1.
Sediment
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For sediment in beverages, see dregs. For example, sand and silt can be carried in suspension in water and on reaching the sea be deposited by sedimentation. Sediments are most often transported by water, but also wind, beach sands and river channel deposits are examples of fluvial transport and deposition, though sediment also often settles out of slow-moving or standing water in lakes and oceans. Desert sand dunes and loess are examples of transport and deposition. Glacial moraine deposits and till are ice-transported sediments, sediment can be classified based on its grain size and/or its composition. Sediment size is measured on a log base 2 scale, called the Phi scale, composition of sediment can be measured in terms of, parent rock lithology mineral composition chemical make-up. This leads to an ambiguity in which clay can be used as both a size-range and a composition, sediment is transported based on the strength of the flow that carries it and its own size, volume, density, and shape. Stronger flows will increase the lift and drag on the particle, causing it to rise, rivers and streams carry sediment in their flows. This sediment can be in a variety of locations within the flow and these relationships are shown in the following table for the Rouse number, which is a ratio of sediment fall velocity to upwards velocity. If the upwards velocity is less than the settling velocity, but still high enough for the sediment to move, it will move along the bed as bed load by rolling, sliding. If the upwards velocity is higher than the velocity, the sediment will be transported high in the flow as wash load. As there are generally a range of different particle sizes in the flow, sediment motion can create self-organized structures such as ripples, dunes, antidunes on the river or stream bed. These bedforms are often preserved in rocks and can be used to estimate the direction. Overland flow can erode soil particles and transport them downslope, the erosion associated with overland flow may occur through different methods depending on meteorological and flow conditions. If the initial impact of rain droplets dislodges soil, the phenomenon is called rainsplash erosion, if overland flow is directly responsible for sediment entrainment but does not form gullies, it is called sheet erosion. If the flow and the substrate permit channelization, gullies may form, glaciers carry a wide range of sediment sizes, and deposit it in moraines. The overall balance between sediment in transport and sediment being deposited on the bed is given by the Exner equation and this expression states that the rate of increase in bed elevation due to deposition is proportional to the amount of sediment that falls out of the flow. This can be localized, and simply due to obstacles, examples are scour holes behind boulders, where flow accelerates
2.
Bay
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A bay is a recessed, coastal body of water that directly connects to a larger main body of water, such as an ocean, lake, or another bay. A large bay may be called a gulf, sea, sound, a cove is a type of smaller bay with a circular inlet and narrow entrance. A fjord is a particularly steep bay shaped by glacial activity, bays can be the estuary of a river, such as the Chesapeake Bay, an estuary of the Susquehanna River, which is the largest bay in North America. Bays may also be nested within each other, for example, some large bays, such as the Bay of Bengal and the Hudson Bay, have varied marine geology. The land surrounding a bay often reduces the strength of winds, bays were significant in the history of human settlement because they provided a safe place for fishing. Later they were important in the development of sea trade as the safe anchorage they provide encouraged their selection as ports, there are various ways from which bays can be created. The largest bays have developed as a result of plate tectonics, as the super-continent Pangaea broke up along curved and indented fault lines, the continents moved apart and the worlds largest bays formed. These include the Gulf of Guinea, Gulf of Mexico and the Bay of Bengal, another way bays form is via glacial and river erosion. A bay formed by a glacier is a fjord, rias are created by rivers and are characterised by more gradual slopes. Currents can make waves more constant, and soft rocks speed erosion, hard rock eroded less quickly, leaving headlands. The Gulf of California is an example of a bay created by plate tectonics as Baja California peninsula moves away from the Mexican mainland, Bay platform Great capes Headlands and bays
3.
Pebble
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A pebble is a clast of rock with a particle size of 2 to 64 millimetres based on the Krumbein phi scale of sedimentology. Pebbles are generally considered larger than granules and smaller than cobbles, a rock made predominantly of pebbles is termed a conglomerate. Pebble tools are among the earliest known man-made artifacts, dating from the Palaeolithic period of human history, a beach composed chiefly of surface pebbles is commonly termed a shingle beach. This type of beach has armoring characteristics with respect to wave erosion, as well as ecological niches that provide habitat for animals and plants. Inshore banks of shingle exist in locations, such as the entrance to the River Ore. Pebbles come in colors and textures and can have streaks, known as veins. Pebbles are mostly smooth but, dependent on how frequently they come in contact with the sea, pebbles left above the high water mark may have growths of organisms such as lichen on them, signifying the lack of contact with seawater. Pebbles are found in two locations – on the beaches of various oceans and seas, and inland where ancient seas used to cover the land, when then the seas retreated, the rocks became landlocked. They can also be found in lakes and ponds, pebbles can also form in rivers, and travel into estuaries where the smoothing continues in the sea. Beach pebbles and river pebbles are distinct in their geological formation, beach pebbles form gradually over time as the ocean water washes over loose rock particles. The result is a smooth, rounded appearance, the typical size range is from 2 mm to 50 mm. The colors range from translucent white to black, and include shades of yellow, brown, red and green. Some of the more plentiful pebble beaches are found along the coast of the Pacific Ocean, beginning in the United States and extending down to the tip of South America in Argentina. Other pebble beaches are found in northern Europe, along the coast of the U. K. and Ireland, on the shores of Australia, inland pebbles are usually found along the shores of large rivers and lakes. These pebbles form as the water washes over rock particles on the bottom. The smoothness and color of river pebbles depends on several factors, such as the composition of the soil of the banks, the chemical characteristics of the water. Because river current is gentler than the waves, river pebbles are usually not as smooth as beach pebbles. The most common colors of rock are black, grey, green, brown
4.
Node (physics)
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A node is a point along a standing wave where the wave has minimum amplitude. For instance, in a guitar string, the ends of the string are nodes. By changing the position of the end node through frets, the guitarist changes the length of the vibrating string. The opposite of a node is an anti-node, a point where the amplitude of the wave is a maximum. These occur midway between the nodes, standing waves result when two sinusoidal wave trains of the same frequency are moving in opposite directions in the same space and interfere with each other. In a standing wave the nodes are a series of locations at equally spaced intervals where the amplitude is zero. At these points the two waves add with opposite phase and cancel each other out and they occur at intervals of half a wavelength. Midway between each pair of nodes are locations where the amplitude is maximum, at these points the two waves add with the same phase and reinforce each other. In cases where the two opposite wave trains are not the amplitude, they do not cancel perfectly, so the amplitude of the standing wave at the nodes is not zero. This occurs when the reflection at the boundary is imperfect and this is indicated by a finite standing wave ratio, the ratio of the amplitude of the wave at the antinode to the amplitude at the node. These can be visible by sprinkling sand on the surface. In transmission lines a voltage node is a current antinode, in this type the derivative of the waves amplitude is forced to zero at the boundary. So there is a maximum at the boundary, the first node occurs a quarter wavelength from the end. A sound wave consists of alternating cycles of compression and expansion of the wave medium, during compression, the molecules of the medium are forced together, resulting in the increased pressure and density. During expansion the molecules are forced apart, resulting in the decreased pressure, the number of nodes in a specified length is directly proportional to the frequency of the wave. Occasionally on a guitar, violin, or other stringed instrument, when the finger is placed on top of the string at a certain point, but does not push the string all the way down to the fretboard, a third node is created and a harmonic is sounded. During normal play when the frets are used, the harmonics are always present, with the artificial node method, the overtone is louder and the fundamental tone is quieter. If the finger is placed at the midpoint of the string, the first overtone is heard, when two additional nodes divide the string into thirds, this creates an octave and a perfect fifth
5.
Undertone series
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In music, the undertone series or subharmonic series is a sequence of notes that results from inverting the intervals of the overtone series. While overtones naturally occur with the production of music on instruments. The overtone series being a series, the undertone series is based on arithmetic division. The hybrid term subharmonic is used in music and dynamics in a few different ways, in its pure sense, the term subharmonic refers strictly to any member of the subharmonic series. When the subharmonic series is used to refer to frequency relationships, the complex tones of acoustic instruments do not produce partials that resemble the subharmonic series. However, such tones can be produced artificially with audio software, subharmonics can be contrasted with harmonics. While harmonics can. occur in any system, there are. only fairly restricted conditions that will lead to the nonlinear phenomenon known as subharmonic generation. One way to define subharmonics is that they are. integral submultiples of the fundamental frequency, the human voice can also be forced into a similar driven resonance, also called “undertone singing”, to extend the range of the voice below what is normally available. The overtone series can be produced physically in two ways—either by overblowing a wind instrument, or by dividing a monochord string. If a monochord string is lightly damped at the point, then at 1/3, then 1/4, 1/5, etc. then the string will produce the overtone series. If instead, the length of the string is doubled in the opposite ratios, similarly, on a wind instrument, if the holes are equally spaced, each successive hole covered will produce the next note in the undertone series. In addition, José Sotorrio showed that undertones could be made through the use of an oscillator such as a tuning fork. If that oscillator is gently forced to vibrate against a sheet of paper it will make contact at various audible modes of vibration. The tritare, a guitar with Y shaped strings, cause subharmonics too and this can also be achieved by the extended technique of crossing two strings as some experimental jazz guitarists have developed. Also third bridge preparations on guitars cause timbres consisting of sets of high pitched overtones combined with a resonant tone of the unplugged part of the string. Subharmonics can be produced by signal amplification through loudspeakers, Subharmonic frequencies are frequencies below the fundamental frequency of an oscillator in a ratio of 1/n, with n a positive integer number. For example, if the frequency of an oscillator is 440 Hz, sub-harmonics include 220 Hz. Thus, they are an image of the harmonic series
6.
Computer simulation
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Computer simulations reproduce the behavior of a system using a model. Simulation of a system is represented as the running of the systems model and it can be used to explore and gain new insights into new technology and to estimate the performance of systems too complex for analytical solutions. The scale of events being simulated by computer simulations has far exceeded anything possible using traditional paper-and-pencil mathematical modeling, other examples include a 1-billion-atom model of material deformation, a 2. Because of the computational cost of simulation, computer experiments are used to perform such as uncertainty quantification. A computer model is the algorithms and equations used to capture the behavior of the system being modeled, by contrast, computer simulation is the actual running of the program that contains these equations or algorithms. Simulation, therefore, is the process of running a model, thus one would not build a simulation, instead, one would build a model, and then either run the model or equivalently run a simulation. It was a simulation of 12 hard spheres using a Monte Carlo algorithm, Computer simulation is often used as an adjunct to, or substitute for, modeling systems for which simple closed form analytic solutions are not possible. The external data requirements of simulations and models vary widely, for some, the input might be just a few numbers, while others might require terabytes of information. Because of this variety, and because diverse simulation systems have common elements. Systems that accept data from external sources must be careful in knowing what they are receiving. While it is easy for computers to read in values from text or binary files, often they are expressed as error bars, a minimum and maximum deviation from the value range within which the true value lie. Even small errors in the data can accumulate into substantial error later in the simulation. While all computer analysis is subject to the GIGO restriction, this is true of digital simulation. Indeed, observation of this inherent, cumulative error in digital systems was the main catalyst for the development of chaos theory, another way of categorizing models is to look at the underlying data structures. For time-stepped simulations, there are two classes, Simulations which store their data in regular grids and require only next-neighbor access are called stencil codes. Many CFD applications belong to this category, if the underlying graph is not a regular grid, the model may belong to the meshfree method class. Equations define the relationships between elements of the system and attempt to find a state in which the system is in equilibrium. Such models are used in simulating physical systems, as a simpler modeling case before dynamic simulation is attempted
7.
Centre national de la recherche scientifique
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The French National Center for Scientific Research is the largest governmental research organisation in France and the largest fundamental science agency in Europe. It employs 32,000 permanent employees and 6,000 temporary workers, the National Committee for Scientific Research, which is in charge of the recruitment and evaluation of researchers, is divided into 47 sections. Research groups are affiliated with one institute and an optional secondary institute. For administrative purposes, the CNRS is divided into 18 regional divisions, CNRS research units are called laboratoires informally and unités de recherche in administrative parlance. They are either operated solely by CNRS or UPR) or in association with other institutions, each research unit has a unique numeric code attached and is headed by a director. A research unit may be subdivided into research groups, CNRS also has support units, which, analogously to the research units, are called unités propres de service or unités mixtes de service. A UPS or UMS may for instance supply administrative, computing, library, the headquarters of CNRS are at the Campus Gérard Mégie in the 16th arrondissement of Paris. Researchers who are permanent employees of the CNRS are classified in two categories, in order of seniority, Research scientists, 2nd class, 1st class, Research directors, 2nd class, 1st class, exceptional class. In principle, research directors tend to research groups. Employees for support activities include research engineers, studies engineers, assistant engineers, contrary to what the name would seem to imply, these can have administrative duties. All permanent support employees are recruited through annual nationwide competitive campaigns, following a 1983 reform, the candidates selected have the status of civil servants and are part of the public service. The CNRS is represented with administrative offices in Brussels, Beijing, Tokyo, Singapore, Washington, bonn, Moscow, Tunis, Johannesburg, Santiago de Chile, Israel, and New Delhi. The CNRS was created on 19 October 1939 by decree of President Albert Lebrun, since 1954, the centre has annually awarded gold, silver, and bronze medals to French scientists and junior researchers. The performance of the CNRS has been questioned, with calls for wide-ranging reforms, in particular, the effectiveness of the recruitment, compensation, career management, and evaluation procedures have been under scrutiny. Governmental projects include the transformation of the CNRS into an organ allocating support to projects on an ad hoc basis. Another controversial plan advanced by the government involves breaking up the CNRS into six separate institutes, alain Fuchs was appointed president on 20 January 2010. His position combines the positions of president and director general
8.
France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
9.
United States Navy
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The United States Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The U. S. Navy is the largest, most capable navy in the world, the U. S. Navy has the worlds largest aircraft carrier fleet, with ten in service, two in the reserve fleet, and three new carriers under construction. The service has 323,792 personnel on duty and 108,515 in the Navy Reserve. It has 274 deployable combat vessels and more than 3,700 operational aircraft as of October 2016, the U. S. Navy traces its origins to the Continental Navy, which was established during the American Revolutionary War and was effectively disbanded as a separate entity shortly thereafter. It played a role in the American Civil War by blockading the Confederacy. It played the role in the World War II defeat of Imperial Japan. The 21st century U. S. Navy maintains a global presence, deploying in strength in such areas as the Western Pacific, the Mediterranean. The Navy is administratively managed by the Department of the Navy, the Department of the Navy is itself a division of the Department of Defense, which is headed by the Secretary of Defense. The Chief of Naval Operations is an admiral and the senior naval officer of the Department of the Navy. The CNO may not be the highest ranking officer in the armed forces if the Chairman or the Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The mission of the Navy is to maintain, train and equip combat-ready Naval forces capable of winning wars, deterring aggression, the United States Navy is a seaborne branch of the military of the United States. The Navys three primary areas of responsibility, The preparation of naval forces necessary for the prosecution of war. The development of aircraft, weapons, tactics, technique, organization, U. S. Navy training manuals state that the mission of the U. S. Armed Forces is to prepare and conduct prompt and sustained combat operations in support of the national interest, as part of that establishment, the U. S. Navys functions comprise sea control, power projection and nuclear deterrence, in addition to sealift duties. It follows then as certain as that night succeeds the day, that without a decisive naval force we can do nothing definitive, the Navy was rooted in the colonial seafaring tradition, which produced a large community of sailors, captains, and shipbuilders. In the early stages of the American Revolutionary War, Massachusetts had its own Massachusetts Naval Militia, the establishment of a national navy was an issue of debate among the members of the Second Continental Congress. Supporters argued that a navy would protect shipping, defend the coast, detractors countered that challenging the British Royal Navy, then the worlds preeminent naval power, was a foolish undertaking. Commander in Chief George Washington resolved the debate when he commissioned the ocean-going schooner USS Hannah to interdict British merchant ships, and reported the captures to the Congress
10.
United States Marine Corps
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The U. S. Marine Corps is one of the four armed service branches in the U. S. Department of Defense and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The current Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, the military officer in the U. S. Armed Forces, is a Marine Corps general, the Marine Corps has been a component of the U. S. Department of the Navy since 30 June 1834, working closely with naval forces for training, transportation, and logistics. The USMC operates posts on land and aboard sea-going amphibious warfare ships around the world, two battalions of Continental Marines were formed on 10 November 1775 in Philadelphia as a service branch of infantry troops capable of fighting for independence both at sea and on shore. The role of the Corps has since grown and evolved, expanding to aerial warfare and earning popular titles such as, Americas third air force, and, second land army. By the mid-20th century, the U. S. Marine Corps had become a major theorist of and its ability to rapidly respond on short notice to expeditionary crises gives it a strong role in the implementation and execution of American foreign policy. As of 2016, the USMC has around 182,000 active duty members and it is the smallest of the U. S. The USMC serves as an expeditionary force-in-readiness and this last clause, while seemingly redundant given the Presidents position as Commander-in-chief, is a codification of the expeditionary responsibilities of the Marine Corps. It derives from similar language in the Congressional acts For the Better Organization of the Marine Corps of 1834, in 1951, the House of Representatives Armed Services Committee called the clause one of the most important statutory – and traditional – functions of the Marine Corps. In addition to its duties, the Marine Corps conducts Visit, Board, Search, and Seizure operations, as well as missions in direct support of the White House. The Marine Band, dubbed the Presidents Own by Thomas Jefferson, Marines from Ceremonial Companies A & B, quartered in Marine Barracks, Washington, D. C. The Executive Flight Detachment also provides transport to Cabinet members. The relationship between the Department of State and the U. S. Marine Corps is nearly as old as the corps itself, for over 200 years, Marines have served at the request of various Secretaries of State. After World War II, an alert, disciplined force was needed to protect American embassies, consulates, in 1947, a proposal was made that the Department of War furnish Marine Corps personnel for Foreign Service guard duty under the provisions of the Foreign Service Act of 1946. A formal Memorandum of Agreement was signed between the Department of State and the Secretary of the Navy on December 15,1948, during the first year of the MSG program,36 detachments were deployed worldwide. Continental Marines manned raiding parties, both at sea and ashore, the Advanced Base Doctrine of the early 20th century codified their combat duties ashore, outlining the use of Marines in the seizure of bases and other duties on land to support naval campaigns. Throughout the late 19th and 20th centuries, Marine detachments served aboard Navy cruisers, battleships, Marine detachments served in their traditional duties as a ships landing force, manning the ships weapons and providing shipboard security. Marines would develop tactics and techniques of amphibious assault on defended coastlines in time for use in World War II, during World War II, Marines continued to serve on capital ships
11.
Video
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Video is an electronic medium for the recording, copying, playback, broadcasting, and display of moving visual media. Video systems vary greatly in the resolution of the display and refresh rate, video can be carried on a variety of media, including radio broadcast, tapes, DVDs, computer files etc. Video was originally exclusively a live technology, charles Ginsburg led an Ampex research team developing one of the first practical video tape recorder. In 1951 the first video tape recorder captured live images from television cameras by converting the electrical impulses. Video recorders were sold for $50,000 in 1956, however, prices gradually dropped over the years, in 1971, Sony began selling videocassette recorder decks and tapes into the consumer market. The use of techniques in video created digital video, which allowed higher quality and, eventually. After the invention of the DVD in 1997 and Blu-ray Disc in 2006, sales of videotape, the advent of digital broadcasting and the subsequent digital television transition is in the process of relegating analog video to the status of a legacy technology in most parts of the world. PAL standards and SECAM specify 25 frame/s, while NTSC standards specify 29.97 frames, film is shot at the slower frame rate of 24 frames per second, which slightly complicates the process of transferring a cinematic motion picture to video. The minimum frame rate to achieve a comfortable illusion of an image is about sixteen frames per second. Video can be interlaced or progressive, analog display devices reproduce each frame in the same way, effectively doubling the frame rate as far as perceptible overall flicker is concerned. NTSC, PAL and SECAM are interlaced formats, abbreviated video resolution specifications often include an i to indicate interlacing. For example, PAL video format is specified as 576i50, where 576 indicates the total number of horizontal scan lines, i indicates interlacing. In progressive scan systems, each refresh period updates all scan lines in each frame in sequence, when displaying a natively progressive broadcast or recorded signal, the result is optimum spatial resolution of both the stationary and moving parts of the image. Deinterlacing cannot, however, produce video quality that is equivalent to true progressive scan source material, aspect ratio describes the dimensions of video screens and video picture elements. All popular video formats are rectilinear, and so can be described by a ratio between width and height, the screen aspect ratio of a traditional television screen is 4,3, or about 1.33,1. High definition televisions use a ratio of 16,9. The aspect ratio of a full 35 mm film frame with soundtrack is 1.375,1. Therefore, a 720 by 480 pixel NTSC DV image displayes with the 4,3 aspect ratio if the pixels are thin, the popularity of viewing video on mobile phones has led to the growth of vertical video
12.
Duck, North Carolina
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Duck is a town in Dare County, North Carolina, United States. As of the 2010 census the year round population was 369, during the peak vacation season, starting after Memorial Day, the population increases to over 20,000. Duck is the northernmost incorporated town in Dare County and the Outer Banks newest town, Duck is located along the northern Outer Banks, between the Atlantic Ocean to the east and Currituck Sound to the west. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has an area of 3.7 square miles, of which 2.4 square miles is land and 1.3 square miles. Originally part of Currituck County to the north, the stretch of the Outer Banks which includes Duck was transferred to Dare County in the early 20th century, the region was named for the many ducks and waterfowl in the area. The town park is a facility with trails through the maritime forest. It also has an amphitheater, playground, picnic shelter, the town has built a boardwalk which can be accessed from the park and through the commercial village. The boardwalk extends 0.78 miles along Currituck Sound, ducks beach was named one of the Top 15 Family-Friendly Beaches in America. In October Duck hosts its annual Jazz Festival, during the summer months, the town offers over 60 events and programs including Yoga on the Green, Movies on the Sound, a family magic show, live concerts and interactive theater. Programs are free and open to the public, the town of Duck encourages people to play an active role in their government. There are regular scheduled town meetings with the Town Council, where the public can address them on any matter they feel needs to be discussed, the community can also get involved and express their thoughts and concerns through attending council meetings and participating in public hearings. A two-day annual Council Retreat is held typically in February and is open to the public, the Town of Duck records council meetings and makes them available to view on the Town of Duck YouTube channel. In 1984, the North Carolina General Assembly established Duck as a North Carolina Beautification District, as such, an ad valorem tax could be levied to beautify the district and/or protect its citizens. Initially, a tax was levied for the purpose of providing for the installation of power lines throughout the community. This action prevented the company from installing 30-foot-high concrete poles along Duck Road. The result was a skyline, increased safety for evacuation from the area. From 1986 to 1988, the community agreed to levy a tax for a period to pay for the construction costs of a 7-mile multiple-use trail. These funds were augmented by a $30,000 grant received by the Duck Civic Association from the Dare County Tourism Bureau, the State Department of Transportation was also a major participant in obtaining easements and contracting for the trail installation
13.
North Carolina
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North Carolina is a state in the southeastern region of the United States. The state borders South Carolina and Georgia to the south, Tennessee to the west, Virginia to the north, North Carolina is the 28th most extensive and the 9th most populous of the U. S. states. The state is divided into 100 counties, the most populous municipality is Charlotte, which is the second largest banking center in the United States after New York City. The state has a range of elevations, from sea level on the coast to 6,684 feet at Mount Mitchell. The climate of the plains is strongly influenced by the Atlantic Ocean. Most of the falls in the humid subtropical climate zone. More than 300 miles from the coast, the western, mountainous part of the state has a highland climate. North Carolina is bordered by South Carolina on the south, Georgia on the southwest, Tennessee on the west, Virginia on the north, the United States Census Bureau places North Carolina in the South Atlantic division of the southern region. So many ships have been lost off Cape Hatteras that the area is known as the Graveyard of the Atlantic, the most famous of these is the Queen Annes Revenge, which went aground in Beaufort Inlet in 1718. The coastal plain transitions to the Piedmont region along the Atlantic Seaboard fall line, the Piedmont region of central North Carolina is the states most populous region, containing the six largest cities in the state by population. It consists of rolling countryside frequently broken by hills or low mountain ridges. The Piedmont ranges from about 300 feet in elevation in the east to about 1,500 feet in the west, the western section of the state is part of the Appalachian Mountain range. Among the subranges of the Appalachians located in the state are the Great Smoky Mountains, Blue Ridge Mountains, the Black Mountains are the highest in the eastern United States, and culminate in Mount Mitchell at 6,684 feet, the highest point east of the Mississippi River. North Carolina has 17 major river basins, the five basins west of the Blue Ridge Mountains flow to the Gulf of Mexico, while the remainder flow to the Atlantic Ocean. Of the 17 basins,11 originate within the state of North Carolina, but only four are contained entirely within the states border – the Cape Fear, the Neuse, the White Oak, and the Tar-Pamlico basin. Elevation above sea level is most responsible for temperature change across the state, the climate is also influenced by the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf Stream, especially in the coastal plain. These influences tend to cause warmer winter temperatures along the coast, the coastal plain averages around 1 inch of snow or ice annually, and in many years, there may be no snow or ice at all. North Carolina experiences severe weather in summer and winter, with summer bringing threat of hurricanes, tropical storms, heavy rain
14.
Day
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In common usage, it is either an interval equal to 24 hours or daytime, the consecutive period of time during which the Sun is above the horizon. The period of time during which the Earth completes one rotation with respect to the Sun is called a solar day, several definitions of this universal human concept are used according to context, need and convenience. In 1960, the second was redefined in terms of the motion of the Earth. The unit of measurement day, redefined in 1960 as 86400 SI seconds and symbolized d, is not an SI unit, but is accepted for use with SI. The word day may also refer to a day of the week or to a date, as in answer to the question. The life patterns of humans and many species are related to Earths solar day. In recent decades the average length of a day on Earth has been about 86400.002 seconds. A day, understood as the span of time it takes for the Earth to make one rotation with respect to the celestial background or a distant star, is called a stellar day. This period of rotation is about 4 minutes less than 24 hours, mainly due to tidal effects, the Earths rotational period is not constant, resulting in further minor variations for both solar days and stellar days. Other planets and moons have stellar and solar days of different lengths to Earths, besides the day of 24 hours, the word day is used for several different spans of time based on the rotation of the Earth around its axis. An important one is the day, defined as the time it takes for the Sun to return to its culmination point. Because the Earth orbits the Sun elliptically as the Earth spins on an inclined axis, on average over the year this day is equivalent to 24 hours. A day, in the sense of daytime that is distinguished from night-time, is defined as the period during which sunlight directly reaches the ground. The length of daytime averages slightly more than half of the 24-hour day, two effects make daytime on average longer than nights. The Sun is not a point, but has an apparent size of about 32 minutes of arc, additionally, the atmosphere refracts sunlight in such a way that some of it reaches the ground even when the Sun is below the horizon by about 34 minutes of arc. So the first light reaches the ground when the centre of the Sun is still below the horizon by about 50 minutes of arc, the difference in time depends on the angle at which the Sun rises and sets, but can amount to around seven minutes. Ancient custom has a new day start at either the rising or setting of the Sun on the local horizon, the exact moment of, and the interval between, two sunrises or sunsets depends on the geographical position, and the time of year. A more constant day can be defined by the Sun passing through the local meridian, the exact moment is dependent on the geographical longitude, and to a lesser extent on the time of the year
15.
Hysteresis
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Hysteresis is the dependence of the state of a system on its history. For example, a magnet may have more than one possible magnetic moment in a magnetic field. Plots of a component of the moment often form a loop or hysteresis curve. This history dependence is the basis of memory in a disk drive. Hysteresis occurs in ferromagnetic and ferroelectric materials, as well as in the deformation of rubber bands and shape-memory alloys, in natural systems it is often associated with irreversible thermodynamic change such as phase transitions and with internal friction, and dissipation is a common side effect. Hysteresis can be found in physics, chemistry, engineering, biology and economics and it is incorporated in many artificial systems, for example, in thermostats and Schmitt triggers, it prevents unwanted frequent switching. Hysteresis can be a lag between an input and an output that disappears if the input is varied more slowly, this is known as rate-dependent hysteresis. However, phenomena such as the magnetic hysteresis loops are mainly rate-independent, systems with hysteresis are nonlinear, and can be mathematically challenging to model. The term hysteresis is derived from ὑστέρησις, an ancient Greek word meaning deficiency or lagging behind and it was coined around 1890 by Sir James Alfred Ewing to describe the behaviour of magnetic materials. Some early work on describing hysteresis in mechanical systems was performed by James Clerk Maxwell, subsequently, hysteretic models have received significant attention in the works of Ferenc Preisach, Louis Néel and D. H. Everett in connection with magnetism and absorption. A more formal theory of systems with hysteresis was developed in the 1970s by a group of Russian mathematicians led by Mark Krasnoselskii. One type of hysteresis is a lag between input and output. A simple example is a sinusoidal input X that results in a sinusoidal output Y and this kind of hysteresis is often referred to as rate-dependent hysteresis. If the input is reduced to zero, the continues to respond for a finite time. This constitutes a memory of the past, but a limited one because it disappears as the output decays to zero, the phase lag depends on the frequency of the input, and goes to zero as the frequency decreases. When rate-dependent hysteresis is due to effects like friction, it is associated with power loss. Systems with rate-independent hysteresis have a persistent memory of the past that remains after the transients have died out, the future development of such a system depends on the history of states visited, but does not fade as the events recede into the past. If an input variable X cycles from X0 to X1 and back again, the values of Y depend on the path of values that X passes through but not on the speed at which it traverses the path
16.
Cuspate foreland
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Cuspate forelands, also known as cuspate barriers or nesses in Britain, are geographical features found on coastlines and lakeshores that are created primarily by longshore drift. Formed by accretion and progradation of sand and shingle, they extend outwards from the shoreline in a triangular shape, some cuspate forelands may be stabilised by vegetation, while others may migrate down the shoreline. The debate involving how cuspate forelands form is ongoing, however, the most widely accepted process of formation involves long shore drift. Where longshore drift occurs in opposite directions, two merge into a triangular protrusion along a coastline or lakeshore. Their formation is dependent on dominant and prevailing winds working in opposite directions. Formation can also occur when waves are diffracted around a barrier, cuspate forelands can form both along coastlines and along lakeshores. Those formed along coastlines can be in the lee of an island, along a coastline that has no islands in the vicinity. A cuspate foreland can form in a strait or along a coastline that has no islands or shoals in the area, in this case, longshore drift as well as prevailing wind and waves bring sediment together from opposite directions. If there is an angle between the waves and the shoreline, the sediment converges, accumulates, and forms beach ridges. Over time, a cuspate foreland forms as a result of continued accretion and progradation, an example of this type of cuspate foreland is the one found at Dungeness along the southern coast of Britain. This cuspate foreland has formed as a result of the merging of SW waves from the English Channel, another example is the cuspate foreland found between Awatere River and White Bluffs in Marlborough, New Zealand. This foreland has ridges on the eastern and northern sides which face the prominent waves and this normally occurs across a river mouth. A cuspate foreland can form in the lee of an island, in this case, oncoming waves are diffracted around the island, protecting the coastline from the oncoming wave fronts. Sediments brought along the shoreline via longshore drift are then able to settle and this type of foreland has formed on the west shore of the North Island of New Zealand, in the lee of Kapiti Island. Waves refract around Kapiti Island, forming an area of low wave energy where sediment from the Waikanae River is able to settle, as well as forming along coastlines, cuspate forelands can also form along lake shores, although less is known about this type of cuspate foreland. This type of cuspate foreland includes Point Pelee along the shoreline of Lake Erie, there are two theories with regard to the formation of Point Pelee. Firstly, it is thought that Point Pelee has formed from depositional processes, alternatively, it is suggested that Point Pelee is a relic of a past feature that has eroded over time. This gap in knowledge provides the opportunity for further research and it is likely that Point Pelee is migrating westwards since accretion is occurring on the western side, and erosion is occurring on the eastern side
17.
Wayback Machine
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The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network
18.
Coastal geography
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Coastal geography is the study of the dynamic interface between the ocean and the land, incorporating both the physical geography and the human geography of the coast. It involves an understanding of coastal weathering processes, particularly wave action, sediment movement and weather, the waves of different strengths that constantly hit against the shoreline are the primary movers and shapers of the coastline. Despite the simplicity of process, the differences between waves and the rocks they hit result in hugely varying shapes. The effect that waves have depends on their strength, strong waves, also called destructive waves, occur on high-energy beaches and are typical of winter. They reduce the quantity of sediment present on the beach by carrying it out to bars under the sea, constructive, weak waves are typical of low-energy beaches and occur most during summer. They do the opposite to destructive waves and increase the size of the beach by piling sediment up onto the berm, one of the most important transport mechanisms results from wave refraction. Since waves rarely break onto a shore at right angles, the movement of water onto the beach occurs at an oblique angle. However, the return of water is at right angles to the beach and this movement is known as beach drift. The endless cycle of swash and backwash and resulting beach drift can be observed on all beaches, probably the most important effect is longshore drift, the process by which sediment is continuously moved along beaches by wave action. LSD occurs because waves hit the shore at an angle, pick up sediment on the shore, due to gravity, the water then falls back perpendicular to the beach, dropping its sediment as it loses energy. The sediment is then picked up by the wave and pushed slightly further down the beach. This is the reason why long strips of coast are covered in sediment, not just the areas around river mouths, LSD helps create many landforms including barrier islands, bay beaches and spits. Onshore winds blowing up the beach, pick up sand and move it up the beach to form sand dunes, rain hits the shore and erodes rocks, and carries weathered material to the shoreline to form beaches. Warm weather can encourage biological processes to more rapidly. In tropical areas some plants and animals protect stones from weathering, while other plants, temperatures that vary from below to above freezing point result in frost weathering, whereas weather more than a few degrees below freezing point creates sea ice. In tropical regions in particular, plants and animals not only affect the weathering of rocks but are a source of sediment themselves, the shells and skeletons of many organisms are of calcium carbonate and when this is broken down it forms sediment, limestone and clay. The main physical Weathering process on beaches is salt-crystal growth, wind carries salt spray onto rocks, where it is absorbed into small pores and cracks within the rocks. There the water evaporates and the salt crystallises, creating pressure, in some beaches calcium carbonate is able to bind together other sediments to form beachrock and in warmer areas dunerock
19.
Landform
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A landform is a natural feature of the solid surface of the Earth or other planetary body. Landforms together make up a given terrain, and their arrangement in the landscape is known as topography, landforms are categorized by characteristic physical attributes such as elevation, slope, orientation, stratification, rock exposure, and soil type. Oceans and continents exemplify the highest-order landforms, landform elements are parts of a high-order landforms that can be further identified and systematically given a cohesive definition such as hill-tops, shoulders, saddles, foreslopes and backslopes. Some generic landform elements including, pits, peaks, channels, ridges, passes, pools, Terrain is the third or vertical dimension of land surface. Topography is the study of terrain, although the word is used as a synonym for relief itself. When relief is described underwater, the term bathymetry is used, in cartography, many different techniques are used to describe relief, including contour lines and TIN. Elementary landforms are the smallest homogeneous divisions of the land surface and these are areas with relatively homogeneous morphometric properties, bounded by lines of discontinuity. A plateau or a hill can be observed at various scales ranging from few hundred meters to hundreds of kilometers, hence, the spatial distribution of landforms is often scale-dependent as is the case for soils and geological strata. A number of factors, ranging from plate tectonics to erosion and deposition, can generate, landforms do not include man-made features, such as canals, ports and many harbors, and geographic features, such as deserts, forests, and grasslands. Many of the terms are not restricted to refer to features of the planet Earth, examples are mountains, hills, polar caps, and valleys, which are found on all of the terrestrial planets. The scientific study of landforms is known as geomorphology, landforms may be extracted from a digital elevation model using some automated techniques where the data has been gathered by modern satellites and stereoscopic aerial surveillance cameras. Until recently, compiling the data found in data sets required time consuming. The most detailed DEMs available are measured directly using LIDAR techniques, geomorphology Land List of landforms Open-geomorphometry project Terrain Open-Geomorphometry Project
20.
Anchialine pool
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An anchialine pool or pond is a landlocked body of water with a subterranean connection to the ocean. Depending on the site, it is possible to access the deeper saline water directly in the anchialine pool or sometimes it may be accessible by cave diving. Water levels in anchialine pools often fluctuate with tidal changes due to the coastal location, the range in water levels fluctuations will be decreased and delayed compared to the range and time observed for the adjacent tide. The primary controls on the damping and lag are the distance from the coast, Anchialine pools are extremely common worldwide especially along neo-tropical coastlines where the geology and aquifer system are relatively young, and there is minimal soil development. Such conditions occur notably where the bedrock is limestone or recently formed volcanic lava, many anchialine pools are found on the coastlines of the island of Hawaii, and on the Yucatán Peninsula, where they are locally called cenotes as well as Christmas Island. Ecological studies of anchialine pools frequently identify regionally rare and sometimes endemic species living in them, in Hawaii, the pools are home to mostly the ʻōpaeʻula. The Sailors Hat crater created by an explosives test in 1965 is an anchialine pool, brackish water Cenote Anchialine Pool Information United States Geological Survey, National Park Service 2005 Anchialine Caves and Cave Fauna of the World
21.
Archipelago
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An archipelago, sometimes called an island group or island chain, is a chain, cluster or collection of islands. The word archipelago is derived from the Greek ἄρχι- – arkhi-, in Italian, possibly following a tradition of antiquity, the Archipelago was the proper name for the Aegean Sea and, later, usage shifted to refer to the Aegean Islands. It is now used to refer to any group or, sometimes. Archipelagos may be isolated in large amounts of water or neighbouring a large land mass. For example, Scotland has more than 700 islands surrounding its mainland which form an archipelago, archipelagos are often volcanic, forming along island arcs generated by subduction zones or hotspots, but may also be the result of erosion, deposition, and land elevation. Depending on their origin, islands forming archipelagos can be referred to as oceanic islands, continental fragments. Oceanic islands are mainly of volcanic origin, continental fragments correspond to land masses that have separated from a continental mass due to tectonic displacement. Indonesia, Japan, Taiwan, the Philippines, New Zealand, Maldives, the Bahamas, Greece, Hawaii, the largest archipelagic state in the world by area and population is Indonesia. Island arc List of landforms List of archipelagos by number of islands List of archipelagos List of islands Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Archipelago
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Atoll
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An atoll, sometimes called a coral atoll, is a ring-shaped coral reef including a coral rim that encircles a lagoon partially or completely. There may be coral islands/cays on the rim, the coral of the atoll often sits atop the rim of an extinct seamount or volcano which has eroded or subsided partially beneath the water. The lagoon forms over the crater or caldera while the higher rim remains above water or at shallow depths that permit the coral to grow. For the atoll to persist, continued erosion or subsidence must be at a slow enough to permit reef growth upwards and outwards to replace the lost height. The word atoll comes from the Dhivehi word atholhu, meaning an administrative subdivision, the distribution of atolls around the globe is instructive, most of the worlds atolls are in the Pacific Ocean and Indian Ocean. The Atlantic Ocean has no large groups of atolls, other than eight atolls east of Nicaragua that belong to the Colombian department of San Andres and Providencia in the Caribbean. Reef-building corals will thrive only in tropical and subtropical waters of oceans and seas. The northernmost atoll of the world is Kure Atoll at 28°24 N, the southernmost atolls of the world are Elizabeth Reef at 29°58 S, and nearby Middleton Reef at 29°29 S, in the Tasman Sea, both of which are part of the Coral Sea Islands Territory. The next southerly atoll is Ducie Island in the Pitcairn Islands Group, at this latitude coral reefs would not develop without the warming waters of the Gulf Stream. However, Bermuda is termed a pseudo-atoll because its general form, while there is no atoll directly on the equator, the closest atoll to the Equator is Aranuka of Kiribati, with its southern tip just 12 km north of the equator. In most cases, the area of an atoll is very small in comparison to the total area. Atoll islands are low lying, with their elevations less than 5 meters, measured by total area, Lifou is the largest raised coral atoll of the world, followed by Rennell Island. More sources however list as the largest atoll in the world in terms of land area Kiritimati, the remains of an ancient atoll as a hill in a limestone area is called a reef knoll. The second largest atoll by dry land area is Aldabra with 155 km², the largest atoll in terms of island numbers is Huvadhu Atoll in the south of the Maldives with 255 islands. In 1842, Charles Darwin explained the creation of coral atolls in the southern Pacific Ocean based upon observations made during a voyage aboard the HMS Beagle from 1831 to 1836. In time, subsidence carries the old volcano below the ocean surface, at this point, the island has become an atoll. Atolls are the product of the growth of marine organisms. Volcanic islands located beyond the water temperature requirements of hermatypic organisms become seamounts as they subside and are eroded away at the surface
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Avulsion (river)
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In sedimentary geology and fluvial geomorphology, avulsion is the rapid abandonment of a river channel and the formation of a new river channel. Avulsions occur as a result of channel slopes that are less steep than the slope that the river could travel if it took a new course. Avulsions are common in river deltas, where sediment deposits as the river enters the ocean and this process is also known as delta switching. Deposition from the results in the formation of an individual deltaic lobe that pushes out into the sea. An example of a deltaic lobe is the delta of the Mississippi River. As the deltaic lobe advances, the slope of the channel becomes lower because the river channel is longer but has the same change in elevation. As the slope of the channel decreases, it becomes unstable for two reasons. First, water under the force of gravity will tend to flow in the most direct course downslope, if the river could breach its natural levees, it would spill out onto a new course with a shorter route to the ocean, thereby obtaining a more stable steeper slope. This will make it easier for the river to breach its levees, when this avulsion occurs, the new channel carries sediment out to the ocean, building a new deltaic lobe. This process is related to the distributary network of river channels that can be observed within a river delta. When the channel does this, some of its flow can remain in the abandoned channel, when these channel switching events happen repeatedly over time, a mature delta will gain a distributary network. Subsidence of the delta and/or sea-level rise can further cause backwater and this deposition fills the channels and leaves a geologic record of channel avulsion in sedimentary basins. On average, an avulsion will occur every time the bed of a river channel aggrades enough that the channel is superelevated above the floodplain by one channel-depth. In this situation, enough hydraulic head is available that any breach of the levees will result in an avulsion. Rivers can also avulse due to the erosion of a new channel that creates a path through the landscape. This can happen during large floods in situations in which the slope of the new channel is significantly greater than that of the old channel. Where the new channels slope is about the same as the old channels slope, an example of an erosional avulsion is the 2006 avulsion of the Suncook River in New Hampshire, in which heavy rains caused flow levels to rise. An example of an avulsion is known as a meander cutoff
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Barrier island
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Barrier islands are coastal landforms and a type of dune system that are exceptionally flat or lumpy areas of sand that form by wave and tidal action parallel to the mainland coast. They usually occur in chains, consisting of anything from a few islands to more than a dozen and they are subject to change during storms and other action, but absorb energy and protect the coastlines and create areas of protected waters where wetlands may flourish. A barrier chain may extend uninterrupted for over a hundred kilometers, excepting the tidal inlets that separate the islands, the longest and widest being Padre Island of Texas. The length and width of barriers and overall morphology of barrier coasts are related to parameters including tidal range, wave energy, sediment supply, sea-level trends, the amount of vegetation on the barrier has a large impact on the height and evolution of the island. Chains of barrier islands can be found along approximately thirteen percent of the worlds coastlines and they display different settings, suggesting that they can form and be maintained in a variety of environmental settings. Numerous theories have been given to explain their formation, lower shoreface The shoreface is the part of the barrier where the ocean meets the shore of the island. The barrier island body itself separates the shoreface from the backshore, characteristics common to the lower shoreface are fine sands with mud and possibly silt. Further out into the ocean the sediment becomes finer, the effect from the waves at this point is weak because of the depth. Bioturbation is common and many fossils can be found here, middle shoreface The middle shore face is located in the upper shoreface. The middle shoreface is strongly influenced by wave action because of its depth, closer to shore the grain size will be medium size sands with shell pieces common. Since wave action is heavier, bioturbation is not likely, upper shoreface The upper shore face is constantly affected by wave action. This results in development of sedimentary structures because of the constant differing flow of waves. Foreshore The foreshore is the area on land between high and low tide, like the upper shoreface, it is constantly affected by wave action. Cross bedding and lamination are present and coarser sands are present because of the energy present by the crashing of the waves. The sand is very well sorted. Backshore The backshore is always above the highest water level point, the berm is also found here which marks the boundary between the foreshore and backshore. Wind is the important factor here, not water, during strong storms high waves and wind can deliver and erode sediment from the backshore. Dunes The dunes are typical of an island, located at the top of the backshore
25.
Baymouth bar
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A baymouth bar is a depositional feature as a result of longshore drift. It is a spit that completely closes access to a bay and it is different from a barrier island separating a lagoon because it closes the bay off completely, not partially. These bars usually consist of accumulated gravel and sand carried by the current of longshore drift, thus, they most commonly occur across artificial bay and river entrances due to the loss of kinetic energy in the current after wave refraction
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Bodden
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Bodden are briny bodies of water often forming lagoons, along the southwestern shores of the Baltic Sea, primarily in Germanys state of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. These lagoons can be found especially around the island of Rügen, Usedom, some of them are protected reserves, forming the Western Pomerania Lagoon Area National Park. They have a geological origin and are enclosed by peninsulae, spits and islands. During the Littorina Sea transgression, an island archipelago was formed by the carving of narrow glacial basins, Bodden were formed in a comparatively short period between spits and offshore sandbars. These shallow glacial scoops were then subjected to extensive sedimentation during the Holocene, the frequent movement of water can lead to a scouring effect, but can also with heavy pollution show a tendency toward eutrophication. Due to erosion of cliffs and sedimentary deposition, the shape of the bodden coasts remains unstable, sudden changes have been caused by stormfloods, which repeatedly closed connections to the sea or opened new ones in the past. While bodden-type bays can be found in Mecklenburg and Denmark, the most typical bodden are located off the Pomeranian mainland between the mouth of the Recknitz river and the island of Usedom, to the south, the Bay of Greifswald comprises Gristower Inwiek, Kooser See and Dänische Wieck. The bodden are important sanctuaries for many species of birds and are important resting places for migratory birds like cranes. This was the reason for the establishment of the Western Pomerania Lagoon Area National Park, traditionally bodden have been good fishing areas, rich in mesolithic community sites, in particular the Pomeranian bodden of Rügen, Greifswald and Peenestrom. From these waters anglers regularly land 10–15 kg pike, harvesting the Sea, Farming the Forest by Marek Zvelebil, Lucyna Domańska, Robin Dennell YouTube - Angling in the Bodden
27.
Cape (geography)
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In geography, a cape is a headland or a promontory of large size extending into a body of water, usually the sea. A cape usually represents a change in trend of the coastline. Their proximity to the makes them prone to natural forms of erosion. This results in capes having a relatively short geologic lifespan, capes can be formed by glaciers, volcanoes, and changes in sea level. Erosion plays a role in each of these methods of formation. Eritrea–Sudan Ras Kasar Ghana Cape Coast Liberia Cape Mesurado - The Cape on which Monrovia is located, separates the Golden Horn Bay from the Sea of Marmara
28.
Channel (geography)
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In physical geography, a channel is a type of landform consisting of the outline of a path of relatively shallow and narrow body of fluid, most commonly the confine of a river, river delta or strait. The word is cognate to canal, and sometimes shows in this form, most examples of this are fjords in the Pacific Northwest, a notable exception is the Casiquiare canal. All likely share borrowing from Spanish, Portuguese or French, channels can be either natural or human-made. A channel is typically outlined in terms of its bed and banks, Channel initiation refers to the site on a mountain slope where water begins to flow between identifiable banks. This site is referred to as the head and it marks an important boundary between hillslope processes and fluvial processes. The channel head is the most upslope part of a network and is defined by flowing water between defined identifiable banks. A channel head forms as overland flow and/or subsurface flow accumulate to a point where shear stress can overcome resistance of the ground surface. Channel heads are associated with colluvium, hollows and landslides. Overland flow is a factor in channel initiation where saturation overland flow deepens to increase shear stress. Overland flows converge in topographical depressions where channel initiation begins, soil composition, vegetation, precipitation, and topography dictate the amount and rate of overland flow. The composition of a soil determines how quickly saturation occurs and cohesive strength retards the entrainment of material from overland flows, vegetation slows infiltration rates during precipitation events and plant roots anchor soil on hillslopes. Subsurface flow destabilizes soil and resurfaces on hillslopes where channel heads are often formed and this often results in abrupt channel heads and landslides. Natural channels are formed by fluvial process and are found across the Earth and these are mostly formed by flowing water from the hydrological cycle, though can also be formed by other fluids such as flowing lava. Channels also describe the course through a reef, sand bar, bay. One example is the Columbia River, a located in the US states of Washington and Oregon. A stream channel is the confine of a stream consisting of a bed. Stream channels exist in a variety of geometries, Stream channel development is controlled by both water and sediment movement. There is a difference between low gradient streams and high gradient streams, a wide variety of stream channel types can be distinguished
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Cliff
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In geography and geology, a cliff is a vertical, or nearly vertical, rock exposure. Cliffs are formed as erosion landforms by the processes of weathering, Cliffs are common on coasts, in mountainous areas, escarpments and along rivers. Cliffs are usually formed by rock that is resistant to weathering, sedimentary rocks most likely to form cliffs include sandstone, limestone, chalk, and dolomite. Igneous rocks such as granite and basalt also often form cliffs, an escarpment is a type of cliff, formed by the movement of a geologic fault or a landslide. Most cliffs have some form of slope at their base. In arid areas or under high cliffs, they are generally exposed jumbles of fallen rock, in areas of higher moisture, a soil slope may obscure the talus. Many cliffs also feature tributary waterfalls or rock shelters, sometimes a cliff peters out at the end of a ridge, with tea tables or other types of rock columns remaining. Coastal erosion may lead to the formation of sea cliffs along a receding coastline, the Ordnance Survey distinguishes between cliffs and outcrops. Cliff is a Romance loanword that has its origins in the Latin forms clivus / clevus. Given that a cliff need not be vertical, there can be ambiguity about whether a given slope is a cliff or not. For example, given a vertical rock wall above a very steep slope. Listings of cliffs are thus inherently uncertain, some of the largest cliffs on Earth are found underwater. For example, an 8,000 m drop over a 4,250 m span can be found at a ridge sitting inside the Kermadec Trench. One candidate for highest cliff in the world is Nanga Parbats Rupal Face, according to other sources, the highest cliff in the world, about 1,340 m high, is the east face of Great Trango in the Karakoram mountains of northern Pakistan. The location of the worlds highest sea cliffs depends also on the definition of cliff that is used, guinness World Records states it is Kalaupapa, Hawaii, at 1,010 m high. Another contender is the face of Mitre Peak, which drops 1,683 m to Milford Sound. These are subject to a less stringent definition, as the slope of these cliffs at Kaulapapa is about 1.7, corresponding to an angle of 60 degrees. A more vertical drop into the sea can be found at Maujit Qaqarssuasia which is situated in the Torssukátak fjord area at the tip of South Greenland
30.
Coast
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A coastline or a seashore is the area where land meets the sea or ocean, or a line that forms the boundary between the land and the ocean or a lake. A precise line that can be called a coastline cannot be determined due to the Coastline paradox, the term coastal zone is a region where interaction of the sea and land processes occurs. Both the terms coast and coastal are often used to describe a location or region, for example, New Zealands West Coast. Edinburgh for example is a city on the coast of Scotland, a pelagic coast refers to a coast which fronts the open ocean, as opposed to a more sheltered coast in a gulf or bay. A shore, on the hand, can refer to parts of the land which adjoin any large body of water, including oceans. Similarly, the related term refers to the land alongside or sloping down to a river or to a body of water smaller than a lake. Bank is also used in parts of the world to refer to an artificial ridge of earth intended to retain the water of a river or pond. According to the UN atlas, 44% of people live within 150 kilometres of the sea, tides often determine the range over which sediment is deposited or eroded. Areas with high tidal ranges allow waves to reach farther up the shore, the tidal range is influenced by the size and shape of the coastline. Tides do not typically cause erosion by themselves, however, tidal bores can erode as the waves surge up river estuaries from the ocean. Waves erode coastline as they break on shore releasing their energy, the larger the wave the more energy it releases and the more sediment it moves. Coastlines with longer shores have more room for the waves to disperse their energy, while coasts with cliffs and short shore faces give little room for the wave energy to be dispersed. In these areas the wave energy breaking against the cliffs is higher, sediment deposited by waves comes from eroded cliff faces and is moved along the coastline by the waves. This forms an abrasion or cliffed coast, sediment deposited by rivers is the dominant influence on the amount of sediment located on a coastline. Today riverine deposition at the coast is often blocked by dams and other human regulatory devices, like the ocean which shapes them, coasts are a dynamic environment with constant change. The coast and its adjacent areas on and off shore are an important part of a local ecosystem, Salt marshes and beaches also support a diversity of plants, animals and insects crucial to the food chain. The high level of biodiversity creates a level of biological activity. More and more of the people live in coastal regions
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Continental margin
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The continental margin is the zone of the ocean floor that separates the thin oceanic crust from thick continental crust. Together, the shelf, continental slope, and continental rise are called the continental margin. Continental margins constitute about 28% of the oceanic area, the transition from continental to oceanic crust commonly occurs within the outer part of the margin, called the continental rise. Oceanwards, beyond the edge of the rise, lies the abyssal plain, the underwater part of the continental crust is the continental shelf, which usually abruptly terminates at the continental slope, which in turn terminates at the foot of the slope. The underwater part constitutes about 20% of the continental crust, the continental shelf is an expansive, shallow area of land extending outward from a continent. At the edge of that is the slope, a steep incline where several habitats exist. Earthquakes and volcanic eruptions are common on the west coast of North America, but there are no active volcanoes on the east coast, geologists refer to the west coast as a active continental margin, and the east coast as a passive continental margin. These differences can be found on several continents, most passive continental margins have broad continental shelves, whereas active continental margins typically have narrow continental shelves. In addition, active continental margins are near plate boundaries, whereas passive continental margins tend to be away from an active plate boundary
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Continental shelf
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The continental shelf is an underwater landmass which extends from a continent, resulting in an area of relatively shallow water known as a shelf sea. Much of the shelves were exposed during glacial periods and interglacial periods, the shelf surrounding an island is known as an insular shelf. The continental margin, between the shelf and the abyssal plain, comprises a steep continental slope followed by the flatter continental rise. Sediment from the continent above cascades down the slope and accumulates as a pile of sediment at the base of the slope, extending as far as 500 km from the slope, it consists of thick sediments deposited by turbidity currents from the shelf and slope. The continental rises gradient is intermediate between the slope and the shelf, on the order of 0. 5–1°, the largest shelf – the Siberian Shelf in the Arctic Ocean – stretches to 1,500 kilometers in width. The South China Sea lies over another extensive area of shelf, the Sunda Shelf, which joins Borneo, Sumatra. Other familiar bodies of water that overlie continental shelves are the North Sea, the average width of continental shelves is about 80 km. The depth of the shelf also varies, but is limited to water shallower than 150 m. The slope of the shelf is quite low, on the order of 0. 5°, vertical relief is also minimal. Though the continental shelf is treated as a province of the ocean, it is not part of the deep ocean basin proper. Passive continental margins such as most of the Atlantic coasts have wide and shallow shelves, active continental margins have narrow, relatively steep shelves, due to frequent earthquakes that move sediment to the deep sea. The shelf usually ends at a point of increasing slope, the sea floor below the break is the continental slope. Below the slope is the rise, which finally merges into the deep ocean floor. The continental shelf and the slope are part of the continental margin, the shelf area is commonly subdivided into the inner continental shelf, mid continental shelf, and outer continental shelf, each with their specific geomorphology and marine biology. The character of the shelf changes dramatically at the shelf break, with a few exceptions, the shelf break is located at a remarkably uniform depth of roughly 140 m, this is likely a hallmark of past ice ages, when sea level was lower than it is now. The continental slope is steeper than the shelf, the average angle is 3°. The slope is cut with submarine canyons. The physical mechanisms involved in forming these canyons were not well understood until the 1960s, the continental shelves are covered by terrigenous sediments, that is, those derived from erosion of the continents
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Coral reef
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Coral reefs are diverse underwater ecosystems held together by calcium carbonate structures secreted by corals. Coral reefs are built by colonies of tiny animals found in waters that contain few nutrients. Most coral reefs are built from stony corals, which in turn consist of polyps that cluster in groups, the polyps belong to a group of animals known as Cnidaria, which also includes sea anemones and jellyfish. Unlike sea anemones, corals secrete hard carbonate exoskeletons which support, most reefs grow best in warm, shallow, clear, sunny and agitated waters. Often called rainforests of the sea, shallow coral reefs form some of the most diverse ecosystems on Earth, paradoxically, coral reefs flourish even though they are surrounded by ocean waters that provide few nutrients. They are most commonly found at depths in tropical waters. Coral reefs deliver ecosystem services to tourism, fisheries and shoreline protection, the annual global economic value of coral reefs is estimated between US$29. 8-375 billion. However, coral reefs are fragile ecosystems, partly because they are sensitive to water temperature. Most of the coral reefs we can see today were formed after the last glacial period when melting ice caused the sea level to rise and this means that most modern coral reefs are less than 10,000 years old. As communities established themselves on the shelves, the reefs grew upwards, Reefs that rose too slowly could become drowned reefs. They are covered by so much water there was insufficient light. Coral reefs are found in the sea away from continental shelves, around oceanic islands. The vast majority of islands are volcanic in origin. The few exceptions have tectonic origins where plate movements have lifted the deep ocean floor on the surface. In 1842 in his first monograph, The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs, Charles Darwin set out his theory of the formation of atoll reefs and he theorized uplift and subsidence of the Earths crust under the oceans formed the atolls. Darwin’s theory sets out a sequence of three stages in atoll formation and it starts with a fringing reef forming around an extinct volcanic island as the island and ocean floor subsides. As the subsidence continues, the reef becomes a barrier reef. Darwin predicted that underneath each lagoon would be a bed rock base, where the level of the underlying earth allows, the corals grow around the coast to form what he called fringing reefs, and can eventually grow out from the shore to become a barrier reef
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Cove
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A cove is a small type of bay or coastal inlet. Coves usually have narrow, restricted entrances, are circular or oval. Small, narrow, sheltered bays, inlets, creeks, or recesses in a coast are often considered coves, colloquially, the term can be used to describe a sheltered bay. Geomorphology describes coves as precipitously-walled and rounded cirque-like openings as in a valley extending into or down a mountainside, coves are formed by differential erosion, which occurs when softer rocks are worn away faster than the harder rocks surrounding them. These rocks further erode to form a bay with a narrow entrance. A notable example is Lulworth Cove on the Jurassic Coast in Dorset, to its west, a second cove, Stair Hole, is forming. Clark, John O. E. Stiegler, Stella, the Facts on File, Dictionary of Earth Science. New York, Market House Books Ltd
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Dune
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In physical geography, a dune is a hill of loose sand built by wind or the flow of water. Dunes occur in different shapes and sizes, formed by interaction with the flow of air or water, most kinds of dunes are longer on the windward side where the sand is pushed up the dune and have a shorter slip face in the lee of the wind. The valley or trough between dunes is called a slack, a dune field is an area covered by extensive sand dunes. Dunes occur, for example, in deserts and along some coasts. Some coastal areas have one or more sets of dunes running parallel to the shoreline directly inland from the beach, in most cases, the dunes are important in protecting the land against potential ravages by storm waves from the sea. Although the most widely distributed dunes are those associated with coastal regions, Dunes can form under the action of water flow, and on sand or gravel beds of rivers, estuaries and the sea-bed. The modern word dune came into English from French c,1790, which in turn came from Middle Dutch dūne. Crescent-shaped mounds are generally wider than they are long, the slipfaces are on the concave sides of the dunes. These dunes form under winds that blow consistently from one direction, some types of crescentic dunes move more quickly over desert surfaces than any other type of dune. A group of dunes moved more than 100 metres per year between 1954 and 1959 in Chinas Ningxia Province, and similar speeds have been recorded in the Western Desert of Egypt. The largest crescentic dunes on Earth, with mean crest-to-crest widths of more than three kilometres, are in Chinas Taklamakan Desert. They may be composed of clay, silt, sand, or gypsum, eroded from the floor or shore, transported up the concave side of the dune. Examples in Australia are up to 6.5 km long,1 km wide and they also occur in southern and West Africa, and in parts of the western United States, especially Texas. Straight or slightly sinuous sand ridges typically much longer than they are wide are known as linear dunes and they may be more than 160 kilometres long. Some linear dunes merge to form Y-shaped compound dunes, many form in bidirectional wind regimes. The long axes of these dunes extend in the resultant direction of sand movement, linear loess hills known as pahas are superficially similar. These hills appear to have formed during the last ice age under permafrost conditions dominated by sparse tundra vegetation. Radially symmetrical, star dunes are pyramidal sand mounds with slipfaces on three or more arms that radiate from the center of the mound
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Cliff-top dune
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Cliff-top dunes, also known as perched dunes, are dunes that occur on the tops of cliffs. They are uncommon in most parts of the world, because they develop under unusual geomorphological conditions. They are most often seen as coastal landforms, but can occur along lakes and rivers. Places where they are common include the west coat of Jutland. Development of a cliff-top dune indicated by size and geochemical characteristics, Rubjerg Knude. CS1 maint, Multiple names, authors list
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Estuary
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An estuary is a partially enclosed coastal body of brackish water with one or more rivers or streams flowing into it, and with a free connection to the open sea. Estuaries form a zone between river environments and maritime environments. They are subject both to marine influences—such as tides, waves, and the influx of saline water—and to riverine influences—such as flows of fresh water and sediment. The inflows of sea water and fresh water provide high levels of nutrients both in the water column and in sediment, making estuaries among the most productive natural habitats in the world. Most existing estuaries formed during the Holocene epoch with the flooding of river-eroded or glacially scoured valleys when the sea began to rise about 10. Estuaries are typically classified according to their geomorphological features or to water-circulation patterns, the banks of many estuaries are amongst the most heavily populated areas of the world, with about 60% of the worlds population living along estuaries and the coast. The word estuary is derived from the Latin word aestuarium meaning tidal inlet of the sea, there have been many definitions proposed to describe an estuary. However, this definition excludes a number of water bodies such as coastal lagoons. This broad definition also includes fjords, lagoons, river mouths, an estuary is a dynamic ecosystem having a connection to the open sea through which the sea water enters with the rhythm of the tides. The sea water entering the estuary is diluted by the water flowing from rivers. The pattern of dilution varies between different estuaries and depends on the volume of water, the tidal range. Drowned river valleys are known as coastal plain estuaries. In places where the sea level is rising relative to the land, sea water progressively penetrates into river valleys and this is the most common type of estuary in temperate climates. Well-studied estuaries include the Severn Estuary in the United Kingdom and the Ems Dollard along the Dutch-German border, the width-to-depth ratio of these estuaries is typically large, appearing wedge-shaped in the inner part and broadening and deepening seaward. Water depths rarely exceed 30 m, examples of this type of estuary in the U. S. are the Hudson River, Chesapeake Bay, and Delaware Bay along the Mid-Atlantic coast, and Galveston Bay and Tampa Bay along the Gulf Coast. They are relatively common in tropical and subtropical locations and these estuaries are semi-isolated from ocean waters by barrier beaches. Formation of barrier beaches partially encloses the estuary, with only narrow inlets allowing contact with the ocean waters, bar-built estuaries typically develop on gently sloping plains located along tectonically stable edges of continents and marginal sea coasts. They are extensive along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts of the U. S. in areas with active coastal deposition of sediments, barrier beaches form in shallow water and are generally parallel to the shoreline, resulting in long, narrow estuaries
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Firth
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Firth is a word in the Scots and English languages used to denote various coastal waters in Scotland and England. In mainland Scotland, it is used to refer to a sea bay. In the Northern Isles, it usually refers to a smaller inlet. It is linguistically cognate to fjord which has a more constrained sense in English, bodies of water named firths tend to be more common on the east coast, or in the southwest of the country, although the Firth of Lorn is an exception to this. The Highland coast contains numerous estuaries, straits, and inlets of a kind, but not called firth, instead. The Pentland Firth is a rather than a bay or an inlet. Firth of Lorn (northernmost, connects with the Moray Firth via the Great Glen lochs, lochs adjoining the Firth, Loch Lochy, Loch Linnhe, Loch Leven, Loch Oich. Islands, Isle of Mull, Lismore and Kerrera, Firth of Clyde Sea lochs adjoining the Firth of Clyde, Gare Loch, Loch Long, Holy Loch, Loch Striven, Loch Riddon off the Kyles of Bute, Loch Fyne and Campbeltown Loch. Places, Helensburgh, Port Glasgow, Greenock, Gourock, Dunoon, Rothesay, Wemyss Bay, Largs, Brodick, Ardrossan, Troon, Ayr, Girvan and Campbeltown. Note that Glasgow is at the limit of the River Clyde, and Clydebank. The Firth is off the Solway Coast, rough Firth Places, Carlisle, England on the River Eden, Annan and Gretna, both in Scotland. Luce Bay, Wigtown, St Bees, Aspatria These are connected to, or form part of, Dornoch Firth Places, Dornoch, Dornoch Bridge, Bonar Bridge, Kyle of Sutherland, Tain, Portmahomack on Tarbat Ness. Rivers, Oykel, Cassley, Shin and Carron Headland, Tarbat Ness, the Firth runs out into the Moray Firth. Rivers, Conon, Orrin, Rusdale, Glass, Alness, Moray Firth and Beauly Firth connected with the Firth of Inverness. Places on the Moray Firth, Inverness, Nairn, Fortrose, headlands, Whiteness Head, Chanonry Point, Alturlie Point. Places on the Beauly Firth, Beauly, Places, Perth, Dundee, Monifieth, Tayport, Newport on Tay, Newburgh, Fife. It is spanned by the Forth Road Bridge,2,512 m long, and this is a strait between the Scottish mainland and the Orkney Islands, and forms a link between the Atlantic Ocean and North Sea. In Shetland in particular, firth can refer to smaller inlets, although geo, voe, bluemull Sound for example, is very similar to some of the firths in the Shetland Islands
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Fjard
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A fjard is an inlet formed by the marine submergence of formerly glaciated valleys and depressions within a rocky glaciated terrain of low relief. Fjards are characterized by a profile that is shorter, shallower, a fjard lacks the steep walls that characterize a glacial trough that has been partially submerged to form a fjord. Examples of fjards are Bråviken on the coast of Sweden, Hjortsholm on the coast of Denmark, although fjards and fjords are similar in that they are a glacially-formed topography, they still differ in some key ways. Fjords are characterized by high relief cliffs carved by glacial activity. Fjards are a depression or valley that has much lower relief than a fjord. Fjards fill with eroded local materials which assists filling along with rising sea level since the last ice age contributing as well. Other low relief landforms that are associated with fjards such as mud flats, salt marshes. The Förden of the German coast and the fjords of Danish eastern Jutland together form a type of glacial inlets
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Fjord
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Geologically, a fjord or fiord is a long, narrow inlet with steep sides or cliffs, created by glacial erosion. Norways coastline is estimated at 29,000 kilometres with 1,190 fjords, a fjord is formed when a glacier cuts a U-shaped valley by ice segregation and abrasion of the surrounding bedrock. Glacial melting is accompanied by the rebounding of Earths crust as the ice load, in some cases this rebound is faster than sea level rise. Most fjords are deeper than the adjacent sea, Sognefjord, Norway, fjords generally have a sill or shoal at their mouth caused by the previous glaciers reduced erosion rate and terminal moraine. In many cases this causes extreme currents and large saltwater rapids. Saltstraumen in Norway is often described as the worlds strongest tidal current and these characteristics distinguish fjords from rias, which are drowned valleys flooded by the rising sea. Drammensfjorden is cut almost in two by the Svelvik ridge, a moraine that during the ice cover was under sea level. During the winter there is usually little inflow of freshwater. Surface water and deeper water are mixed during winter because of the cooling of the surface. In the deep there is still fresh water from the summer with less density than the saltier water along the coast. Offshore wind, common in the areas during winter, sets up a current on the surface from the inner to the outer parts. This current on the surface in turn pulls dense salt water from the coast across the fjord threshold, during the summer season there is usually a large inflow of river water in the inner areas. This freshwater gets mixed with saltwater creating a layer of water with a slightly higher surface than the ocean which in turn sets up a current from the river mouths towards the ocean. This current is more salty towards the coast and right under the surface current there is a reverse current of saltier water from the coast. In the deeper parts of the fjord the cold water remaining from winter is still, fjords with a shallow threshold this deep water is not replaced every year and low oxygen concentration makes the deep water unsuitable for fish and animals. In the most extreme cases there is a constant barrier of freshwater on the surface, gaupnefjorden branch of Sognefjorden is strongly affected by freshwater as glacial river flow in. Velfjorden has little inflow of freshwater, as late as 2000, some coral reefs were discovered along the bottoms of the Norwegian fjords. These reefs were found in fjords from the north of Norway to the south, the marine life on the reefs is believed to be one of the most important reasons why the Norwegian coastline is such a generous fishing ground
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Freshwater marsh
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A freshwater marsh is a marsh that contains fresh water. Freshwater marshes are found near the mouths of rivers and are present in areas with low drainage. It is the counterpart to the marsh, an upper coastal intertidal zone of bio-habitat which is regularly flushed with sea water. Freshwater marshes are non-tidal biomes containing little or no peat and they are most common in the Gulf Coast region, specifically in Florida. Freshwater marshes support an independent pH-neutral ecosystem which encourages biodiversity, common species include ducks, geese, swans, songbirds, swallows, coots, and black ducks. Although shallow marshes do not tend to many fish, deeper ones are home to many species, including such large fish as the northern pike. Some of the most common plants in these areas are cattails, water lilies, arrowheads, the Florida Everglades represent the largest contiguous freshwater marsh in the entire world. This immense marsh covers 4,200 square miles and is located in the tip of Florida. Continued human development, including drainage for development and polluted agriculture runoff, the remaining parts of the Everglades are grasses, sedges and other emergent hydrophytes
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Gat (landform)
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A gat is a strait that is constantly eroded by currents flowing back and forth, such as tidal currents. It is usually a narrow but deep passage between land masses or shallow bars in an area of mudflats. A gat is sometimes a shallower passage on lagoon coasts, including those without any tidal range and it is similar, but not identical, to a gut, which is a narrow river channel or strait prior to joining an open ocean or estuary. Leser restricts its use to deep, but relatively narrow inlets in the Wadden Sea that are scoured out by currents, when the water masses from mud flats behind the islands surge out again into the sea as ebb currents, they flow rapidly again through the narrow gat. But as these water masses break out into the sea, they spread out. As a result, on this side of the gat. The sandbanks so formed are known in Germany as plate. The point where the water pouring out of the gat runs over these banks and this is the shallowest part of the gat for shipping, but also the deepest point on the shallowest line between the islands. A flood delta is formed in a way on the landward side of the gat. A navigation channel to the sea is usually marked out in the gats by the waterway. The area of the bar is usually the most dangerous spot, passages between inner and outer coastal waters, such as at the ends of spits of lagoons or along bodden coasts are also referred to as gats. The term gat is primarily applied to waterways of the North Sea, a similar term of related but not identical meaning, gut, is mainly applied to channels of the coastal waters of the Atlantic coast of North America. The name comes from the Low German and Dutch word gat which means gap, Gat is incorporated into some Dutch or Dutch-derived proper names of passages which may or may not be proper gats. In English names, both gat and gut are seen, in German, Gat can refer to an arm of the sea which is not necessarily subject to strong tidal currents, for instance, the Prerower Strom, which is a regressive delta, is a gat. Seegatt is the German proper name of the Strait of Baltiysk which connects the Vistula Lagoon to the Baltic Sea. The name of Hell Gate, a gat in the East River of New York City, is derived from archaic Dutch Hellegat, a fairly common toponym for waterways in the Low Countries
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Geo (landform)
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A geo or gio is an inlet, a gully or a narrow and deep cleft in the face of a cliff. Geos are common on the coastline of the Shetland and Orkney islands and they are created by the wave driven erosion of cliffs along faults and bedding planes in the rock. Geos may have sea caves at their heads, such sea caves may collapse, extending the geo, or leaving depressions inland from the geo. Gjógv, a place in the Faroes List of places in Orkney Shetlopedia Geo
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Gut (coastal geography)
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Gut is a geographical term with two meanings, A narrow coastal body of water, a channel or strait, usually one that is subject to strong tidal currents flowing back and forth. Many guts are straits but some are at a river mouths where tidal currents are strong, the term gut is primarily applied to channels of the coastal waters of the Atlantic coast of North America. A similar term of related but not identical meaning, gat, is applied to some waterways of the North Sea. Applied to proper names, gut is sometimes used more broadly. For instance South Gut and North Gut at the settlement of South Gut St. Conversely, some guts are not so named, such as The Rip, a gut in Australia, where the term gut is not used. Another meaning for gut in geography is a creek
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