1.
Geographic region
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In geography, regions are areas that are broadly divided by physical characteristics, human impact characteristics, and the interaction of humanity and the environment. Apart from the continental regions, there are also hydrospheric and atmospheric regions that cover the oceans. The land and water global regions are divided into subregions geographically bounded by large geological features that influence large-scale ecologies, such as plains and features. As a way of describing spatial areas, the concept of regions is important and widely used among the branches of geography. For example, ecoregion is a used in environmental geography, cultural region in cultural geography, bioregion in biogeography. The field of geography that studies regions themselves is called regional geography, where human geography is concerned, the regions and subregions are described by the discipline of ethnography. A region has its own nature that could not be moved, the first nature is its natural environment. The second nature is its physical elements complex that were built by people in the past, the third nature is its socio-cultural context that could not be replaced by new immigrants. Global regions distinguishable from space, and are clearly distinguished by the two basic terrestrial environments, land and water. However, they have generally recognised as such much earlier by terrestrial cartography because of their impact on human geography. They are divided into largest of land regions, known as continents, there are also significant regions that do not belong to either classification, such as archipelago regions that are littoral regions, or earthquake regions that are defined in geology. Continental regions are based on broad experiences in human history. As such they are conceptual constructs, usually lacking distinct boundaries, oceanic division into maritime regions are used in conjunction with the relationship to the central area of the continent, using directions of the compass. To a large extent, major continental regions are mental constructs created by considering an efficient way to large areas of the continents. For the most part, the images of the world are derived as much from academic studies and they are a matter of collective human knowledge of its own planet and are attempts to better understand their environments. Regional geography is a branch of geography that studies regions of all sizes across the Earth and it has a prevailing descriptive character. The main aim is to understand or define the uniqueness or character of a particular region, attention is paid also to regionalization, which covers the proper techniques of space delimitation into regions. Regional geography is considered as a certain approach to study in geographical sciences
Geographic region
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This article is about the concept of region in geography. For other uses, see
Region (disambiguation).
2.
Montenegro
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Montenegro is a sovereign state in Southeastern Europe. Its capital and largest city is Podgorica, while Cetinje is designated as the Old Royal Capital. In the 9th century, three Slavic principalities were in the territory of Montenegro, Duklja, roughly corresponding to the half, Travunia, the west, and Rascia. In 1042, archon Stefan Vojislav led a revolt that resulted in the independence of Duklja, Duklja reached its zenith under Vojislavs son, Mihailo, and his grandson Bodin. By the 13th century, Zeta had replaced Duklja when referring to the realm. In the late 14th century, southern Montenegro came under the rule of the Balšić noble family, then the Crnojević noble family, large portions fell under the control of the Ottoman Empire from 1496 to 1878. Parts were controlled by Venice and the First French Empire and Austria-Hungary, from 1515 until 1851, the prince-bishops of Cetinje were the rulers. The House of Petrović-Njegoš ruled the country from 1697 to 1918, from 1918, it was a part of Kingdom of Yugoslavia, which was succeeded by SFR Yugoslavia in 1945, FR Yugoslavia in 1992, and subsequently by the state union of Serbia and Montenegro in 2003. On the basis of a referendum held on 21 May 2006. Montenegro is also a candidate negotiating to join the European Union, on 2 December 2015, Montenegro received an official invitation to join NATO, whereby it would be the 29th member country. This invitation was meant to start accession talks. The countrys name in most Western European languages reflects an adaptation of the Venetian Montenegro, many other languages, particularly nearby ones, use their own direct translation of the term black mountain. Examples are the Albanian name for the country, Mali i Zi, the Greek name Μαυροβούνιο, the Chinese name 黑山, all Slavic languages use slight variations on the Montenegrin name Crna Gora, examples include the Czech Černá Hora and the Polish Czarnogóra. Chechen and Ingush people call the country Ӏаьржаламанчоь, the name Crna Gora came to denote the majority of contemporary Montenegro only in the 15th century. The aforementioned region became known as Old Montenegro by the 19th century to distinguish it from the acquired territory of Brda. Its borders have changed little since then, losing Metohija and gaining the Bay of Kotor, the ISO Alpha-2 code for Montenegro is ME and the Alpha-3 Code is MNE. By 1000 BC, a common Illyrian language and culture had spread across much of the Balkans, interaction amongst groups was not always friendly – hill forts were the most common form of settlement – but distinctive Illyrian art forms such as amber and bronze jewellery evolved. In time, the Illyrians established a federation of tribes centred in what is now Macedonia
Montenegro
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Royal family at the proclamation of the Kingdom of Montenegro, King
Nicholas I of Montenegro in the middle
Montenegro
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Flag
Montenegro
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Monument in the Montenegrin capital of
Podgorica, on the Gorica hill, commemorates the partisan struggle during World War II
Montenegro
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Establishment of the Eighth
Yugoslav Partisans Brigade of Montenegro in Berane, on 25 February in 1944
3.
Kotor
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Kotor is a coastal town in Montenegro. It is located in a part of the Gulf of Kotor. The city has a population of 13,510 and is the center of Kotor Municipality. The old Mediterranean port of Kotor is surrounded by fortifications built during the Venetian period and it is located on the Bay of Kotor, one of the most indented parts of the Adriatic Sea. Some have called it the southern-most fjord in Europe, but it is a ria, together with the nearly overhanging limestone cliffs of Orjen and Lovćen, Kotor and its surrounding area form an impressive and picturesque Mediterranean landscape. In recent years, Kotor has seen an increase in tourists. Visitors are attracted both by the beauty of the Gulf of Kotor and by the old town of Kotor. Kotor is part of the World Heritage Site dubbed the Natural and Culturo-Historical Region of Kotor and it is located in a secluded part of the Gulf of Kotor. Kotor has a subtropical climate. Kotor, first mentioned in 168 BC, was settled during Ancient Roman times, Kotor has been fortified since the early Middle Ages, when Emperor Justinian built a fortress above Acruvium in 535, after expelling the Ostrogoths. This town was named as Kotor in 9th century and it is possible that the vase derives from the notion of vassal and possessive adjective cataro. One can not exclude the possibility that the Vasekatro was a refuge and/or settlement of Katars because they have the root of vase Latin term for the noun vase. When, according to Mihajlo Solinjanin, arrived in Risan, announced their intention to raise the fortress in which to be sure. When they learned citizens of the settlement Ascrivium, urged that the planned cost of investing in the construction of a current city, and that combined live as true friends and citizens. These are not accepted by Ascrivians, or later, under the influence of its bishops are agreed to throw the draw, and Draw outbursts in favor of Kotors Bosnians. The city was plundered by the Saracens in 840, Kotor was one of the more influential Dalmatian city-states of romanized Illyrians throughout the Middle Ages, and until the 11th century the Dalmatian language was spoken in Kotor. The city was part of Byzantine Dalmatia in that period, in 1002, the city suffered damage under the occupation of the First Bulgarian Empire, and in the following year it was ceded to Serbia by the Bulgarian Tsar Samuil. It was already an episcopal see, and, in the 13th century, during the Nemanjić dynasty-era, the city was autonomous
Kotor
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Kotor Котор
Kotor
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Flag
Kotor
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Entrance of old town Kotor with sign "What belongs to others we don't want, what is ours we will never surrender."
Kotor
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Venetian fortifications of Kotor
4.
Herceg Novi
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Herceg Novi is a coastal town in Montenegro located at the entrance to the Bay of Kotor and at the foot of Mount Orjen. It is the center of the Herceg Novi Municipality with around 33,000 inhabitants. Herceg Novi was known as Castelnuovo between 1482 and 1797, when it was part of Ottoman Empire and the Albania Veneta of the Republic of Venice and it was a Catholic bishopric and remains a Latin titular see as Novi. Herceg Novi has had a turbulent past, despite being one of the youngest settlements on the Adriatic, a history of varied occupations has created a blend of diverse and picturesque architectural style in the city. The city administration is formed by a coalition of DPS and civic association Izbor, in Montenegrin, the town is known as Herceg Novi or Херцег Нови, in Italian as Castelnuovo, and in Greek as Neòkastron, all meaning new castle. Herceg Novi was founded as a fortress in 1382 by first Bosnian King Stjepan Tvrtko I and was called Sveti Stefan or Castelnuovo, after the death of Tvrtko, Duke Sandalj Hranić of the Herzegovinian Kosačas acquired Castelnuovo. During his reign, Herceg Novi picked up trading salt, when Hranić died, his nephew, Herzog Stjepan Vukčić Kosača, inherited Castelnuovo. Under Stjepan, Castelnuovo expanded and thus became a city, renaming it to Herceg Novi, the Turks conquered Herceg Novi in 1482, and ruled for 200 years, until 1687. However, there was a pause between 1538 and 1539 when it was held by the Spaniards before they were defeated in the Siege of Castelnuovo. Venice gained control of the city and included it into Albania Veneta, on 24 August 1798, Herceg Novi was annexed by Habsburg Austria but was then ceded to Russia as per the Treaty of Pressburg on 26 December 1805. The Russians officially occupied Herceg Novi between 28 February 1806 and 12 August 1807, on 7 July 1807, Herceg Novi was ceded to Napoleon I Bonapartes French Empire as per the Treaty of Tilsit. Official French rule over Herceg Novi began on 12 August 1807, the city was part of Dalmatia until 14 October 1809, when it was annexed to the newly created Illyrian Provinces. Herceg Novi, as well as the rest of the Bay of Kotor, was overtaken by Montenegrin forces in 1813 and it was under control of a temporary government based in Dobrota between 11 September 1813 and 10 June 1814, which was supported by Montenegro. The appearance of Austro-Hungarian forces in 1814 caused the Prince-Bishop of Montenegro to turn over the territory to Austrian administration on 11 June, after Herceg Novi was retaken, as well as the rest of the bay, it became part of the Dalmatian crownland. The bay was under Austro-Hungarian control until 1918, in 1900, the two names ERZEG NOVI and CASTELNUOVO PRESSO CATTARO were used in bilingual cancellations. The Kingdom of Montenegro attempted to retake the Bay of Kotor during World War I, it was bombarded from Lovćen, on 7 November 1918, the Serbian Army entered the bay and were greeted by the people as Slavic liberators. The bay later became a part of the self-proclaimed State of Slovenes, Croats, within a month, this region united with Serbia as part of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, renamed to Yugoslavia in 1929. The bay was a municipality of Dalmatia until it was, like all historic entities and it was incorporated into the Zeta Oblast, from 1929 style Zeta Banate
Herceg Novi
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Herceg Novi
Herceg Novi
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Herceg Novi in 1837
Herceg Novi
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Austrian KK stamp issued in 1867 cancelled Castelnuovo in Dalmazia
Herceg Novi
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Old town gate at night
5.
Tivat
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Tivat is a coastal town in southwest Montenegro, located in the Bay of Kotor. As of 2011, its population was 14,111, Tivat is the centre of Tivat Municipality, which is the smallest municipality by area in Montenegro. In Serbo-Croatian the town is known as Tivat, in Italian and Venetian as Teodo, Tivat is located in the central part of the Bay of Kotor, south of mount Vrmac. The municipality lies south of the town, and has an exit to open sea at the tourist location Pržno inlet near Radovići village to the south. Its central part, where Tivat Airport is located, lies in fertile Grbalj valley, the airport is located near the isthmus of Luštica peninsula, which belongs to the municipality of Herceg Novi for the most part. Its geographical position, climate and natural beauty make it an attractive tourist destination, Boka has captured many writers of travels from England, Germany and France, among them, Padget, Lamb, Fraser, Gilles Verne and Pierre Loti. American Boyd said, ”God made the world in six days, geomorphologically, Tivat is composed of three areas. The first is the hills and peaks of Vrmac, Velji Vrh, water activity formed capes Seljanovo, Pakovo and Račica. The second area is Tivat field, flattened by water activity, the third area is Krtoli with islands – Island of Flowers, St. Marko, and Lady of Mercy which is bordered by Novski bay on the north-west and Grbalj area on the south-east. According to legend, Tivat is derived from Illyrian queen Teuta, Teuta had a residence in Rhizon and a summer residence between the church of St. Rocco in Donja Lastva and Seljanovo. The name could come from the names of old Christian saints. Besides the popular name Theudo, a Latin expression Latus Tiuveti comes from the 16th century, finally, the name could originate from Celtic word touto, town. Archaeological sites attest that the area was inhabited in antiquity, with Greek, tombs and tombstones from the Roman period were discovered in Lastva and Opatovo. Tivat, the youngest town in the Boka area was established on the plateau at the bottom of Vrmac, according to the archives of Kotor, Teude, Theode, and Theudo was used for the settlement in the 14th century. During the Middle Ages the fertile lands of the area belonged mostly to the aristocrats of Cattaro, Prčanj, estates, castles and chalets were there as well as the collective church of St. Anton dating from 1373. Part of this inheritance, which was the property of the wealthy Buća family, is a chalet which today houses Tivats museums. The residence of the metropolitan of the bishopric of Zeta was built from the 13th to the 15th century on the Prevlaka Island, Tivat, known as Teodo in Venetian, was under the Republic of Venice as a part of Albania Veneta from 1420 to 1797. In those centuries Teodo enjoyed economic development that attracted many Serb refugees from Ottoman-held areas, some Venetian-style buildings are still standing today
Tivat
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Tivat Тиват
Tivat
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Lastva - part of Tivat, from the sea
6.
Budva
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Budva is a Montenegrin town on the Adriatic Sea, former bishopric and present Latin Catholic titular see. It has around 14,000 inhabitants, and it is the centre of Budva Municipality, the coastal area around Budva, called the Budva riviera, is the center of Montenegrin tourism, known for its well-preserved medieval walled city, sandy beaches and diverse nightlife. Budva is 2,500 years old, which makes it one of the oldest settlements on the Adriatic coast, in Montenegrin the town is known as Будва or Budva, in Italian and Latin as Budua, in Albanian as Budua and in Greek as Μπούντβα. Extensive archaeological evidence places Budva among the oldest urban settlements of the Adriatic coast, substantial documentary evidence provides historical references dating back to the 5th century BC. A legend recounts that Bouthoe was founded by Cadmus, the founder of Thebes, Greece, Greek colonization of Adriatic began in 4th century BC, when an Emporium was established on the site of Budva. In the 2nd century BC, the area of Budva became part of the Roman Empire, Budva bay was reportedly known as Avarorum sinus during the Avar incursions. In 841, Budva was sacked by Saracens, who devastated the area, in the early Middle Ages, Budva was reigned by a succession of Doclean kings, as well as Serbian and Zetan aristocrats. Circa 1200, it became the see of a Roman Catholic Diocese of Budua, the Venetians ruled the town for nearly 400 years, from 1420 to 1797. Budva, called Budua in those centuries, was part of the Venetian Republic region of Albania Veneta and was fortified by powerful Venetian walls against Ottoman conquests. According to the historian Luigi Paulucci in his book Le Bocche di Cattaro nel 1810, one of the most renowned theater librettists and composers, Cristoforo Ivanovich, was born in Venetian Budua. With the fall of Republic of Venice in 1797, Budva came under the rule of the Habsburg Monarchy, during the Napoleonic Wars, Montenegrin forces allied with Russia took control over the city in 1806, only to relinquish the city to France in 1807. French rule lasted until 1813, when Budva was ceded to the Austrian Empire, a union of Boka Kotorska with Montenegro took place for a brief period, but from 1814 until the end of World War I in 1918, Budva remained under Austria-Hungary. The southernmost fortress in the Austro-Hungarian empire, Fort Kosmač, was constructed nearby to guard the road from Budva to Cetinje, after the war, the Serbian army entered Budva after it was abandoned by Austrian forces and it came under the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. In 1941, with the beginning of World War II, Budva was annexed by the Kingdom of Italy, Budva was finally liberated from Axis rule on 22 November 1944 and incorporated in SR Montenegro, now part of SFR Yugoslavia. A catastrophic earthquake struck Budva on 15 April 1979, much of old town was devastated, but today there is little evidence of the catastrophe – almost all the buildings were restored to their original form. Montenegro became an independent country in 2006, with Budva as its primary tourist destination, the municipal parliament consists of 33 deputies elected directly for a five-year term. Following the last local election held on 16 October 2016, the ruling DPS lost its absolute majority, Budva is the administrative centre of Budva municipality, which includes the neighbouring towns of Bečići and Petrovac, and has a population of 19,218. The town itself has 13,338 inhabitants, ethnicity in 2011,9,262 Montenegrins 7,247 Serbs 210 Russians 167 Croats 2,332 Others The Old Town of Budva is situated on a rocky peninsula, on the southern end of Budva field
Budva
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Panorama of Budva
Budva
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The Old town in 1615.
Budva
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The Venetian walls of Budua (Budva) in a 1900 postcard
Budva
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Churches in Old Town
7.
Risan
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Risan is a town in the Bay of Kotor, Montenegro. It traces its origins to the ancient settlement of Rhizon, the oldest settlement in the Bay of Kotor, the earliest mention of Rhizon dates back to the 4th century BCE, as the main fortress in the Illyrian state where Queen Teuta took refuge during the Illyrian Wars. The degree of Hellenization at Rhizon was very high, five mosaics are the most valuable remains of that period - not only for Risan but also for Montenegro. Circa 500 it became the see of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Risano, the invasions of the Avars and Slavs left the city deserted. The last reference of a Roman bishop in Risan dates back to 595, in the 10th century, the Byzantine emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus includes Risan among the inhabited towns of Travunia, while the priest of Doclea considers Rissena to be a district. During the Middle Ages, Risan lost the significance it used to have in the ancient times, no later then the 13th century, the Italians provided the bulk of a henceforward unbroken series of Latin Catholic Bishops of Risano until its suppression circa 1630. In the mid-15th century, Risan was referred to as a town of Herceg Stjepan, in 1466, the Venetians offered to give Brač island and a palace in Split to Herceg Stjepan, in exchange for his two towns in the Boka Kotorska. Only in 1688 Risan became Venetian as part of the Albania Veneta with the Venetian name of Risano, in the following centuries Risan has had the same fate as the whole of Dalmatia. It was for a few years during World War II part of the Kingdom of Italy in the Italian Governatorate of Dalmatia, according to the 1627 population census, Risan had 800 citizens. 570 were Muslims,150 Orthodox and 80 Catholic, in the present-day Risan, there are no elements that could connect it to the medieval town. Risan by the sea was probably just a settlement, however, on the Gradina hill, above the famous archeological site of Carine, a fortification is situated containing remains of an Illyrian acropolis, as well as the medieval and Turkish stratum. The position of the fortification was excellent, particularly for the control of Risan – Onogošt route, today Risan is a small port with roughly 2000 inhabitants where logs from the vast virgin forests of the Bijela gora are shipped mostly to Italy. Risan is a tourist destination that has a hotel called after its most famous citizen, Queen Teuta, with accompanying fine beaches
Risan
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Risan Рисан
Risan
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Roman mosaics in Risan
Risan
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UNESCO World Heritage Site
8.
Perast
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Perast is an old town on the Bay of Kotor in Montenegro. It is situated a few kilometres northwest of Kotor and is noted for its proximity to the islets of St. George and Our Lady of the Rocks. Perast lies beneath the hill of St. Ilija, on a cape that separates the Bay of Risano from that of Kotor, and overlooks the Verige strait, the average yearly temperature in Perast is 18. 3°C, and the number of sunny days is 240. Near Perast there are two islets, one is called Sveti Đorđe and the other Gospa od Škrpjela, and each has a picturesque chapel, throughout the centuries, many empires battled for control of the city. In the 10th century, it was a city of the Byzantine Empire. From 1186 to 1371, it was a city of medieval Serbia. French occupation from 1807 to 1814 was followed by Austrian rule until 1918, the citys sixteen Baroque palaces were mostly built in this period, as were its seventeen Catholic churches and two Orthodox churches. The old city does not have a wall, but instead it has nine defensive towers. These were built by the navy of the Venetian Republic in the 15th and 16th centuries, the prominent Montenegrin Baroque poet and theologian Andrija Zmajević was a native of Perast. On 15 April 1654 an Ottoman force from Herzegovina under the leadership of Mehmed-pasa Rizvanbegović assaulted Perast, Andrija wrote a poem Boj peraški dedicated to celebrating this event. Some half a century ago the last remaining copy of work was lost. Perast was at its peak in the 18th century under the Venetian Republic, when it had as many as four active shipyards, a fleet of one hundred ships. The 1500 citizens of Perast were allowed to trade with large ships and to sell goods without tax on the Venetian market, near Perast are two small islands. St George with its church from the 12th century and the artificial island Gospa od Skrpjela with a very interesting legend. Right in front of Perast there are two small islands, the St George island with its small church from the 12th century and the artificial island Our Lady of Skrpjela with a legend surrounding it. Perast had the privilege to use the war-flag of the Venetian Navy in peacetime, at the fall of the Serenissima Perasto was the last city of the Republic to lower the Venetian flag. After 1945, Perast was restored to Yugoslavia, and it is part of the Republic of Montenegro since 2006. pl Perast Attractions http, //www. gomontenegro. co. uk/#/perast/4569945328
Perast
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Perast Пераст
Perast
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“LA FEDELISSIMA GONFALONIERA” The loyal standard-bearers of Perast were a Venetian Militia. 8 were killed in the victorious
Battle of Lepanto
Perast
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St Nicholas church in Perast.
Perast
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St. George island.
9.
World Heritage Site
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A World Heritage Site is a landmark which has been officially recognized by the United Nations, specifically by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Sites are selected on the basis of having cultural, historical, scientific or some form of significance. UNESCO regards these sites as being important to the interests of humanity. The programme catalogues, names, and conserves sites of outstanding cultural or natural importance to the common culture, under certain conditions, listed sites can obtain funds from the World Heritage Fund. The program was founded with the Convention Concerning the Protection of the Worlds Cultural and Natural Heritage, since then,192 state parties have ratified the convention, making it one of the most adhered to international instruments. As of July 2016,1052 sites are listed,814 cultural,203 natural, in 1959, the governments of Egypt and Sudan requested UNESCO to assist their countries to protect and rescue the endangered monuments and sites. In 1960, the Director-General of UNESCO launched an appeal to the Member States for an International Campaign to Save the Monuments of Nubia, the campaign, which ended in 1980, was considered a success. The project cost $80 million, about $40 million of which was collected from 50 countries, the projects success led to other safeguarding campaigns, saving Venice and its lagoon in Italy, the ruins of Mohenjo-daro in Pakistan, and the Borobodur Temple Compounds in Indonesia. UNESCO then initiated, with the International Council on Monuments and Sites, the United States initiated the idea of cultural conservation with nature conservation. The International Union for Conservation of Nature developed similar proposals in 1968, the Convention came into force on 17 December 1975. As of June 2016, it has been ratified by 192 states, including 188 UN member states plus the Cook Islands, the Holy See, Niue, a country must first list its significant cultural and natural sites, the result is called the Tentative List. A country may not nominate sites that have not been first included on the Tentative List, next, it can place sites selected from that list into a Nomination File. The Nomination File is evaluated by the International Council on Monuments and Sites and these bodies then make their recommendations to the World Heritage Committee. There are ten selection criteria – a site must meet at least one of them to be included on the list, up to 2004, there were six criteria for cultural heritage and four criteria for natural heritage. In 2005, this was modified so there is now only one set of ten criteria. Nominated sites must be of outstanding value and meet at least one of the ten criteria. Thus, the Geneva Convention treaty promulgates, Article 53, PROTECTION OF CULTURAL OBJECTS AND OF PLACES OF WORSHIP. There are 1,052 World Heritage Sites located in 165 States Party, of these,814 are cultural,203 are natural and 35 are mixed properties
World Heritage Site
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Site #252:
Taj Mahal, an example of cultural heritage site
World Heritage Site
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Logo of the
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
World Heritage Committee
World Heritage Site
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Site #156:
Serengeti National Park, an example of natural heritage site
World Heritage Site
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Site #274:
Historic Sanctuary of Machu Picchu, an example of mixed heritage site
10.
Serbian language
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Serbian is the standardized variety of the Serbo-Croatian language mainly used by Serbs. It is the language of Serbia and one of the three official languages of Bosnia and Herzegovina. In addition, it is a minority language in Montenegro, Croatia, Macedonia, Romania, Hungary, Slovakia. Standard Serbian is based on the most widespread dialect of Serbo-Croatian, Shtokavian, which is also the basis of Standard Croatian, Bosnian, the other dialect spoken by Serbs is Torlakian in southeastern Serbia, which is transitional to Macedonian and Bulgarian. Serbian is practically the only European standard language with complete synchronic digraphia, the Serbian Cyrillic alphabet was devised in 1814 by Serbian linguist Vuk Karadžić, who created the alphabet on phonemic principles. The Latin alphabet was designed by Croatian linguist Ljudevit Gaj in 1830, Serbian is a standardized variety of Serbo-Croatian, a Slavic language, of the South Slavic subgroup. Other standardized forms of Serbo-Croatian are Bosnian, Croatian, and Montenegrin and it has lower intelligibility with the Eastern South Slavic languages Bulgarian and Macedonian, than with Slovene. The 2011 census show that 42. 88% still declare Serbian to be their native language, Standard Serbian language uses both Cyrillic and Latin script. Even in official government documents this constitutional requirement is rarely enforced, Serbian is a rare example of synchronic digraphia, a situation where all literate members of a society have two interchangeable writing systems available to them. Media and publishers typically select one alphabet or another, for example, the public broadcaster, Radio Television of Serbia, predominantly uses the Cyrillic script whereas the privately run broadcasters, like RTV Pink, predominantly use the Latin script. A survey from 2014 showed that 47% of the Serbian population favors the Latin alphabet whereas 36% favors the Cyrillic one and these are the tenses of the indicative mood. Apart from the mood, there is also the imperative mood. The conditional mood has two more tenses, the first conditional and the second conditional, Serbian has active and passive voice. As for the verb forms, Serbian has one infinitive. Most Serbian words are of native Slavic lexical stock, tracing back to the Proto-Slavic language, there are many loanwords from different languages, reflecting cultural interaction throughout history. Notable loanwords were borrowed from Greek, Latin, Italian, Turkish, Hungarian, Russian, Serbian literature emerged in the Middle Ages, and included such works as Miroslavljevo jevanđelje in 1192 and Dušanov zakonik in 1349. In the mid-15th century, Serbia was conquered by the Ottoman Empire, however, some of the greatest literary works in Serbian come from this time, in the form of oral literature, the most notable form being Serbian epic poetry. The epic poems were written down in the 19th century, and preserved in oral tradition up to the 1950s
Serbian language
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Serbian language as co-official minority language in municipalities in Croatia
Serbian language
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Countries where Serbian is an official language.
11.
Italian language
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By most measures, Italian, together with Sardinian, is the closest to Latin of the Romance languages. Italian is a language in Italy, Switzerland, San Marino, Vatican City. Italian is spoken by minorities in places such as France, Montenegro, Bosnia & Herzegovina, Crimea and Tunisia and by large expatriate communities in the Americas. Many speakers are native bilinguals of both standardized Italian and other regional languages, Italian is the fourth most studied language in the world. Italian is a major European language, being one of the languages of the Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe. It is the third most widely spoken first language in the European Union with 65 million native speakers, including Italian speakers in non-EU European countries and on other continents, the total number of speakers is around 85 million. Italian is the working language of the Holy See, serving as the lingua franca in the Roman Catholic hierarchy as well as the official language of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta. Italian is known as the language of music because of its use in musical terminology and its influence is also widespread in the arts and in the luxury goods market. Italian has been reported as the fourth or fifth most frequently taught foreign language in the world, Italian was adopted by the state after the Unification of Italy, having previously been a literary language based on Tuscan as spoken mostly by the upper class of Florentine society. Its development was influenced by other Italian languages and to some minor extent. Its vowels are the second-closest to Latin after Sardinian, unlike most other Romance languages, Italian retains Latins contrast between short and long consonants. As in most Romance languages, stress is distinctive, however, Italian as a language used in Italy and some surrounding regions has a longer history. What would come to be thought of as Italian was first formalized in the early 14th century through the works of Tuscan writer Dante Alighieri, written in his native Florentine. Dante is still credited with standardizing the Italian language, and thus the dialect of Florence became the basis for what would become the language of Italy. Italian was also one of the recognised languages in the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Italy has always had a dialect for each city, because the cities. Those dialects now have considerable variety, as Tuscan-derived Italian came to be used throughout Italy, features of local speech were naturally adopted, producing various versions of Regional Italian. Even in the case of Northern Italian languages, however, scholars are not to overstate the effects of outsiders on the natural indigenous developments of the languages
Italian language
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Dante Alighieri (above) and
Petrarch (below) were influential in establishing their
Tuscan dialect as the most prominent literary language in all of
Italy in the
Late Middle Ages
Italian language
–
The geographic distribution of the Italian language in the world: large Italian-speaking communities are shown in green; light blue indicates areas where the Italian language was used officially during the Italian colonial period.
Italian language
Italian language
–
Pietro Bembo was an influential figure in the development of the Italian language from the Tuscan dialect, as a literary medium, codifying the language for standard modern usage
12.
Headlands and bays
–
Headlands and bays are two related coastal features. Headlands and bays are found on the same coastline. A bay is a body of water, either seawater or fresh water, headlands are characterized by high, breaking waves, rocky shores, intense erosion, and steep sea cliffs. Bays generally have less activity, and often less wind activity than the areas of water outside the bay. Headlands and bays form on discordant coastlines, where the land consists of bands of rock of alternating resistance run perpendicular to the coast. Refraction of waves occurs on headlands concentrating wave energy on them, so many other landforms, such as caves, natural arches, and stacks, form on headlands. Wave energy is directed at angles to the wave crest. Orthogonals converge on headlands and diverge in bays, which concentrates wave energy on the headlands, in the formation of sea cliffs, wave erosion undercuts the slopes at the shoreline, which retreat landward. This increases the stress in the cliff-forming material and accelerates mass movement. The debris from these landslides collects at the base of the cliff and is removed by the waves, usually during storms. This debris provides sediment, which is transported through longshore current for the nearby bay, joints in the headlands are eroded back to form caves, which erode further to form arches. These gaps eventually collapse and leave tall stacks at the ends of the headlands, eventually these too are eroded by the waves. Wave refraction disperses wave energy through the bay, and along with the effect of the headlands this protects bays from storms. This effect means that the waves reaching the shore in a bay are weaker than the waves reaching the headland, through the deposition of sediment within the bay and the erosion of the headlands, coastlines eventually straighten out. But then the process starts all over again. Beaches are dynamic geologic features that can fluctuate between advancement and retreat of sediment, the natural agents of fluctuation include waves, tides, currents, and winds. Man-made elements such as the interruption of sediment supply, such as a dam, a headland bay beach can be classified as being in three different states of sedimentation. Static equilibrium refers to a beach that is stable and does not experience littoral drift or sediment deposition or erosion, waves generally diffract around the headland and near the beach when the beach is in a state of static equilibrium
Headlands and bays
–
Looking towards the
Beachy Head cliffs and bay
Headlands and bays
13.
Adriatic Sea
–
The Adriatic Sea /ˌeɪdriˈætᵻk/ is a body of water separating the Italian Peninsula from the Balkan peninsula and the Apennine Mountains from the Dinaric Alps and adjacent ranges. The Adriatic is the northernmost arm of the Mediterranean Sea, extending from the Strait of Otranto to the northwest, the countries with coasts on the Adriatic are Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Greece, Italy, Montenegro and Slovenia. The Adriatic contains over 1,300 islands, mostly located along its eastern, Croatian and it is divided into three basins, the northern being the shallowest and the southern being the deepest, with a maximum depth of 1,233 metres. The Otranto Sill, a ridge, is located at the border between the Adriatic and Ionian Seas. The prevailing currents flow counterclockwise from the Strait of Otranto, along the eastern coast, tidal movements in the Adriatic are slight, although larger amplitudes are known to occur occasionally. The Adriatics salinity is lower than the Mediterraneans because the Adriatic collects a third of the water flowing into the Mediterranean. The surface water temperatures range from 30 °C in summer to 12 °C in winter. The Adriatic Sea sits on the Apulian or Adriatic Microplate, which separated from the African Plate in the Mesozoic era, the plates movement contributed to the formation of the surrounding mountain chains and Apennine tectonic uplift after its collision with the Eurasian plate. In the Late Oligocene, the Apennine Peninsula first formed, separating the Adriatic Basin from the rest of the Mediterranean, all types of sediment are found in the Adriatic, with the bulk of the material transported by the Po and other rivers on the western coast. The western coast is alluvial or terraced, while the eastern coast is indented with pronounced karstification. There are dozens of protected areas in the Adriatic, designed to protect the seas karst habitats. The sea is abundant in flora and fauna—more than 7,000 species are identified as native to the Adriatic, many of them endemic, rare and threatened ones. The Adriatics shores are populated by more than 3.5 million people, the earliest settlements on the Adriatic shores were Etruscan, Illyrian, and Greek. By the 2nd century BC, the shores were under Romes control, following Italian unification, the Kingdom of Italy started an eastward expansion that lasted until the 20th century. Following World War I and the collapse of Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire, the former disintegrated during the 1990s, resulting in four new states on the Adriatic coast. Italy and Albania agreed on their maritime boundary in 1992, Fisheries and tourism are significant sources of income all along the Adriatic coast. Adriatic Croatias tourism industry has grown faster economically than the rest of the Adriatic Basins, maritime transport is also a significant branch of the areas economy—there are 19 seaports in the Adriatic that each handle more than a million tonnes of cargo per year. The largest Adriatic seaport by annual cargo turnover is the Port of Trieste, in the southeast, the Adriatic Sea connects to the Ionian Sea at the 72-kilometre wide Strait of Otranto
Adriatic Sea
–
Bay of Kotor, a
ria in the Southern Adriatic
Adriatic Sea
–
Map of the Adriatic Sea
Adriatic Sea
–
Adriatic islands off
Croatia 's coast
Adriatic Sea
–
A
submarine spring near
Omiš, observed through sea surface rippling
14.
Natural and Culturo-Historical Region of Kotor
–
The Natural and Culturo-Historical Region of Kotor is a World Heritage Site located in Montenegro that was inscribed in 1979. It encompasses the old town of Kotor, the fortifications of Kotor, the old town of Kotor is contained within the city walls and a well preserved and restored medieval cityscape with notable buildings including the Cathedral of Saint Tryphon. Kotor was heavily damaged during the earthquake on April 15,1979, after significant rehabilitation within the town, the site was taken off this list in 2003. The fortifications consist of a system of military buildings to protect the medieval town of Kotor. They include the city walls with gates and bastions, ramparts that ascend the mountain of St. John, the castle of St. John, and supportive structures. While some of the date back to Roman and Byzantine times, most of the fortifications were erected during the Venetian rule. The fortifications are the most significant aspect of the World Heritage site, the region that is included in the heritage is the inner bay of Kotor with its surrounding mountains and towns, notably Risan and Perast in addition to Kotor. Further the islets of St. George and Our Lady of the Rocks are part of the heritage site, in 1979, when the site was inscribed it was also placed on the List in Danger due to earthquake damage. Due to concerted international efforts much of this, specifically concerning the city of Kotor, has been mitigated, in 2003 the site could be taken off the danger list. The heritage site faces challenges in a number of ways, Natural dangers such as erosion and earthquakes will always remain a threat. More acute, however, is the impact of human activity, thus some urban development has been noted to be incongruent with the goals of preservation
Natural and Culturo-Historical Region of Kotor
–
UNESCO World Heritage Site
15.
Eastern Orthodoxy
–
The Eastern Orthodox Church teaches that it is the One, Holy, Catholic and Apostolic Church established by Jesus Christ in his Great Commission to the apostles. It practices what it understands to be the original Christian faith, the Eastern Orthodox Church is a communion of autocephalous churches, each typically governed by a Holy Synod. It teaches that all bishops are equal by virtue of their ordination, prior to the Council of Chalcedon in AD451, the Eastern Orthodox had also shared communion with the Oriental Orthodox churches, separating primarily over differences in Christology. Eastern Orthodoxy spread throughout the Roman and later Eastern Roman Empires and beyond, playing a prominent role in European, Near Eastern, Slavic, and some African cultures. As a result, the term Greek Orthodox has sometimes used to describe all of Eastern Orthodoxy in general. However, the appellation Greek was never in use and was gradually abandoned by the non-Greek-speaking Eastern Orthodox churches. Its most prominent episcopal see is Constantinople, there are also many in other parts of the world, formed through immigration, conversion and missionary activity. The official name of the Eastern Orthodox Church is the Orthodox Catholic Church and it is the name by which the church refers to itself in its liturgical or canonical texts, in official publications, and in official contexts or administrative documents. Orthodox teachers refer to the Church as Catholic and this name and longer variants containing Catholic are also recognized and referenced in other books and publications by secular or non-Orthodox writers. The common name of the Church, Eastern Orthodox Church, is a shortened practicality that helps to avoid confusions in casual use, for this reason, the eastern churches were sometimes identified as Greek, even before the great schism. After 1054, Greek Orthodox or Greek Catholic marked a church as being in communion with Constantinople and this identification with Greek, however, became increasingly confusing with time. Missionaries brought Orthodoxy to many regions without ethnic Greeks, where the Greek language was not spoken. Today, many of those same Roman churches remain, while a large number of Orthodox are not of Greek national origin. Eastern, then, indicates the element in the Churchs origin and development, while Orthodox indicates the faith. While the Church continues officially to call itself Catholic, for reasons of universality, the first known use of the phrase the catholic church occurred in a letter written about 110 AD from one Greek church to another. Quote of St Ignatius to the Smyrnaeans, Wheresoever the bishop shall appear, there let the people be, even as where Jesus may be, thus, almost from the very beginning, Christians referred to the Church as the One, Holy, Catholic and Apostolic Church. The Orthodox Church claims that it is today the continuation and preservation of that same Church, a number of other Christian churches also make a similar claim, the Roman Catholic Church, the Anglican Communion, the Assyrian Church and the Oriental Orthodox Churches. The Church of England separated from the Roman Catholic Church, not directly from the Orthodox Church, the depth of this meaning in the Orthodox Church is registered first in its use of the word Orthodox itself, a union of Greek orthos and doxa
Eastern Orthodoxy
–
Orthodox liturgy
Eastern Orthodoxy
–
An
icon of
John the Baptist, 14th century, Macedonia
16.
Roman Catholicism
–
The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church or the Universal Church, is the largest Christian church, with more than 1.28 billion members worldwide. As one of the oldest religious institutions in the world, it has played a prominent role in the history, headed by the Bishop of Rome, known as the Pope, the churchs doctrines are summarised in the Nicene Creed and the Apostles Creed. Its central administration is located in Vatican City, enclaved within Rome, the Catholic Church is notable within Western Christianity for its sacred tradition and seven sacraments. It teaches that it is the one church founded by Jesus Christ, that its bishops are the successors of Christs apostles. The Catholic Church maintains that the doctrine on faith and morals that it declares as definitive is infallible. The Latin Church, the Eastern Catholic Churches, as well as such as mendicant orders and enclosed monastic orders. Among the sacraments, the one is the Eucharist, celebrated liturgically in the Mass. The church teaches that through consecration by a priest the sacrificial bread and wine become the body, the Catholic Church practises closed communion, with only baptised members in a state of grace ordinarily permitted to receive the Eucharist. The Virgin Mary is venerated in the Catholic Church as Queen of Heaven and is honoured in numerous Marian devotions. The Catholic Church has influenced Western philosophy, science, art and culture, Catholic spiritual teaching includes spreading the Gospel while Catholic social teaching emphasises support for the sick, the poor and the afflicted through the corporal and spiritual works of mercy. The Catholic Church is the largest non-government provider of education and medical services in the world, from the late 20th century, the Catholic Church has been criticised for its doctrines on sexuality, its refusal to ordain women and its handling of sexual abuse cases. Catholic was first used to describe the church in the early 2nd century, the first known use of the phrase the catholic church occurred in the letter from Saint Ignatius of Antioch to the Smyrnaeans, written about 110 AD. In the Catechetical Discourses of Saint Cyril of Jerusalem, the name Catholic Church was used to distinguish it from other groups that call themselves the church. The use of the adjective Roman to describe the Church as governed especially by the Bishop of Rome became more widespread after the Fall of the Western Roman Empire and into the Early Middle Ages. Catholic Church is the name used in the Catechism of the Catholic Church. The Catholic Church follows an episcopal polity, led by bishops who have received the sacrament of Holy Orders who are given formal jurisdictions of governance within the church. Ultimately leading the entire Catholic Church is the Bishop of Rome, commonly called the pope, in parallel to the diocesan structure are a variety of religious institutes that function autonomously, often subject only to the authority of the pope, though sometimes subject to the local bishop. Most religious institutes only have male or female members but some have both, additionally, lay members aid many liturgical functions during worship services
Roman Catholicism
–
Saint Peter's Basilica,
Vatican City
Roman Catholicism
–
St. Peter's Basilica,
Vatican City
Roman Catholicism
–
Pope Francis, elected in the
papal conclave, 2013
Roman Catholicism
–
Traditional graphic representation of the Trinity: The earliest attested version of the diagram, from a manuscript of
Peter of Poitiers ' writings, c. 1210
17.
Massif
–
In geology, a massif is a section of a planets crust that is demarcated by faults or flexures. In the movement of the crust, a massif tends to retain its structure while being displaced as a whole. The term is used to refer to a group of mountains formed by such a structure. In mountaineering and climbing literature, a massif is frequently used to denote the mass of an individual mountain. The massif is a structural unit of the crust than a tectonic plate and is considered the fourth largest driving force in geomorphology. The word is taken from French, where it is used to refer to a mountain mass or compact group of connected mountains forming an independent portion of a range. One of the most notable European examples of a massif is the Massif Central of the Auvergne region of France, the Face on Mars is an example of an extraterrestrial massif. Massifs may also form such as with the Atlantis Massif
Massif
–
Panoramic view of
Mont Blanc massif, an example of a massif and also the highest summit in the
Alps.
18.
Dinaric Alps
–
The Dinaric Alps or Dinarides is a mountain chain which spans from Italy in the northwest, over Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, Albania to Kosovo in the southeast. They extend for 645 kilometres along the coast of the Adriatic Sea, from the Julian Alps in the northwest down to the Šar-Korab massif, where the mountain direction changes to north-south. The highest mountain of the Dinaric Alps is Mount Triglav, a located in Julian Alps in north west Slovenia. The Dinaric Alps are the fifth most rugged and extensively mountainous area of Europe after the Caucasus Mountains, Alps, Pyrenees and Scandinavian Mountains. They are formed largely of Mesozoic and Cenozoic sedimentary rocks of dolomite, limestone, sand and conglomerates formed by seas and lakes that had once covered the area. During the Alpine earth movements that occurred 50–100 million years ago, immense lateral pressures folded, the Dinarides are named after Mount Dinara, a prominent peak in the center of the mountain range on the border of Croatia and Bosnia. The Mesozoic limestone forms a distinctive region of the Balkans, notable for features such as the Karst. The Quaternary ice ages had relatively little direct influence on the Balkans. No permanent ice caps existed, and there is evidence of extensive glaciation. Only the highest summits of Durmitor, Orjen and Prenj have glacial valleys, however, in the Prokletije, a range on the northern Albanian border that runs east to west, there is evidence of major glaciation. One geological feature of great importance to the landscape of the Dinarides must be considered in more detail. They are hard and slow to erode, and often persist as steep jagged escarpments, through which steep-sided gorges, the partially submerged western Dinaric Alps form the numerous islands and harbors along the Croatian coast. The most extensive example of limestone mountains in Europe are those of the Karst of the Dinaric Alps, here, all the characteristic features are encountered again and again as one travels through this wild and underpopulated country. Limestone is a porous rock, yet very hard and resistant to erosion. Water is the most important corrosive force, dissolving the limestone by chemical action of its natural acidity, as it percolates down through cracks in the limestone it opens up fissures and channels, often of considerable depth, so that whole systems of underground drainage develop. During subsequent millennia these work deeper, leaving in their wake enormous waterless caverns, sinkholes and grottoes and forming underground labyrinths of channels, the roofs of some of these caverns may eventually fall in, to produce great perpendicular-sided gorges, exposing the water to the surface once more. The Dinaric rivers carved many canyons characteristic for Dinaric Alps, only along the Dinaric gorges is communication possible across the Karst, and roads and railways tunnel through precipitous cliffs and traverse narrow ledges above roaring torrents. A number of springs and rivers rise in the Dinaric range, at the same time, the purity of these rocks is such that the rivers are crystal clear, and there is little soil-making residue
Dinaric Alps
–
Orjen at the
Bay of Kotor is the most heavily karstified range of the Dinarides
Dinaric Alps
–
Valbona Pass, northern
Albania
Dinaric Alps
–
Mount
Mučanj, lower Dinarides, western
Serbia
19.
Orjen
–
Orjen is transboundary Dinaric Mediterranean limestone mountain range, that stretches cca 25 km between Bosnia and Herzegovina and Montenegro. Its highest peak is the Orjen Peak, which stands at 1894 m on the border between two countries, the Orjen Peak is the highest peak in the subadriatic Dinarides. The massif of Orjen lies east to south-east of Trebinje in Bosnia and Herzegovina and north-west of Risan in Bay of Kotor. From the town of Risan, situated at the innermost protected part of the bay, at the main summit of Orjen and the surrounding ridges and high plateaux the action of quaternary glaciation is evident. In Ice Age long valley glaciers receded from Orjen to the Bay of Kotor, hollowing U-shaped valleys and cirques in their course. Glaciers also shaped jagged peaks and ridges, glacial and karst type relief combine now in a unique coastal scenery. Elsewhere in the Mediterranean, few places show similar phenomena, with this privileged natural harbour the Bay of Kotor has been settled for millennia. Illyrians and Greeks colonised the coast from 400 BC and established todays ports Risan, due to lack of potable water, the high mountain was never densely populated. Snow patches collected from deep pit holes were used late in the 20th century to provide the few hamlets with water. Mount Orjen is a block mountain lifted up as a horst and thus towering above the lowered Bay of Kotor, with 1894 m difference between the lowest and the highest point, relief energy has a great role in the extremely harsh environment. Precipitation reaches 5000 l per m², amounts typical for tropical rainforests or the eastern Himalayas than the dry Mediterranean, lying at Europes wettest coast, snow easily accumulates on karstic plateaux and as late as June small snow patches continue to lie in shaded places under the summits. Skiing is possible but no relevant infrastructures exist today, Orjen is a more important hiking destination. Three mountain huts provide basic accommodation, Mount Orjen is composed of four high karstic plateaux divided by ridges. Three near parallel ridges collide in Zubački kabao, Orjens culmination point, the ridges are arranged by elevation with the highest to the north screening the Bijela gora plateaux from the Mediterranean coast. The separated plateaux are the Krivošije to the East, Bijela gora to the North, Only few settlements are scattered in surrounding poljes. The poljes of Grahovo, Dragalj, Vrbanj, Krusevica and Grabalj are important for agricultural use, migration circled around Mount Orjen as a major obstacle between the coastal, Herceg Novi and Risan and the interior towns of Grahovo, Trebinje and Niksic. Several dry river valleys are found on Orjen, Only in decades they react as short-living rivers when heavy rain and snow-melt combine. Flooding can be a problem and several poljes are renowned for their long inundation periods, Mediterranean mountains bear no glaciers any more except small snow fields in some shaded cirques of the Taurus range
Orjen
–
Mount Orjen from the North (6 June 2001)
Orjen
–
Broader region of Orjen and Bay of Kotor. 7 August 2001.
Orjen
–
Orjen is located in the South-east Dinaric Alps
Orjen
–
Cirque Borovi do in the north at Bijela gora
20.
Mount Orjen
–
Orjen is transboundary Dinaric Mediterranean limestone mountain range, that stretches cca 25 km between Bosnia and Herzegovina and Montenegro. Its highest peak is the Orjen Peak, which stands at 1894 m on the border between two countries, the Orjen Peak is the highest peak in the subadriatic Dinarides. The massif of Orjen lies east to south-east of Trebinje in Bosnia and Herzegovina and north-west of Risan in Bay of Kotor. From the town of Risan, situated at the innermost protected part of the bay, at the main summit of Orjen and the surrounding ridges and high plateaux the action of quaternary glaciation is evident. In Ice Age long valley glaciers receded from Orjen to the Bay of Kotor, hollowing U-shaped valleys and cirques in their course. Glaciers also shaped jagged peaks and ridges, glacial and karst type relief combine now in a unique coastal scenery. Elsewhere in the Mediterranean, few places show similar phenomena, with this privileged natural harbour the Bay of Kotor has been settled for millennia. Illyrians and Greeks colonised the coast from 400 BC and established todays ports Risan, due to lack of potable water, the high mountain was never densely populated. Snow patches collected from deep pit holes were used late in the 20th century to provide the few hamlets with water. Mount Orjen is a block mountain lifted up as a horst and thus towering above the lowered Bay of Kotor, with 1894 m difference between the lowest and the highest point, relief energy has a great role in the extremely harsh environment. Precipitation reaches 5000 l per m², amounts typical for tropical rainforests or the eastern Himalayas than the dry Mediterranean, lying at Europes wettest coast, snow easily accumulates on karstic plateaux and as late as June small snow patches continue to lie in shaded places under the summits. Skiing is possible but no relevant infrastructures exist today, Orjen is a more important hiking destination. Three mountain huts provide basic accommodation, Mount Orjen is composed of four high karstic plateaux divided by ridges. Three near parallel ridges collide in Zubački kabao, Orjens culmination point, the ridges are arranged by elevation with the highest to the north screening the Bijela gora plateaux from the Mediterranean coast. The separated plateaux are the Krivošije to the East, Bijela gora to the North, Only few settlements are scattered in surrounding poljes. The poljes of Grahovo, Dragalj, Vrbanj, Krusevica and Grabalj are important for agricultural use, migration circled around Mount Orjen as a major obstacle between the coastal, Herceg Novi and Risan and the interior towns of Grahovo, Trebinje and Niksic. Several dry river valleys are found on Orjen, Only in decades they react as short-living rivers when heavy rain and snow-melt combine. Flooding can be a problem and several poljes are renowned for their long inundation periods, Mediterranean mountains bear no glaciers any more except small snow fields in some shaded cirques of the Taurus range
Mount Orjen
–
Mount Orjen from the North (6 June 2001)
Mount Orjen
–
Broader region of Orjen and Bay of Kotor. 7 August 2001.
Mount Orjen
–
Orjen is located in the South-east Dinaric Alps
Mount Orjen
–
Cirque Borovi do in the north at Bijela gora
21.
Karst
–
Karst topography is a landscape formed from the dissolution of soluble rocks such as limestone, dolomite, and gypsum. It is characterized by underground drainage systems with sinkholes and caves and it has also been documented for more weathering-resistant rocks, such as quartzite, given the right conditions. Subterranean drainage may limit surface water, with few to no rivers or lakes, the English word karst was borrowed from German Karst in the late 19th century. The German word came into use before the 19th century, according to the prevalent interpretation, the term is derived from the German name for the Karst region, a limestone plateau above the city of Trieste in the northern Adriatic. Scholars disagree, however, on whether the German word was borrowed from Slovene, the Slovene common noun kras was first attested in the 18th century, and the adjective form kraški in the 16th century. The Slovene words arose through metathesis from the reconstructed form *korsъ, ultimately, the word is of Mediterranean origin, believed to derive from some Romanized Illyrian base. It has been suggested that the word may derive from the Proto-Indo-European root karra- rock, the name may also be connected to the oronym Karsádios oros cited by Ptolemy, and perhaps also to Latin Carusardius. The development of karst occurs whenever acidic water starts to break down the surface of bedrock near its cracks, as the bedrock continues to degrade, its cracks tend to get bigger. As time goes on, these fractures will become wider, if this underground drainage system does form, it will speed up the development of karst formations there because more water will be able to flow through the region, giving it more erosive power. The carbonic acid that causes karstic features is formed as rain passes through the atmosphere picking up carbon dioxide, once the rain reaches the ground, it may pass through soil that can provide much more CO2 to form a weak carbonic acid solution, which dissolves calcium carbonate. The oxidation of sulfides leading to the formation of acid can also be one of the corrosion factors in karst formation. As oxygen -rich surface waters seep into deep anoxic karst systems, they bring oxygen, sulfuric acid then reacts with calcium carbonate, causing increased erosion within the limestone formation. This chain of reactions is, This reaction chain forms gypsum, the karstification of a landscape may result in a variety of large- or small-scale features both on the surface and beneath. On exposed surfaces, small features may include solution flutes, runnels, limestone pavement, medium-sized surface features may include sinkholes or cenotes, vertical shafts, foibe, disappearing streams, and reappearing springs. Large-scale features may include limestone pavements, poljes, and karst valleys, mature karst landscapes, where more bedrock has been removed than remains, may result in karst towers, or haystack/eggbox landscapes. Beneath the surface, complex underground systems and extensive caves. Some of the most dramatic of these formations can be seen in Thailands Phangnga Bay, calcium carbonate dissolved into water may precipitate out where the water discharges some of its dissolved carbon dioxide. Rivers which emerge from springs may produce tufa terraces, consisting of layers of calcite deposited over extended periods of time, in caves, a variety of features collectively called speleothems are formed by deposition of calcium carbonate and other dissolved minerals
Karst
–
Škocjan Caves,
Slovenia
Karst
–
A karst landscape in
Minerve, Hérault,
France
Karst
–
The
Puerto Princesa Underground River,
Philippines.
Karst
–
Global distribution of major outcrops of carbonate rocks (mainly
limestone, except
evaporites)
22.
Mediterranean climate
–
A Mediterranean climate /ˌmɛdɪtəˈreɪniən/ or dry summer climate, is the climate typical of the lands in the Mediterranean Basin. The Mediterranean climate is characterised by dry summers and mild, moist winters, the Azores High is associated with the Mediterranean climate found in southern Europe and north Africa and the Sahara Desert with France and England both bordering this climate, France especially. The South Atlantic High is similarly associated with the Namib Desert, under the Köppen climate classification, hot dry-summer climates and cool dry-summer climates are often referred to as mediterranean. Under the Köppen climate system, the first letter indicates the climate group, temperate climates or C zones have an average temperature above 0 °C, but below 18 °C, in their coolest months. The second letter indicates the precipitation pattern, Köppen has defined a dry summer month as a month with less than 30 mm of precipitation and with less than one-third that of the wettest winter month. Some, however, use a 40 mm level, the third letter indicates the degree of summer heat, a represents an average temperature in the warmest month above 22 °C, while b indicates the average temperature in the warmest month below 22 °C. Under the Köppen classification, dry-summer climates usually occur on the sides of continents. Under Trewarthas system, at least eight months must have average temperatures of 10 °C or higher, during summer, regions of mediterranean climate are dominated by subtropical high pressure cells, with dry sinking air capping a surface marine layer of varying humidity and making rainfall unlikely. In many Mediterranean climates there is a strong character to daily temperatures in the warm months. The majority of the regions with mediterranean climates have relatively mild winters, however winter and summer temperatures can vary greatly between different regions with a mediterranean climate. Or to consider summer, Athens experiences rather high temperatures in that season, in contrast, San Francisco has cool summers with daily highs around. In North America, areas with Csc climate can be found in the Olympic, Cascade, Klamath and these locations are found at high altitude nearby lower altitude regions characterized by a warm-summer mediterranean climate or hot-summer mediterranean climate. A rare instance of this occurs in the tropics, on Haleakalā Summit in Hawaii. In South America, Csc regions can be found along the Andes in Chile, the town of Balmaceda is one of the few towns confirmed to have this climate. Small areas with a Csc climate can also be found at elevations in Corsica. Mediterranean climate Explanation of Mediterranean Climate
Mediterranean climate
–
Mediterranean climate distribution in the Americas
Mediterranean climate
–
Hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Csa)
23.
Humid subtropical climate
–
A humid subtropical climate is a zone of climate characterised by hot, usually humid summers and mild to cool winters. It normally lies on the southeast side of all continents, generally between latitudes 25° and 40° and it tends to be located at coastal or near coastal locations. However, in cases it extends inland, most notably in China. Under the Köppen climate classification, subtropical climates are found in the warmest parts of his Warm Temperate climates or Cfa and this climate features mean temperatures in the coldest month between 0 °C and 18 °C and mean temperatures in the warmest month 22 °C or higher. However, while some climatologists have opted to describe this type as a humid subtropical climate Köppen himself never used this term. The humid subtropical climate classification was created under the Trewartha Climate classification. The Trewartha system was a 1966 update of the Köppen climate classification and this was seen to effectively separate temperate climates like London or New York City from true subtropical locations like Brisbane or Savannah for example. Rainfall often shows a peak, especially where monsoons are well developed, as in Southeast Asia. Most summer rainfall occurs during thunderstorms that build up due to the surface heating and strong subtropical sun angle. Weak tropical lows that move in from adjacent warm tropical oceans, winter rainfall is often associated with large storms in the westerlies that have fronts that reach down into subtropical latitudes. However, many subtropical climates such as southeast Asia or Florida have very dry winters, with frequent brush fires, in Africa, the humid subtropical climates are found in two separate areas on the southern hemisphere of the continent. The Cwa climate is found over a portion of the interior of the Middle. Some lower portions of the Ethiopian Highlands also have this climate, the climate is also found in the narrow coastal sections of southern and eastern South Africa, primarily in KwaZulu-Natal and the Eastern Cape provinces. South Africas version of this climate features heavy oceanic influences resulting in milder temperatures. This is particularly evident in its winters when temperatures do not drop as low as in other regions within the humid subtropical category. Locations in Asia with a subtropical climate differ from those in other continents in that they often have marked seasonal differences in precipitation. Cities near the boundary of this zone include Hong Kong, Hanoi. At Hainan Island and in Taiwan, the transitions from subtropical into fully tropical
Humid subtropical climate
–
Cfa
24.
Prokletije
–
Prokletije, also known as the Albanian Alps and the Accursed Mountains, is a mountain range on the western Balkan peninsula, extending from northern Albania to Kosovo and eastern Montenegro. Its peak in Albania, Maja Jezercë at 2,694 m, is the highest point, both the highest peak in Montenegro, Zla Kolata at 2,534 m and the highest in Kosovo, Gjeravica at 2,656 m, are here. The highest peak in Albania, however, is Mount Korab, part of the Korab range, at 2,764 m high, the southernmost glaciers in Europe were recently discovered in the Albanian part of the range. The regional economy is based mainly on agriculture, immigrant remittances, ptolemy mentioned Mons Bertiscus, which has been connected to Prokletije. Serbo-Croatian Prokletije and Albanian Bjeshkët e Namuna both mean the accursed, possibly because they are perceived as insurmountable and wild, in Albanian, another name for the mountain range since the 20th century is Alpet Shqiptare, meaning Albanian Alps. The Prokletije mountains, the southernmost part of the Dinaric Alps and these points are at 42°45 and 42°15 N in the Mediterranean zone of the western Balkan Peninsula. The southern boundary of the Prokletije is found at the river Drin, in a broader sense the Prokletije also include the mountain ranges to Kosovska Mitrovica with the Hajla and Mokna massifs. Some authors, however, see the river Lim as the boundary of the Prokletije in geological terms. From Skadar lake, the mountains stretch northeast along the Cijevna river area, from here, the Prokletije turn northwards over the Bogićevića massif and Čakor pass, and continue with another row of mountains. The Prokletije finish in the area of upper Ibar river valley near the city of Kosovska Mitrovica, just after the Suva Planina massif that encircles Metohija basin from the north, the Prokletije are ethnographically and sociologically diverse due to many tribes living in the region as sheep herders. Names of various tribes - Hoti, Gruda, Kelmendi, Kastrati, Dukagjini, Shkreli, Shala, Nikaj, Krasniqi, Gashi, the Prokletije are a subrange of the 1,000 km long Dinaric Alps. The Prokletije are a high mountain range with a pronounced steep topography. Maximum relief differences of 1800 meters are found in the Valbona, Grbaja and Ropojani, overhanging walls and ridges forming pointed peaks are typical of the western and central Prokletije. The eastern mountains are rugged with lower relief. The valleys show characteristic effects of Pleistocene glaciation, most of the area was modified by glacial activity with karstic areas in the western parts. The range was formed by the folding resulting from the collision of the African and Eurasian plates, nowhere in the Balkans have glaciers left so much evidence of erosion. After the Alps, these mountains are the most glaciated in Europe south of the Scandinavian ice sheet and they have very steep limestone slopes with abundant karst features. The Prokletije is a large, rugged, pathless range and it is one of the rare mountain ranges in Europe that has not been explored entirely
Prokletije
–
Maja Jezercë in the distance in the Prokletije
Prokletije
Prokletije
–
Annotated image of the area from the air
Prokletije
–
Đeravica, eastern face
25.
Isotherm (contour line)
–
A contour line of a function of two variables is a curve along which the function has a constant value. It is a cross-section of the graph of the function f parallel to the x, y plane. In cartography, a contour line joins points of elevation above a given level. A contour map is a map illustrated with contour lines, for example a map, which thus shows valleys and hills. The contour interval of a map is the difference in elevation between successive contour lines. More generally, a line for a function of two variables is a curve connecting points where the function has the same particular value. The gradient of the function is always perpendicular to the contour lines, when the lines are close together the magnitude of the gradient is large, the variation is steep. A level set is a generalization of a line for functions of any number of variables. Contour lines are curved, straight or a mixture of lines on a map describing the intersection of a real or hypothetical surface with one or more horizontal planes. The configuration of these contours allows map readers to infer relative gradient of a parameter, in the latter case, the method of interpolation affects the reliability of individual isolines and their portrayal of slope, pits and peaks. Contour lines are given specific names beginning iso- according to the nature of the variable being mapped. Specific names are most common in meteorology, where multiple maps with different variables may be viewed simultaneously, the prefix iso- can be replaced with isallo- to specify a contour line connecting points where a variable changes at the same rate during a given time period. The words isoline and isarithm are general terms covering all types of contour line, an isogon is a contour line for a variable which measures direction. In meteorology and in geomagnetics, the term isogon has specific meanings which are described below, an isocline is a line joining points with equal slope. In population dynamics and in geomagnetics, the terms isocline and isoclinic line have specific meanings which are described below, equidistant is a line of equal distance from a given point, line, polyline. In geography, the word isopleth is used for lines that depict a variable which cannot be measured at a point. An example is population density, which can be calculated by dividing the population of a district by the surface area of that district. Each calculated value is presumed to be the value of the variable at the centre of the area, the idea of an isopleth map can be compared with that of a choropleth map
Isotherm (contour line)
–
A three-dimensional surface, whose contour graph is below.
Isotherm (contour line)
–
The bottom part of the diagram shows some contour lines with a straight line running through the location of the maximum value. The curve at the top represents the values along that straight line.
Isotherm (contour line)
–
Contour map labeled aesthetically in an "elevation up" manner.
26.
Forest fire
–
A wildfire or wildland fire is a fire in an area of combustible vegetation that occurs in the countryside or rural area. Fossil charcoal indicates that wildfires began soon after the appearance of terrestrial plants 420 million years ago, wildfire’s occurrence throughout the history of terrestrial life invites conjecture that fire must have had pronounced evolutionary effects on most ecosystems flora and fauna. Earth is an intrinsically flammable planet owing to its cover of vegetation, seasonally dry climates, atmospheric oxygen. Wildfires can be characterized in terms of the cause of ignition, their properties, the combustible material present. Wildfires can cause damage to property and human life, but they have beneficial effects on native vegetation, animals. Many plant species depend on the effects of fire for growth, however, wildfire in ecosystems where wildfire is uncommon or where non-native vegetation has encroached may have negative ecological effects. Wildfire behaviour and severity result from the combination of such as available fuels, physical setting. Strategies of wildfire prevention, detection, and suppression have varied over the years, one common and inexpensive technique is controlled burning, permitting or even igniting smaller fires to minimize the amount of flammable material available for a potential wildfire. Vegetation may be burned periodically to maintain species diversity and frequent burning of surface fuels limits fuel accumulation. Wildland fire use is the cheapest and most ecologically appropriate policy for many forests, fuels may also be removed by logging, but fuels treatments and thinning have no effect on severe fire behavior. Wildfires can also be started in communities experiencing shifting cultivation, where land is cleared quickly and farmed until the soil loses fertility, forested areas cleared by logging encourage the dominance of flammable grasses, and abandoned logging roads overgrown by vegetation may act as fire corridors. The most common cause of wildfires throughout the world. In Canada and northwest China, for example, lightning operates as the source of ignition. In other parts of the world, human involvement is a major contributor, in China and in the Mediterranean Basin, human carelessness is a major cause of wildfires. In the United States and Australia, the source of wildfires can be traced both to lightning strikes and to human activities. Coal seam fires burn in the thousands around the world, such as those in Burning Mountain, New South Wales, Centralia, Pennsylvania and they can also flare up unexpectedly and ignite nearby flammable material. The spread of wildfires based on the flammable material present, its vertical arrangement and moisture content. Fuel arrangement and density is governed in part by topography, as land shape determines factors such as available sunlight, overall, fire types can be generally characterized by their fuels as follows, Ground fires are fed by subterranean roots, duff and other buried organic matter
Forest fire
–
A
wildfire in California on September 5, 2008
Forest fire
–
A surface fire in the western desert of
Utah, U.S.
Forest fire
–
Charred landscape following a crown fire in the
North Cascades, U.S.
Forest fire
–
Torching of Juniper Tree on the Palisade Wildfire in Nevada
27.
Spring (hydrosphere)
–
A spring is any natural situation where water flows from an aquifer to the Earths surface. It is a component of the hydrosphere, a spring may be the result of karst topography where surface water has infiltrated the Earths surface, becoming part of the area groundwater. The groundwater then travels through a network of cracks and fissure—openings ranging from intergranular spaces to large caves, the water eventually emerges from below the surface, in the form of a karst spring. The forcing of the spring to the surface can be the result of an aquifer in which the recharge area of the spring water table rests at a higher elevation than that of the outlet. Spring water forced to the surface by elevated sources are artesian wells and this is possible even if the outlet is in the form of a 300-foot-deep cave. In this case the cave is used like a hose by the higher elevated area of groundwater to exit through the lower elevation opening. Non-artesian springs may simply flow from a higher elevation through the earth to a lower elevation, still other springs are the result of pressure from an underground source in the earth, in the form of volcanic activity. The result can be water at elevated temperature such as a hot spring, the action of the groundwater continually dissolves permeable bedrock such as limestone and dolomite, creating vast cave systems. The term seep refers to springs with small flow rates in which the water has filtered through permeable earth. Fracture springs, discharge from faults, joints, or fissures in the earth, tubular springs, in which the water flows from underground caverns. Spring discharge, or resurgence, is determined by the springs recharge basin, factors that affect the recharge include the size of the area in which groundwater is captured, the amount of precipitation, the size of capture points, and the size of the spring outlet. Water may leak into the system from many sources including permeable earth, sinkholes. In some cases entire creeks seemingly disappear as the water sinks into the ground via the stream bed, grand Gulf State Park in Missouri is an example of an entire creek vanishing into the groundwater system. The water emerges 9 miles away, forming some of the discharge of Mammoth Spring in Arkansas, human activity may also affect a springs discharge--withdrawal of groundwater reduces the water pressure in an aquifer, decreasing the volume of flow. Springs are often classified by the volume of the water they discharge, the largest springs are called first-magnitude, defined as springs that discharge water at a rate of at least 2800 liters or 100 cubic feet of water per second. The scale for spring flow is as follows, Minerals become dissolved in the water as it moves through the underground rocks and this may give the water flavor and even carbon dioxide bubbles, depending on the nature of the geology through which it passes. This is why spring water is bottled and sold as mineral water. Springs that contain significant amounts of minerals are sometimes called mineral springs, Springs that contain large amounts of dissolved sodium salts, mostly sodium carbonate, are called soda springs
Spring (hydrosphere)
–
On an average day nearly 303 million US gallons (1,150,000 m 3) of water flow from
Big Spring in
Missouri at a rate of 469 cubic feet per second (13.3 m 3 /s).
Spring (hydrosphere)
–
A natural spring on
Mackinac Island in
Michigan
Spring (hydrosphere)
–
Sunrise at Middle Spring,
Fish Springs National Wildlife Refuge, Utah
Spring (hydrosphere)
–
Fontaine de Vaucluse or Spring of Vaucluse in France discharges about 470 million US gallons (1,800,000 m 3) of water per day at a rate of 727 cubic feet (21 m 3) per second.
28.
Crkvice
–
Crkvice is a village on Orjen mountain in Montenegro and is the wettest inhabited place in Europe. The average annual precipitation for the period 1931-1960 was 4,927 mm, the highest amounts per year surpass 7,000 mm with an all time historic high of 8,036 mm. Crkvice is within the Mediterranean subtropical belt. While summers are hot and sunny, autumn, winter and spring are rainy seasons, a peculiarity of the littoral Dinarids is the precipitation regime as the cities in Orjen receive more precipitation than any others in Europe. Like the monsoon rain it is distributed, thus November thunderstorms sometimes pour 2000 liters of water in several days. With a maximum discharge of 350 m³/s water one of the biggest karst springs, most of the time it is inactive but after heavy rain a remarkable waterfall appears 20 m above the Bay of Kotor. * classification scheme after Köppen Two wind systems are noteworthy for their significance, Bura. Strong cold downslope winds of Bura type appear in winter and are most severe in the Bay of Risan, gusts reach 250 km/h and can lead to a significant fall of temperatures in several hours with freezing events problematic for most of the Mediterranean cultures. Bura weather situations are frequent and sailors keep an eye on the mountains as cap clouds indicate an eminent Bura event, Jugo is a warm humid rain and is important as it brings heavy rain. It appears throughout the year but is centered in autumn. * monthly and yearly precipitation ranges in Dalmatia, Herzegovina and Montenegro Wettest places on Earth Cherrapunji Mount Waialeale Quibdó
Crkvice
–
Crkvice.
29.
Ecological
–
Ecology is the scientific analysis and study of interactions among organisms and their environment. It is a field that includes biology, geography. Ecology includes the study of interactions that organisms have with other, other organisms. Ecosystems are composed of dynamically interacting parts including organisms, the communities make up. Ecosystem processes, such as production, pedogenesis, nutrient cycling. These processes are sustained by organisms with specific life history traits, biodiversity, which refers to the varieties of species, genes, and ecosystems, enhances certain ecosystem services. Ecology is not synonymous with environment, environmentalism, natural history and it is closely related to evolutionary biology, genetics, and ethology. An important focus for ecologists is to improve the understanding of how biodiversity affects ecological function, Ecology is a human science as well. For example, the Circles of Sustainability approach treats ecology as more than the environment out there and it is not treated as separate from humans. Organisms and resources compose ecosystems which, in turn, maintain biophysical feedback mechanisms that moderate processes acting on living and non-living components of the planet, the word ecology was coined in 1866 by the German scientist Ernst Haeckel. Ecological thought is derivative of established currents in philosophy, particularly from ethics and politics, ancient Greek philosophers such as Hippocrates and Aristotle laid the foundations of ecology in their studies on natural history. Modern ecology became a more rigorous science in the late 19th century. Evolutionary concepts relating to adaptation and natural selection became the cornerstones of modern ecological theory, the scope of ecology contains a wide array of interacting levels of organization spanning micro-level to a planetary scale phenomena. Ecosystems, for example, contain abiotic resources and interacting life forms, an ecosystems area can vary greatly, from tiny to vast. A single tree is of consequence to the classification of a forest ecosystem. Several generations of a population can exist over the lifespan of a single leaf. Each of those aphids, in turn, support diverse bacterial communities, biodiversity describes the diversity of life from genes to ecosystems and spans every level of biological organization. The term has several interpretations, and there are ways to index, measure, characterize
Ecological
–
Ecology
Ecological
Ecological
Ecological
30.
Bora (wind)
–
The Bora is a northern to north-eastern katabatic wind in the Adriatic, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Montenegro, Italy, Bulgaria, Greece, Slovenia, Poland, Russia and Turkey. The same root is found in the name of the Greek mythological figure of Boreas/Βορέας, historical linguists speculate that the name may derive from a Proto-Indo-European root *gworh- meaning mountain and giving rise to Germanic burg and berg. A similar pattern is seen in the name of the buran winds of central Asia. In Modern Greek, the word describes a intense summer rain that lasts for a few minutes. In Croatian burno means violently and is used to describe the weather. The changeable Bora can often be felt all over Montenegrin Littoral, Dalmatia, Istria, the Slovenian Littoral, Trieste, the Bora is most common during the winter. As the air grows even colder and thus denser at night and its initial temperature is so low that even with the warming occasioned by its descent it reaches the lowlands as a cold wind. The area where some of the strongest bora winds occur is the Velebit mountain range in Croatia, Bora occurs because these two divided masses tend to equalize. Sailing during the Bura can be challenging and it requires caution, short, high waves with white crests are its characteristics, making the navigation difficult. The small drops formed by the wind create a so-called sea smoke that reduces the visibility significantly, experienced seamen have a proverb, When Bura sails, you dont. Near the towns of Senj, Stara Novalja, Karlobag and the portal of the Sveti Rok Tunnel in Croatia. On 21 December 1998 the speed of a gust on the Maslenica Bridge was measured at a speed of 248 kilometres per hour. During 22 to 25 December 2003 on A1 highway near Sveti Rok Tunnel new record was measured at speed of 304 kilometers per hour. In February 2012, during the Eastern European Cold Wave, the shoreline in Senj froze and snow piled up after a 150 km/h bora plummeted the temperature to −14 °C, the bora ripped the trees from the soil and destroyed roofs of houses. On the island of Pag, the bora threw fish out of the sea, in many Croatian coastal cities, fresh water froze inside the pipes. Because the region separates the lower Adriatic coast from the Julian Alps range and they have influenced the regions traditional lifestyle and architecture. Towns on the coast, where the bora frequently occurs, are built densely with narrow streets in part because of the wind, buildings in several towns and villages in Slovenia and the Province of Trieste have stones on their roofs to prevent the tiles from being blown off. A strong bora will often be reported on Italian television news, Slovenian towns where the strongest bora occurs are Ajdovščina, Vipava and, to a lesser extent, Nova Gorica
Bora (wind)
–
Hurricane-strength bora in
Nin, Croatia
Bora (wind)
–
Bora on Molo Audace in
Trieste, February 2011
Bora (wind)
–
Winter bora in
Senj.
Bora (wind)
–
The bora on the
Karst Plateau, depicted in
Valvasor 's
The Glory of the Duchy of Carniola, 17th century
31.
Sirocco
–
It arises from a warm, dry, tropical airmass that is pulled northward by low-pressure cells moving eastward across the Mediterranean Sea, with the wind originating in the Arabian or Sahara deserts. The Sirocco causes dusty dry conditions along the northern coast of Africa, storms in the Mediterranean Sea, the Siroccos duration may be as short as half a day or may last several days. Many people attribute health problems to the Sirocco, either because of the heat and dust along the African coastal regions, the dust within the Sirocco winds can cause abrasion in mechanical devices and penetrate buildings. Sirocco winds with speeds of up to 100 kilometres per hour are most common during autumn and they reach a peak in March and in November when it is very hot, with a maximum speed of about 100 km/h. When combined with a tide, the Sirocco can cause the Acqua Alta phenomenon in the Venetian Lagoon. Winds of the world Names of Winds Local Mediterranean winds Sirocco
Sirocco
–
A sirocco from Libya blowing dust over the Mediterranean, Malta, Italy, Croatia, Montenegro, Albania and Greece
Sirocco
–
Tramontane
32.
Katabatic wind
–
Such winds are sometimes also called fall winds. Katabatic winds can rush down elevated slopes at speeds, but most are not as intense as that. Not all downslope winds are katabatic, examples of true katabatic winds include the bora in the Adriatic, the Bohemian Wind or Böhmwind in the Ore Mountains, the Santa Ana in southern California, and the oroshi in Japan. Another example is the Barber, an enhanced katabatic wind that blows over the town of Greymouth in New Zealand when there is a southeast flow over the South Island and it is a wind that is known in the area for its coldness. A katabatic wind originates from radiational cooling of air atop a plateau, since the density of air is inversely proportional to temperature, the air will flow downwards, warming approximately adiabatically as it descends. The temperature of the air depends on the temperature in the source region, in the case of the Santa Ana, for example, the wind can become hot by the time it reaches sea level. In Antarctica, by contrast, the wind is still intensely cold, Katabatic winds are most commonly found blowing out from the large and elevated ice sheets of Antarctica and Greenland. The buildup of high density cold air over the ice sheets, where these winds are concentrated into restricted areas in the coastal valleys, the winds blow well over hurricane force, reaching around 300 km/h. In Greenland these winds are called piteraq and are most intense whenever a low pressure area approaches the coast, in a few regions of continental Antarctica the snow is scoured away by the force of the katabatic winds, leading to dry valleys such as the McMurdo Dry Valleys. Since the katabatic winds are descending, they tend to have a low relative humidity, other regions may have a similar but lesser effect, leading to blue ice areas where the snow is removed and the surface ice evaporates, but is replenished by glacier flow from upstream. In the Fuegian Archipelago in South America as well as in Alaska, williwaws originate in the snow and ice fields of the coastal mountains, and they can be faster than 120 knots. Anabatic wind Foehn wind Valley exit jet Bora Giles, Bill, weather A-Z - Katabatic Winds By Bill Giles OBE, BBC, Retrieved 2008-10-14 McKnight, TL & Hess, Darrel. In Physical Geography, A Landscape Appreciation, pp. 131–2, upper Saddle River, NJ, Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-020263-0 Parish, Thomas R. Bromwich, David H. Continental-Scale Simulation of the Antarctic Katabatic Wind Regime, Bromwich, David H. Satellite Analyses of Antarctic Katabatic Wind Behavior. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, an Extraordinary Katabatic Wind Regime at Terra Nova Bay, Antarctica. Media related to Katabatic wind at Wikimedia Commons
Katabatic wind
–
Katabatic wind in Antarctica
33.
Weather
–
Weather is the state of the atmosphere, to the degree that it is hot or cold, wet or dry, calm or stormy, clear or cloudy. Most weather phenomena occur in the lowest level of the atmosphere, Weather refers to day-to-day temperature and precipitation activity, whereas climate is the term for the averaging of atmospheric conditions over longer periods of time. When used without qualification, weather is understood to mean the weather of Earth. Weather is driven by air pressure, temperature and moisture differences between one place and another and these differences can occur due to the suns angle at any particular spot, which varies with latitude. The strong temperature contrast between polar and tropical air gives rise to the largest scale atmospheric circulations, the Hadley Cell, the Ferrel Cell, the Polar Cell, Weather systems in the mid-latitudes, such as extratropical cyclones, are caused by instabilities of the jet stream flow. Because the Earths axis is tilted relative to its orbital plane, on Earths surface, temperatures usually range ±40 °C annually. Over thousands of years, changes in Earths orbit can affect the amount and distribution of energy received by the Earth, thus influencing long-term climate. Surface temperature differences in turn cause pressure differences, higher altitudes are cooler than lower altitudes as most atmospheric heating is due to contact with the Earths surface while radiative losses to space are mostly constant. Weather forecasting is the application of science and technology to predict the state of the atmosphere for a future time and a given location. The Earths weather system is a system, as a result. Human attempts to control the weather have occurred throughout history, and there is evidence that human activities such as agriculture, studying how the weather works on other planets has been helpful in understanding how weather works on Earth. A famous landmark in the Solar System, Jupiters Great Red Spot, is a storm known to have existed for at least 300 years. However, weather is not limited to planetary bodies, a stars corona is constantly being lost to space, creating what is essentially a very thin atmosphere throughout the Solar System. The movement of mass ejected from the Sun is known as the solar wind, on Earth, the common weather phenomena include wind, cloud, rain, snow, fog and dust storms. Less common events include natural disasters such as tornadoes, hurricanes, typhoons, almost all familiar weather phenomena occur in the troposphere. Weather does occur in the stratosphere and can affect weather lower down in the troposphere, Weather occurs primarily due to air pressure, temperature and moisture differences between one place to another. These differences can occur due to the sun angle at any particular spot, in other words, the farther from the tropics one lies, the lower the sun angle is, which causes those locations to be cooler due the spread of the sunlight over a greater surface. The strong temperature contrast between polar and tropical air gives rise to the large scale atmospheric circulation cells and the jet stream, Weather systems in the mid-latitudes, such as extratropical cyclones, are caused by instabilities of the jet stream flow
Weather
–
Thunderstorm near Garajau,
Madeira
Weather
–
Cumulus mediocris cloud surrounded by
stratocumulus
Weather
–
New Orleans, Louisiana, after being struck by Hurricane Katrina. Katrina was a
Category 3 hurricane when it struck although it had been a category 5 hurricane in the
Gulf of Mexico.
Weather
–
Early morning sunshine over
Bratislava, Slovakia
34.
Precipitation (meteorology)
–
In meteorology, precipitation is any product of the condensation of atmospheric water vapor that falls under gravity. The main forms of precipitation include drizzle, rain, sleet, snow, graupel, Precipitation occurs when a portion of the atmosphere becomes saturated with water vapor, so that the water condenses and precipitates. Thus, fog and mist are not precipitation but suspensions, because the vapor does not condense sufficiently to precipitate. Two processes, possibly acting together, can lead to air becoming saturated, Precipitation forms as smaller droplets coalesce via collision with other rain drops or ice crystals within a cloud. Short, intense periods of rain in scattered locations are called showers, moisture that is lifted or otherwise forced to rise over a layer of sub-freezing air at the surface may be condensed into clouds and rain. This process is active when freezing rain is occurring. A stationary front is often present near the area of freezing rain, provided necessary and sufficient atmospheric moisture content, the moisture within the rising air will condense into clouds, namely stratus and cumulonimbus. Eventually, the droplets will grow large enough to form raindrops. Lake-effect snowfall can be locally heavy, thundersnow is possible within a cyclones comma head and within lake effect precipitation bands. In mountainous areas, heavy precipitation is possible where upslope flow is maximized within windward sides of the terrain at elevation, on the leeward side of mountains, desert climates can exist due to the dry air caused by compressional heating. The movement of the trough, or intertropical convergence zone. Precipitation is a component of the water cycle, and is responsible for depositing the fresh water on the planet. Approximately 505,000 cubic kilometres of water falls as precipitation each year,398,000 cubic kilometres of it over the oceans and 107,000 cubic kilometres over land. Given the Earths surface area, that means the globally averaged annual precipitation is 990 millimetres, Climate classification systems such as the Köppen climate classification system use average annual rainfall to help differentiate between differing climate regimes. Precipitation may occur on celestial bodies, e. g. when it gets cold, Mars has precipitation which most likely takes the form of frost. Precipitation is a component of the water cycle, and is responsible for depositing most of the fresh water on the planet. Approximately 505,000 km3 of water falls as precipitation each year,398,000 km3 of it over the oceans, given the Earths surface area, that means the globally averaged annual precipitation is 990 millimetres. Mechanisms of producing precipitation include convective, stratiform, and orographic rainfall, Precipitation can be divided into three categories, based on whether it falls as liquid water, liquid water that freezes on contact with the surface, or ice
Precipitation (meteorology)
–
A thunderstorm with heavy precipitation
Precipitation (meteorology)
–
Long-term mean precipitation by month
Precipitation (meteorology)
–
Late-summer
rainstorm in
Denmark
Precipitation (meteorology)
–
Lenticular cloud forming due to mountains over Wyoming
35.
Illyria
–
In classical antiquity, Illyria was a region in the western part of the Balkan Peninsula inhabited by the Illyrians. The prehistory of Illyria and the Illyrians is known from archaeological evidence, the Romans conquered the region in 168 BC in the aftermath of the Illyrian Wars. The Roman term Illyris was sometimes used to define an area north of the Aous valley, in Greek mythology, the name of Illyria is aetiologically traced to Illyrius, the son of Cadmus and Harmonia, who eventually ruled Illyria and became the eponymous ancestor of the Illyrians. A later version of the myth identifies Polyphemus and Galatea as parents of Celtus, Galas, ancient Greek writers used the name Illyrian to describe peoples between the Liburnians and Epirus. In the Roman period, Illyricum was used for the area between the Adriatic and Danube, the term was in a way of pars pro toto. The earliest recorded Illyrian kingdom was that of the Enchele in the 8th century BC, the era in which we observe other Illyrian kingdoms begins approximately at 400 BC and ends at 167 BC. The Autariatae under Pleurias were considered to have been a kingdom, the Kingdom of the Ardiaei began at 230 BC and ended at 167 BC. The most notable Illyrian kingdoms and dynasties were those of Bardyllis of the Dardani and of Agron of the Ardiaei who created the last, Agron ruled over the Ardiaei and had extended his rule to other tribes as well. As for the Dardanians, they always had separate domains from the rest of the Illyrians, the Illyrian kingdoms were composed of small areas within the region of Illyria. Only the Romans ruled the entire region, polybius gives as an image of society within an Illyrian kingdom as peasant infantry fought under aristocrats which he calls in Greek Polydynastae where each one controlled a town within the kingdom. The monarchy was established on hereditary lines and Illyrian rulers used marriages as a means of alliance with other powers, pliny writes that the people that formed the nucleus of the Illyrian kingdom were Illyrians proper or Illyrii Proprie Dicti. They were the Taulantii, the Pleraei, the Endirudini, Sasaei, Grabaei and these later joined to form the Docleatae. The Romans defeated Gentius, the last king of Illyria, at Scodra in 168 BC and captured him, four client-republics were set up, which were in fact ruled by Rome. Later, the region was governed by Rome and organized as a province. The Roman province of Illyricum replaced the independent kingdom of Illyria. It stretched from the Drilon river in modern Albania to Istria in the west, although this division occurred in 10 AD, the term Illyria remained in use in Late Latin and throughout the medieval period. After the division of the Roman Empire, the bishops of Thessalonica appointed papal vicars for Illyricum, the first of these vicars is said to have been Bishop Acholius or Ascholius, the friend of St. Basil. The patriarchs of Constantinople succeeded in bringing Illyria under their jurisdiction in the 8th century, several armorials of the Early modern period, popularly called the Illyrian Armorials, depicted fictional coats of arms of Illyria
Illyria
–
Approximate area settled by Illyrians in antiquity.
36.
Rhizon
–
Rhizon was an ancient settlement located near todays Risan in the Bay of Kotor, Montenegro. Originally an Illyrian settlement, it was later a Roman city, the earliest mention of Rhizon dates back to the 4th century BCE. Rhizon had been the fortress in the Illyrian state where Queen Teuta took refuge during the Illyrian Wars. During the short reign of the Illyrian Queen Teuta, Rhizon became the capital of her empire, the chronology of these coinages is still not defined with precision, primarily because the historical background of their issuance remains little known. There is hardly any mention in the sources of the town of Rhizon. However, several features of these coinages - such as the characteristics of style, elements of inscription and iconography, metrology, choice of coined metals, etc. Formerly the Bay of Kotor was known as Sinus Rhizonicus after the name of Rhizon, Rhizon had also its own protector, a deity called Medaurus, who was depicted as carrying a lance and riding on horseback. The degree of Hellenization at Rhizon was very high, in Roman times, Rhizinium is documented as an oppidum civium Romanorum. Two Roman routes led through the Bay of Kotor, the most prosperous time for Roman Rhizinium came during the 1st and 2nd centuries, when huge villas were made in the area and the city had 10,000 inhabitants. Five mosaics are the most valuable remains of that period - not only for Risan, the best preserved one shows Hypnos, the Greek deity of dreams. It is the only image of this kind in the Balkans. The famous English archeologist Sir Arthur Evans led those initial excavations in 1885, the invasions of the Avars and Slavs left the city deserted. The last reference of a bishop in Risan dates back to 595
Rhizon
–
Rhizon (marked 1) was one of three Illyrian fortresses on the hills overlooking Bay of Kotor
Rhizon
–
Roman roads in Montenegro, showing Rhizinium
37.
Queen Teuta
–
Teuta was the queen regent of the Ardiaei tribe in Illyria, who reigned approximately from 231 BC to 227 BC. According to Polybius, she ruled by womens reasoning, Teuta started to address the neighbouring states malevolently, supporting the piratical raids of her subjects. Illyrians soon captured and later fortified Dyrrachium and Phoenice, while her ships were off the coast of Onchesmos, they intercepted and plundered some Roman merchant vessels. Queen Teuta told the ambassadors that according to the law of the Illyrians, piracy was a lawful trade and she also implied that it was never the custom of royalty to prevent the advantage of its subjects they could get from the sea. One of the envoys reportedly replied that Rome would make it her business to introduce better law among the Illyrians as we have an excellent custom of punishing private wrongs by public revenge. At any rate, one of the two present ambassadors expressed himself to the queen so disrespectfully that her attendants were ordered to seize the ship as it embarked back for Rome. One of the ambassadors was killed and the other was put in captivity, in 229 BC, Rome declared war on Illyria and for the first time armies crossed the Adriatic to Illyria. An army consisting of approximately 20,000 troops,200 cavalry units, Teutas governor, Demetrius had little alternative but to surrender, and the Romans awarded him a considerable part of Teutas holdings. The Roman army then landed further north at Apollonia, the combined army and navy proceeded northward together, subduing one town after another and eventually besieging the capital Scodra. Teuta finally surrendered in 227 BC, having to accept an ignominious peace, the Romans allowed her to continue her reign but restricted her to a narrow region around Scodra, deprived her of all her other holdings, and forbade her to sail an armed ship south of Lissus. They also required her to pay a tribute and to acknowledge the final authority of Rome. Her rule was ended by the politician Aulus Postumius, after she opted against Roman suppression. Very little is known of the rest of her life, illyrian warfare List of rulers of Illyria
Queen Teuta
–
Bust of Queen Teuta in the Museum of Shkodra
Queen Teuta
–
Bay of Kotor and Illyrian fortresses on the hills:
Rhizon, Gosici and Kremalj (Mirac).
38.
Shkodra
–
Shkodër is a city and municipality in northwestern Albania. It is one of the oldest and most historic places in the Balkan peninsula, as well as an important cultural, in classical times, Shkodër was known under the name of Scodra and was the capital of the Illyrian Labeates. Its importance is heightened by the Lake Shkodër to the west of the city — the largest lake in Southern Europe — that straddles Albania and Montenegro. With a population of 77.075, it is the largest city in north of the country, the name of Shkodra is first attested in antiquity in the form Skodra, and in the Greek genitive Σκοδρινῶν found on coins from the 2nd century BC. The further development of the name has been a subject of discussion among linguists over the provenance of Albanians. The name was adapted to Italian as Scutari, in form it was also in wide use in English until the 20th century. In Serbo-Croatian, Shkodër is known as Skadar, and in Turkish as İşkodra, Shkodër is a city with a rich history dating from the Bronze age back 2000 to 3000 years ago to the present day. In classical times, the city was known as Scodra, in the middle of the 3rd century BC, it was the capital city of the first Kingdom of the Illyrian tribe of the Ardiaei, that settled on the Adriatic coast. Queen Teuta, King Agron, and King Gentius, were among the most famous personalities of the Labeates, the city was first mentioned during the antiquity as the site of the Illyrian Labeates -in which he minted coins- and that of Queen Teuta. In 168 BC, the city was captured by the Romans and became an important trade, Scodra remained in the province of Illyricum, and later Dalmatia. By it 395 AD, it was part of the Diocese of Dacia, the dawn of the Middle Ages saw waves of Slavs arriving. De Administrando Imperio describes how Byzantine Emperor Heraclius gave the Serbs a territory in this region during the first half of the 7th century, the southernmost, maritime polity of the Serbian Principality, at Duklja, included the Shkodër region. After the death of Prince Časlav, the state disintegrated, with Duklja retaining most of it, tsar Samuel of Bulgaria had by 997 conquered all of Thessaly, Epirus, Macedonia, and most of modern Albania. In the early 11th century, Jovan Vladimir ruled Duklja amidst the war between Basil II and Samuel, Vladimir allegedly retreated into Koplik when Samuel invaded Duklja, and was subsequently forced to accept Bulgarian vassalage. Vladimir was later slewn by the Bulgarians. Shingjon has since been celebrated by Albanian Orthodox Christians, in the 1030s, Stefan Vojislav from Travunia expelled the last strategos, and successfully defeated the Byzantines by 1042. Stefan Vojislav set up Shkodër as his capital, constantine Bodin accepted the crusaders of the Crusade of 1101 in Shkodër. After the dynastic struggles in the 12th century, Shkodër became part of the Nemanjić Zeta province, in 1330 Stephen Dečanski appointed his son Stephen Dušan as the governor of Zeta and its seat Shkodër. In the same year Dušan and his father entered the conflict which resulted with campaign of Dečanski who destroyed Dušans court on Drimac river near Shkodër in January 1331, in April they made a truce, but in August 1331 Dušan went from Shkodër to Nerodimlje and overthrew his father
Shkodra
–
Shkodër and
Albanian Alps seen from
Rozafa Castle
Shkodra
–
Rozafa, an Illyrian fortress.
Shkodra
–
the
Lead Mosque, built in 1773
Shkodra
–
Old Ruins of St, Stephen's Church
39.
Rome
–
Rome is a special comune and the capital of Italy. Rome also serves as the capital of the Lazio region, with 2,873,598 residents in 1,285 km2, it is also the countrys largest and most populated comune and fourth-most populous city in the European Union by population within city limits. It is the center of the Metropolitan City of Rome, which has a population of 4.3 million residents, the city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, within Lazio, along the shores of the Tiber. Romes history spans more than 2,500 years, while Roman mythology dates the founding of Rome at only around 753 BC, the site has been inhabited for much longer, making it one of the oldest continuously occupied sites in Europe. The citys early population originated from a mix of Latins, Etruscans and it was first called The Eternal City by the Roman poet Tibullus in the 1st century BC, and the expression was also taken up by Ovid, Virgil, and Livy. Rome is also called the Caput Mundi, due to that, Rome became first one of the major centres of the Italian Renaissance, and then the birthplace of both the Baroque style and Neoclassicism. Famous artists, painters, sculptors and architects made Rome the centre of their activity, in 1871 Rome became the capital of the Kingdom of Italy, and in 1946 that of the Italian Republic. Rome has the status of a global city, Rome ranked in 2014 as the 14th-most-visited city in the world, 3rd most visited in the European Union, and the most popular tourist attraction in Italy. Its historic centre is listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site, monuments and museums such as the Vatican Museums and the Colosseum are among the worlds most visited tourist destinations with both locations receiving millions of tourists a year. Rome hosted the 1960 Summer Olympics and is the seat of United Nations Food, however, it is a possibility that the name Romulus was actually derived from Rome itself. As early as the 4th century, there have been alternate theories proposed on the origin of the name Roma. There is archaeological evidence of occupation of the Rome area from approximately 14,000 years ago. Evidence of stone tools, pottery and stone weapons attest to about 10,000 years of human presence, several excavations support the view that Rome grew from pastoral settlements on the Palatine Hill built above the area of the future Roman Forum. Between the end of the age and the beginning of the Iron age. However, none of them had yet an urban quality, nowadays, there is a wide consensus that the city was gradually born through the aggregation of several villages around the largest one, placed above the Palatine. All these happenings, which according to the excavations took place more or less around the mid of the 8th century BC. Despite recent excavations at the Palatine hill, the view that Rome has been indeed founded with an act of will as the legend suggests in the middle of the 8th century BC remains a fringe hypothesis. Traditional stories handed down by the ancient Romans themselves explain the earliest history of their city in terms of legend and myth
Rome
Rome
Rome
Rome
40.
Sklavenoi
–
The Sclaveni or Sklavenoi were early South Slavic tribes that raided, invaded and settled the Balkans in the Early Middle Ages. They were mentioned by early Byzantine chroniclers as barbarians having appeared at the Byzantine borders along with the Antes, the Sclaveni were differentiated from the Antes and Wends, however, described as kin. Eventually, most South Slavic tribes accepted Byzantine suzerainty, and came under Byzantine cultural influence, the term, along with the term Sklavinia was widely used until the emergance of separate tribal names by the 10th century. The Byzantines broadly grouped the numerous Slav tribes living in proximity with the Eastern Roman Empire into two groups, the Sklavenoi and the Antes, the Sclaveni were called as such by Procopius, and as Sclavi by Jordanes and Pseudo-Maurice. The derived Greek term Sklavinia is interpreted as Slav lands in Byzantium and these Slavic settlements were initially out of Byzantine control and independent. By 800, however, the term referred specifically to Slavic mobile military colonists who settled as allies within the territories of the Byzantine Empire. Slavic military settlements appeared in the Peloponnese, Asia Minor, Procopius gives the most detail about the Sclaveni and Antes. The Sclaveni are also mentioned by Jordanes, Pseudo-Caesarius, Menander Protector, Strategikon, the first Slavic raid south of the Danube was recorded by Procopius, who mentions an attack of the Antes, who dwell close to the Sclaveni, probably in 518. Scholar M. Kazanski identified the 6th-century Prague culture and Sukow-Dziedzice group as Sclaveni archaeological cultures, in the 530s, Emperor Justinian seems to have used divide and conquer and the Sclaveni and Antes are mentioned as fighting each other. Sclaveni are first mentioned in the context of the policy on the Danube frontier of Byzantine Emperor Justinian I. In 537,1,600 cavalry, made up of mostly Sclaveni, sometime between 533–34 and 545, there was a conflict between the Antes and Sclaveni in Eastern Europe. Procopius noted that the two became hostile to one another and engaged in battle until a Sclaveni victory, the conflict was likely aided or initiated by the Byzantines. In the same period, the Antes raided Thrace, the Romans also recruited mounted mercenaries from both tribes against the Ostrogoths. The two tribes were at peace by 545, notably, one of the captured Antes claimed to be Roman general Chilbudius. He was sold to the Antes and freed and he revealed his true identity but was pressured and continued to claim that he was Chilbudius. The Antes are last mentioned as anti-Byzantine belligerents in 545, the Antes became Roman allies by treaty in 545. Between 545 and 549, the Sclaveni raided deep into Roman territory, in 547,300 Antes fought the Ostrogoths in Lucania. In the summer of 550, the Sclaveni came close to Naissus, and were seen as a threat, however, their intent on capturing Thessaloniki
Sklavenoi
–
Personifications of
Sclavinia,
Germania,
Gallia, and
Roma, bringing offerings to
Otto III; from a gospel book dated 990.
Sklavenoi
–
Sklaveni and Antae in the 6th century [
citation needed]
41.
South Slavs
–
The South Slavs are a subgroup of Slavic peoples who speak the South Slavic languages. The South Slavs include the Bosniaks, Bulgarians, Croats, Macedonians, Montenegrins, Serbs and they are the main population of the Southeastern European countries of Bulgaria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia and Slovenia. In the 20th century, the country of Yugoslavia united the regions inhabited by South Slavic nations – with the key exception of Bulgaria – into a single state. The concept of Yugoslavia, a state for all South Slavic peoples, emerged in the late 17th century. Little is known about the Slavs before the 5th century and their history prior to this can only be tentatively hypothesized via archeological and linguistic studies. Much of what we know about their history after the 6th century is from the works of Byzantine historians, in his work De Bellis, Procopius portrays the Sclavini as unusually tall and strong, with a tan complexion and reddish-blonde hair, living a rugged and primitive life. They lived in huts, often distant from one another and often changed their place of abode and they were not ruled by a single leader, but for a long time lived in a democracy. John of Ephesus, in his Ecclesiastical History portrays the Slavs as extremely violent people and they probably believed in many Gods, but Procopius suggests they believed in one, perhaps supreme god. He has often been identified as Perun, the creator of lightning, the Slavs went into battle on foot, charging straight at their enemy, armed with spears and small shields, but they did not wear armour. The lack of understanding may be attributed to matrilineal succession practiced among Southern Slavs and they made their homes in forests, by rivers and wetlands. Jordanes states that the Slavs have their homelands on the Danube, scholars have traditionally placed the Slavic Urheimat in the Pripet marshes of Ukraine, or alternatively between the Bug and the Dniepr. In the 5th century Slavs are mentioned as living north of the Danube in the sources from that era. From the 5th century, they supposedly spread outward in all directions, the Balkans was one of the regions which lay in the path of the expanding Slavs. Regarding the Slavs mentioned by 6th-century Byzantine chroniclers, Florin Curta states that their homeland was north of the Danube and he clarifies that their itinerant form of agriculture may have encouraged mobility on a micro regional scale. Material culture from the Danube suggests that there was an evolution of Slavic society between the early 7th century and the 8th century, as the Byzantines re-asserted the Danubian defences in the mid 6th century, the Slavs yield of pillaged goods dropped. As a reaction to this isolation, and external threats, political. As community elites rose to prominence, they came to embody a collective interest, if that group identity can be called ethnicity, and if that ethnicity can be called Slavic, then it certainly formed in the shadow of Justinians forts, not in the Pripet marshes. The Byzantines broadly grouped the numerous Slav tribes into two groups, the Sclaveni and Antes and they are both first encountered in the lower Danube region
South Slavs
–
The
Iron Gate on the Serbo-Romanian border
South Slavs
–
South Slavic countries Other
Slavic countries
South Slavs
–
Saints Methodius and Cyril, are credited with devising the
Glagolitic alphabet, the first alphabet used to transcribe the
Old Church Slavonic language.
South Slavs
–
Map showing the expansion of the
Bosnian Kingdom
42.
Serbs
–
The Serbs are a South Slavic ethnic group that formed in the Balkans. The majority of Serbs inhabit the state of Serbia, as well as Bosnia and Herzegovina. They form significant minorities in Croatia, Macedonia and Slovenia, there is a large Serb diaspora in Western Europe, and outside Europe there are significant communities in North America and Australia. The Serbs share many traits with the rest of the peoples of Southeast Europe. They are predominantly Eastern Orthodox Christians by religion, the Serbian language is official in Serbia, co-official in Kosovo and Bosnia and Herzegovina, and is spoken by the majority in Montenegro. The modern identity of Serbs is rooted in Eastern Orthodoxy and traditions, in the 19th century, the Serbian national identity was manifested, with awareness of history and tradition, medieval heritage, cultural unity, despite living under different empires. When the Principality of Serbia gained independence from the Ottoman Empire, Orthodoxy became crucial in defining the national identity, instead of language which was shared by other South Slavs. The tradition of slava, the family saint feast day, is an important ethnic marker of Serb identity, the origin of the ethnonym is unclear. Serbia has among the tallest people in the world, after Montenegro and Netherlands, Slavs invaded and settled the Balkans in the 6th and 7th centuries. Up until the late 560s their activity was raiding, crossing from the Danube, the Danube and Sava frontier was overwhelmed by large-scale Slavic settlement in the late 6th and early 7th century. What is today central Serbia was an important geo-strategical province, through which the Via Militaris crossed and this area was frequently intruded by barbarians in the 5th and 6th centuries. The numerous Slavs mixed with and assimilated the descendants of the indigenous population, numerous small Serbian states were created, located in modern Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, and Serbia. With the decline of the Serbian state of Duklja in the late 11th century, Raška separated from it, prince Stefan Nemanja conquered the neighbouring territories of Kosovo, Duklja and Zachlumia. The Nemanjić dynasty ruled over Serbia until the 14th century, over the next 140 years, Serbia expanded its borders. Its cultural model remained Byzantine, despite political ambitions directed against the empire, the medieval power and influence of Serbia culminated in the reign of Stefan Dušan, who ruled the state from 1331 until his death in 1355. Ruling as Emperor from 1346, his territory included Macedonia, northern Greece, Montenegro, when Dušan died, his son Stephen Uroš V became Emperor. With the death of two important Serb leaders in the battle, and with the death of Stephen Uroš that same year, hrebeljanović was subsequently accepted as the titular leader of the Serbs because he was married to a member of the Nemanjić dynasty. In 1389, the Serbs faced the Ottomans at the Battle of Kosovo on the plain of Kosovo Polje, both Lazar and Sultan Murad I were killed in the fighting
Serbs
Serbs
–
The 1389
Battle of Kosovo is considered as one of the most influential events in the history of the Serbs.
Serbs
–
Serbian Army during its retreat towards Albania; more than a million Serbs died during
World War I.
Serbs
–
Serbian civilians interned in
Jasenovac concentration camp, 1942
43.
Royal Frankish Annals
–
The Royal Frankish Annals are Latin annals composed in Carolingian Francia, recording year-by-year the state of the monarchy from 741 to 829. The Annals are believed to have composed in successive sections by different authors. Copies of the annals can be categorized into five classes, based on additions and revisions to the text, of the three kings—Pepin, Charlemagne, and Louis—Charlemagne’s military chronicles are the most detailed, covering his victories against the Saxons, Bretons, and other peoples. Its destruction is a point in the annals, written to continue a jingoistic theme of Frankish triumphs against the “un-Frankish”. The unrevised text neglects to mention defeats suffered by Charlemagne, such as the Battle of Roncevaux Pass in 778, the Battle of Süntel is portrayed in the annals as a victory, as opposed to a crushing Frankish defeat at the hands of the Saxons. The 792 conspiracy of Pepin the Hunchback against Charlemagne is also omitted, the revised text, however, incorporates these events while maintaining a positive tone towards the emperor, presented as a peerless leader in battle. Charlemagne’s son, Louis the Pious, is shown engaging in battle by the annalists. The contrast between Louis and his father and grandfather is clear, such references to striking natural phenomena, strange happenings, and miracles become increasingly common in the annal entries for the 9th century. In addition to astronomical oddities, such as eclipses, the supernatural begins to enter the account, set against almost ritualistic yearly notices of the passages of Christmas. Nearly two-dozen villages are reported to have destroyed by heavenly fire in 823. Scholz regards this preoccupation as a reflection of a belief in a divine will, many of the worse omens also parallel growing dissatisfaction with Louis the Pious, which immediately after the end of the annals spilled into civil war between him and his sons. A more detailed account of Einhard’s procurement of the relics exists in his Translation and Miracles of Marcellinus, additionally, the annals provide the only attestation to the existence of Charlemagne’s personal elephant Abul-Abbas, aside from a mention by Einhard drawn from the annals. The annals survive in versions, widely distributed across the Frankish empire. Each version is marked with distinguishing features, and based on these features and this system still remains in use. The five classes of texts are lettered A through D, with an additional E class for the revised text. They are as follow, Class A texts end at the year 788, and are reflected in one of the earliest modern printings of the annals, that of Heinrich Canisius’s Francicorum Annalium fragmentum. Canisius also includes the years up to 793 in his printing, however, Class B texts go to, at the latest,813. Kurze notes that one of these was used by Regino of Prüm in his Chronicon, Class C texts are complete through 829
Royal Frankish Annals
–
Coronation in 752 of Pépin the Short by Boniface, Archbishop of Mainz
Royal Frankish Annals
–
"The destruction of Irminsul by Charlemagne" (1882) by
Heinrich Leutemann.
Royal Frankish Annals
–
Louis the Pious doing penance at
Attigny in 822
Royal Frankish Annals
–
Illustration of Einhard, to whom the revised text is often ascribed
44.
Dalmatia (Roman province)
–
Its name is probably derived from the name of an Illyrian tribe called the Dalmatae which lived in the central area of the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea. Originally this region was called Illyria or Illyricum, when it became one of the two parts of the Roman province of Illyricum it was renamed Dalmatia, its counterpart province being Pannonia. Later the province of Illyricum was dissolved and replaced by two provinces, Dalmatia and Pannonia. It is not clear when this happened, but plausibly it occurred during the reign of the emperor Vespasian, the region which run along the coast of the Adriatic Sea and extended inland on the Dinaric Alps was called Illyria by the Greeks. Originally the Romans also called it Illyria, the Romans fought three Illyrian Wars mainly against the kingdom of the Ardiaei in the south of the region. In 168 BC they abolished this kingdom, divided it into three republics, the area became a Roman protectorate. The central and northern area of the region engaged in piracy, in response to this, Octavian conducted a series of campaigns in Illyricum. The area became the Roman province of Illyricum probably in 27 BC, due to troubles in the northern part of the region in 16-10 BC, it became an imperial province. The administrative organisation of Illyricum was carried out late in the reign of Augustus, due to Octavian having subdued the more inland region of Pannonia, the Romans changed the name of the coastal area to Dalmatia. Illyricum was composed of Dalmatia and Pannonia, in 6-9 AD there was a large scale rebellion in the province of Illyricum, the Bellum Batonianum. The province of Illyricum was eventually dissolved and replaced by two provinces, Dalmatia and Pannonia. It is unclear when this happened, some other diplomas attest the same. This was during the reign of Nero, therefore, Šašel-Kos supports the notion that the province was dissolved during the reign of Vespasian. In 337, when Constantine the Great died, the Roman Empire was partitioned among his sons, the empire was divided into three praetorian prefectures, the Galliae, Italia, Africa et Illyricum and Oriens. The size of the provinces had been decreased and their number doubled by Diocletian, the provinces were also grouped in dioceses. Dalmatia became one of the seven provinces of the diocese of Pannonia, initially, it was under the praetorian preacture of Italy, Africa and Illyricum. Sirmium, the capital of the praetorian prefecture of Illyricum, was the birthplace of the Roman Emperor Diocletian. After he abdicated, he built Diocletians Palace in Salona, german historian Theodore Mommsen wrote that coastal Dalmatia and its islands were fully romanized and Latin-speaking by the 4th century
Dalmatia (Roman province)
–
Independent Dalmatia - Extent of Marcellinus' Control (454-468) and Julius Nepos' Control (468-480).
Dalmatia (Roman province)
–
Province of Dalmatia highlighted
45.
Duklja
–
Between 1043 and 1080, under Mihailo Vojislavljević, and his son, Constantine Bodin, Duklja saw its apogee. Mihailo was given the nominal title King of Slavs by the Pope after having left the Byzantine camp and supported a Slavic uprising in the Balkans, in which his son Bodin played a central part. Having incorporated the Serbian hinterland and installed vassal rulers there, this maritime principality emerged as the most powerful Serb polity, between 1113 and 1149 Duklja was the centre of Serbian–Byzantine conflict, with members of the Vojislavljević as protégés of either fighting each other for power. In historiography, K. Jirechek was the first to use Duklja, Doclea was originally the name of the Roman city on the site of modern Podgorica, built by Roman Emperor Diocletian, who hailed from this region of Roman Dalmatia. The Romanized Illyrian tribe known as Docleatae that inhabited the area derived their name from the city, in later centuries, the Romans hypercorrected the name to Dioclea, wrongly guessing that an i had been lost due to vulgar speech patterns. Duklja is the later Slavic version of the name of this region, the demonym, or tribal name, appearing in De Administrando Imperio was Dioklitianoi. According to De Administrando Imperio, in chapter 35, Diokleia included the large, inhabited cities of Gradetai, Nougrade, Gradetai may have been Starigrad, Nougrad may have been Prevlaka, while the location of Lontodokla is uncertain. Since the 12th century, the term Zeta began to replace the name Duklja, DAI mentions Croats and Serbs having settled the Western Balkans, the Serbs having founded baptized Serbia which included the land of Bosna. The other Serb-inhabited lands that were mentioned in the DAI included the maritime Paganija, Zahumlje and Travunija, all of the maritime lands bordered Serbia to the north. The DAI has been a widely used source in reconstructing the earliest histories of the South Slavic states, the DAI claims that Duklja had been made desolate by the Avars and repopulated in the time of the Emperor Heraclius, just as were Croatia and Serbia, by Slavs. Fine argues given that Serbs settled in regions along its borders, ivo Banac proposed that the DAI mention that a part of the Croats split off and took control of Illyricum and Pannonia after settling northern Dalmatia could be connected to Duklja. The dubious Chronicle of the Priest of Duklja, compiled in 1298–1301 by a Cistercian monk in the service of Paul I Šubić of Bribir, refers to Croats in southern Dalmatia. If this is not mere Byzantine confusion over Serbs and Croats, scholars have debated at length as to the reliability of such sources. Ultimately, the origins of Duklja are not known with certainty, moreover, what actually constituted a people in the Middle Ages has been rigorously debated. There is no evidence that peoples known as Serbs or Croats migrated en masse as coherent nations. Rather, some sort of group identity began to form within the Balkans from the late 7th century as Slavic notables formed a system of alliances and this coincides with the final demise of Avar hegemony over the western Balkans. At the same time, the Byzantines had begun to re-establish some control in parts of the Balkans after the 7th century collapse of imperial control, the establishment of the Byzantine theme of Dyrrhachium facilitated diplomatic contacts between the East Romans and the Adriatic Sclaviniae. There is little evidence that a notion of nation-type ethnicity
Duklja
–
Lead stamp of archont Petar (or Predimir) (9th century), a Byzantine viceroy; The Holy Virgin Mary with the Christ Child (left) and inscription in
Greek "+ Petar archont of Dioklia AMIN" (right).
Duklja
–
Duklja within confederacy of Slav principalities during the reign of Časlav Klonimirović, c. 950 AD
Duklja
–
Mihailo I of Duklja, the first recognized ruler of Duklja on a fresco in the Church of St. Michael in
Ston: He was crowned King of Slavs and known as Ruler of Serbs and Tribals. [
by whom?]
Duklja
–
The Church of St. Mihailo in
Ston from 1080, a foundation of King
Mihailo Voislav.
46.
Travunia
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Travunija or Travunia was a medieval principality that was part of Medieval Serbia, and later the Bosnian Kingdom. The principality became hereditary in a number of houses, often kin to the ruling dynasty. The region came under Ottoman rule in 1482 and its seat was in the city of Trebinje. In the 9th and 10th centuries, the Župa of Travunia was held by the Belojević noble family, after the death of Časlav, the last dynastic member, the principality disintegrated, and the provinces were annexed by the Bulgars and Byzantines. In 1034, Stefan Vojislav incited a rebellion and renounced Byzantine rule, becoming the Prince of Serbs, ruling from the seat at Duklja. Trebinje continued under the Bosnian crown in the hands of the Pavlović family, then in 1435, it part of the Duchy of Saint Sava of the Kosača family. Vladislav Hercegović was the last office holder of the region, before it was annexed in 1482 by the Ottomans, the Slavs invaded the Balkans during the reign of Justinian I, when eventually up to 100,000 Slavs raided Thessalonica. The Western Balkans was settled with Sclaveni, the east with Antes, the Sklavenoi plunder Thrace in 545, and again the next year. In 551, the Slavs crossed Niš initially headed for Thessalonica, in 577 some 100,000 Slavs poured into Thrace and Illyricum, pillaging cities and then settling down. Charlemagne, King of the Franks from 768 until his death in 814, expanded the Frankish kingdom into an empire that incorporated much of western, Dalmatia which was southeast of the Frankish empire, was in the hands of the Croats and Serbs. Radoslav of Serbia or his son was the ruler of Serbia during the uprisings of Ljudevit Posavski against the Franks, according to the Royal Frankish Annals, in 822, Ljudevit went from his seat in Sisak to the Serbs who controlled a great part of Dalmatia. In late 870s, the Theme of Dalmatia was established, with the strategos seated at Dubrovnik. These small cities in the region did not stretch into the hinterlands, Trebinje is first attested in De Administrando Imperio by Constantine VII, when describing the geography of the Serbs. Travunia was a province of the Serbian Principality under the Vlastimirović Dynasty, the first known office holder was Beloje, a count, who ruled under Prince Vlastimir. In the mid 9th century, Vlastimir marries his daughter to Krajina, the son of Beloje, the Belojević noble family is entitled the rule of Travunia, Hvalimir, and his son Čučimir continue the office under the Serbian crown. Its coastline spanned from Dubrovnik to Boka Kotorska, with the death of Časlav, Serbia disintegrated and Duklja absorbed most of Rascia along with Zahumlje and Trebinje. The Catepanate of Ras was established during the rule of John Tzimiskes, a seal of a strategos of Ras has been dated to Tzimiskes reign, making it possible for Tzimiskes predecessor Nikephoros II Phokas to have enjoyed recognition in Rascia. In the 990s, Bulgarian Tsar Samuel made client states out of most of the Balkans, including Duklja, in 998, Samuel launched a major campaign against Jovan Vladimir to prevent a Byzantine-Serbian alliance
Travunia
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Border area Duklja and Travunija in the Bay of Kotor and churches from the 9th (red) and 10th–11th centuries (white)
Travunia
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Map of the Western Balkans around 814 AD.
47.
De Administrando Imperio
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De Administrando Imperio is the Latin title of a Greek work written by the 10th-century Eastern Roman Emperor Constantine VII. The Greek title of the work is Πρὸς τὸν ἴδιον υἱὸν Ρωμανόν and it is a domestic and foreign policy manual for the use of Constantines son and successor, the Emperor Romanos II. Constantine was a scholar-emperor, who sought to foster learning and education in the Eastern Roman Empire and he produced many other works, including De Ceremoniis, a treatise on the etiquette and procedures of the imperial court, and a biography of his grandfather, Basil I. De Administrando Imperio was written between 948 and 952 and it contains advice on running the ethnically-mixed empire as well as fighting foreign enemies. To this combination were added Constantines own political instructions to his son Romanus, as to the historical and geographic information, which is often confusing and filled with legends, this information is in essence reliable. The historical and antiquarian treatise, which the Emperor had compiled during the 940s, is contained in the chapters 12—40. This treatise contains traditional and legendary stories of how the surrounding the Empire came in the past to be occupied by the people living in them in the Emperors times. Chapters 1—8, 10—12 explain imperial policy toward the Pechenegs and Turks, chapter 13 is a general directive on foreign policy coming from the Emperor. Chapters 43—46 are about contemporary policy in the north-east, the guides to the incorporation and taxation of new imperial provinces, and to some parts of civil and naval administration, are in chapters 49—52. These later chapters were designed to give instructions to the emperor Romanus II. The books three similar but different accounts of the arrival of the Croats have confounded numerous historians since the 19th century. Historian Barbara M. Kreutz described the report found in the De Administrando Imperio that the Byzantines played a role in the 871 fall of the Emirate of Bari as a probable concoction. The earliest surviving copy, was made by John Doukas confidential secretary, Michael and this manuscript was copied in 1509 by Antony Eparchus, this copy known as V=codex Vaticanus-Palatinus gr. 126, has a number of notes in Greek and Latin, a third complete copy, known as F=codex Parisinus gr.2967, is itself a copy of V, which was begun by Eparchus and completed by Michael Damascene, V is undated. There is a fourth, but incomplete, manuscript known as M=codex Mutinensis gr,179, which is a copy of P made by Andrea Darmari between 1560 and 1586. Two of the manuscripts are now located in Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris, the partial manuscript is in Modena. The Greek text in its entirety was published seven times and this edition was published six years later with no changes. The language Constantine uses is rather straightforward High Medieval Greek, somewhat more elaborate than that of the Canonic Gospels, the only difficulty is the regular use of technical terms which, being in standard use at the time, may present prima facie hardships to a modern reader
De Administrando Imperio
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Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus in a 945 carved ivory.
Montenegro
