1.
Gualdo Tadino
–
Gualdo Tadino, an ancient town of Italy, in the province of Perugia in northeastern Umbria, on the lower flanks of Mt. Penna, a mountain of the Apennines. It is 47 km NE of Perugia and 30 km SE of Gubbio, Gualdo has a long history and was originally an Umbrian village known as Tarsina. Conquered by the Romans in 266 BC and re-christened Tadinum, it was a station on the Via Flaminia, in 217 BC it was destroyed by Hannibals troops. A similar defeat was inflicted on it in 47 BC by Julius Caesar and this suspicion may have received confirmation in 2004. The ancient city survived that war, only to be destroyed in a war at the instigation of the Holy Roman Emperor Otto III in 966. It was later rebuilt, only to be destroyed a second time by fire in 1237, finally, the Emperor Frederick II ordered the city rebuilt for a third time in 1239, and it is this incarnation which survives today. Gualdo Tadino sister cities are, West Pittston, PA and Audun Le Tiche, France Rocca Flea, san Francesco, housing frescoes by Matteo da Gualdo. Gualdo Tadino Cathedral, with an external fountain attributed to Antonio da Sangallo the Elder, civic Gallery, with works by Matteo da Gualdo and others. Gualdo Tadino has a station on the line from Ancona to Foligno. The journey time to Ancona is typically one hour and 45 minutes, and to Foligno 40 minutes
Gualdo Tadino
–
Traditional umbrian ceramic plate
2.
Etruria
–
Etruria was a region of Central Italy, located in an area that covered part of what are now Tuscany, Lazio, and Umbria. Such trade occurred either directly with Egypt, or through intermediaries such as Greek or Phoenician sailors, the Grand Duchy of Tuscany styled itself in Latin as Magnus Ducatus Etruriae. The name Etruria was also applied to the Kingdom of Etruria, a particularly noteworthy work dealing with Etruscan locations is D. H. Lawrences Sketches of Etruscan Places and other Italian essays. Etruscan was the language for meetings. When Etruria was conquered by the Roman Republic, Latin became the official language, cities and Cemeteries of Etruria, by George Dennis, an overview of Etruscan civilisation
Etruria
–
History
Etruria
–
The area covered by the
Etruscan civilization.
3.
Umbria
–
Umbria, is a region of historic and modern central Italy. It is the only Italian region having neither a coastline nor a border with other countries and it includes the Lake Trasimeno, Marmores Falls, and is crossed by the River Tiber. Umbria is known for its landscapes, traditions, history, culinary delights, artistic legacy, and influence on culture. Contained within Umbria is Cospaia, a republic created by accident that existed from 1440 to 1826 Umbria is bordered by Tuscany to the west, Marche to the east. It is the only Italian region having neither a coastline nor a border with other countries. The commune of Città di Castello has an exclave named Monte Ruperto within Marche. Umbria is crossed by two valleys, the Umbrian valley, stretching from Perugia to Spoleto, and the Tiber Valley, west of the first one, the Tiber River forms the approximate border with Lazio, although its source is just over the Tuscan border. The Tibers three principal tributaries flow southward through Umbria, the Chiascio basin is relatively uninhabited as far as Bastia Umbra. About 10 kilometres farther on, it joins the Tiber at Torgiano, the third river is the Nera, flowing into the Tiber further south, at Terni, its valley is called the Valnerina. The upper Nera cuts ravines in the mountains, the lower, in antiquity, the plain was covered by a pair of shallow, interlocking lakes, the Lacus Clitorius and the Lacus Umber. They were drained by the Romans over several hundred years, an earthquake in the 4th century and the political collapse of the Roman Empire resulted in the refilling of the basin. The eastern part of the region, being crossed by many faults, has often hit by earthquakes, the last ones have been that of 1997. In literature, Umbria is referred to as il cuore verde dItalia, the phrase is taken from a poem by Giosuè Carducci, the subject of which is the source of the Clitunno River in Umbria. The region is named for the Umbri people, an Italic people which was absorbed by the expansion of the Romans, the Umbris capital city was Gubbio, where today is housed the longest and most important document of any of the Osco-Umbrian group of languages, the Iguvine Tablets. In fact, they belonged to a family of neighbouring peoples with similar roots. Their language was Umbrian, one of the Italic languages, related to Latin, the Etruscans were the chief enemies of the Umbri. The Etruscan invasion went from the western seaboard towards the north and east, eventually driving the Umbrians towards the Apennine uplands, nevertheless, the Umbrian population does not seem to have been eradicated in the conquered districts. The border between Etruria and Umbria was the Tiber river, the ancient name of Todi, Tular, after the downfall of the Etruscans, Umbrians aided the Samnites in their struggle against Rome
Umbria
–
Cityscape of the capital Perugia
Umbria
–
Umbria
Umbria
–
A typical landscape of the Umbrian countryside
Umbria
–
View of
Assisi
4.
Byzantine Empire
–
It survived the fragmentation and fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD and continued to exist for an additional thousand years until it fell to the Ottoman Turks in 1453. During most of its existence, the empire was the most powerful economic, cultural, several signal events from the 4th to 6th centuries mark the period of transition during which the Roman Empires Greek East and Latin West divided. Constantine I reorganised the empire, made Constantinople the new capital, under Theodosius I, Christianity became the Empires official state religion and other religious practices were proscribed. Finally, under the reign of Heraclius, the Empires military, the borders of the Empire evolved significantly over its existence, as it went through several cycles of decline and recovery. During the reign of Maurice, the Empires eastern frontier was expanded, in a matter of years the Empire lost its richest provinces, Egypt and Syria, to the Arabs. This battle opened the way for the Turks to settle in Anatolia, the Empire recovered again during the Komnenian restoration, such that by the 12th century Constantinople was the largest and wealthiest European city. Despite the eventual recovery of Constantinople in 1261, the Byzantine Empire remained only one of several small states in the area for the final two centuries of its existence. Its remaining territories were annexed by the Ottomans over the 15th century. The Fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Empire in 1453 finally ended the Byzantine Empire, the term comes from Byzantium, the name of the city of Constantinople before it became Constantines capital. This older name of the city would rarely be used from this point onward except in historical or poetic contexts. The publication in 1648 of the Byzantine du Louvre, and in 1680 of Du Canges Historia Byzantina further popularised the use of Byzantine among French authors, however, it was not until the mid-19th century that the term came into general use in the Western world. The Byzantine Empire was known to its inhabitants as the Roman Empire, the Empire of the Romans, Romania, the Roman Republic, Graikia, and also as Rhōmais. The inhabitants called themselves Romaioi and Graikoi, and even as late as the 19th century Greeks typically referred to modern Greek as Romaika and Graikika. The authority of the Byzantine emperor as the legitimate Roman emperor was challenged by the coronation of Charlemagne as Imperator Augustus by Pope Leo III in the year 800. No such distinction existed in the Islamic and Slavic worlds, where the Empire was more seen as the continuation of the Roman Empire. In the Islamic world, the Roman Empire was known primarily as Rûm, the Roman army succeeded in conquering many territories covering the entire Mediterranean region and coastal regions in southwestern Europe and north Africa. These territories were home to different cultural groups, both urban populations and rural populations. The West also suffered heavily from the instability of the 3rd century AD
Byzantine Empire
–
Tremissis with the image of
Justinian the Great (r. 527–565) (see
Byzantine insignia)
Byzantine Empire
–
Byzantine
lamellar armour klivanium (Κλιβάνιον) - a predecessor of Ottoman krug
mirror armour
Byzantine Empire
–
The Baptism of Constantine painted by
Raphael 's pupils (1520–1524,
fresco, Vatican City,
Apostolic Palace);
Eusebius of Caesarea records that (as
was common among converts of early Christianity) Constantine delayed receiving
baptism until shortly before his death
Byzantine Empire
–
Restored section of the Theodosian Walls.
5.
Lombards
–
The Lombards or Longobards were a Germanic people who ruled large parts of the Italian Peninsula from 568 to 774. In the 1st century AD, they formed part of the Suebi, the Lombard king Audoin defeated the Gepid leader Thurisind in 551 or 552, his successor Alboin eventually destroyed the Gepids at the Battle of Asfeld in 567. The Lombards were joined by numerous Saxons, Heruls, Gepids, Bulgars, Thuringians, and Ostrogoths, by late 569 they had conquered all north of Italy and the principal cities north of the Po River except Pavia, which fell in 572. At the same time, they occupied areas in central Italy and they established a Lombard Kingdom in north and central Italy, later named Regnum Italicum, which reached its zenith under the 8th-century ruler Liutprand. In 774, the Kingdom was conquered by the Frankish King Charlemagne, however, Lombard nobles continued to rule southern parts of the Italian peninsula, well into the 11th century when they were conquered by the Normans and added to their County of Sicily. In this period, the part of Italy still under Longobardic domination was known by the name Langbarðaland in the Norse runestones. Their legacy is apparent in the regional name Lombardy. The fullest account of Lombard origins, history, and practices is the Historia Langobardorum of Paul the Deacon, pauls chief source for Lombard origins, however, is the 7th-century Origo Gentis Langobardorum. The Origo Gentis Langobardorum tells the story of a tribe called the Winnili dwelling in southern Scandinavia. The Winnili were split into three groups and one part left their land to seek foreign fields. The reason for the exodus was probably overpopulation, the departing people were led by the brothers Ybor and Aio and their mother Gambara and arrived in the lands of Scoringa, perhaps the Baltic coast or the Bardengau on the banks of the Elbe. Scoringa was ruled by the Vandals and their chieftains, the brothers Ambri and Assi, the Winnili were young and brave and refused to pay tribute, saying It is better to maintain liberty by arms than to stain it by the payment of tribute. The Vandals prepared for war and consulted Godan, who answered that he would give the victory to those whom he would see first at sunrise. The Winnili were fewer in number and Gambara sought help from Frea, at sunrise, Frea turned her husbands bed so that he was facing east, and woke him. So Godan spotted the Winnili first and asked, Who are these long-beards. and Frea replied, My lord, thou hast given them the name, from that moment onwards, the Winnili were known as the Longbeards. When Paul the Deacon wrote the Historia between 787 and 796 he was a Catholic monk and devoted Christian and he thought the pagan stories of his people silly and laughable. Paul explained that the name Langobard came from the length of their beards, a modern theory suggests that the name Langobard comes from Langbarðr, a name of Odin. Priester states that when the Winnili changed their name to Lombards, they changed their old agricultural fertility cult to a cult of Odin
Lombards
–
The Lombard possessions in Italy: The Lombard Kingdom (Neustria, Austria and Tuscia) and the Lombard Duchies of Spoleto and Benevento
Lombards
–
Wodan (Godan) and
Frigg (Frea) looking out of a window in the heavens...
Lombards
–
...and spot the Lombard women with their long hair tied as to appear as beards
Lombards
–
Lombard grave goods (6th-7th century) -
Milan,
Lombardy
6.
Heruli
–
In the third century, they were named along with Goths as one of the most important Scythian groups who attacked Greece from the Black Sea by sea, and marauded around the Balkans for several years. In the fourth century, they were subjugated by the empires of Ermanaric the Ostrogoth, and later Attila the Hun and they established their own kingdom and many joined Odoacer, who deposed the last Western Roman Emperor Romulus Augustus in 476 AD. They became well known both as soldiers in various Roman armies, in the Italian kingdom of Odoacer, and as sea raiders on the Atlantic coast, the Danubian kingdom broke up and remnants settled in the Balkans and other places. The last known political entity which was described as Herulian seem to have been in the area of modern Belgrade in the 550s, as a settlement within the Roman empire, the details of their history are difficult to reconstruct. The Herules are possibly first mentioned as the Hirri in the writings of Pliny the Elder, plinius stated that the territory extending from the Vistula river, as far as Eningia, is inhabited by the following nations, the Wends, the Scirii and the Hirri. According to Procopius, they maintained links with Thule and some even moved there after the conquest of their Danubian kingdom and their request was granted, and a new king arrived with 200 young men. The first clear mention of the Herules by Roman writers is generally taken to be in the reign of Gallienus and this is based on accepting the later writer Jordanes, who equated the Herules of his time and the Elouri mentioned by Dexippus. These Elouri accompanied the Goths and other Scythians ravaging the coasts of the Black Sea and later entering the Aegean, sacks of Byzantium, Chrysopolis, Lemnos, Scyros, Sparta, Corinth and Argos followed. Armed groups moved around Greece and the Balkans, and the East Roman military took several years to contain the threat. After suffering a defeat at the river Nessos one surrendering Herul chief named Naulobatus became the first barbarian known from written records to receive imperial insignia from the Romans. It seems to have been the Herules specifically who sacked Athens despite the construction of a new wall and this was the occasion for a famous defense made by Dexippus, whose writings were a source for later historians. Herules were also seen in western Europe before the empire of Attila, in 268 Claudius Mamertinus reported the victory of Maximian over a group of Herules and Chaibones attacking Gaul. In 406, a number of barbarian groups crossed the Rhine, entering the Roman empire. However this list is thought to have drawn on historical lists for literary effect. Some historians have speculated that there must have been a western Herul group with a power base somewhere in northern Europe. After this nothing is heard of again in that region. After the death of Attila his sons and their Ostrogoth allies lost power over the peoples of his empire at the Battle of Nedao in 454. The centre of this alliance was now settled upon the Roman border, Herules on the winning side of the Gepids were subsequently among the several peoples now able to form a kingdom on the northern banks of the Danubian area
Heruli
–
Map of the Roman empire and contemporary indigenous Europe in AD 125, showing the location of the Heruli on the
Danish islands.
7.
Gepids
–
The Gepids were an East Germanic tribe. They were closely related to, or a subdivision of, the Goths and they are first recorded in 6th-century historiography as having been allied with the Goths in the invasion of Dacia in c. In the 4th century, they were incorporated into the Hunnic Empire, under their leader Ardaric, the Gepids united with other Germanic tribes and defeated the Huns at the Battle of Nedao in 454. The Gepids then founded a kingdom centered on Sirmium, known as Gepidia, remnants of the Gepids were conquered by the Avars later in the 6th century. Jordanes reports that their name is from gepanta, an insult meaning sluggish, an Old English form of their name is recorded in Widsith, as Gefþ-, alongside the name of the Wends. The Gepids were the most shadowy of all the major Germanic peoples of the migration period, neither Tacitus nor Ptolemy mentioned them in their detailed lists of the barbarians, suggesting that the Gepids emerged only in the 3rd century AD. The first sporadic references to them, which were recorded in the late 3rd century, the 6th-century Byzantine writer, Procopius, listed the Gepids among the Gothic nations, along with the Vandals, Visigoths and Goths proper, in his Wars of Justinian. All information of the Gepids origins came from malicious and convoluted Gothic legends, according to Jordanes narration the northern island of Scandza, which is associated with Sweden by modern scholars, was the original homeland of the ancestors of the Goths and Gepids. They left Scandza in three boats under the leadership of Berig, the legendary Gothic King, Jordanes also writes that the Gepids ancestors traveled in the last of the three ships, for which their fellows mocked them as gepanta, or slow and stolid. They settled along the shore of the Baltic Sea on an island at mouth of the Vistula River, called Gepedoius, or the Gepids fruitful meadows. Jordanes passage in his Getica is the following, Should you ask how the and Gepidae are kinsmen, I can tell you in a few words. One of these three ships proved to be slower than the others, as is usually the case, and thus is said to have given the tribe their name, for in their language gepanta means slow. Hence it came to pass that gradually and by corruption the name Gepidae was coined for them by way of reproach. For undoubtedly they too trace their origin from the stock of the Goths, but because, as I have said, gepanta means something slow and stolid, the word Gepidae arose as a gratuitous name of reproach. Modern historians who write of the Gepids early history tend to apply a mixed argumentation, according to Jordanes, the Gepids decided to leave Gepedoius during the reign of their legendary king, Fastida. They moved to the south and defeated the Burgundians, after the victory, Fastida demanded land from Ostrogotha, King of the Visigoths, because the Gepids territory was hemmed in by rugged mountains and dense forests. Ostrogotha refused Fastidas demand and the Gepids joined battle with the Goths at the town of Galtis, near which the river Auha flowed and they fought until darkness when Fastida and his Gepids withdrew from the battlefield and returned to their land. Archaeologist Kurdt Horedt writes that the battle took place east of the Carpathian Mountains after 248, on the other hand, historian István Bóna says that the two armies clashed in the former province of Dacia around 290
Gepids
–
A belt buckle from the
treasure of Apahida
Gepids
–
Polities in South-Eastern Europe c. 520 AD; post Huns & before the Byzantine invasion of Gothic Italy.
Gepids
–
Gold ring with the inscription Omharus found at
Apahida.
8.
Ostrogothic Kingdom
–
The Ostrogothic Kingdom, officially the Kingdom of Italy, was established by the Ostrogoths in Italy and neighbouring areas from 493 to 553. Under Theoderic, its first king, the Ostrogothic kingdom reached its zenith, most of the social institutions of the late Western Roman Empire were preserved during his rule. Theodoric called himself Gothorum Romanorumque rex, demonstrating his desire to be a leader for both peoples, starting in 535, the Eastern Roman Empire invaded Italy under Justinian I. The Ostrogothic ruler at that time, Witiges, could not defend successfully and was captured when the capital Ravenna fell. The Ostrogoths rallied around a new leader, Totila, and largely managed to reverse the conquest, the last king of the Ostrogothic Kingdom was Teia. The Ostrogoths were the branch of the Goths. They settled and established a state in Dacia, but during the late 4th century. After the collapse of the Hunnic empire in 454, large numbers of Ostrogoths were settled by Emperor Marcian in the Roman province of Pannonia as foederati, but in 460, during the reign of Leo I, because the payment of annual sums had ceased, they ravaged Illyricum. Peace was concluded in 461, whereby the young Theoderic Amal, son of Theodemir of the Amals, was sent as a hostage to Constantinople, where he received a Roman education. The period 477-483 saw a complex three-way struggle among Theoderic the Amal, who had succeeded his father in 474, Theodoric Strabo, in this conflict, alliances shifted regularly, and large parts of the Balkans were devastated by it. In the end, after Strabos death in 481, Zeno came to terms with Theoderic, parts of Moesia and Dacia ripensis were ceded to the Goths, and Theoderic was named magister militum praesentalis and consul for 484. Barely a year later, Theoderic and Zeno fell out, orestes had reneged on the promise of land in Italy for Odoacers troops, a pledge made to ensure their neutrality in his attack on Nepos. Odoacer retained the Roman administrative system, cooperated actively with the Roman Senate and he evicted the Vandals from Sicily in 477, and in 480 he occupied Dalmatia after the murder of Julius Nepos. An agreement was reached between Zeno and Theoderic, stipulating that Theoderic, if victorious, was to rule in Italy as the emperors representative. Theoderic with his people set out from Moesia in the autumn of 488, passed through Dalmatia, the first confrontation with the army of Odoacer was at the river Isonzo on August 28. Odoacer was defeated and withdrew towards Verona, where a month later another battle was fought, resulting in a bloody, Odoacer fled to his capital at Ravenna, while the larger part of his army under Tufa surrendered to the Goths. Theoderic then sent Tufa and his men against Odoacer, but he changed his allegiance again, in 490, Odoacer was thus able to campaign against Theoderic, take Milan and Cremona and besiege the main Gothic base at Ticinum. At that point, however, the Visigoths intervened, the siege of Ticinum was lifted, Odoacer fled again to Ravenna, while the Senate and many Italian cities declared themselves for Theoderic
Ostrogothic Kingdom
–
The Palace of Theoderic, as depicted on the walls of St. Apollinare Nuovo. The figures between the columns, representing Theoderic and his court, were removed after the East Roman conquest.
Ostrogothic Kingdom
–
The Ostrogothic Kingdom at its greatest extent.
9.
Narses
–
Narses was, with Belisarius, one of the great generals in the service of the Byzantine Emperor Justinian I during the Roman reconquest that took place during Justinians reign. A Romanized Armenian, Narses spent most of his life as an important eunuch in the palace of the emperors in Constantinople. Narses was of Armenian descent and a member of the Kamsarakan Armenian noble family, which was an offshoot of the House of Karen and his first mention in a primary source is by Procopius in AD530. The year of Narses birth is unknown, historians have given dates including 478,479 and 480, the year of his death is also unknown, with dates given between 566 and 574, making him eighty-six to ninety-six years old at his death. His family and lineage is also unknown, with many different stories told about his origins. Agathias Scholasticus of Myrina described him thus, “He was a man of sound mind, evagrius Scholasticus in Ecclesiastica Historia reported that she would tell him the proper time to attack, and Narses would never engage in battle without her consent. Narses also was reported to be generous to the poor. He was so devoted to prayers and vigils that “he obtained victory more by the supplications he poured forth to God, than by arms of war. ”Before accepting supreme command of the army, Narses built a church and monastery in Cappadocia, intent upon going there upon his retirement. How or when Narses arrived in Constantinople, or how he found a footing in the officium of the Grand Chamberlain, the first time he was mentioned by Procopius in 530 AD, Narses was the Emperor Justinian’s steward. He was a treasurer, who dealt with the emperor’s finances. Narses had an involvement in the Nika riots in 532, in that he was instructed by Justinian or Theodora to take, from the treasury. Narses appealed to their party loyalty and he reminded them that Hypatius, the man they were about to declare emperor, was a Green, unlike Justinian, who supported the Blues. Either the money or his words were convincing, so soon the Blues began to acclaim Justinian and turned against Hypatius. Narses himself may have been with the men that dragged Hypatius from the throne on the Imperial Stand, Narses involvement and help in suppressing the Nika Riots suddenly found him in charge of a moderately-sized army that would go to Italy to help Belisarius. The army arrived in June of 538 probably in Ancona and consisted of roughly 7,000 soldiers, Procopius referred to Narses as the eunuch and keeper of the royal treasuries, and described him as “keen and more energetic than would be expected of a eunuch”. Narses met with Belisarius at Firmum where a council of war was held, the council discussed what should happen at Rimini and with the commander of troops, John. Narses commented that he had already been punished for his “insolence”, Belisarius and Narses led a column of troops through inland mountainous routes to descend upon Rimini from the northwest. John owed his thanks to Narses for convincing Belisarius, and according to Procopius, commented on the relationship between the two men
Narses
–
Man traditionally identified as Narses, [
citation needed] from the mosaic depicting Justinian and his entourage in the
Basilica of San Vitale,
Ravenna
10.
Totila
–
Totila, original name Baduila was the penultimate King of the Ostrogoths, reigning from 541 to 552 AD. Totila proved himself both as a military and political leader, winning the support of the classes by liberating slaves. After a successful defence at Verona, Totila pursued and defeated a superior army at the Battle of Faventia in 542 AD. Building on his victories, Totila followed these victories by defeating the Romans outside Florence, by 543, fighting on land and sea, he had reconqured the bulk of the lost territory. Rome held out, and Totila appealed unsuccessfully to the Senate in a letter reminding them of the loyalty of the Romans to his predecessor Theodoric the Great, when Totila left to fight the Byzantines in Lucania, south of Naples, Belisarius retook Rome and rebuilt its fortifications. After Belisarius retreated to Constantinople in 549, Totila recaptured Rome, by the end of 550, Totila had recaptured all but Ravenna and four coastal towns. The following year Justinian sent his general Narses with a force of 35,000 Lombards, Gepids and Heruli to Italy in a march around the Adriatic to approach Ravenna from the north. In the Battle of Taginae, an engagement during the summer of 552, in the Apennines near present-day Fabriano, the Gothic army was defeated. Totila was succeeded by his relative, Teia, who died at the Battle of Mons Lactarius. Pockets of resistance, reinforced by Franks and Alemanni who had invaded Italy in 553, continued until 562, Totila was the nom de guerre of a man whose real name was Baduila, as can be seen from the coinage he issued. According to Henry Bradley, Totila and Baduila are diminutives of Totabadws, born in Treviso, Totila was a relative of Theudis, king of the Visigoths. Elected king of the Ostrogoths in 541 after the death of his uncle Ildibad, having engineered the assassination of Ildibads short-lived successor, Totilas strategy was to move fast and take control of the countryside, leaving the Byzantine forces in control of well-defended cities, and especially the ports. When Belisarius eventually returned to Italy, Procopius relates that during a space of five years he did not succeed once in setting foot on any part of the land, except where some fortress was, but during this whole period he kept sailing about visiting one port after another. Totila circumvented those cities where a siege would have been required, razing the walls of cities that capitulated to him. Totilas conquest of Italy was marked not only by celerity but also by mercy, and Gibbon says none were deceived, either friends or enemies, after a successful siege of a resisting city, such as at Perugia, however, Totila could be merciless, as Procopius recounts. And he himself, sitting upon a large horse, began to dance under arms skillfully between the two armies. And as he rode he hurled his javelin into the air and caught it again as it quivered above him, then passed it rapidly from hand to hand, shifting it with consummate skill. Procopiuss picture is given a setting, for Totila generally avoided formal battles with opposing armies drawn up in battle array
Totila
–
Totila by
Francesco Salviati
Totila
–
Totila razes the walls of
Florence: illumination from the Chigi ms of
Villani's Cronica
Totila
–
Totila in the 14th century Nuova Cronica
Totila
–
Totila in the
Nuremberg Chronicle, 1493
11.
Justinian I
–
Justinian I, traditionally known as Justinian the Great and also Saint Justinian the Great in the Eastern Orthodox Church, was a Byzantine emperor from 527 to 565. During his reign, Justinian sought to revive the empires greatness, because of his restoration activities, Justinian has sometimes been called the last Roman in modern historiography. This ambition was expressed by the recovery of the territories of the defunct western Roman Empire. His general, Belisarius, swiftly conquered the Vandal kingdom in North Africa, the prefect Liberius reclaimed the south of the Iberian peninsula, establishing the province of Spania. These campaigns re-established Roman control over the western Mediterranean, increasing the Empires annual revenue by over a million solidi, during his reign Justinian also subdued the Tzani, a people on the east coast of the Black Sea that had never been under Roman rule before. A still more resonant aspect of his legacy was the rewriting of Roman law, the Corpus Juris Civilis. His reign also marked a blossoming of Byzantine culture, and his building program yielded such masterpieces as the church of Hagia Sophia, a devastating outbreak of bubonic plague in the early 540s marked the end of an age of splendour. Justinian was born in Tauresium around 482, a native speaker of Latin, he came from a peasant family believed to have been of Illyro-Roman or Thraco-Roman origins. The cognomen Iustinianus, which he later, is indicative of adoption by his uncle Justin. During his reign, he founded Justiniana Prima not far from his birthplace and his mother was Vigilantia, the sister of Justin. Justin, who was in the guard before he became emperor, adopted Justinian, brought him to Constantinople. As a result, Justinian was well educated in jurisprudence, theology, Justinian served for some time with the Excubitors but the details of his early career are unknown. Chronicler John Malalas, who lived during the reign of Justinian, tells of his appearance that he was short, fair skinned, curly haired, round faced, another contemporary chronicler, Procopius, compares Justinians appearance to that of tyrannical Emperor Domitian, although this is probably slander. When Emperor Anastasius died in 518, Justin was proclaimed the new emperor, during Justins reign, Justinian was the emperors close confidant. As Justin became senile near the end of his reign, Justinian became the de facto ruler, Justinian was appointed consul in 521 and later commander of the army of the east. Upon Justins death on 1 August 527, Justinian became the sole sovereign, as a ruler, Justinian showed great energy. He was known as the emperor who never sleeps on account of his work habits, nevertheless, he seems to have been amiable and easy to approach. Around 525, he married his mistress, Theodora, in Constantinople and she was by profession a courtesan and some twenty years his junior
Justinian I
–
Detail of a contemporary portrait mosaic in the
Basilica of San Vitale,
Ravenna.
Justinian I
Justinian I
–
The ancient town of
Tauresium, the birthplace of Justinian I, located in today's
Republic of Macedonia.
Justinian I
–
The
Barberini Ivory, which is thought to portray either Justinian or
Anastasius I
12.
Iberian War
–
The Iberian War was fought from 526 to 532 between the Byzantine Empire and Sassanid Empire over the eastern Georgian kingdom of Iberia. After the Anastasian War, a truce was agreed on. Even during the war in 505, Emperor Anastasius I had already started fortifying Dara as a counter to the Persian fortress city of Nisibis for a looming conflict. The proposal was greeted with enthusiasm by the Roman Emperor and his nephew, Justinian. Despite the breakdown of the negotiations, it was not until 530 that full-scale warfare on the eastern frontier broke out. In the intervening years, the two preferred to wage war by proxy, through Arab allies in the south and Huns in the north. Tensions between the two powers were heightened by the defection of the Iberian king Gourgen to the Romans. Gourgen received pledges by Justin I that he would defend Iberia, following the emperor Justin Is death in 527, Justinian I succeeded to the imperial throne. In 528, the Persians pressed on from Iberia to capture forts in eastern Lazica, the Roman failure at Callinicum was followed by a commission of inquiry, the result of which was the dismissal of Belisarius from his post. Azarethes, the Persians commander at Callinicum, was stripped of his ranks due to his failure to actually capture any significant fortification. Justinians envoy, Hermogenes, visited Kavadh immediately after the Battle of Callinicum to re-open negotiations, Justinian therefore took steps to bolster the Roman position, trying, at the same time, to engage Kavadh diplomatically. Kavadh died shortly afterwards, and in spring 532 new negotiations began between the Roman envoys and the new Persian king, Khosrau I, who needed to devote his attention to secure his own position. The two sides came to an agreement, and the Eternal Peace, which lasted less than eight years, was signed in September 532. Both sides agreed to all occupied territories and the Romans to make a one-off payment of 110 centenaria. The Romans recovered the Lazic forts, Iberia remained in Persian hands, but the Iberians who had left their country were allowed to remain in Roman territory or to return to their native land
Iberian War
–
The Roman-Persian frontier in the 4th to 7th centuries
13.
Battle of Dara
–
The Battle of Dara was fought between the Byzantine Empire and the Sassanids in 530. It was one of the battles of the Iberian War, the Byzantine Empire was at war with the Sassanids from 527, supposedly because Kavadh I had tried to force the Iberians to become Zoroastrians. The Iberian king fled from Kavadh, but Kavadh tried to make peace with the Byzantines, Justin and his nephew and heir, Justinian I, refused and sent his generals Sittas and Belisarius into Persia, where they were initially defeated. Justinian tried to negotiate but Kavadh instead sent 40,000 men towards Dara in 529, despite being outnumbered, Belisarius decided to give battle to the numerically superior Persians. He dug a number of ditches to block the Persian cavalry and these were pushed forward on either flank of his position, while his center was refused back. Here he placed his infantry behind the center ditch, being placed close enough to the walls of the fortress to provide supporting fire from the city battlements. On the left and right flanks were the Byzantine cavalry, of questionable quality, supporting them on their interior flanks were small bodies of Huns,300 Hun cavalry under Sunicas and Aigan supporting the left, and as many more Huns on the right under Simmas and Ascan. Belisarius also placed a body of Heruli cavalry under Pharas in ambush position off of his left flank, a reserve composed of his own bucellarii household cavalry was held behind his center and commanded by John the Armenian, his trusted lieutenant and boyhood friend. On the first day, there was no engagement. One particular combat involved a Persian knight, who challenged Belisarius to a single combat, Andreas, who had been secretly training with Belisarius own household troopers, killed not only this Persian champion, but also a second challenger later in the day. The Persians then withdrew to Ammodius for the night, after the first day of skirmishes, Belisarius sent a letter to the Persian commander. Rather than fight a battle, he believed it was best to avoid conflict, the letter read, The first blessing is peace, as is agreed by all men who have even a small share of reason. The best general, therefore, is one which is able to bring about peace from war. The letter, however, fell on deaf ears and battle resumed, on the second day of the battle,10,000 more Persian troops arrived from Nisibis. The Sassanid and Byzantine light infantry exchanged fire resulting in casualties on each side. The Persians formed two lines, the flank under Pityaxes and the left under Baresamanes. The first wave of the Persian attack was directed against the Byzantine left flank, the Persians forced a crossing of the ditch, pushing back the Byzantine cavalry. The Persians then attacked the Byzantine right wing, where Perozes sent the Sassanid Zhayedan, also known as the Immortals, the Byzantine cavalry and infantry defending the ditch were pushed back here as they had been on the right
Battle of Dara
–
map of the battle
14.
Battle of Satala (530)
–
The Battle of Satala was fought between the forces of the Eastern Roman Empire and the Sassanid Empire in summer 530, near Satala in Byzantine Armenia. The Persian army approached the city to lay siege, when it was attacked in the rear by a small Byzantine force, the Persians turned back to meet them, but were then attacked by the main army from inside the city. A determined attack by a Byzantine unit led to the loss of the Persian generals flag, in spring 530, the Persian attack in Mesopotamia met with defeat at the Battle of Dara. At the same time, however, the Persians had gained ground in the Caucasus, having subdued Iberia, the Persian shah, Kavadh I, decided to take advantage of this and sent an army into Byzantiums Armenian provinces. For this task, he chose the general Mihr-Mihroe, Mihr-Mihroe began assembling his forces near the Byzantine border fortress of Theodosiopolis. According to Procopius, his army composed mostly of levies from Persian-ruled Armenia and Sunitae from the northern Caucasus, the Byzantine commanders were Sittas, who had just been promoted from magister militum per Armeniam to magister militum praesentalis, and his successor in the former post, Dorotheus. As soon as news of the ongoing Persian preparations reached them, one was captured, but the other returned with information that allowed the Byzantines to launch a surprise attack the Persian camp. The Persian army scattered with some loss, and after looting their camp, once Mihr-Mihroe had finished assembling his army, however, he invaded Byzantine territory. Bypassing Theodosiopolis, he headed for Satala, and set up his camp some distance from the city walls, the Byzantine forces, about half as strong as the Persians according to Procopius, did not engage him. Sittas, with a thousand men, occupied the hills around the city, on the next day, the Persians advanced and began to surround the city, preparing for a siege. At this point, Sittas with his detachment sallied forth from the hills, the Persians, seeing them raising much dust and thinking that they were the main Byzantine army, quickly gathered their forces and turned to meet them. Dorotheus then led his own men to attack the Persian rear, despite their bad tactical position, facing attack from both front and rear, the Persian army resisted effectively, due to its greater numbers. At one point, however, a Byzantine commander, Florentius the Thracian, charged his unit into the Persian centre, although he was killed soon after, the loss of the flag caused fear among the Persian ranks. Their army began to retreat to their camp, abandoning the battlefield, the next day, the Persians departed and returned to Persian Armenia, unmolested by the Byzantines, who were satisfied with their victory over a far larger force. Negotiations between Persia and Byzantium also resumed after the battle, but they led nowhere, and in spring 531 war resumed, with the campaign that led to the Battle of Callinicum
Battle of Satala (530)
–
Map of the Byzantine-Persian frontier
15.
Battle of Callinicum
–
The Battle of Callinicum took place on Easter Saturday,19 April 531 AD, between the armies of the Byzantine Empire under Belisarius and the Sassanid Persians under Āzārethes. After a defeat at the Battle of Dara, the Sassanids moved to invade Syria in an attempt to turn the tide of the war, as they neared Callinicum, Belisarius, who commanded the Byzantine army, set out to follow them as they advanced westwards. Belisarius forces consisted of about 5,000 men and another 3,000 Ghassanid Arab allies, the Byzantines finally blocked the Persian advance at Chalcis, where reinforcements under Hermogenes also arrived, bringing the Byzantine force to some 20,000 men. The Persians were forced to withdraw, and the Byzantines followed them east, initially, Belisarius only wanted to drive off the Persians, without a risky battle. The Byzantine troops, however, were restless and anxious, after failing to convince his men, and realizing they would not fight, and possibly mutiny unless he agreed, Belisarius prepared his force for battle. The two armies met outside Callinicum on 19 April 531 AD, both armies formed up differently, Belisarius again choosing an odd formation that confused his opposing general. Belisarius himself took up position in the centre of his deployment and it is possible that he also held an elite tactical reserve behind his divisions of Persian Savārān. Meanwhile, however, Āzārethes redeployed some of his cavalry to his left wing and this manoeuvre, which went unnoticed by Belisarius, carried calamitous results for the Byzantines later on. Such was the impact of the charge that the Ghassanids were routed off the field with ease as to later inspire accusations of treachery. This exposed the flank of the Lycaonian infantry as well as Ascons heavy cavalry in the centre. At this juncture the elite Persian cavalry and their Lakhmid allies were placed upon the ground looking down on the unprepared right flank of the Byzantine cavalry of Belisarius centre. Here Belisarius scrambled to form an angle with whatever remnants. This proved relatively successful as repeated charges by the Persian cavalry did not result in more than mounting casualties on both sides. Unfortunately for Belisarius, his men could not hold in such a precarious condition indefinitely, zacharias of Mytilene said of the battle, turned and fled before the Persian attack. Many fell into the Euphrates and were drowned, and others were killed, however, it is unknown what stage of the battle Zachariah was referring to. Here on the river, the Byzantines were able to resist the Persians, the Persians attacked the Byzantine lines over the course of several hours, killed many resisting Byzantine troops, and inflicted heavy casualties on them. Eventually, the Byzantines gave up, and Belisarius fled alongside his soldiers, emperor Kavadh I removed General Āzārethes from command and stripped him of his honors due to the generals actions in the battle. Callinicum ended the first of Belisarius Persian campaigns, returning all of the land lost to them to Byzantine rule under Justinian I in the Eternal Peace agreement signed in summer 532 AD, greatrex, Geoffrey, Lieu, Samuel N. C
Battle of Callinicum
–
Azarethes reinforces his left wing and the Byzantine right wing is beaten back.
16.
Vandalic War
–
The Vandalic War was a conflict fought in North Africa between the forces of the Eastern Roman Empire and the Vandalic Kingdom of Carthage, in 533–534. It was the first of Justinian Is wars of reconquest of the lost Western Roman Empire, the Vandals had occupied Roman North Africa in the early 5th century, and established an independent kingdom there. Under their first king, Geiseric, the formidable Vandal navy carried out attacks across the Mediterranean, sacked Rome. In 530, a coup in Carthage overthrew the pro-Roman Hilderic. Justinian took advantage of, or even instigated, rebellions in the remote Vandal provinces of Sardinia and Tripolitania, the Vandal king gathered his forces and met the Roman army at the Battle of Ad Decimum, near Carthage, on 13 September. Gelimers elaborate plan to encircle and destroy the Roman army came close to success, Gelimer withdrew to Bulla Regia, where he gathered his remaining strength, including the army of Tzazon, which returned from Sardinia. In December, Gelimer advanced towards Carthage and met the Romans at the Battle of Tricamarum, the battle resulted in a Roman victory and the death of Tzazon. Gelimer fled to a mountain fortress, where he was blockaded until he surrendered in the spring. Imperial control scarcely reached beyond the old Vandal kingdom, however, the new province was shaken by the wars with the Moors and military rebellions, and it was not until 548 that peace was restored and Roman government firmly established. Thus, in May 429, Geiseric crossed the straits of Gibraltar with his entire people, geiserics Vandals and Alans, however, had their own plans, and aimed to conquer the African provinces outright. Their possession of Mauretania Caesariensis, Mauretania Sitifensis and most of Numidia was recognized in 435 by the Western Roman court, warfare soon recommenced, and in October 439, the capital of Africa, Carthage, fell to the Vandals. These events marked the foundation of the Vandalic Kingdom, as the Vandals made Carthage their capital, Sicily barely escaped the same fate through the presence there of Ricimer. In the aftermath of disaster, and following further Vandal raids against the shores of Greece. Whereas the kings of Western Europe continued to pay deference to the emperors and minted coinage with their portraits, in addition, the Vandals—like most Germanics, adherents of Arianism—persecuted the Chalcedonian majority of the local population, especially in the reigns of Huneric and Gunthamund. In 523, Hilderic, the son of Huneric, ascended the throne at Carthage, Justinian evidently hoped that this rapprochement would lead to the peaceful subordination of the Vandal state to his empire. Justinian seized the opportunity, demanding Hilderics restoration, with Gelimer predictably refusing to do so, Justinian then demanded Hilderics release to Constantinople, threatening war otherwise. Geiseric was unwilling to surrender a rival claimant to Justinian, who could use him to stir up trouble in his kingdom and he consequently refused Justinians demand on the grounds that this was an internal matter among the Vandals. Justinian now had his pretext, and with peace restored on his eastern frontier with Sassanid Persia in 532, he started assembling an invasion force
Vandalic War
–
A member of the retinue of Emperor
Justinian I in the mosaic in the
Church of San Vitale,
Ravenna, which is usually identified with Belisarius
Vandalic War
–
Campaign map of the war
Vandalic War
–
Fifty-
denarii coin of Gelimer
Vandalic War
–
Drawing of a medallion commemorating the Roman victory in the Vandalic War, c. 535
17.
Praetorian prefecture of Africa
–
It continued to exist until the late 580s, when it was replaced by the Exarchate of Africa. In 533, the Roman army under Belisarius defeated and destroyed the Vandal Kingdom that had existed in the former Roman territories of Northern Africa, immediately after the victory, in April 534, the emperor Justinian published a law concerning the administrative organization of the newly acquired territories. It is also noteworthy that Sardinia was formally detached from Italy, justinians intent was to, in the words of the historian J. B. Bury, wipe out all traces of the Vandal conquest, as if it had never been. The churches were restored to the Chalcedonian clergy, and the remaining Arians suffered persecution, the military administration was headed by the new post of magister militum Africae, with a subordinate magister peditum and four regional frontier commands under duces. This organization was gradually established, as the Romans pushed the Mauri back. When the Romans landed in Africa, the Moors maintained a neutral stance, the most significant tribes were the Leuathae in Tripolitania, and the Frexi in Byzacena. The Frexi and their allies were led by Antalas, while other tribes in the area followed Cutzinas, the Aurasii in Numidia were ruled by Iaudas, and the Mauretanian Moors were led by Mastigas and Masuna. After Belisarius departed for Constantinople, he was succeeded as magister militum Africae by his domesticus, the tribes of Mauri living in Byzacena and Numidia almost immediately rose up, and Solomon set out with his forces, which included allied Moorish tribes, against them. The situation was so critical that Solomon was also entrusted with civil authority, replacing the first prefect, Archelaus, Solomon was able to defeat the Mauri of Byzacena at Mamma, and again, decisively, at the battle of Mt. Bourgaon in early 535. In the summer, he campaigned against Iabdas and the Aurasii, who were ravaging Numidia, Solomon then set about erecting forts along the borders and the main roads, hoping to contain the raids of the Moors. In the Easter of 536 however, a military revolt broke out. Solomon, together with Procopius, who worked as his secretary, was able to escape to Sicily, solomons lieutenants Martinus and Theodore were left behind, the first to try to reach the troops at Numidia, and the second to hold Carthage. Upon hearing about the mutiny, Belisarius, with Solomon and 100 picked men, Carthage was being besieged by 9,000 rebels, including many Vandals, under a certain Stotzas. Theodore was contemplating capitulation, when Belisarius appeared, the news of the famous generals arrival were sufficient for the rebels to abandon the siege and withdraw westwards. Belisarius, although able to muster only 2,000 men, immediately gave pursuit and caught up, the bulk of the rebels however was able to flee, and continued to march towards Numidia, where the local troops decided to join them. Belisarius himself was forced to return to Italy, and Justinian appointed his cousin Germanus as magister militum to deal with the crisis, Germanus managed to win over many of the rebels to his side by appearing conciliatory and paying their arrears. Eventually, in the spring of 537, the two clashed at Scalae Veteres, resulting in a hard-won victory for Germanus. Stotzas fled to the tribesmen of Mauretania, and Germanus spent the two years in re-establishing discipline in the army
Praetorian prefecture of Africa
–
Africa, with the provinces of Byzacena, Zeugitana and Numidia.
Praetorian prefecture of Africa
–
The famous Lady of Carthage (fr) mosaic, possibly a portrait of
Theodora, one of the major surviving pieces of Byzantine art in modern
Tunisia
18.
Battle of Ad Decimum
–
The Battle of Ad Decimum took place on September 13,533 between the armies of the Vandals, commanded by King Gelimer, and the Byzantine Empire, under the command of general Belisarius. This event and events in the year are sometimes jointly referred to as the Battle of Carthage. The Byzantine victory marked the beginning of the end for the Vandals, the Vandal Kingdom in North Africa was ruled by King Hilderic. His reign was noteworthy for the excellent relations with the Byzantine Empire ruled by emperor Justinian I. Hilderic allowed a new Catholic bishop to take office in the Vandal capital of Carthage, Hilderic rejected the Arian Christianity that most Vandals followed. However, in 531, Hilderic was overthrown and killed by his cousin Gelimer, Gelimer began persecuting non Arian Vandals, and many fled to the Byzantine Empire. Justinian sent Byzantine general Belisarius to reconquer the former Roman province of North Africa, on Midsummer Day 533 the expedition set off. It consisted of 5,000 cavalry and twice as many infantry- at least half of them barbarian mercenaries, Ad Decimum, was simply a marker along the Mediterranean coast 10 miles south of Carthage. Gelimer, with 11,000 men under his command, had advance warning of the approach of Belisarius 15, 000-man army and chose to take a strong position along the road to Carthage near the post marker. He divided his forces, sending 2,000 men under his nephew Gibamund across a salt pan in an effort to flank Belisarius army, another Vandal force, under Gelimers brother Ammatas, was assigned to initiate a holding action at a defile near Ad Decimum. If everything worked well, Gelimers 7, 000-man main body would follow Gibamund around the Byzantine left flank, Gibamund failed to accomplish his mission, as a force of Byzantine and Hun mercenaries drove his 2, 000-man force off and killed him. Ammatas also failed, he arrived at the defile with his men still strung out along the back to Carthage. The Romans pursued his men all the way to the gates of Carthage itself, Gelimers main force, however, inflicted serious casualties on the Byzantine troops along the main road. The Byzantine mercenary cavalry was routed by the Vandals, and even though Gelimer was outnumbered and it appeared as though the Vandals would win the battle. Instead, the Vandal attack was weakened while Gelimer buried his brother on the battlefield, given a respite, Belisarius was able to regroup his forces south of Ad Decimum and launch a counterattack, which drove the Vandals back and soon routed them. Gelimer was forced to abandon Carthage, Belisarius camped near the site of the battle, not wanting to be too close to the city at night. They found the gates to the city open, and the army was generally welcomed, Belisarius went straight to the palace and sat on the throne of the Vandal King. He then set about rebuilding the fortifications of the city, and his fleet sought shelter in the Lake of Tunis, after a second defeat at the Battle of Tricamarum later in the year, the Vandal kingdom was all but ended
Battle of Ad Decimum
19.
Solomon (Byzantine general)
–
Solomon was an East Roman general from northern Mesopotamia, who distinguished himself as a commander in the Vandalic War and the reconquest of North Africa in 533–534. He spent most of the decade in Africa as its governor general. Solomon successfully confronted the large-scale Moorish rebellion, but was forced to flee following a mutiny in spring of 536. His second tenure in Africa began in 539 and it was marked by victories over the Moors, a few years of prosperity followed, but were cut short by the rekindled Moorish revolt and Solomons defeat and death at the Battle of Cillium in 544. Solomon was born, probably circa 480/490, in the fortress of Idriphthon in the district of Solachon and he was a eunuch as a result of an accident during his infancy, not from deliberate castration. Solomon had a brother, Bacchus, who became a priest, Bacchus fathered three sons, Cyrus, Sergius and Solomon, who later became military officers in Africa under their uncle, Sergius also succeeded Solomon as governor of Africa after the latters death. Little is known of Solomons early career, except that he served under the dux Mesopotamiae Felicissimus, certainly by 527, when he came to the service of General Belisarius, Solomon was considered an experienced officer. Before the expedition sailed from Constantinople, Solomon was named as one of the nine commanders of the foederati regiments, following the capture of Carthage, Belisarius sent Solomon back to Constantinople to inform Emperor Justinian I of the campaigns progress. Solomon remained in the capital until the spring of 534, when Justinian sent him back to Africa to recall Belisarius, belisariuss departure coincided with a general uprising of the Moorish tribes of the interior, before the Byzantines had time to strengthen their hold on the province. As a result, Belisarius left most of his privately raised bucellarii behind, soon Emperor Justinian also invested Solomon with the civil office of praetorian prefect as well, replacing the aged Archelaus. In the meantime, the Moors had invaded Byzacena and defeated the local Byzantine garrison, killing its commanders, Gainas and Rufinus. After diplomatic entreaties over the failed, and with his forces bolstered to some 18,000 men following the arrival of reinforcements. The Moors, under their chiefs Cutzinas, Esdilasas, Iourphouthes, Solomon attacked them there and defeated them. The Byzantine army returned to Carthage, but there came that the Moors, reinforced, had again attacked. Solomon immediately marched out and met them at Mount Bourgaon, where the Moors had erected a fortified camp, Solomon divided his forces and sent 1,000 men to attack the Moors from behind, scoring a decisive victory, the Moors broke and scattered, suffering great casualties. Those who survived fled to Numidia, where joined the forces of Iaudas. With Byzacena secured, and urged by his own Moorish allies Massonas and Ortaias and he cautiously advanced to Aurasium and challenged Iaudas to battle, but after three days, distrusting the loyalty of his allies, Solomon returned his army to the plains. He left part of the army to keep watch on the Moors, Solomon then spent the winter preparing a new expedition against Aurasium and also against the Moors of Sardinia, but his designs were interrupted by a major army mutiny in spring 536
Solomon (Byzantine general)
–
Roman Africa, with the provinces of Byzacena, Zeugitana and Numidia.
Solomon (Byzantine general)
–
Ruins of the Byzantine walls of
Theveste, one of the many sites restored and fortified under Solomon.
20.
Battle of Cillium
–
Solomon was an East Roman general from northern Mesopotamia, who distinguished himself as a commander in the Vandalic War and the reconquest of North Africa in 533–534. He spent most of the decade in Africa as its governor general. Solomon successfully confronted the large-scale Moorish rebellion, but was forced to flee following a mutiny in spring of 536. His second tenure in Africa began in 539 and it was marked by victories over the Moors, a few years of prosperity followed, but were cut short by the rekindled Moorish revolt and Solomons defeat and death at the Battle of Cillium in 544. Solomon was born, probably circa 480/490, in the fortress of Idriphthon in the district of Solachon and he was a eunuch as a result of an accident during his infancy, not from deliberate castration. Solomon had a brother, Bacchus, who became a priest, Bacchus fathered three sons, Cyrus, Sergius and Solomon, who later became military officers in Africa under their uncle, Sergius also succeeded Solomon as governor of Africa after the latters death. Little is known of Solomons early career, except that he served under the dux Mesopotamiae Felicissimus, certainly by 527, when he came to the service of General Belisarius, Solomon was considered an experienced officer. Before the expedition sailed from Constantinople, Solomon was named as one of the nine commanders of the foederati regiments, following the capture of Carthage, Belisarius sent Solomon back to Constantinople to inform Emperor Justinian I of the campaigns progress. Solomon remained in the capital until the spring of 534, when Justinian sent him back to Africa to recall Belisarius, belisariuss departure coincided with a general uprising of the Moorish tribes of the interior, before the Byzantines had time to strengthen their hold on the province. As a result, Belisarius left most of his privately raised bucellarii behind, soon Emperor Justinian also invested Solomon with the civil office of praetorian prefect as well, replacing the aged Archelaus. In the meantime, the Moors had invaded Byzacena and defeated the local Byzantine garrison, killing its commanders, Gainas and Rufinus. After diplomatic entreaties over the failed, and with his forces bolstered to some 18,000 men following the arrival of reinforcements. The Moors, under their chiefs Cutzinas, Esdilasas, Iourphouthes, Solomon attacked them there and defeated them. The Byzantine army returned to Carthage, but there came that the Moors, reinforced, had again attacked. Solomon immediately marched out and met them at Mount Bourgaon, where the Moors had erected a fortified camp, Solomon divided his forces and sent 1,000 men to attack the Moors from behind, scoring a decisive victory, the Moors broke and scattered, suffering great casualties. Those who survived fled to Numidia, where joined the forces of Iaudas. With Byzacena secured, and urged by his own Moorish allies Massonas and Ortaias and he cautiously advanced to Aurasium and challenged Iaudas to battle, but after three days, distrusting the loyalty of his allies, Solomon returned his army to the plains. He left part of the army to keep watch on the Moors, Solomon then spent the winter preparing a new expedition against Aurasium and also against the Moors of Sardinia, but his designs were interrupted by a major army mutiny in spring 536
Battle of Cillium
–
Roman Africa, with the provinces of Byzacena, Zeugitana and Numidia.
Battle of Cillium
–
Ruins of the Byzantine walls of
Theveste, one of the many sites restored and fortified under Solomon.
21.
John Troglita
–
John Troglita was a 6th-century Byzantine general. He participated in the Vandalic War and served in North Africa as a military governor during the years 533–538. As dux Mesopotamiae, Troglita distinguished himself in battles, and was noticed by agents of the Byzantine emperor. Troglita reorganized his army and secured the assistance of some tribal leaders and this victory spelled the end of the Moorish revolt, and heralded an era of peace for Africa. Troglita was also involved in the Gothic War, twice sending some of his troops to Italy to assist against the Ostrogoths, the exact origins of John Troglita are unclear. He may have born in Thrace, but his peculiar surname might indicate provenance from Trogilos in Macedonia. Troglita himself married a daughter of a king, probably a barbarian chieftain, Troglita remained in the province of Africa after Belisariuss departure in 534, and participated in the expeditions of Solomon against the Moors in 534–535. At the time, he was probably the military governor in either Byzacena or, more probably, Tripolitania. Nevertheless, the resulted in an imperial victory. In 538, Troglita distinguished himself in the Battle of Autenti, at some point after 538, Troglita was sent to the Eastern frontier, where by 541 he was appointed dux Mesopotamiae, one of the most important military commands of the region. From this position, he arrested a member of the embassy sent by the Ostrogothic king Witiges to the Persians to incite them to attack Byzantium. Nevertheless, Corippus maintains that John was congratulated for his performance by Urbicius, during Troglitas absence from Africa, the situation had been turbulent. Germanus had remained in the province until 539, and succeeded in restoring discipline in the army and pacifying the core territories of Africa Proconsularis and Byzacena. He was succeeded by Solomon, who began his tenure with great success, defeating the Moors of the Aurès Mountains. However, the Moorish revolt flared up again in 543 and Solomon was killed in the Battle of Cillium in 544 and his successor, his nephew Sergius, was incompetent. He was defeated by the Moors, recalled and replaced with the senator Areobindus, the latter intended to declare himself independent of Constantinople, but was soon murdered by the Armenian Artabanes. The need for a new and capable leader in Africa was apparent to Constantinople, after a truce was signed with Persia in 546, Emperor Justinian, perhaps, as Corippus implies, acting on Urbiciuss advice, recalled Troglita from the East. After having him report on the situation there in Constantinople, the Emperor placed him at the head of a new army and sent him to Africa as the new magister militum per Africam in late summer 546
John Troglita
–
Roman Africa, with the provinces of Byzacena, Zeugitana and Numidia.
22.
Sack of Rome (546)
–
The Sack of Rome in 546 was carried out by the Gothic king Totila during the Gothic War of 535–554 between the Ostrogoths and the Byzantine Empire. Totila was based at Tivoli and, in pursuit of his quest to reconquer the region of Latium, the city endured a siege lasting almost a year before falling to the Goths. Bessas, the commander of the garrison, had a stock of grain. He also refused requests to let leave the city. Finally, the imperial commanders released such of the Romans as desired to depart from the city and he states that many perished on the journey, since they were already enfeebled by famine and many were killed on the road by the enemy. Pope Vigilius, who had fled to the safety of Syracuse, sent a flotilla of ships to feed Rome. The imperial forces, led by Belisarius, were encamped at Portus awaiting reinforcements, an attempt by them to relieve Rome very nearly succeeded, but failed through the unreliability of subordinate commanders. Belisarius was then taken ill and took no further action, Totila finally entered Rome on 17 December 546, after his men scaled the walls at night and opened the Asinarian Gate. Procopius states that Totila was aided by some Isaurian troops from the garrison who had arranged a secret pact with the Goths. Totila quickly returned, but was back by the defenders. However, Belisarius did not follow up his advantage, several cities, including Perugia, were taken by the Goths, while Belisarius remained inactive and then was recalled from Italy. In 549, Totila advanced for a time against Rome
Sack of Rome (546)
–
The
Porta Asinaria or Asinarian Gate, through which Totila entered Rome
23.
Battle of Mons Lactarius
–
The Battle of Mons Lactarius took place in 552 or 553 in the course the Gothic War waged on behalf of Justinian I against the Ostrogoths in Italy. After the Battle of Taginae, in which the Ostrogoth king Totila was killed, the battle lasted two days, and Teia was killed in the fighting. Ostrogothic power in Italy was eliminated, and the remaining Ostrogoths went back north, after the battle, Italy was again invaded, this time by the Franks, but they too were defeated and the peninsula was, for a time, reintegrated into the empire. History of the Later Roman Empire by J. B
Battle of Mons Lactarius
–
Battle on the slopes of the Vesuvius
24.
Lazic War
–
The Lazic War lasted for twenty years, from 541 to 562, with varying success and ended in a relative victory for the Persians, who obtained an annual tribute in exchange of ending the war. The Lazic War is narrated in detail in the works of Procopius of Caesarea, Lazica, situated on the eastern shore of the Black Sea, and controlling important mountain passes across the Caucasus and to the Caspian Sea, had a key strategic importance for both empires. For Byzantines, it was a barrier against a Persian advance through Iberia to the coasts of the Black Sea. Persians on the other side hoped to gain access to the sea, and control a territory from which Iberia, the Persian Sasanians recognized Lazica as part of the Roman/Byzantine sphere of influence by the Eternal Peace Treaty of 532. Byzantine garrisons were stationed in Lazica and in neighboring Abasgia, mostly in the cities of Poti, Sebastopolis. The kingdoms capital, Archaeopolis, was fortified, as well as the access to the kingdom on the coastal road at Petra. In 536, however, the Byzantine presence turned into a full protectorate and those calls were answered that year by the Persian king Khosrau I, who entered Lazica, captured the Byzantine main stronghold of Petra, and established another protectorate over the country. Gubazes II requested aid from Emperor Justinian I and brought Alans, Justinian sent 7,000 Roman and 1,000 Tzani auxiliaries under Dagisthaeus to assist Gubazes, and besieged the Petra fortress. Persian reinforcements under Mihr-Mihroe defeated a small Byzantine force guarding the mountain passes, Mihr-Mihroe garrisoned 3,000 men in the fortress and marched to Armenia leaving 5,000 soldiers to plunder Lazica. This force was destroyed by Dagisthaeus at the Phasis river in 549, the next Persian offensive also proved to be unsuccessful with the commander Chorianes killed in a decisive battle at the river Hippis. The new Byzantine commander Bessas quelled a revolt of the Abasgi tribe, took Petra. However, the managed to capture the town Kutatisi and the Uchimerion fortress blocking the important roads to the mountains. In the summer of 555, he won a victory at Telephis. After the death of Mihr-Mihroe, Nachoragan was appointed the Persian commander-in-chief in 555 and he repulsed the Byzantine attack on the Persian positions at Onoguris and forced the enemy out of Archaeopolis, a city which Mihr-Mihroe had twice tried and failed to take. These defeats caused a feud between the Lazic and Byzantine generals. King Gubazes quarreled with Byzantine commanders Bessas, Martin, and Rusticus, Bessas was recalled, but Rusticus and his brother John eventually murdered Gubazes. The Lazi people got the Emperor to nominate Tzathes, the brother of Gubazes, as their new king. Rusticus and John were arrested, tried, and executed, in 556, the allies retook Archaeopolis and routed the Persian general Nachoragan in his abortive attack on Phasis
Lazic War
–
Map of
Lazica
25.
Siege of Phasis
–
The Siege of Phasis took place in 555–556 during the Lazic War between the Byzantine Empire and Sassanid Persia. The Persians besieged the town of Phasis in Lazica, held by the Byzantines, the main source for the siege is the 6th-century historian Agathias. The Lazic War had started in 541 with the defection of the Lazi under their king Gubazes II from Byzantium to Persia. The Persians quickly overran the country, but after Gubazes learned that the Persians planned to kill him, deport his people and bring in Persian colonists, he asked the Byzantines for help. In the spring of 555, the Persian general Nachoragan took the initiative in besieging their major stronghold, the town of Phasis, Nachoragan led an army of ca.60,000 men. The Byzantine forces of the area were led by the magister militum per Armeniam Martin and his second-in-command Justin and their combined forces were less than 20,000 men. Nachoragan could expect a victory as the town and its fortifications were built of wood and were vulnerable to fire. The towns location between the Black Sea and the River Phasis secured it from the east, north and west, at its south side, a moat was its first line of defense. Nachoragans forces however emptied the moat after days of hard work, meanwhile, the Byzantines had organized the defense of the city, with their forces taking their places at the various sides of the fortifications. The extreme western side, the one closest to the river, was guarded by Justin, the south side was defended by Angilas, Theodore and Philomathius. Angilas is recorded leading a regiment of Moorish peltasts and spearmen, probably meaning they were armed with shield. Theodore led heavy infantry consisting of Tzani, a recently Christianized tribe living in the mountains above Trapezus, the south-eastern side was guarded by Gibrus, who led a combined force of Heruli and Lombards. The extreme eastern side was guarded by Valerian, leading forces from the prefecture of the East. Finally, the Byzantine ships were placed under the protection of Dabragezas the Wend, operations started with a volley of arrows from the Persians. Martin, the commander of the Byzantine troops, had given instructions to the whole army to stay at their respective posts. They were to disregard attempts by the Persians to induce them to sally forth from the fortifications, however, Angilas and Philomathius with about two hundred of their men opened a town gate, exited the town and attacked the nearest force of Sassanids whose archers were harassing the defenders. Theodore at first attempted to restrain them, but then bowed down to majority opinion and he was reportedly reluctant to violate orders, but unwilling to be branded a coward by the soldiers. The Byzantine force was outnumbered, and Agathias reports that they would almost certainly have been annihilated
Siege of Phasis
–
Map of
Lazica
26.
Spania
–
Spania was a province of the Byzantine Empire from 552 until 624 in the south of the Iberian Peninsula and the Balearic Islands. It was established by the Emperor Justinian I in an effort to restore the provinces of the Empire. In 409 the Vandals, Suebi and Alans, who had broken through the Roman border defences on the Rhine two years before, crossed the Pyrenees into the Iberian peninsula, nevertheless, effective Roman rule was maintained over most areas through the death of Emperor Majorian in 461. The Visigoths, vassals of the Roman Empire who had settled in Aquitaine by imperial invitation, in 468 they attacked and defeated the Suevi, who had occupied Roman Gallaecia were threatening to expand. A large scale migration of the Visigoths into Iberia began in 494 under Alaric II, the Visigoths ended the Roman administration in Spain in 473, but they did not replace it with a provincial administration of their own until the early 6th century. In 534, Roman general Belisarius re-established the Byzantine province of Mauretania with the conquest of the Vandal Kingdom in northern Africa and this citadel was nevertheless seized the following year by an expedition dispatched by Belisarius. Ceuta became a part of Mauretania and it was an important base for reconnaissance of Spain in the years leading up to the peninsulas invasion by Justinians forces in 552. In 550, in the reign of Agila I, Spain was troubled by a series of revolts, the citizens of Córdoba rebelled against Gothic or Arian rule and Agila was roundly defeated, his son killed, and the royal treasure lost. The date of the major revolt cannot be arrived at precisely. Either at the commencement of his reign or as late as 551, a nobleman named Athanagild took Seville, capital of Baetica, exactly who approached the Byzantines for assistance and when is also disputed, the primary sources are divided. Even the name of the general of the Byzantine army is disputed, although Jordanes wrote that the Patrician Liberius was its commander, He was succeeded by Agila, who holds the kingdom to the present day. Athanagild has rebelled against him and is even now provoking the might of the Roman Empire, so Liberius the Patrician is on the way with an army to oppose him. James J. However, according to Isidore of Seville in his History of the Goths, it was Athanagild, in autumn of 551 or winter of 552, the army was probably sent in 552 and made landfall in June or July. Roman forces landed probably at the mouth of the Guadalete or perhaps Málaga, the war dragged on for two more years. Their landing at Cartagena was violent, Leander and most of his family fled and his writings preserve the strong anti-Byzantine sentiment. In late March 555, the supporters of Agila, in fear of the recent Byzantine successes, turned and assassinated him, quickly the new king tried to rid Spain of the Byzantines, but failed. The Byzantines occupied many cities in Baetica and this region was to remain a Byzantine province until its reconquest by the Visigoths barely seventy years later. The most important cities of Byzantine Spania were Málaga and Cartagena, the landing sites of the Byzantine army
Spania
–
The Lápida de Comenciolo, an inscription from Cartagena recording the patriciate of Comenciolus
Spania
–
Spania at its greatest extent, around the time of its foundation
Spania
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Byzantine oil lamp from Cartagena
27.
Ostrogoths
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The Ostrogoths were the eastern branch of the later Goths. They built an empire stretching from the Black Sea to the Baltic, the Ostrogoths were probably literate in the 3rd century, and their trade with the Romans was highly developed. Their Danubian kingdom reached its zenith under King Ermanaric, who is said to have committed suicide at an old age when the Huns attacked his people and subjugated them in about 370. After their annexation by the Huns, little is heard of the Ostrogoths for about 80 years, after the collapse of the Hun empire after the Battle of Nedao, Ostrogoths migrated westwards towards Illyria and the borders of Italy, while some remained in the Crimea. During the late 5th and 6th centuries, under Theodoric the Great most of the Ostrogoths moved first to Moesia, in 493, Theodoric the Great established a kingdom in Italy. A period of instability then ensued, tempting the Eastern Roman Emperor Justinian to declare war on the Ostrogoths in 535 in an effort to restore the western provinces of the Roman Empire. Initially, the Byzantines were successful, but under the leadership of Totila, the war lasted for almost 20 years and caused enormous damage and depopulation of Italy. The remaining Ostrogoths were absorbed into the Lombards who established a kingdom in Italy in 568, a division of the Goths is first attested in 291. The Tervingi are first attested around that date, the Greuthungi, Vesi, the Ostrogoths are first named in a document dated September 392 from Milan. Claudian mentions that they together with the Greuthungi inhabit Phrygia, according to Herwig Wolfram, the primary sources either use the terminology of Tervingi/Greuthungi or Vesi/Ostrogothi and never mix the pairs. All four names were used together, but the pairing was always preserved, as in Gruthungi, Ostrogothi, Tervingi and that the Tervingi were the Vesi/Visigothi and the Greuthungi the Ostrogothi is also supported by Jordanes. This interpretation, however, though common among scholars today, is not universal. Both Herwig Wolfram and Thomas Burns conclude that the terms Tervingi and Greuthungi were geographical identifiers used by each tribe to describe the other and this terminology therefore dropped out of use after the Goths were displaced by the Hunnic invasions. In support of this, Wolfram cites Zosimus as referring to a group of Scythians north of the Danube who were called Greuthungi by the north of the Ister. Wolfram asserts that it was the Tervingi who remained behind after the Hunnic conquest and he further believes that the terms Vesi and Ostrogothi were used by the peoples to boastfully describe themselves. On this understanding, the Greuthungi and Ostrogothi were more or less the same people, the nomenclature of Greuthungi and Tervingi fell out of use shortly after 400. In general, the terminology of a divided Gothic people disappeared gradually after they entered the Roman Empire, the term Visigoth, however, was an invention of the sixth century. Cassiodorus, a Roman in the service of Theodoric the Great, invented the term Visigothi to match Ostrogothi, the western-eastern division was a simplification and a literary device of sixth-century historians where political realities were more complex
Ostrogoths
–
Mosaic depicting the palace of Theodoric the Great in his palace chapel of
San Apollinare Nuovo.
Ostrogoths
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Ostrogothic bow-fibulae (c. 500) from
Emilia-Romagna,
Italy
Ostrogoths
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The mausoleum of
Theodoric the Great in
Ravenna,
Emilia-Romagna
Ostrogoths
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Coin of
Theodahad (534-536), minted in
Rome. He wears the barbaric
moustache.
28.
Italy
–
Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino, Italy covers an area of 301,338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal and Mediterranean climate. Due to its shape, it is referred to in Italy as lo Stivale. With 61 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous EU member state, the Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually became a republic that conquered and assimilated other nearby civilisations. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli. The weakened sovereigns soon fell victim to conquest by European powers such as France, Spain and Austria. Despite being one of the victors in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil. The subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in defeat, economic destruction. Today, Italy has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and it has a very high level of human development and is ranked sixth in the world for life expectancy. The country plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural and diplomatic affairs, as a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites, the most in the world, and is the fifth most visited country. The assumptions on the etymology of the name Italia are very numerous, according to one of the more common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú, meaning land of young cattle. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy – according to Antiochus of Syracuse, but by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name Italia to a larger region, excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Palaeolithic period, some 200,000 years ago, modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago. Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni. Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily, the Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world
Italy
–
The
Colosseum in Rome, built c. 70 – 80 AD, is considered one of the greatest works of
architecture and
engineering of ancient history.
Italy
–
Flag
Italy
–
The
Iron Crown of Lombardy, for centuries symbol of the
Kings of Italy.
Italy
–
Castel del Monte, built by German Emperor
Frederick II,
UNESCO World Heritage site
29.
Salona
–
Salona was an ancient city and the capital of the Roman province of Dalmatia. The name Salona preserves the language of the inhabitants of this area whom the Romans called Dalmatae. Salona is situated in town of Solin, right next to Split. In the first millennium BC the Greeks set up an emporion there, after the conquest by the Romans, Salona became the capital of the Roman province of Dalmatia. Colonia Martia Iulia Salona was founded probably after the Roman civil wars under Julius Caesar, the early trapezoidal shape of the city was transformed by eastern and western expansion of the city. The city quickly acquired Roman characteristics, walls, a forum, a theatre, an amphitheatre – the most conspicuous above-ground remains today, public baths, and an aqueduct. Many inscriptions in both Latin and Greek have been found both inside the walls and in the cemeteries outside, since Romans forbade burials inside the city boundaries, a number of fine marble sarcophagi from those cemeteries are now in the Archaeological Museum of Split. All this archaeological evidence attests to the prosperity and integration into the Roman Empire. Salona had a mint that was connected with the mint in Sirmium, when the Roman Emperor Diocletian retired, he erected a monumental palace nearby. This massive structure, known as Diocletians Palace, became the core of the city of Split. These have made it a site for studying the development of Christian sacred architecture. Salona was largely destroyed in the invasions of the Avars and Slavs in the sixth and seventh centuries CE, refugees from Salona settled inside the remains of Diocletians Palace. The construction of the Salonitan city walls took several centuries, the earliest part of the city was surrounded by walls as early as the second century BC. During the Pax Romana the city expanded to both east and west, during the reign of Emperor Marcus Aurelius around 170 A. D. under constant threat of Germanic tribes the east and west suburbs were included in the walls which were fortified with at least 90 towers. Some parts of existing buildings were used in the extensions to the walls making them an integral part. Total circumference of the shape of the walls was approximately 4 km. During the reign of Emperor Theodosius II in the fifth century all the towers were reconstructed. Furthermore, in the first half of the century, in order to improve citys security and defence system
Salona
–
The ruins of Salona
Salona
–
Salona - amphitheatre
