitimate brother Henry quickly obtained the support of not only the upper noblesse, but France, Aragon, in 1366, he officially deposed his brother as king of Castile, León, Toledo, and Seville and had himself proclaimed king in the monastery of Las Huelgas. He successfully forced Peter to flee, Peter fled to Bayonne, a city in English-held Gascony. There, he petitioned Edward, the Black Prince, for aid and, in exchange for lands in Castile, received it. With English troops led by the prince, he returned to Castile and reasserted his power in 1367. He refused, however, to good on his dealings with the English and his allies, including the Prince of Wales himself. In 1368, Henry and Charles of France signed the Treaty of Toledo whereby the Castilians lent a fleet in the Bay of Biscay to the French in return for aid on land. Henry entered Galicia, took some towns and then took the city of León in April, after this, the whole province of Galicia took sides with Henry. He reentered Castile in 1369 and murdered Peter at the Battle of Campo de Montiel and he was acclaimed Henry II and immediately solidified his rule by removing Jews from high office. Castile became, at time, a stern ally of the French in their ongoing wars. The Rough Guide History of Spain
Castilian Civil War
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Battle of Nájera, from a fifteenth-century manuscript, the English and Pedro are on the left.
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Sir John Chandos
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Stephen, Leslie, ed. (1889). "Felton, Thomas (d.1381)". Dictionary of National Biography. 18. London: Smith, Elder & Co. p. 308.
