1.
Franco-Dutch War
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The war ended with the Treaty of Nijmegen, by which Spain ceded the Franche-Comté and some cities in Flanders and Hainaut to France, while France returned some of its conquests to the Dutch. The year 1672, when an invasion of English, French. In the 1560s, the future Dutch Republicans formed an alliance with France, the alliance lasted for a century. Louis XIV of France considered the Dutch to be trading rivals, seditious republicans and Protestant heretics – and this was until the Dutch signed the Triple Alliance with England and Sweden in support of Spain, and countered French expansion in the Spanish Netherlands in the War of Devolution. To Louis, it seemed clear that France had to deal with the Republic before making another move on the Spanish Netherlands, Louis prepared for war against the Republic. His first and primary objective was to gain the support of England, England felt threatened by the Dutch naval power, it had therefore fought the first and second of the Anglo-Dutch Wars. Thus, the English did not need encouragement to leave the Triple Alliance. Sweden agreed to support the invasion of the Republic, by threatening Brandenburg-Prussia if that state should intervene. Measures taken by Louvois, Louis Secretary of War, allowed France to mobilise about 180,000 men, of these about 120,000 would be used directly against the Republic. The bulk of the French army was divided into two bodies, the body led by field marshal Turenne was stationed in Charleroi, then France. The body led by Condé waited in Sedan, both would march through the pro-France Prince-Bishopric of Liège, join near Maastricht and gain the Rhine. On the Rhine, a body would be waiting. It had been created from the armies of Münster and Cologne and was placed under the command of Luxembourg. The combined armies would attack the duchy of Cleves and the region of Nijmegen. A fourth body was to be an English expeditionary force, the alliances clashed when England declared war on the Republic, on 7 April 1672. Louis arrived in Charleroi on 5 May 1672, Turennes 50,000 men set off on 11 May. Arrived at Visé, Louis decided not to lay siege to Maastricht but only to occupy the forts of Tongeren, Maaseik. Moving along the Rhine, Rheinberg, Wesel, Burick and Orsoy were taken, Turenne then took Nijmegen, with 4,000 infantry and 400 cavalry, and from there Fort Crèvecœur near s-Hertogenbosch, which fell after only two days
2.
Seneffe
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Seneffe is a Walloon municipality located in the Belgian province of Hainaut. On January 1,2006, Seneffe had a population of 10,743. The total area is 62.77 km² which gives a density of 171 inhabitants per km². The municipality consists of the following sub-municipalities, Seneffe proper, Arquennes, Familleureux, Feluy, the Castle of Seneffe, now a museum belonging to the French Community of Belgium, is located in the municipality. Seneffe was the site of a battle in 1674 between French and Dutch armies during the Franco-Dutch War, a significant milestone was reached in June 1977 when the plant produced its 500, 000th vehicle, an Austin Allegro 1300 Special. The Seneffe plant was closed in 1982 as the companys aging model range lost market share across Europe, with alternative employment opportunities limited, the plant closure triggered considerable bitterness locally. Media related to Seneffe at Wikimedia Commons
3.
Hainaut (province)
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Hainaut is a province of Belgium in the Walloon region. Its capital is Mons and the most populous city is Charleroi, also the major urban, economic. The city is also the capital of Hainaut and one of the most important commercial centers in Belgium. Hainaut province is divided into 7 administrative districts, subdivided into a total of 69 municipalities and it has an area of 3,800 square kilometres. The patron saint of the province Hainaut is Saint Waltrude, Official web site of the Hainaut province Official gateway to the Hainaut The Chamber of Commerce and Industry of Hainaut Euro Info Centre Hainaut Walloon Settlers Monument
4.
Belgium
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Belgium, officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a sovereign state in Western Europe bordered by France, the Netherlands, Germany, Luxembourg, and the North Sea. It is a small, densely populated country which covers an area of 30,528 square kilometres and has a population of about 11 million people. Additionally, there is a group of German-speakers who live in the East Cantons located around the High Fens area. Historically, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg were known as the Low Countries, the region was called Belgica in Latin, after the Roman province of Gallia Belgica. From the end of the Middle Ages until the 17th century, today, Belgium is a federal constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. It is divided into three regions and three communities, that exist next to each other and its two largest regions are the Dutch-speaking region of Flanders in the north and the French-speaking southern region of Wallonia. The Brussels-Capital Region is a bilingual enclave within the Flemish Region. A German-speaking Community exists in eastern Wallonia, Belgiums linguistic diversity and related political conflicts are reflected in its political history and complex system of governance, made up of six different governments. Upon its independence, declared in 1830, Belgium participated in the Industrial Revolution and, during the course of the 20th century, possessed a number of colonies in Africa. This continuing antagonism has led to several far-reaching reforms, resulting in a transition from a unitary to a federal arrangement during the period from 1970 to 1993. Belgium is also a member of the Eurozone, NATO, OECD and WTO. Its capital, Brussels, hosts several of the EUs official seats as well as the headquarters of major international organizations such as NATO. Belgium is also a part of the Schengen Area, Belgium is a developed country, with an advanced high-income economy and is categorized as very high in the Human Development Index. A gradual immigration by Germanic Frankish tribes during the 5th century brought the area under the rule of the Merovingian kings, a gradual shift of power during the 8th century led the kingdom of the Franks to evolve into the Carolingian Empire. Many of these fiefdoms were united in the Burgundian Netherlands of the 14th and 15th centuries, the Eighty Years War divided the Low Countries into the northern United Provinces and the Southern Netherlands. The latter were ruled successively by the Spanish and the Austrian Habsburgs and this was the theatre of most Franco-Spanish and Franco-Austrian wars during the 17th and 18th centuries. The reunification of the Low Countries as the United Kingdom of the Netherlands occurred at the dissolution of the First French Empire in 1815, although the franchise was initially restricted, universal suffrage for men was introduced after the general strike of 1893 and for women in 1949. The main political parties of the 19th century were the Catholic Party, French was originally the single official language adopted by the nobility and the bourgeoisie
5.
Kingdom of France
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The Kingdom of France was a medieval and early modern monarchy in Western Europe. It was one of the most powerful states in Europe and a great power since the Late Middle Ages and it was also an early colonial power, with possessions around the world. France originated as West Francia, the half of the Carolingian Empire. A branch of the Carolingian dynasty continued to rule until 987, the territory remained known as Francia and its ruler as rex Francorum well into the High Middle Ages. The first king calling himself Roi de France was Philip II, France continued to be ruled by the Capetians and their cadet lines—the Valois and Bourbon—until the monarchy was overthrown in 1792 during the French Revolution. France in the Middle Ages was a de-centralised, feudal monarchy, in Brittany and Catalonia the authority of the French king was barely felt. Lorraine and Provence were states of the Holy Roman Empire and not yet a part of France, during the Late Middle Ages, the Kings of England laid claim to the French throne, resulting in a series of conflicts known as the Hundred Years War. Subsequently, France sought to extend its influence into Italy, but was defeated by Spain in the ensuing Italian Wars, religiously France became divided between the Catholic majority and a Protestant minority, the Huguenots, which led to a series of civil wars, the Wars of Religion. France laid claim to large stretches of North America, known collectively as New France, Wars with Great Britain led to the loss of much of this territory by 1763. French intervention in the American Revolutionary War helped secure the independence of the new United States of America, the Kingdom of France adopted a written constitution in 1791, but the Kingdom was abolished a year later and replaced with the First French Republic. The monarchy was restored by the great powers in 1814. During the later years of the elderly Charlemagnes rule, the Vikings made advances along the northern and western perimeters of the Kingdom of the Franks, after Charlemagnes death in 814 his heirs were incapable of maintaining political unity and the empire began to crumble. The Treaty of Verdun of 843 divided the Carolingian Empire into three parts, with Charles the Bald ruling over West Francia, the nucleus of what would develop into the kingdom of France. Viking advances were allowed to increase, and their dreaded longboats were sailing up the Loire and Seine rivers and other waterways, wreaking havoc. During the reign of Charles the Simple, Normans under Rollo from Norway, were settled in an area on either side of the River Seine, downstream from Paris, that was to become Normandy. With its offshoots, the houses of Valois and Bourbon, it was to rule France for more than 800 years. Henry II inherited the Duchy of Normandy and the County of Anjou, and married Frances newly divorced ex-queen, Eleanor of Aquitaine, after the French victory at the Battle of Bouvines in 1214, the English monarchs maintained power only in southwestern Duchy of Guyenne. The death of Charles IV of France in 1328 without male heirs ended the main Capetian line, under Salic law the crown could not pass through a woman, so the throne passed to Philip VI, son of Charles of Valois
6.
Dutch Republic
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It preceded the Batavian Republic, the Kingdom of Holland, the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, and ultimately the modern Kingdom of the Netherlands. Alternative names include the United Provinces, Seven Provinces, Federated Dutch Provinces, most of the Low Countries had come under the rule of the House of Burgundy and subsequently the House of Habsburg. In 1549 Holy Roman Emperor Charles V issued the Pragmatic Sanction, Charles was succeeded by his son, King Philip II of Spain. This was the start of the Eighty Years War, in 1579 a number of the northern provinces of the Low Countries signed the Union of Utrecht, in which they promised to support each other in their defence against the Spanish army. This was followed in 1581 by the Act of Abjuration, the declaration of independence of the provinces from Philip II. In 1582 the United Provinces invited Francis, Duke of Anjou to lead them, but after an attempt to take Antwerp in 1583. After the assassination of William of Orange, both Henry III of France and Elizabeth I of England declined the offer of sovereignty, however, the latter agreed to turn the United Provinces into a protectorate of England, and sent the Earl of Leicester as governor-general. This was unsuccessful and in 1588 the provinces became a confederacy, the Union of Utrecht is regarded as the foundation of the Republic of the Seven United Provinces, which was not recognized by the Spanish Empire until the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. During the Anglo-French war, the territory was divided into groups, the Patriots, who were pro-French and pro-American and the Orangists. The Republic of the United Provinces faced a series of revolutions in 1783–1787. During this period, republican forces occupied several major Dutch cities, initially on the defence, the Orangist forces received aid from Prussian troops and retook the Netherlands in 1787. After the French Republic became the French Empire under Napoleon, the Batavian Republic was replaced by the Napoleonic Kingdom of Holland, the Netherlands regained independence from France in 1813. In the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814 the names United Provinces of the Netherlands, on 16 March 1815, the son of stadtholder William V crowned himself King William I of the Netherlands. Between 1815 and 1890 the King of the Netherlands was also in a union the Grand Duke of the sovereign Grand Duchy of Luxembourg. After Belgium gained its independence in 1830, the state became known as the Kingdom of the Netherlands. The County of Holland was the wealthiest and most urbanized region in the world, the free trade spirit of the time received a strong augmentation through the development of a modern, effective stock market in the Low Countries. The Netherlands has the oldest stock exchange in the world, founded in 1602 by the Dutch East India Company, while Rotterdam has the oldest bourse in the Netherlands, the worlds first stock exchange, that of the Dutch East-India Company, went public in six different cities. Later, a court ruled that the company had to reside legally in a city so Amsterdam is recognized as the oldest such institution based on modern trading principles
7.
Holy Roman Empire
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The Holy Roman Empire was a multi-ethnic complex of territories in central Europe that developed during the Early Middle Ages and continued until its dissolution in 1806. On 25 December 800, Pope Leo III crowned the Frankish king Charlemagne as Emperor, reviving the title in Western Europe, more than three centuries after the fall of the Western Roman Empire. The title was revived in 962 when Otto I was crowned emperor, fashioning himself as the successor of Charlemagne, some historians refer to the coronation of Charlemagne as the origin of the empire, while others prefer the coronation of Otto I as its beginning. Scholars generally concur, however, in relating an evolution of the institutions and principles constituting the empire, the office of Holy Roman Emperor was traditionally elective, although frequently controlled by dynasties. Emperor Francis II dissolved the empire on 6 August 1806, after the creation of the Confederation of the Rhine by Napoleon, before 1157, the realm was merely referred to as the Roman Empire. In a decree following the 1512 Diet of Cologne, the name was changed to Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation, by the end of the 18th century, the term Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation had fallen out of official use. As Roman power in Gaul declined during the 5th century, local Germanic tribes assumed control, by the middle of the 8th century, however, the Merovingians had been reduced to figureheads, and the Carolingians, led by Charles Martel, had become the de facto rulers. In 751, Martel’s son Pepin became King of the Franks, the Carolingians would maintain a close alliance with the Papacy. In 768 Pepin’s son Charlemagne became King of the Franks and began an expansion of the realm. He eventually incorporated the territories of present-day France, Germany, northern Italy, on Christmas Day of 800, Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne emperor, restoring the title in the west for the first time in over three centuries. After the death of Charles the Fat in 888, however, the Carolingian Empire broke apart, according to Regino of Prüm, the parts of the realm spewed forth kinglets, and each part elected a kinglet from its own bowels. After the death of Charles the Fat, those crowned emperor by the pope controlled only territories in Italy, the last such emperor was Berengar I of Italy, who died in 924. Around 900, autonomous stem duchies reemerged in East Francia, on his deathbed, Conrad yielded the crown to his main rival, Henry the Fowler of Saxony, who was elected king at the Diet of Fritzlar in 919. Henry reached a truce with the raiding Magyars, and in 933 he won a first victory against them in the Battle of Riade, Henry died in 936, but his descendants, the Liudolfing dynasty, would continue to rule the Eastern kingdom for roughly a century. Upon Henry the Fowlers death, Otto, his son and designated successor, was elected King in Aachen in 936 and he overcame a series of revolts from an elder brother and from several dukes. After that, the managed to control the appointment of dukes. In 951, Otto came to the aid of Adelaide, the queen of Italy, defeating her enemies, marrying her. In 955, Otto won a victory over the Magyars in the Battle of Lechfeld
8.
Spain
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By population, Spain is the sixth largest in Europe and the fifth in the European Union. Spains capital and largest city is Madrid, other urban areas include Barcelona, Valencia, Seville, Bilbao. Modern humans first arrived in the Iberian Peninsula around 35,000 years ago, in the Middle Ages, the area was conquered by Germanic tribes and later by the Moors. Spain is a democracy organised in the form of a government under a constitutional monarchy. It is a power and a major developed country with the worlds fourteenth largest economy by nominal GDP. Jesús Luis Cunchillos argues that the root of the span is the Phoenician word spy. Therefore, i-spn-ya would mean the land where metals are forged, two 15th-century Spanish Jewish scholars, Don Isaac Abravanel and Solomon ibn Verga, gave an explanation now considered folkloric. Both men wrote in two different published works that the first Jews to reach Spain were brought by ship by Phiros who was confederate with the king of Babylon when he laid siege to Jerusalem. This man was a Grecian by birth, but who had given a kingdom in Spain. He became related by marriage to Espan, the nephew of king Heracles, Heracles later renounced his throne in preference for his native Greece, leaving his kingdom to his nephew, Espan, from whom the country of España took its name. Based upon their testimonies, this eponym would have already been in use in Spain by c.350 BCE, Iberia enters written records as a land populated largely by the Iberians, Basques and Celts. Early on its coastal areas were settled by Phoenicians who founded Western Europe´s most ancient cities Cadiz, Phoenician influence expanded as much of the Peninsula was eventually incorporated into the Carthaginian Empire, becoming a major theater of the Punic Wars against the expanding Roman Empire. After an arduous conquest, the peninsula came fully under Roman Rule, during the early Middle Ages it came under Germanic rule but later, much of it was conquered by Moorish invaders from North Africa. In a process took centuries, the small Christian kingdoms in the north gradually regained control of the peninsula. The last Moorish kingdom fell in the same year Columbus reached the Americas, a global empire began which saw Spain become the strongest kingdom in Europe, the leading world power for a century and a half, and the largest overseas empire for three centuries. Continued wars and other problems led to a diminished status. The Napoleonic invasions of Spain led to chaos, triggering independence movements that tore apart most of the empire, eventually democracy was peacefully restored in the form of a parliamentary constitutional monarchy. Spain joined the European Union, experiencing a renaissance and steady economic growth
9.
William III of England
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It is a coincidence that his regnal number was the same for both Orange and England. As King of Scotland, he is known as William II and he is informally known by sections of the population in Northern Ireland and Scotland as King Billy. William inherited the principality of Orange from his father, William II and his mother Mary, Princess Royal, was the daughter of King Charles I of England. In 1677, he married his fifteen-year-old first cousin, Mary, a Protestant, William participated in several wars against the powerful Catholic king of France, Louis XIV, in coalition with Protestant and Catholic powers in Europe. Many Protestants heralded him as a champion of their faith, in 1685, his Catholic father-in-law, James, Duke of York, became king of England, Ireland and Scotland. Jamess reign was unpopular with the Protestant majority in Britain, William, supported by a group of influential British political and religious leaders, invaded England in what became known as the Glorious Revolution. On 5 November 1688, he landed at the southern English port of Brixham, James was deposed and William and Mary became joint sovereigns in his place. They reigned together until her death on 28 December 1694, after which William ruled as sole monarch, Williams reputation as a staunch Protestant enabled him to take the British crowns when many were fearful of a revival of Catholicism under James. Williams victory at the Battle of the Boyne in 1690 is still commemorated by the Orange Order and his reign in Britain marked the beginning of the transition from the personal rule of the Stuarts to the more Parliament-centred rule of the House of Hanover. William III was born in The Hague in the Dutch Republic on 4 November 1650, baptised William Henry, he was the only child of stadtholder William II, Prince of Orange, and Mary, Princess Royal. Mary was the eldest daughter of King Charles I of England, Scotland and Ireland, eight days before William was born, his father died of smallpox, thus William was the Sovereign Prince of Orange from the moment of his birth. Immediately, a conflict ensued between his mother the Princess Royal and William IIs mother, Amalia of Solms-Braunfels, over the name to be given to the infant. Mary wanted to name him Charles after her brother, but her mother-in-law insisted on giving him the name William or Willem to bolster his prospects of becoming stadtholder. William II had appointed his wife as his sons guardian in his will, however, Williams mother showed little personal interest in her son, sometimes being absent for years, and had always deliberately kept herself apart from Dutch society. Williams education was first laid in the hands of several Dutch governesses, some of English descent, including Walburg Howard, from April 1656, the prince received daily instruction in the Reformed religion from the Calvinist preacher Cornelis Trigland, a follower of the Contra-Remonstrant theologian Gisbertus Voetius. The ideal education for William was described in Discours sur la nourriture de S. H. Monseigneur le Prince dOrange, in these lessons, the prince was taught that he was predestined to become an instrument of Divine Providence, fulfilling the historical destiny of the House of Orange. From early 1659, William spent seven years at the University of Leiden for a formal education, under the guidance of ethics professor Hendrik Bornius. While residing in the Prinsenhof at Delft, William had a personal retinue including Hans Willem Bentinck, and a new governor, Frederick Nassau de Zuylenstein
10.
Siege of Groenlo (1672)
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For other sieges of the town see Siege of Groenlo. It ended in the towns surrender, Groenlo was well-supplied with food, garrisoned with 22 cannon on new gun-carriages and 600 troops and defended by bulwarks and a moat. The most important parts of Groenlos fortifications were demolished by the Bishop of Münster, J. W. van Sypesteyn, J. P. de Bordes, De Verdediging van Nederland in 1672 en 1673, Bijdragen tot de Staats- en Krijgeschiedenis van Nederland, s-Gravenhage, Van Langenhuysen
11.
Siege of Groningen
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The Siege of Groningen was a battle that took place in 1672 during the Franco-Dutch war. It was a Dutch victory that ended all hope of the Bishop of Münster to push deeper into the Netherlands, the Münster army was so weakened by the defeat that the Dutch army successfully reconquered much of the land that Münster had conquered just weeks earlier. Every year, the city of Groningen celebrates its victory as a holiday on 28 August. Israel, Jonathan, The Dutch Republic, Its Rise, Greatness, and Fall 1477-1806, Oxford, Clarendon Press, ISBN 0-19-873072-1 Media related to Siege of Groningen at Wikimedia Commons
12.
Siege of Maastricht (1673)
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The Siege of Maastricht ended when Jacques de Fariaux, the governor of the Dutch garrison, surrendered to an army under the command of Louis XIV during the Franco-Dutch War. After making a feint for Ghent and Brussels, Louis marched his army past Maastricht, a condominium of the United Provinces, in 1673, when his supply lines became threatened he decided to capture Maastricht, the siege began on 11 June. The city would be the first major city to be attacked by Sebastien Vauban, the master of siegecraft in his time. In addition to firing upon the city walls with cannon, Vauban ordered the building of trenches, in a zigzag pattern, by 25 June the allies were ready to assault a hornwork and ravelin in front of the gate. 24 June was the feast day of Saint John the Baptist, the French, after some difficult fighting, crossed the moat and seized a crescent-shaped fortification which would become the scene of the toughest fighting of the siege. Most of the French were driven out by Spanish auxiliaries soon afterwards, the Duke of Monmouth, was colonel of The Blues, and trench general. The serving battalion officer, Sir Henry Jones, formerly a Catholic exile, was like the Anglicans enraged at having to fight fellow Protestants, moreover half their contingent were Dutchmen, pledged to go into battle against their countrymen. Unsurprisingly, they refused to fight, and resorted to rounding up deserters, Jones recruited his own regiment, yet was killed in the siege. Until that time, Monmouth was accompanied by a young Captain John Churchill, tried to take a covered road protecting the moat and it was Captain Churchill who planted a flag on the outwork. The next morning the allies awoke to the sound of a Frenchman in Dutch service and this was a half-moon shaped demi-lune, used to keep attackers out of the bastion. The hornwork or crownwork was a spiky plan covered every angle of approach, but Fariaux realized that Vauban siege artillery techniques were too overwhelming, and capitulated on terms on 30 June 1673. On 1 July the survivors of the march out of the city with full military honours. The unpopular war led to the disbandment of most regimental battalions raised, when the Treaty of Nijmegen ended the war between France and the Dutch, Maastricht was returned to the Dutch, though Louis kept a number of Habsburg cities. What is generally regarded as more significant about this battle were the advances in siegecraft engineered by Vauban
13.
Siege of Cambrai (1677)
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The Siege of Cambrai took place from 20 March to 19 April 1677 during the Franco-Dutch War. As a Principality dependent on the Holy Roman Empire and close to the border of the Kingdom of France, submitted to Spain since 1543, during the reign of Louis XIV, Cambrai was besieged unsuccessfully by the French in 1649 and again in 1657. During the summer of 1667 the French took Charleroi, Tournai, Douai and Lille, by the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle Spain abandoned the cities of Charleroi, Binche, Ath, Douai, Tournai, Oudenarde, Lille, Armentieres, Courtrai, Bergues and Furnes. Cambrai was in effect a peninsula tied to the Spanish Netherlands by Bouchain and it is a beautiful and good thing to be able to hold owns ground with two hands. In 1672, hostilities resumed against the Republic of the Protestant Netherlands, with a professional army well paid and well organized which includes more than 279,000 men, boasting a powerful artillery, the French monarchy was then the best army in Europe. Facing it, the strongholds of the Spanish Netherlands were defended by a few men, often poorly paid mercenaries. In spring 1676 Bouchain and Condé-sur-lEscaut were occupied by the French, Louis XIV, ensuring forever the rest of his borders, decided to take Cambrai and attended in person the siege of the city, while his brother Philippe I, Duke of Orléans besieged Saint-Omer. The reputation of the place of Cambrai was great, boileau wrote in its praise, Cambray and St. Omer were the two strongest strongholds which the Spaniards had to defend. These cities, both situated on the borders of France, served as advanced positions and enabled them to make the law in the midst of their triumphs, the Kings of Spain considered this Place more important than all the rest of Flanders together. She was famous for the number of indignities she had inflicted upon the French, Omer and Cambrai, whose loss was likely to lead to the loss of the rest of the Netherlands. The defense of the city is supported by inundating the river Scheldt to the south and the west, the cold weather, rain and snow, makes the conditions even more difficult for the besiegers. On the other hand, Cambrai is isolated and can not expect any help, the Governor Don Pedro de Zavala, according to Paul Pellisson, is old and broken, and as they say, often dizzy. The Garrison is mainly Spanish, but believed to have forgotten the art of war, the Citadel, is small despite its reputation, and will be thunderstruck by lightening bombs and cannon fire as soon as it will have been approached. The secret services of Louvois informed him of the feelings of the citizens of Cambrai, furthermore, the rapid capture of Valenciennes does not encourage them to resist France. On 22 March the King, with the Marshal de la Feuillade, Marshal Luxembourg takes up position at Marlière, Marshal the Lorges at Escaudœuvres, and Marshal Schomberg at Ramillies. In the company of the King are also ministers Louvois and Pomponne and Father de la Chaise, the French army is composed of 38 infantry battalions and 48 cavalry squadrons, in total more than 40,000 men. The Spanish have only some 4,000 to defend Cambrai, Vauban, in control of the operations, began constructing lines of circumvallation and contravallation surrounding the city. The isolated town can not hope to be relieved, taking advantage of this weakness, the French opened a trench near the Notre Dame gate
14.
Siege of Ypres (1678)
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The Siege of Ypres in the Spanish Netherlands took place between March 18 and March 25,1678, as part of the Franco-Dutch War, and ended with the conquest of the city by the French. Louis XIV decided to invade the Spanish Netherlands to counter a possible English military intervention against him, the Dutch expected an attack against Namur-. But Louis XIV directed his troops towards Ghent, taking the city on March 9, on March 18, the French, led by Vauban, started digging approach trenches towards the citadel. The city was defended by a Spanish garrison under Dom Francisco de Pardo, but the French had already advanced too much to be stopped by this action. The city was pounded by 22 high caliber guns and 12 mortars, after one week, the works had advanced so far, that Louis XIV ordered an attack in the night of March 24–25. The city was conquered and the defenders capitulated by dawn. Only the citadel held out for one day, after which the surviving 1600 valid men and 600 wounded also surrendered. In April, Vauban started reconstructing and modernising Ypres fortifications, giving it the form that can still be seen today, Louis de Crevant, Duke of Humières became governor of the city. In England, Charles II raised some 20 regiments to be shipped to Ostend, in the meantime, negotiations started between France and the Dutch Republic, leading to the Treaty of Nijmegen on August 10. Abel Hugo, France historique et monumentale, Histoire générale de France depuis les temps les plus reculés jusquà nos jours,1843, camille Rousset, Histoire de Louvois et de son administration politique et militaire, Volume 2,1862. Luc-Normand Tellier, Face aux Colbert, les Le Tellier, Vauban, Turgot-- et lavènement du libéralisme, Édition presse de luniversité de Quebec,1987
15.
Battle of Sinsheim
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The Battle of Sinsheim was a victory of the Vicomte de Turenne, over forces from the Holy Roman Empire on 16 June 1674, during the Franco-Dutch War. The battle was fought in Sinsheim, not Sinzheim as it is often presumed, in 1674, while the bulk of French forces were mobilized in the Netherlands and Franche-Comté, Turenne was responsible for holding back the Imperial forces on the Rhine. He took up position in the Alsace with his limited forces. Disagreeing with the strategy of Louis XIV, he saw the Alsace as an important location. He therefore decided to rather than defend, to prevent the war coming to the Alsace. Departing from Haguenau, he crossed the Rhine near Philippsburg on a pontoon bridge and he covered 160 km in five days to catch up with the Lorraine force under Aeneas de Caprara and to prevent their union with the Imperial army under Alexander von Bournonville. In this way, Turenne forced Caprara to do battle on June 16 at Sinsheim, Caprara aligned his infantry along the hedgerows and gardens at the entrance of the village. Turenne deployed his infantry and his dragoons on foot and they forced the outposts, crossed the Elsanz and entered Sinsheim. The Imperials retreated through the village and fell back on the plateau behind the village, to reach the plateau, the French had to climb a narrow passage. Turenne positioned infantry and dragoons in the hedgerows flanking the passage, as well as in the castle. The French cavalry could then advance through the passage, an enemy counter-attack was stopped by the covering fire of the French infantry. The Imperials were repelled from the plateau and withdrew, Turenne immediately left Sinsheim to monitor the bulk of the Imperial army, stationed on the Moselle. There were 2,000 to 3,000 deaths, according to sources, the battle was only a limited success for Turenne, because both enemy forces succeeded in uniting near Heidelberg. On 1 July the Elector of Brandenburg also took up arms against France, Turenne again crossed the Rhine and ravaged the Palatinate, depriving the Imperials the resources to attack the Alsace. John Childs, La guerre au XVIIe siècle, Autrement, Atlas des Guerres,2004
16.
Battle of Turckheim
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The Battle of Turckheim was a confrontation during the Franco-Dutch War fought on 5 January 1675 between the towns of Colmar and Turckheim in Alsace. The French army, commanded by the Viscount of Turenne, fought against the armies of Austria and Brandenburg, led by Frederick William, the aggressive campaign of Louis XIV against the Netherlands, since 1672, had provoked a hostile reaction of other European states like Austria and Brandenburg. Their intervention had brought the war into the upper Rhine, creating a threat to French territory, in 1674 Marshal Turenne, French commander in that sector, failed to prevent the invasion of Alsace by a part of the imperial army. With the arrival of end in 1674, the Imperials went into their winter quarters in the region of Colmar. According to the conventions of war at the time, the military operations should have been halted during the winter until the return of the spring, Turenne, however, decided not to follow this custom. Using the Vosges mountains as a curtain of protection, he moved west and then south, reappearing in Belfort, south of his opponent, finding no resistance, he reached Mulhouse on the 29th. The highly surprised Imperials hastily fell back on Turckheim, however, the Imperial forces had not yet gelled completely so as to be ready for battle. The ensuing battle did not follow the standards of the 17th century, Marshal Turenne feigned an attack from the center and then another from his right. With Imperial eyes riveted on these two parts of the front, Turenne led a third of his army on a march around to his left flank and their movement skirted the mountains and was hidden from view of the enemy because of the terrain. Turenne captured the village of Turckheim. Frederick William attempted to retake the town but he was defeated by fire from French guns. Turenne, then, fell against the right of the enemy. This brief and but famous winter campaign by Marshal Turenne is considered one of the brightest of the 17th century, here the Vicomte de Turenne, through two indirect maneuvers saved France from invasion, suffering only negligible casualties. Eggenberger, David, An Encyclopedia of Battles, New York, Dover Publications Lynn, the Wars of Louis XIV, 1667-1714. Souza, Marcos da Cunha, et al, história Militar Geral I, Palhoça, UnisulVirtual Berenger, Jean, Turenne, Paris, Fayard
17.
Battle of Salzbach
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The Battle of Salzbach or Sasbach was fought July 27,1675, between the armies of France and the Holy Roman Empire, during the Franco-Dutch War. The term battle is something of a misnomer because the encounter consisted primarily of an artillery duel, however, it was costly for the French, the great French marshal, the Vicomte de Turenne, was killed by a cannonball. The Imperial army was commanded by the Italian Field Marshal Raimondo Montecuccoli, the Dutch had started that war as a French ally but, faced with Louiss growing territorial ambitions, had ended by allying with England and Sweden to curb French expansionism. Pressure from this new alliance forced Louis to accept a compromise end to the War of Devolution, Louis then paid off Sweden and England to abandon the alliance. In 1672, France invaded the Netherlands, but the Dutch managed to bog down the French advance, soon other powers, including the Holy Roman Empire, joined the war against France. In late 1674 and early 1675, Turennes Winter Campaign showed the French marshal at his best in a struggle to expel an Imperial army, under the command of Alexander von Bournonville, outnumbered, Turenne executed a daring march in the dead of winter around the enemy flank. A decisive French victory at the Battle of Turckheim on January 5,1675, after Bournonvilles defeat, Montecuccoli took over command of the Imperial forces in southern Germany. He hoped to make up for the recent disaster by crossing the Rhine River at Strasbourg, in the spring of 1675, he marched west through the Black Forest into the Rhine valley. There, he gathered in the remnants of Bournonvilles army, some 8,000 men, the Imperial army now numbered 18,000 foot and 14,000 horse. On May 20, Montecuccoli established his headquarters at Willstatt, at the same time, his scouts reached Kehl, the town on the east bank of the Rhine opposite Strasbourg. As Montecuccoli approached the east bank of the Rhine, Turenne, the French commander sent word to Strasbourg, then an independent city, demanding that the Imperial army not be allowed to use the citys bridge over the Rhine. However, unimpressed by Turennes recent victory, Strasbourg favored the Empire, not only did the city authorities permit Montecuccoli to cross on May 22, but they also supplied his headquarters with delicacies. For his part, the Imperial commander seemed intimidated by Turennes approach, although Montecuccoli crossed the Rhine, he did not bring his army with him. He made a pretense of moving troops to Kehl, but he, on May 31, Montecuccoli crossed to the west bank of the Rhine near Speyer. However, his move was nothing more than a feint designed to draw Turenne north, away from Strasbourg, Turenne was not taken in by the ruse. The French army began to build bridges across the Rhine at Ottenheim south of Strasbourg on June 6. Now both armies were on the east bank, as Montecuccoli had done, Turenne chose Willstatt for his headquarters. The Imperial army hurried south to confront the French who now blocked the way to Kehl, the Imperial advance guard,4,000 men under Charles of Lorraine, attacked the French lines but was repelled
18.
Siege of Philippsburg (1676)
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The Siege of Philippsburg was a siege of the fortress of Philippsburg during the Franco-Dutch War. In French hands since 1644 - with Breisach, it was then their only bridgehead on the east bank of the River Rhine and so Vauban had fortified it. The garrisons of its towns of Kißlau, Schwetzingen and Bruchsal were destroyed in spring 1676. Charles V, Duke of Lorraine began the siege with a 40,000 strong imperial force on 1 May, the French commander Trier du Fay had just under 2,800 men and a French relief effort failed, leading to du Fays surrender on 17 September. Only 1,500 French troops survived but these were allowed to march out with military honours. 3,000 imperial troops were put in place to garrison the fortress, which remained in Imperial hands until its French recapture in 1688
19.
Battle of Fehrbellin
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The Battle of Fehrbellin was fought on June 18,1675 between Swedish and Brandenburg-Prussian troops. Along with the Battle of Warsaw, Fehrbellin was crucial in establishing the prestige of Frederick William, prior to the battle the Swedes and Brandenburg had been allies in various wars against the Kingdom of Poland. Leaving on 26 May 1675, he marched 250 kilometres to Magdeburg in only two weeks and this feat was considered one of the great marches in military history. He did it by abandoning his supply wagons and leaving large parts of the infantry behind, having his army buy supplies from the locals, the Swedes did not expect him to arrive that early. This ruse, combined with the speed of the Electors advance made the Swedes unaware of his arrival, field Marshal Derfflinger then personally led an attack on Rathenow with 7,000 cavalry and 1,000 musketeers, his approach slowed but hidden by heavy rain. Derfflinger impersonated a Swedish officer and convinced the guards to open the gates of the town by claiming that a Brandenburg patrol was after him. Once the gates were opened for him, he led a charge of 1,000 dragoons against the city and he was 69 years old at the time. Once Derfflinger had forced the Swedish garrison from Rathenow, Wrangel pulled back his troops toward Havelberg and his progress was greatly impeded by marshes that the summer rains had turned treacherous. On June 17, the Brandenburgian troops reached Nauen, meanwhile, Frederick Williams advance parties, under the command of Colonel Joachim Hennings and guided by locals, blocked the exits of the area. The Swedes, who had planned to cross the Elbe river in order to join forces with Brunswick troops, were forced back to their last position at Fehrbellin. The Swedish commander, Wrangel, found himself hemmed in by a bridge over the Rhin river by the town of Fehrbellin. Impassable marshes on both flanks left Wrangel little choice but to give battle south of the village of Hakenberg while his engineers repaired the span. A total of 6, 000–7,000 Brandenburgers with 13 cannons faced 7,000 Swedes with 28 guns and these guns opened fire around noon on the 18th and caused heavy casualties on the Swedish right flank. Wrangel, now aware of the threat, attempted several times to wrest control of the hills but was stopped each time by the Brandenburgian cavalry. The Brandenburgian cavalry then turned and routed a regiment of Swedish infantry, the Swedish right however had held up long enough though for the Fehrbellin bridge to be repaired and Wrangel was able to get a large portion of his army across before darkness fell. Frederick William rejected all his officers suggestions to shell the town, the Brandenburg troops lost about 500 men. Wrangels forces lost slightly more than the Brandenburgers but it is exactly how many. The Swedish infantry under Delwig lost 300–400 men alone, with 200 additional losses mostly attributed to the cavalry, of the 1,200 Dalwig Guards, all but 20 were killed or captured
20.
Invasion of Martinique (1674)
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The Invasion of Martinique in 1674 was an unsuccessful attempt by the Dutch Republic to conquer the Caribbean island of Martinique from France. In spite of overwhelming Dutch superiority in men and ships, the French won a decisive, in 1672, the kingdoms of France and England had declared war on the Dutch Republic. However, Dutch naval victories in the North Sea forced the English to abandon their part in the war in early 1674. The Dutch could now direct all of their naval strength against the French, and they decided to attack Martinique. Martinique was defended by a semi-professional militia consisting of two companies of cavalry and a dozen companies, with a theoretical strength of roughly 2,000 men. However, most of these were uncertain military assets, the Fort-Royal militia company could only muster around 100 men, of whom a quarter quickly deserted, including their captain. Only one of the merchant ships, the Saint-Eustache, carried any notable armament, even with these reinforcements, his defending force consisted of barely 160 men. The Dutch attack began around 9 oclock, with a cannonade by the ships, the Dutch made an assault against the palisade on the landward side of the fort, where they were repulsed by the musket fire of the militiamen and seamen. This fight came down to combat, but the Dutch standard-bearer was killed and his flag was captured. The Dutch retreated in disarray, but in the afternoon. After several hours of attacks, Admiral de Ruyter gave the signal to retreat. The Dutch conceded 143 fatalities, and 378 seriously injured personnel, the remaining merchantmen were duly set alight, but Captain Renart decided to ignore the governors orders for as long as possible, waiting anxiously aboard Les Jeux all night. The defending force had won a dramatic and unexpected victory, French historians still describe Martinique as an astounding military success, the great de Ruyter and the all-conquering Dutch navy had been defeated by a single frigate. Captain Renart was rewarded with the noble title of Marquis dAmblimont. The humiliated Dutch fleet retreated back across the Atlantic, their combat losses compounded by the ravages of sickness and their ambitions to expand their colonial empire in the Americas were permanently stalled, leaving them with only Suriname and the Netherlands Antilles. Modern historians of seventeenth-century Dutch naval power sometimes chose to avoid mentioning the campaign at all, charles Joseph Delahaut and Jean-Baptiste LÉcuy, Annales civiles et religieuses dYvois-Carinan et de Mouzon. Alain Demerliac, La marine de Louis XIV, nomenclature des vaisseaux du Roi-Soleil de 1661 à1715. Léo Elisabeth, La Société martiniquaise aux XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles, david F. Marley, Wars of the Americas, A Chronology of Armed Conflict in the Western Hemisphere
21.
New Holland (Acadia)
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The Dutch imprisoned the Governor of Acadia Jacques de Chambly. The French and native allies under the command of St, the formal Dutch claim to Acadia was finally abandoned at the end of the war with the Treaty of Nijmegen in 1678. In 1672 the Franco-Dutch War began, and England allied itself with the French, England and the Netherlands came to terms early in 1674 and then several months later the July day when Captain Jurriaen Aernoutsz sailed into New York harbor. Previously he had been sailing the North Atlantic Ocean looking for English, Rhoades went on to explain to Aernoutsz that the French colony in Acadia was barely defended and ripe for conquest. Aernoutsz took this suggestion to his a crew and they agreed unanimously, John Rhoades would be the crews guide. Aernoutsz with 110 soldiers immediately set sail for the capital of Acadia Fort Pentagouet in Penobscot Bay, on 10 Aug 1674, he attacked the capital. There were only 30 French soldiers in the fort and they were lightly armed, the Dutchmen took the fort easily. While they were there they took the French Military Headquarters. Following this, they sailed to Jemseg and captured another French fort there, at both places, Aernoutsz buried bottles at Fort Pentagouet with messages inside them proclaiming that Acadie was to be Dutch possession and henceforward known as Nova Hollandia. Some time in October 1674 he sailed for Curaçao, but left his prisoners, aernoutsz’s efforts were soon negated by the action of Massachusetts. Massachusetts apprehended Rhoades and his cohorts and tried them as pirates, ultimately they were all released or banished from Massachusetts. Although the territory was claimed by the Dutch, they had no sustained power over the area, later in 1676, the two forts were reoccupied by the French. On 20 May 1676, Governor of Acadia Jacques de Chambly was re-established as the governor of Acadia, the dispute over the colony was resolved by the Treaty of Nijmegen in 1678, in which the Dutch withdrew their claim to the colony. The treaty, which did not mention the claim specifically, also ended the Franco-Dutch War, Acadia History of the Acadians Military history of Nova Scotia History of Maine New Netherland Texts L. -A. Vigneras, “Letters of an Acadian trader 1674–1676, ” N. Eng, History of Nova Scotia, p.154 Capt. Acadiensis Endnotes
22.
Battle of Solebay
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The naval Battle of Solebay took place on 28 May Old Style,7 June New Style 1672 and was the first naval battle of the Third Anglo-Dutch War. The battle ended inconclusively, with both sides claiming victory, the Duke of York and Vice-Admiral Comte Jean II dEstrées planned to blockade the Dutch in their home ports and deny the North Sea to Dutch shipping. The Dutch main fleet came too late, mainly due to problems between the five Dutch admiralties, to prevent a joining of the English and French fleets. It followed the Allied fleet to the north, which, unaware of this, on 7 June the Allies were caught by surprise and got into disarray when the Dutch fleet, having the weather gauge, suddenly appeared on the horizon in the early morning. The French fleet, whether through accident or design, steered south followed by Banckerts fifteen ships, nevertheless, the Superbe was heavily damaged and des Rabesnières killed by fire from Enno Doedes Stars Groningen, total French casualties were about 450. This left the Dutch van and centre to fight it out with the English, the Duke of York had to move his flag twice, finally to London, as his flagships Prince and St Michael were taken out of action. The Prince was crippled by De Ruyters flagship De Zeven Provinciën in a two hours duel, Lieutenant-Admiral Aert Jansse van Nes on the Eendracht first duelled Vice-Admiral Edward Spragge on HMS London and then was attacked by HMS Royal Katherine. The flagship of Admiral Edward Montagu, 1st Earl of Sandwich, HMS Royal James, was first fiercely engaged by Lieutenant-Admiral Van Ghent, Van Ghent was however killed by shrapnel. The Royal James now drifted away, sinking, and was attacked by fire ships. She sank two, but a third, Vrede, commanded by Jan Daniëlszoon van den Rijn, its approach shielded by Vice-Admiral Isaac Sweerss Oliphant, during the battle the wind shifted, giving the English the weather gauge, and in the late afternoon the Dutch withdrew. The battle ended inconclusively at sunset, both sides claimed victory, the Dutch with the more justification as the English-French plan to blockade the Dutch was abandoned. The fleets met again at the Battle of Schooneveld in 1673, not all fireships are listed, there were about 24 of them on the Allied,36 on the Dutch side. Seven ships of the Royal Navy have been named HMS Solebay after this battle, the Battle of Solebay at ship-wrecks. co. uk Lynn, John A. The Wars of Louis XIV, 1667-1714
23.
Battle of Schooneveld
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The Dutch victories in the two battles, and at the Battle of Texel that followed in August, saved their country from an Anglo-French invasion. The Franco-Dutch War of 1672–1678 resulted from the attempts of Louis XIV of France to annex the Spanish Netherlands, in 1672, troops from France, Münster and Cologne invaded the Netherlands by land, while Englands navy attacked Dutch shipping and threatened a seaborne invasion. The conflict between England and the Republic is commonly called the Third Anglo-Dutch War, the Orangists themselves were in fact subsidised by the English. In fact, De Ruyter did not feel too sure about Tromp himself, Tromp cared for battle honours above all else. The Schooneveld basin, between two shoals, was so narrow the allies could not take advantage of their numerical superiority. There, De Ruyter was joined by Tromp, adding the squadrons of the admiralties of Amsterdam and the Northern Quarter to that of the Admiralty of de Maze, on 2 June 1673, the allies, deciding they had waited long enough, approached the Dutch fleet. Prince Rupert had a superiority in ships, men and cannon — indeed the Dutch admirals nicknamed their fleet the Little Hope. The Dutch fleet was smaller than usual because the Admiralty of Frisia was unable to assist, however a sudden storm prevented a battle. The Dutch van was commanded by Tromp, the centre by Lieutenant-Admiral Aert Jansse van Nes under direct supervision of De Ruyter himself and the rear by Lieutenant-Admiral Adriaen Banckert. Rupert, convinced that the smaller Dutch fleet would withdraw to Hellevoetsluis when pressed, detached a squadron at nine in the morning to cut off the retreating Dutch from the north. In this taskforce he concentrated all lighter ships from the regular squadrons so that it would be able to more easily over the shoals. However, De Ruyter did not budge, when however the squadron at last returned to the main allied line, joining Ruperts squadron, the Dutch started to move, but surprisingly in the direction of the enemy. This forced Rupert to attack immediately to prevent the Dutch from gaining the weather gauge, the battle began at noon and lasted for nine hours. Using his superior knowledge of the waters, De Ruyter was able to manoeuvre his fleet so close to the shoals that the allies found it difficult to engage without grounding. Rupert first made contact with the squadron of Cornelis Tromp and he had now about half of the allied fleet with him. Sailing slowly to the northeast after some time he reached the edge of the basin, the frigate squadron was now in complete disarray however and couldnt execute such a complicated manoeuvre. Nor did Rupert choose the direct attack and he was much criticised for this afterwards and defended himself by claiming his approach would have been blocked by shoals. This was simply not true and Rupert knew it and this greatly surprised the French fleet
24.
Battle of Texel
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English involvement came about because of the Treaty of Dover, secretly concluded by Charles II of England, and which was highly unpopular with the English Parliament. Neither of them took part in the fight, the Battle of Texel was joined when a Dutch fleet sought to oppose the landing of troops by a combined Anglo-French fleet. The Dutch fleet of 75 ships and 30 fireships was commanded by Lieutenant-Admiral-General Michiel de Ruyter, with Lieutenant-Admirals Adriaen Banckert in charge of the van and Cornelis Tromp the rear. The Dutch were under an even greater disadvantage than the numbers show. De Ruyter first decided not to leave his position in the Schooneveld. However the Dutch Spice Fleet was returning from the Indies, filled with precious cargo, with half the country under French occupation for almost a year, the Dutch Republics finances were in disastrous straits. The Dutch could not afford to lose the wealth the Spice Fleet was bringing, as such stadtholder William ordered De Ruyter to seek to engage the enemy. Although outnumbered, De Ruyter gained the weather gauge and sent his van under Adriaen Banckert in to separate the Allied van from the main fleet, both suffered badly during hours of fierce fighting. On the third occasion, Spragge drowned when his boat took a shot, because of Spragges preoccupation with duelling Tromp, the English centre had separated from the rear, clashing with the Dutch centre under De Ruyter and Lieutenant-Admiral Aert Jansse van Nes. The fight raged for hours, due to turnings of the each side suddenly gaining or losing the advantage of the weather gauge. The fight then focused on an attempt by the Dutch to capture Spragges isolated flagship, the Prince, with both fleets exhausted, the English eventually abandoned their attempt to land troops, and both sides retired. No major ship was sunk, but many were damaged and about 3,000 men died. Its true however that Count dEstrées had strict orders from Louis XIV not to endanger the French fleet, despite its inconclusive finish, the battle was a clear strategic victory for the Dutch. The Spice Fleet arrived safely, bringing the much needed financial reprieve, in the months following, the Netherlands formed a formal alliance with Spain and the Holy Roman Empire. The threat posed by German and Spanish invasions from the south, the Third Anglo-Dutch War came to an end with the signing of the Treaty of Westminster between the English and the Dutch in 1674. Fourteen years later the Glorious Revolution, which saw Stadtholder William III ascend the throne of England, only in 1781 would the Dutch and British fleets fight each other again
25.
Battle of Palermo
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The Dutch and Spanish ships were at bay making repairs from an earlier Battle of Augusta where Dutch Lt. Admiral General de Ruyter suffered lethal injuries. His death caused an impact on morale of the Dutch. The command of their fleet was transferred to Vice Admiral den Haen while the command was assumed by Spanish Admiral de Ibarra. The French fleet under command of Comte de Vivonne arrived from Messina. The actual planning of the battle belonged to Vice Admiral Duquesne, Rear Admiral de Tourville, the Dutch were inclined to meet the French at sea, but they were disappointed greatly by the Spanish conduct in the previous battle. The Dutch and Spanish ships of the line and frigates were springed in a battle line order across the bay with the Spanish galleys in front of them to protect from enemy fireships, the French fleet was larger and more powerful. Many Spanish ships were of older designs equipped with low calibre cannons, the Dutch crews were very well trained, though also incomplete due to irrecoverable losses in the previous battles and a dysentery epidemic. The Spanish ships couldnt maintain the order for a long time. Many of them cut spring ropes and left the line without order, three Spanish frigates were burnt due to a French fireship attack. Two Spanish galleys were destroyed by fire with Admiral de Villaroel killed. When Spanish resistance on the side of the line collapsed. The Spanish flagship, 70-gun Nuestra Señora del Pilar, was attacked by four French fireships, caught fire and exploded with 200 sailors, all three Dutch ships caught fire and exploded, though most of their crews escaped successfully. Rear Admiral van Middelandt was killed on board Steenbergen, the Dutch continued to resist though. Vice Admiral den Haen was killed by a cannonball while commanding his flagship, with all Dutch and Spanish admirals killed, a flag officer of late de Ruyter, Captain Callenburgh of 76-gun Eendracht, assumed general command. One of Spanish coastal batteries exploded and the town caught fire, the Dutch and Spanish were in a dire position, though the French lost all their fireships by this time and Vivonne ordered a return to Messina. It could be argued the French were able to achieve a complete destruction of the allied Dutch, Vivonne decided the battle had been won already and it was better to return without losing a single warship. The French victory, however, achieved little, and the French forces in Sicily were recalled on 1 January 1678, as in the Franco-Spanish War of 1635-1659, in the Franco-Dutch War Spain retained its position in Italy and proved able to thwart French hopes of major gains. Tucker, A Global Chronology of Conflict, From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East, aBC-CLIO2009, ISBN9781851096725, p.654 David S. T. Blackmore, Warfare on the Mediterranean in the Age of Sail, A History, 1571-1866
26.
Stadtholder
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In the Low Countries, stadtholder, literally steward, designated a medieval official and then a national leader. For the last half century of its existence, it became a hereditary role. His son, Prince William V, was the last stadtholder of the republic, whose own son, King William I, became the first king of the Netherlands. The Dutch Monarchy is thus descended from the first stadtholder of the young Republic, William of Orange, the title stadtholder is roughly comparable to Englands historic title Lord Lieutenant. Its component parts literally translate as place holder, or as a cognate, stead holder. Note, however, that is not the word for the rank of lieutenant. Stadtholders in the Middle Ages were appointed by feudal lords to represent them in their absence, if a lord had several dominions, some of these could be ruled by a permanent stadtholder, to whom was delegated the full authority of the lord. A stadtholder was thus more powerful than a governor, who had limited authority. The local rulers of the independent provinces of the Low Countries made extensive use of stadtholders, in the 15th century the Dukes of Burgundy acquired most of the Low Countries, and these Burgundian Netherlands mostly each had their own stadtholder. Only the Prince-Bishopric of Liège and two smaller territories remained outside his domains, stadtholders continued to be appointed to represent Charles and King Philip II, his son and successor in Spain and the Low Countries. Due to the centralist and absolutist policies of Philip, the power of the stadtholders strongly diminished. The stadtholder no longer represented the lord but became the highest executive official, although each province could assign its own stadtholder, most stadtholders held appointments from several provinces at the same time. As these councils themselves appointed most members of the states, the stadtholder could very indirectly influence the general policy, in the army, he could appoint officers by himself, in the navy only affirm appointments of the five admiralty councils. Legal powers of the stadtholder were thus limited, and by law he was a mere official. His real powers, however, were greater, especially given the martial law atmosphere of the permanent Eighty Years War. Maurice of Orange after 1618 ruled as a dictator. The leader of the Dutch Revolt was William the Silent, he had been appointed stadtholder in 1572 by the first province to rebel and his personal influence and reputation was subsequently associated with the office and transferred to members of his house. Maurice in 1618 and William III of Orange from 1672 replaced entire city councils with their partisans to increase their power, by intimidation, the stadtholders tried to extend their right of affirmation
27.
Fronde
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The Fronde was a series of civil wars in France between 1648 and 1653, occurring in the midst of the Franco-Spanish War, which had begun in 1635. The king confronted the opposition of the princes, the nobility, the law courts, and most of the French people. The Fronde was divided into two campaigns, the Fronde of the parlements and the Fronde of the nobles, the timing of the outbreak of the Fronde des parlements, directly after the Peace of Westphalia that ended the Thirty Years War, was significant. A. Lloyd Moote argues that Cardinal Mazarin blundered into the crisis, the Fronde represented the final attempt of the French nobility to do battle with the king, and they were humiliated. The long-term result was to strengthen Royal authority, but to weaken the economy, the Fronde facilitated the emergence of absolute monarchy. The French word fronde means sling, Parisian crowds used slings to smash the windows of supporters of Cardinal Mazarin, the Fronde in the end provided an incentive for the establishment of royalist absolutism, since the disorders eventually discredited the feudal concept of liberty. The pressure that saw the traditional liberties under threat came in the form of extended and increased taxes as the Crown needed to recover from its expenditures in the recent wars. The costs of the Thirty Years War constrained Mazarins government to raise funds by means, the impôts, the taille. The nobility refused to be so taxed, based on their old liberties, or privileges, and the brunt fell upon the bourgeoisie. When Louis XIV became king in 1643, he was only a child, most historians consider that Louiss later insistence on absolutist rule and depriving the nobility of actual power was a result of these events in his childhood. The military record of the first Fronde is almost blank, the noble faction demanded the calling of an assembly of the Estates General. The nobles believed that in the Estates-General they could continue to control the element as they had in the past. The royal faction, having no army at its disposal, had to release the prisoners. But Frances signing of the Peace of Westphalia allowed the French army to return from the frontiers, the two warring parties signed the Peace of Rueil after little blood had been shed. From then on the Fronde became a story of intrigues, half-hearted warfare in a scramble for power and control of patronage, the military operations fell into the hands of war-experienced mercenaries, led by two great, and many lesser, generals. The peace of Rueil lasted until the end of 1649, the princes, received at court once more, renewed their intrigues against Mazarin. On 14 January 1650, Cardinal Mazarin, having come to an understanding with Monsieur Gondi and Madame de Chevreuse, suddenly arrested Condé, Conti, the war which followed this coup is called the Princes Fronde. This time it was Turenne, before and afterwards the most loyal soldier of his day, listening to the promptings of Madame de Longueville, he resolved to rescue her brother Condé, his old comrade in the battles of Freiburg and Nördlingen
28.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
29.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
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History of the Netherlands
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The history of the Netherlands is the history of seafaring people thriving on a lowland river delta on the North Sea in northwestern Europe. Records begin with the four centuries during which the region formed a border zone of the Roman empire. This came under increasing pressure from Germanic peoples moving westwards, during the Middle Ages, the descendants of the Carolingian dynasty came to dominate the area and then extended their rule to a large part of Western Europe. The region of the Netherlands therefore became part of Lower Lotharingia within the Frankish Holy Roman Empire, for several centuries, lordships such as Brabant, Holland, Zeeland, Friesland, Guelders and others held a changing patchwork of territories. There was no unified equivalent of the modern Netherlands, the Catholic kings of Spain took strong measures against Protestantism, which polarized the peoples of present-day Belgium and Holland. In the Dutch Golden Age, which had its zenith around 1667, there was a flowering of trade, industry, the arts and the sciences. A rich worldwide Dutch empire developed and the Dutch East India Company became one of the earliest and most important of national companies based on entrepreneurship. During the 18th century the power and wealth of the Netherlands declined, a series of wars with the more powerful British and French neighbors weakened it. Britain seized the North American colony of New Amsterdam, turning it into New York, there was growing unrest and conflict between the Orangists and the Patriots. The French Revolution spilled over after 1789, and a pro-French Batavian Republic was established in 1795–1806, Napoleon made it a satellite state, the Kingdom of Holland, and later simply a French imperial province. After the collapse of Napoleon in 1813–15, an expanded United Kingdom of the Netherlands was created with the House of Orange as monarchs, also ruling Belgium, the King imposed unpopular Protestant reforms on Belgium, which revolted in 1830 and became independent in 1839. After an initially conservative period, in the 1848 constitution the country became a democracy with a constitutional monarch. Modern Luxembourg became officially independent from the Netherlands in 1839, but a personal union remained until 1890, since 1890 it is ruled by another branch of the House of Nassau. The Netherlands was neutral during the First World War, but during the Second World War, the Nazis, including many collaborators, rounded up and killed almost all the Jews. When the Dutch resistance increased, the Nazis cut off supplies to much of the country. In 1942, the Dutch East Indies was conquered by Japan, Indonesia proclaimed its independence in 1945. The postwar years saw rapid economic recovery, followed by the introduction of a state during an era of peace. The Netherlands formed a new alliance with Belgium and Luxembourg, the Benelux
France
Dutch Republic
Holy Roman Empire
Spain
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