1.
Dakota War of 1862
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It began on August 17,1862, along the Minnesota River in southwest Minnesota. It ended with an execution of 38 Dakota men on December 26,1862, in Mankato. Throughout the late 1850s, treaty violations by the United States and late or unfair annuity payments by Indian agents caused increasing hunger, traders with the Dakota previously had demanded that the government give the annuity payments directly to them. In mid-1862, the Dakota demanded the annuities directly from their agent, the traders refused to provide any more supplies on credit under those conditions, and negotiations reached an impasse. On August 17,1862, one young Dakota with a party of three others killed five settlers while on a hunting expedition. That night a council of Dakota decided to attack throughout the Minnesota River valley to try to drive whites out of the area. There has never been a report on the number of settlers killed, although in Abraham Lincolns second annual address, he noted that not less than 800 men, women. Over the next months, continued battles pitting the Dakota against settlers and later. By late December 1862, soldiers had taken more than a thousand Dakota. After trials and sentencing,38 Dakota were hanged on December 26,1862, in April 1863, the rest of the Dakota were expelled from Minnesota to Nebraska and South Dakota. The United States Congress abolished their reservations. S, in exchange for promises of money and goods. From that time on, the Dakota were to live on a 20-mile wide Indian reservation centered on a 150 mile stretch of the upper Minnesota River, however, the United States Senate deleted Article 3 of each treaty, which set out reservations, during the ratification process. Much of the promised compensation never arrived, was lost, or was effectively stolen due to corruption in the Bureau of Indian Affairs, also, annuity payments guaranteed to the Dakota often were provided directly to traders instead. When Minnesota became a state on May 11,1858, representatives of several Dakota bands led by Little Crow traveled to Washington, D. C. to negotiate about enforcing existing treaties. The northern half of the reservation along the Minnesota River was lost and this was a major blow to the standing of Little Crow in the Dakota community. The land was divided into townships and plots for settlement, logging and agriculture on these plots eliminated surrounding forests and prairies, which interrupted the Dakotas annual cycle of farming, hunting, fishing and gathering wild rice. Hunting by settlers dramatically reduced wild game, such as bison, elk, whitetail deer, not only did this decrease the meat available for the Dakota in southern and western Minnesota, but it directly reduced their ability to sell furs to traders for additional supplies. Although payments were guaranteed, the US government was often behind or failed to pay because of Federal preoccupation with the American Civil War, most land in the river valley was not arable, and hunting could no longer support the Dakota community
2.
New Ulm, Minnesota
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New Ulm is a city in Brown County, Minnesota, United States. The population was 13,522 at the 2010 census and it is the county seat of Brown County. New Ulm is the see of the Roman Catholic Diocese of New Ulm. U. S. Highway 14 and Minnesota State Highways 15 and 68 are three of the routes in the city. The city was founded in 1854 by the German Land Company of Chicago, the city was named after the city of Neu-Ulm in the state of Bavaria in southern Germany. Ulm and Neu-Ulm are sister cities, with Ulm being situated on the Baden-Württemberg side, in part due to the citys German heritage, it is a center for brewing in the Upper Midwest, home to the August Schell Brewing Company. In 1856, the Settlement Association of the Socialist Turner Society helped to secure the citys future. The Turners originated in Germany in the first half of the century, promoted with the slogan. Following the Revolutions of 1848, substantial numbers of Germans emigrated to the United States, following a series of attacks by nativist mobs in major cities such as Chicago, Cincinnati, and Louisville, a national convention of Turners authorized the formation of a colony on the frontier. Intending to begin a community that expressed Turner ideals, the Settlement Association joined the Chicago Germans who had struggled here due to a lack of capital, the Turners supplied that, as well as hundreds of colonizers from the east who arrived in 1856. As a representation of Turner ideals, the city plan reflected those values, the German Land Company hired Christian Prignitz to complete a new plan for New Ulm, filed in April 1858. This master plan for New Ulm expressed a vision of the city’s future. At the heart of the community stood blocks reserved for Turner Hall, the county courthouse, and a school, representing the political, social. The westernmost avenues were named after American heroes George Washington, Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, members obtained the means to support themselves — in harmony with nature — through the distribution of four-acre garden lots located outside of the residential area. Historian Dennis Gimmestad wrote, “The founders’ goals created a community persona that sets New Ulm apart from the Minnesota towns founded by speculators or railroad companies. The New Ulm founders aspired to establish a town with a philosophical, economic, and social character. ”In the Dakota War of 1862. Retreating behind barricades that protected the city center, local citizens fought back, much of the town outside the barricades was burned. On July 15,1881, New Ulm was struck by a tornado that killed 6
3.
Brown County, Minnesota
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Brown County is a county located in the U. S. state of Minnesota. As of the 2010 census, the population was 25,893 and its county seat is New Ulm. The county was formed in 1855 and organized in 1856, Brown County comprises the New Ulm, MN Metropolitan Statistical Area and is included in the Mankato-New Ulm-North Mankato, MN Combined Statistical Area. Brown County was founded in 1855 and it was named for Joseph Renshaw Brown, a member of the Governors Council of Minnesota in 1855. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 618 square miles. The Minnesota River flows along the northern boundary, two of its tributaries, the Cottonwood and Little Cottonwood Rivers, flow eastwardly through the county. S. Average monthly precipitation ranged from 0.64 inches in January to 4.82 inches in June, as of the census of 2000, there were 26,911 people,10,598 households, and 7,164 families residing in the county. The population density was 44 people per square mile, there were 11,163 housing units at an average density of 18 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 97. 82% White,0. 10% Black or African American,0. 12% Native American,0. 41% Asian,0. 01% Pacific Islander,0. 91% from other races, and 0. 63% from two or more races. 2. 03% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race,67. 1% were of German and 9. 6% Norwegian ancestry. 29. 00% of all households were made up of individuals and 14. 30% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.43 and the average family size was 3.00. In the county, the population was out with 25. 30% under the age of 18,9. 70% from 18 to 24,25. 60% from 25 to 44,21. 90% from 45 to 64. The median age was 38 years, for every 100 females there were 98.20 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 95.90 males, the median income for a household in the county was $39,800, and the median income for a family was $49,811. Males had an income of $32,347 versus $23,918 for females. The per capita income for the county was $19,535, about 4. 40% of families and 6. 40% of the population were below the poverty line, including 7. 00% of those under age 18 and 9. 80% of those age 65 or over. Indianapolis, IN, B. F. Bowen and Co.1916, Brown County official website City of New Ulm
4.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
5.
Lakota people
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They speak the Lakota language, the westernmost of the three Siouan language groups, occupying lands in both North and South Dakota. Siouan language speakers may have originated in the lower Mississippi River region and they were agriculturalists and may have been part of the Mound Builder civilization during the 9th–12th centuries CE. In the late 16th and early 17th centuries, Dakota-Lakota speakers lived in the upper Mississippi Region in present-day Minnesota, Wisconsin, Iowa, conflicts with Anishnaabe and Cree peoples pushed the Lakota west onto the Great Plains in the mid- to late-17th century. Early Lakota history is recorded in their Winter counts, pictorial calendars painted on hides or later recorded on paper, the Battiste Good winter count records Lakota history back to 900 CE, when White Buffalo Calf Woman gave the Lakota people the White Buffalo Calf Pipe. Around 1730, Cheyenne people introduced the Lakota to horses, called šuŋkawakaŋ, after their adoption of horse culture, Lakota society centered on the buffalo hunt on horseback. The total population of the Sioux was estimated at 28,000 by French explorers in 1660, the Lakota population was first estimated at 8,500 in 1805, growing steadily and reaching 16,110 in 1881. The Lakota were, thus, one of the few Native American tribes to increase in population in the 19th century, the number of Lakota has now increased to more than 170,000, of whom about 2,000 still speak the Lakota language. However, by about 1750 the Saône had moved to the east bank of the Missouri River, followed 10 years later by the Oglála, the large and powerful Arikara, Mandan, and Hidatsa villages had long prevented the Lakota from crossing the Missouri. However, the smallpox epidemic of 1772–1780 destroyed three-quarters of these tribes. The Lakota crossed the river into the drier, short-grass prairies of the High Plains and these newcomers were the Saône, well-mounted and increasingly confident, who spread out quickly. In 1765, a Saône exploring and raiding party led by Chief Standing Bear discovered the Black Hills, ten years later, the Oglála and Brulé also crossed the river. In 1776, the Lakota defeated the Cheyenne, who had taken the region from the Kiowa. The Cheyenne then moved west to the Powder River country, initial United States contact with the Lakota during the Lewis and Clark Expedition of 1804–1806 was marked by a standoff. Lakota bands refused to allow the explorers to continue upstream, and the expedition prepared for battle, some bands of Lakotas became the first Indians to help the United States Army in an Indian war west of the Missiouri during the Arikara War in 1823. In 1843, the southern Lakotas attacked Pawnee Chief Blue Coats village near the Loup in Nebraska, killing many, next time the Lakotas inflicted a blow so severe on the Pawnee would be in 1873, during the Massacre Canyon battle near Republican River. The Cheyenne and Lakota had previously attacked emigrant parties in a competition for resources, the Fort Laramie Treaty acknowledged Lakota sovereignty over the Great Plains in exchange for free passage on the Oregon Trail for as long as the river flows and the eagle flies. The United States government did not enforce the treaty restriction against unauthorized settlement, Lakota and other bands attacked settlers and even emigrant trains, causing public pressure on the U. S. Army to punish the hostiles. On September 3,1855,700 soldiers under American General William S. Harney avenged the Grattan Massacre by attacking a Lakota village in Nebraska, killing about 100 men, women, and children
6.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
7.
Charles Eugene Flandrau
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Charles Eugene Flandrau was an American lawyer who served on the Minnesota Supreme Court. He was also a colonel in the Union Army, Flandrau was born in 1828 in New York City. His father was Thomas Hunt Flandrau of New Rochelle, New York, the Flandraus were descendants of Jacques Flandreau, a Huguenot who came to New Rochelle in the 1690s. Flandrau was educated in Georgetown, then a community in the District of Columbia. Too young to obtain an appointment, he spent three years as a common sailor under other services. In 1844, tiring of the sea, he spent three years in the trade in New York City, after which he rejoined his family at Whitesboro, New York. He passed the bar in 1851 and joined his fathers firm as partner, in 1853, he relocated to Traverse des Sioux, Minnesota to practice law. During the 1850s, he served on the Minnesota Territorial Council, in the Minnesota Constitutional Convention, agent for the Sioux in 1856. It is in honor of his success there that both Flandrau State Park and the community of Flandreau, South Dakota, are so named. In 1864 he resigned both positions and moved to Nevada to practice law, but returned to Minneapolis within a year to practice law with Isaac Atwater. In 1867, he was the Democratic candidate for governor but was defeated by William Rainey Marshall, in 1869 he ran for chief justice of the Minnesota Supreme Court, but was again defeated. In 1870 he moved to St. Paul where he began a partnership with Horace R. Bigelow. His first marriage was on August 10,1859 to Isabella Dinsmore of Kentucky and she died in 1867, leaving two daughters, Martha Macomb Flandrau and Sarah Gibson Flandrau. Martha Macomb Flandrau married Tilden Russell Selmes, and their daughter, Isabella Selmes was the first female congresswoman from Arizona, Flandraus second wife was the widow Rebecca B. Riddle, daughter of Judge William McClure of Pittsburgh, grace Flandrau left money in her will to a variety of institutions, including the University of Arizona, which named Flandrau Science Center for her. The History of Minnesota and Tales of the Frontier Librivox audio Works by Charles Eugene Flandrau at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Charles Eugene Flandrau at Internet Archive
8.
Little Crow
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Little Crow was a chief of the Mdewakanton Dakota people. His given name translates as His Red Nation, but he was known as Little Crow because of his grandfathers name, Čhetáŋ Wakhúwa Máni, Little Crow participated in the Dakota War of 1862, but retreated in September 1862 before the wars conclusion in December 1862. His face is full of intelligence when he is in conversation, Little Crow was shot and killed on July 3,1863 by a settler. Little Crow was born at the Dakota settlement of Kaposia, near what is modern-day South St. Paul and his father died in 1846 after accidentally discharging a gun. By 1849, however, Little Crow was able to control of the tribe. In 1851, the United States negotiated the Treaty of Traverse des Sioux, Little Crow was present at Traverse des Sioux and signed the Mendota treaty, by which the tribes agreed to move to land set aside along the Minnesota River to the west. The treaty as ratified by the United States Senate removed Article 3 of the treaty, the tribe was compelled to negotiate a new treaty, under threat of forcible removal to the Dakota Territory, and was only granted land on one side of the river. Little Crow tried to get along with the customs of the United States and he visited President James Buchanan in Washington, D. C. replaced his native clothing with trousers and jackets with brass buttons, joined the Episcopal Church, and took up farming. However, by 1862, stress built up in his community as cheating by traders came to light, as the tribe grew hungry and as food languished in the warehouses of the traders, Little Crows ability to restrain his people deteriorated. On August 4,1862, about five hundred Dakota broke into food warehouses at the Lower Agency, the agent in charge, Thomas J. Galbraith, ordered defending troops not to shoot and called for a council. At the conference, Little Crow pointed out that the Dakota were owed the money to buy the food and warned that When men are hungry, they help themselves. The representative of the traders, Andrew Myrick, replied, So far as I am concerned, within weeks, on August 17,1862, a band of Dakota crossed paths with a group of white civilian settlers. The Dakota killed 5 of the civilians and mutilated their bodies. The tribes need for food and hatred for the settlers led to the Dakota War of 1862. Little Crow agreed to lead the tribes through the conflict, even though he knew the whites could ultimately send larger numbers of troops into the conflict than his people could counter. The Dakota first attacked the Lower Sioux agency, they scalped Myrick, however, two attacks on Fort Ridgely were thwarted by an outnumbered collection of soldiers and civilians who skillfully used the forts cannon to drive the attackers off. Little Crow was wounded by fire in the second attack on Fort Ridgely which kept him from participating in the attack on New Ulm. New Ulm was attacked twice, however a collection of settlers and volunteers managed to stave off both attacks despite being outnumbered and poorly armed, attacks on Forest City, Hutchinson, and Fort Abercrombie were also repulsed
9.
Big Eagle
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Big Eagle was the leader of a band of Mdewakanton Dakota Sioux in Minnesota. In 1862 he and his band joined Taoyateduta and took part in a Sioux uprising, waŋbdí Tháŋka, also known as Jerome Big Eagle, was born in 1827 at Black Dog village, in present-day Eagan, Minnesota. He succeeded his father, Máza Ȟóta in 1857 and he along with the other chiefs and headmen went to Washington in 1858 on treaty business. In the spring of 1862, Wamditanka, Little Crow and Traveling Hail were candidates for Speaker of the Mdewakanton tribe which Traveling Hail won, Big Eagle lead his band at the second battles of New Ulm and Fort Ridgely and also Birch Coulee and Wood Lake. The photograph of Big Eagle was taken in Davenport during the summer of 1864. W. W. Hathaway, then the assistant commissary at Camp Kearney described the circumstances of making the File, I was also a friend of Big Eagle. An amusing incident arose during the summer when I tried to get a photograph of the old chief. There was a mulatto named Jack confined with the Natives and he conspired with me to get the old brave to sit for a picture. ”Everything went well until we neared the place when Big Eagle began to remove his finery. We asked him what the trouble was and he said he would not pose unless we paid him $15. Despite his death sentence, and his importance, President Lincoln pardoned Big Eagle in November 1864 and he was ordered released on December 3 The History of Carroll County. Big Eagle, later known as Jerome Big Eagle, narrated his account of the Dakota War in, A Sioux Story of the War, Collections of the Minnesota Historical Society 6, 382-400. Famous Native American Chiefs from www. axel-jacob. de, accessed on February 3,2006 A Sioux Story of the War, Big Eagles 1894 interview in the St. Paul Pioneer Press
United States