1.
National Register of Historic Places
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The National Register of Historic Places is the United States federal governments official list of districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects deemed worthy of preservation. The passage of the National Historic Preservation Act in 1966 established the National Register, of the more than one million properties on the National Register,80,000 are listed individually. The remainder are contributing resources within historic districts, each year approximately 30,000 properties are added to the National Register as part of districts or by individual listings. For most of its history the National Register has been administered by the National Park Service and its goals are to help property owners and interest groups, such as the National Trust for Historic Preservation, coordinate, identify, and protect historic sites in the United States. While National Register listings are mostly symbolic, their recognition of significance provides some financial incentive to owners of listed properties, protection of the property is not guaranteed. During the nomination process, the property is evaluated in terms of the four criteria for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places, the application of those criteria has been the subject of criticism by academics of history and preservation, as well as the public and politicians. Occasionally, historic sites outside the proper, but associated with the United States are also listed. Properties can be nominated in a variety of forms, including individual properties, historic districts, the Register categorizes general listings into one of five types of properties, district, site, structure, building, or object. National Register Historic Districts are defined geographical areas consisting of contributing and non-contributing properties, some properties are added automatically to the National Register when they become administered by the National Park Service. These include National Historic Landmarks, National Historic Sites, National Historical Parks, National Military Parks/Battlefields, National Memorials, on October 15,1966, the Historic Preservation Act created the National Register of Historic Places and the corresponding State Historic Preservation Offices. Initially, the National Register consisted of the National Historic Landmarks designated before the Registers creation, approval of the act, which was amended in 1980 and 1992, represented the first time the United States had a broad-based historic preservation policy. To administer the newly created National Register of Historic Places, the National Park Service of the U. S. Department of the Interior, hartzog, Jr. established an administrative division named the Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation. Hartzog charged OAHP with creating the National Register program mandated by the 1966 law, ernest Connally was the Offices first director. Within OAHP new divisions were created to deal with the National Register, the first official Keeper of the Register was William J. Murtagh, an architectural historian. During the Registers earliest years in the late 1960s and early 1970s, organization was lax and SHPOs were small, understaffed, and underfunded. A few years later in 1979, the NPS history programs affiliated with both the U. S. National Parks system and the National Register were categorized formally into two Assistant Directorates. Established were the Assistant Directorate for Archeology and Historic Preservation and the Assistant Directorate for Park Historic Preservation, from 1978 until 1981, the main agency for the National Register was the Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service of the United States Department of the Interior. In February 1983, the two assistant directorates were merged to promote efficiency and recognize the interdependency of their programs, jerry L. Rogers was selected to direct this newly merged associate directorate
2.
National Historic Landmark
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A National Historic Landmark is a building, district, object, site, or structure that is officially recognized by the United States government for its outstanding historical significance. Of over 85,000 places listed on the countrys National Register of Historic Places, a National Historic Landmark District may include contributing properties that are buildings, structures, sites or objects, and it may include non-contributing properties. Contributing properties may or may not also be separately listed, prior to 1935, efforts to preserve cultural heritage of national importance were made by piecemeal efforts of the United States Congress. The first National Historic Site designation was made for the Salem Maritime National Historic Site on March 17,1938. In 1960, the National Park Service took on the administration of the data gathered under this legislation. Because listings often triggered local preservation laws, legislation in 1980 amended the procedures to require owner agreement to the designations. On October 9,1960,92 properties were announced as designated NHLs by Secretary of the Interior Fred A. Seaton, more than 2,500 NHLs have been designated. Most, but not all, are in the United States, there are NHLs in all 50 states and the District of Columbia. Three states account for nearly 25 percent of the nations NHLs, three cities within these states all separately have more NHLs than 40 of the 50 states. In fact, New York City alone has more NHLs than all but five states, Virginia, California, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, there are 74 NHLs in the District of Columbia. Some NHLs are in U. S. commonwealths and territories, associated states, and foreign states. There are 15 in Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, and other U. S. commonwealths and territories,5 in U. S. -associated states such as Micronesia, over 100 ships or shipwrecks have been designated as NHLs. About half of the National Historic Landmarks are privately owned, the National Historic Landmarks Program relies on suggestions for new designations from the National Park Service, which also assists in maintaining the landmarks. A friends group of owners and managers, the National Historic Landmark Stewards Association, works to preserve, protect, if not already listed on the National Register of Historic Places, an NHL is automatically added to the Register upon designation. About three percent of Register listings are NHLs, american Water Landmark List of U. S
3.
Meade County, South Dakota
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Meade County is a county located in the U. S. state of South Dakota. As of the 2010 census, the population was 25,434, the county was created in 1889 and was named for Fort Meade, which was garrisoned as a United States military post in the area in 1878 and was named for General George Meade. Meade County is part of the Rapid City, SD Metropolitan Statistical Area. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 3,483 square miles. It is the largest county by area in South Dakota, interstate 90 U. S. Highway 14 U. S. Highway 14A U. S. The population density was 7 people per square mile, there were 10,149 housing units at an average density of 3 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 92. 65% White,1. 48% Black or African American,2. 04% Native American,0. 63% Asian,0. 07% Pacific Islander,0. 61% from other races, and 2. 52% from two or more races. 2. 10% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race,19. 90% of all households were made up of individuals and 7. 50% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.66 and the family size was 3.05. In the county, the population was out with 28. 40% under the age of 18,10. 60% from 18 to 24,29. 60% from 25 to 44,21. 00% from 45 to 64. The median age was 33 years, for every 100 females there were 102.20 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 101.60 males, the median income for a household in the county was $36,992, and the median income for a family was $40,537. Males had an income of $26,572 versus $20,517 for females. The per capita income for the county was $17,680, about 7. 90% of families and 9. 40% of the population were below the poverty line, including 11. 80% of those under age 18 and 6. 10% of those age 65 or over. As of the 2010 United States Census, there were 25,434 people,9,903 households, the population density was 7.3 inhabitants per square mile. There were 11,000 housing units at a density of 3.2 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 92. 0% white,2. 3% American Indian,1. 3% black or African American,0. 6% Asian,0. 1% Pacific islander,0. 8% from other races, and 2. 9% from two or more races. Those of Hispanic or Latino origin made up 3. 0% of the population, in terms of ancestry,40. 5% were German,15. 3% were Irish,13. 2% were Norwegian,11. 3% were English, and 6. 9% were American
4.
Sturgis, South Dakota
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Sturgis is a city in Meade County, South Dakota, United States. The population was 6,627 as of the 2010 census and it is the county seat of Meade County and is named after Union General Samuel D. Sturgis. Sturgis is notable as the location of one of the largest annual events in the world. Motorcycle enthusiasts from around the flock to this town during the Sturgis Motorcycle Rally. Sturgis is also noted for hosting the 1996 edition of WCW Hog Wild and it was originally named Scooptown, because many of the residents scooped up their pay from nearby Fort Meade. Its name was changed to Sturgis in honor of the Civil War Union General Samuel D. Sturgis. In 1889, Sturgis was designated as the county seat of the newly formed Meade County, as part of the vast Ellsworth Air Force Base complex, the land north of Sturgis was dotted with 50 Minuteman missile silos. The L5 is 3.5 miles from the center of the town, towards the end of the 2016 Summer, the Full Throttle Bar one of the largest and well known bars in Sturgis Burned down. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 3.99 square miles. As of the census of 2010, there were 6,627 people,2,916 households, the population density was 1,660.9 inhabitants per square mile. There were 3,154 housing units at a density of 790.5 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 93. 9% White,0. 2% African American,2. 3% Native American,0. 4% Asian,0. 6% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 2. 6% of the population. 37. 0% of all households were made up of individuals and 17. 2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.21 and the average family size was 2.89. The median age in the city was 41.2 years. 23. 9% of residents were under the age of 18,7. 8% were between the ages of 18 and 24,22. 3% were from 25 to 44,27. 1% were from 45 to 64, and 18. 8% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 48. 1% male and 51. 9% female, as of the census of 2000, there were 6,442 people,2,738 households, and 1,708 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,723.6 people per square mile, there were 2,989 housing units at an average density of 799.7 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 94. 80% White,0. 20% African American,2. 48% Native American,0. 31% Asian,0. 33% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 1. 75% of the population
5.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
6.
South Dakota
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South Dakota is a state located in the Midwestern region of the United States. It is named after the Lakota and Dakota Sioux Native American tribes, South Dakota is the 17th most expansive, but the 5th least populous and the 5th least densely populated of the 50 United States. Once the southern portion of the Dakota Territory, South Dakota became a state on November 2,1889, Pierre is the state capital and Sioux Falls, with a population of about 171,000, is South Dakotas largest city. South Dakota is bordered by the states of North Dakota, Minnesota, Iowa, Nebraska, Wyoming, the state is bisected by the Missouri River, dividing South Dakota into two geographically and socially distinct halves, known to residents as East River and West River. Eastern South Dakota is home to most of the states population, West of the Missouri, ranching is the predominant agricultural activity, and the economy is more dependent on tourism and defense spending. Most of the Native American reservations are located in West River, the Black Hills, a group of low pine-covered mountains sacred to the Sioux, are located in the southwest part of the state. Mount Rushmore, a major tourist destination, is located there, South Dakota experiences a temperate continental climate, with four distinct seasons and precipitation ranging from moderate in the east to semi-arid in the west. The ecology of the state features species typical of a North American grassland biome, humans have inhabited the area for several millennia, with the Sioux becoming dominant by the early 19th century. In the late 19th century, European-American settlement intensified after a rush in the Black Hills. Encroaching miners and settlers triggered a number of Indian wars, ending with the Wounded Knee Massacre in 1890, historically dominated by an agricultural economy and a rural lifestyle, South Dakota has recently sought to diversify its economy in areas to attract and retain residents. South Dakotas history and rural character still strongly influence the culture of the state, South Dakota is situated in the north-central United States, and is considered a part of the Midwest by the U. S. Census Bureau, it is also part of the Great Plains region. The culture, economy, and geography of western South Dakota have more in common with the West than the Midwest, South Dakota has a total area of 77,116 square miles, making the state the 17th largest in the Union. Black Elk Peak, formerly named Harney Peak, with an elevation of 7,242 ft, is the states highest point, while the shoreline of Big Stone Lake is the lowest, with an elevation of 966 ft. South Dakota is bordered to the north by North Dakota, to the south by Nebraska, to the east by Iowa and Minnesota, the geographical center of the U. S. is 17 miles west of Castle Rock in Butte County. The North American continental pole of inaccessibility is located between Allen and Kyle,1,024 mi from the nearest coastline, the Missouri River is the largest and longest river in the state. Other major South Dakota rivers include the Cheyenne, James, Big Sioux, Eastern South Dakota has many natural lakes, mostly created by periods of glaciation. Additionally, dams on the Missouri River create four large reservoirs, Lake Oahe, Lake Sharpe, Lake Francis Case, South Dakota can generally be divided into three regions, eastern South Dakota, western South Dakota, and the Black Hills. The Missouri River serves as a boundary in terms of geographic, social, at times the Black Hills are combined with the rest of western South Dakota, and people often refer to the resulting two regions divided by the Missouri River as West River and East River
7.
Mount Rushmore
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Mount Rushmore National Memorial is a sculpture carved into the granite face of Mount Rushmore, a batholith in the Black Hills in Keystone, South Dakota, United States. The memorial park covers 1,278.45 acres and is 5,725 feet above sea level, robinsons initial idea was to sculpt the Needles, however, Gutzon Borglum rejected the Needles because of the poor quality of the granite and strong opposition from Native American groups. They settled on Mount Rushmore, which also has the advantage of facing southeast for maximum sun exposure. Robinson wanted it to feature American West heroes like Lewis and Clark, Red Cloud, and Buffalo Bill Cody, after securing federal funding through the enthusiastic sponsorship of Mount Rushmores great political patron, U. S. Senator Peter Norbeck, construction on the began in 1927. Upon Gutzon Borglums death in March 1941 his son Lincoln Borglum took over construction, each president was originally to be depicted from head to waist. Lack of funding forced construction to end in late October 1941, Mount Rushmore has become an iconic symbol of the United States, and it has appeared in works of fiction, as well as being discussed or depicted in other popular works. It attracts over two million visitors annually, originally known to the Lakota Sioux as The Six Grandfathers, the mountain was renamed after Charles E. Rushmore, a prominent New York lawyer, during an expedition in 1885. At first, the project of carving Rushmore was undertaken to increase tourism in the Black Hills region of South Dakota, after long negotiations involving a Congressional delegation and President Calvin Coolidge, the project received Congressional approval. The carving started in 1927 and ended in 1941 with no fatalities, as Six Grandfathers, the mountain was part of the route that Lakota leader Black Elk took in a spiritual journey that culminated at Black Elk Peak. Following a series of campaigns from 1876 to 1878, the United States asserted control over the area. Among American settlers, the peak was known variously as Cougar Mountain, Sugarloaf Mountain, Slaughterhouse Mountain and it was named Mount Rushmore during a prospecting expedition by Charles Rushmore, David Swanzey, and Bill Challis. Historian Doane Robinson conceived the idea for Mount Rushmore in 1923 to promote tourism in South Dakota, in 1924, Robinson persuaded sculptor Gutzon Borglum to travel to the Black Hills region to ensure the carving could be accomplished. The original plan was to make the carvings in granite pillars known as the Needles, however, Borglum realized that the eroded Needles were too thin to support sculpting. He chose Mount Rushmore, a location, partly because it faced southeast. Borglum said upon seeing Mount Rushmore, America will march along that skyline, Congress authorized the Mount Rushmore National Memorial Commission on March 3,1925. President Coolidge insisted that, along with Washington, two Republicans and one Democrat be portrayed and these presidents were selected by Borglum because of their role in preserving the Republic and expanding its territory. The carving of Mount Rushmore involved the use of dynamite, followed by the process of honeycombing, in total, about 450,000 short tons of rock were blasted off the mountainside
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Crazy Horse Memorial
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The Crazy Horse Memorial is a mountain monument under construction on privately held land in the Black Hills, in Custer County, South Dakota, United States. It will depict the Oglala Lakota warrior, Crazy Horse, riding a horse, the memorial was commissioned by Henry Standing Bear, a Lakota elder, to be sculpted by Korczak Ziolkowski. It is operated by the Crazy Horse Memorial Foundation, a private non-profit organization, the memorial consists of the mountain carving, the Indian Museum of North America, and the Native American Cultural Center. The monument is being carved out of Thunderhead Mountain, on land considered sacred by some Oglala Lakota, the sculptures final dimensions are planned to be 641 feet wide and 563 feet high. The head of Crazy Horse will be 87 feet high, by comparison, the monument has been in progress since 1948 and is far from completion. If completed, it may become the worlds largest sculpture as well as the first non-religious statue to hold this record since 1967, Crazy Horse was a Native American war leader of the Oglala Lakota. He took up arms against the U. S. Federal government to fight against encroachments on the territories and his most famous actions against the U. S. military included the Fetterman Fight and the Battle of the Little Bighorn. He surrendered to U. S. troops under General Crook in May 1877 and was wounded by a military guard. He ranks among the most notable and iconic of Native American tribal members and was honored by the U. S. Postal Service in 1982 with a 13¢ postage stamp, that is part of its Great Americans series. In October 1931, Luther Standing Bear, Henrys older brother, wrote sculptor Gutzon Borglum, Luther suggested that it would be most fitting to have the face of Crazy Horse sculpted there. Crazy Horse is the real patriot of the Sioux tribe and the one worthy to place by the side of Washington. Thereafter, Henry Standing Bear began a campaign to have Borglum carve an image of Crazy Horse on Mt. Rushmore, on November 7,1939, Henry Standing Bear wrote to the Polish-American sculptor Korczak Ziolkowski, who worked on Mount Rushmore under Gutzon Borglum. He informed the sculptor, My fellow chiefs and I would like the man to know that the red man has great heroes. The government responded positively, and the National Forest Service, responsible for the land, agreed to grant a permit for the use of the land, with a commission to oversee the project. Standing Bear chose not to government funds and relied instead upon influential Americans interested in the welfare of the American Indian to privately fund the project. In the spring of 1940, Ziolkowski spent three weeks with Standing Bear at Pine Ridge, South Dakota, discussing land issues and learning about Crazy Horse. According to Ziolkowski, Standing Bear grew very angry when he spoke of the broken Treaty of Fort Laramie and that was the one Id read about in which the President promised the Black Hills would belong to the Indians forever. I remember how his old eyes flashed out of dark mahogany face, then he would shake his head
9.
Badlands National Park
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The park is managed by the National Park Service. Authorized as Badlands National Monument on March 4,1929, it was not established until January 25,1939 and it was redesignated a national park on November 10,1978. Under the Mission 66 plan, the Ben Reifel Visitor Center was constructed for the monument in 1957–58, the park also administers the nearby Minuteman Missile National Historic Site. Long before the Lakota were the little-studied paleo-Indians, followed by the Arikara people and their descendants live today in North Dakota as a part of the Three Affiliated Tribes. Archaeological records combined with oral traditions indicate that these people camped in secluded valleys where fresh water and game were available year round. Eroding out of the stream banks today are the rocks and charcoal of their campfires, as well as the arrowheads and tools used to butcher bison, rabbits. From the top of the Badlands Wall, they could scan the area for enemies, if hunting was good, they might hang on into winter, before retracing their way to their villages along the Missouri River. By one hundred and fifty years ago, the Great Sioux Nation consisting of seven including the Oglala Lakota, had displaced the other tribes from the northern prairie. The next great change came toward the end of the 19th century as homesteaders moved into South Dakota, the U. S. government stripped Native Americans of much of their territory and forced them to live on reservations. In the fall and early winter of 1890, thousands of Native American followers, including many Oglala Sioux and his vision called for the native people to dance the Ghost Dance and wear Ghost shirts, which would be impervious to bullets. Wovoka had predicted that the man would vanish and their hunting grounds would be restored. One of the last known Ghost Dances was conducted on Stronghold Table in the South Unit of Badlands National Park, as winter closed in, the ghost dancers returned to Pine Ridge Agency. The climax of the came in late December,1890. Headed south from the Cheyenne River, a band of Minneconjou Sioux crossed a pass in the Badlands Wall, pursued by units of the U. S. Army, they were seeking refuge in the Pine Ridge Reservation. The band, led by Chief Spotted Elk, was overtaken by the soldiers near Wounded Knee Creek in the Reservation. The troops attempted to disarm Big Foots band the next morning, before it was over, nearly three hundred Indians and thirty soldiers lay dead. Wounded Knee is not within the boundaries of Badlands National Park and it is located approximately 45 miles south of the park on Pine Ridge Reservation. The U. S. government and the Oglala Lakota Nation have agreed that this is a story to be told by the Oglala of Pine Ridge, the interpretation of the site and its tragic events are held as the primary responsibility of these survivors
10.
Mammoth Site, Hot Springs
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The Mammoth Site is a museum and paleontological site near Hot Springs, South Dakota. It contains the remains of fauna and flora preserved by entrapment in a karst sinkhole during the Pleistocene era, Mammoth bones were found at the site in 1974, and a museum and building enclosing the site were established. The museum now contains a collection of mammoth remains. Research and excavations at the site are ongoing, about 26,000 years ago the cavern at the site collapsed. The resulting steep-sided hole, about 65 feet deep, was 120 by 150 wide at the surface, warm artesian-fed spring waters created a pond that was attractive to wildlife. Invertebrate discoveries include several species of clams, snails, and slugs, over the course of the next 350 to 700 years, the hole filled with sediments and mammoth remains. The remains of the organisms in the site are not technically fossils, since they were not mineralized but preserved by the clay. As of 2012, at least 61 individual mammoths had been identified, the majority of the mammoth remains have been identified as those of Columbian Mammoths, although the remains of three Woolly mammoths have been found as well. Mammoths that slipped into the hole found it difficult to escape, researchers measuring the pelvic bones of the remains have determined that most of the victims were young males. In 1974, a worker, George Hanson, unearthed unusual bones while the area was being prepared for a new subdivision. His son recognized one of the finds as a mammoth tooth, the landowner agreed to further investigation, and a complete skull and tusk were found in 1974. Donations, some made by citizens, along with the work performed by amateur and professional excavators, led to its status as a museum. Initially the finds were mapped on a grid, since then the mapping systems have increasingly relied on computerized technologies. The Mammoth Site is now a 501-3 non-profit organization, the museum is open to the public. Earthwatch volunteers participate in excavations during July, the museums visiting scientists have included specialists from Mexico, Italy, Netherlands, Great Britain, Russia, and Germany. The museum also houses a collection of Clovis and Folsom artifacts, the Mammoth Site of Hot Springs, South Dakota - official site
11.
Needles (Black Hills)
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The Needles of the Black Hills of South Dakota are a region of eroded granite pillars, towers, and spires within Custer State Park. Popular with rock climbers and tourists alike, the Needles are accessed from the Needles Highway, the Needles were the original site proposed for the Mount Rushmore carvings. The location was rejected by the sculptor Gutzon Borglum owing to the quality of the granite. The Needles attract approximately 300,000 people annually, the area has a rich history of bold climbing by greatest climbers of their era, and has long been known for its purist ethics. In 1936 Fritz Wiessner climbed the Totem Pole and in 1937 Khayyam Spire with Bill House, in 1947 Jan and Herb Conn moved to the area and over the next couple decades put up over 220 first ascents. In 1952 Fred Beckey and John Dudra climbed Rubaiyat Spire and Khayyam Spire, in the 1960s climbers such as Royal Robbins, and Henry Barber put up many bold routes. In 1961 John Gill made free solo ascent of 5. 12a route on The Thimble which is considered one of the first climbs at that grade, in 1991 John Sherman also made a free solo ascent of Gills Route. Today climbers still hold true to the ground up ethics put in place in the late 80s, bold new routes are still being added
12.
Spearfish Canyon
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Spearfish Canyon is a deep but narrow gorge carved by Spearfish Creek just south of Spearfish, South Dakota in the U. S. It is located on the edge of Black Hills National Forest. Many tourists drive through the canyon, drawn to the due to its wide range of plant and wildlife, geology, rock formations. Spearfish Creek holds populations of rainbow and brown trout and is dammed in several spots, stocking of trout in Spearfish Creek was discontinued in the 1970s and all trout in the creek today are wild. In addition, remnants of Spearfish Canyons active mining history are still found in some locations. Approximately 600 million years ago in the Precambrian, the area was covered by a sea, as waters subsided and land masses began to appear 60 to 30 million years ago, drainages such as Spearfish Canyon formed as softer rock was eroded away. Today, a National Scenic Byway, U. S. Highway 14A and this area is truly a crossroads, and trees and plants from Rocky Mountains, eastern woodlands, northern forests, and the Great Plains areas can be found here. Of the 1,585 plant species found in South Dakota,1,260 species are in the Black Hills, ponderosa pines are the most prominent vegetation in the Black Hills. As for bird species, turkeys, bluejays, woodpeckers, cliff swallows, chickadees, the canyon supports a cross-section of four-footed animal life. White-tail and mule deer can be throughout the drive. Porcupines, raccoons, squirrels, and chipmunks might be spotted as well as a bobcat or a yellow-bellied marmot and it is often studied by geologists due to the extreme old age of the Precambrian rocks exposed by the creek bed. The canyons high walls are of three dominant rock types, the Cambrian to Ordovician Deadwood Shale at the bottom lies on an unconformity above Precambrian rock and can be identified by its brown color. It is multi-layered in appearance and ranges from 10 to 400 feet thick, englewood Limestone in the middle is pink to red colored and is 30 to 60 feet thick. The Paleogene Paha Sapa Limestone, the top layer, is the thickest and is colored and weathered gray in appearance. Caves and fossils are found in the Paha Sapa Limestone. Basic information and pictures of Spearfish Canyon and tourism info Geologic information and pictures of Spearfish Canyon Information about the Scenic Byway
13.
Black Hills
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The Black Hills are a small, isolated mountain range rising from the Great Plains of North America in western South Dakota and extending into Wyoming, United States. Black Elk Peak, which rises to 7,244 feet, is the ranges highest summit, the Black Hills encompass the Black Hills National Forest. The name Black Hills is a translation of the Lakota Pahá Sápa, the hills were so-called because of their dark appearance from a distance, as they were covered in trees. Native Americans have a history in the Black Hills. After conquering the Cheyenne in 1776, the Lakota took over the territory of the Black Hills, however, when settlers discovered gold there in 1874, as a result of George Armstrong Custers Black Hills Expedition, miners swept into the area in a gold rush. As the economy of the Black Hills has shifted from natural resources since the late 20th century, locals tend to divide the Black Hills into two areas, The Southern Hills and The Northern Hills. Attractions in the Northern Hills include Spearfish Canyon, historic Deadwood, the first Rally was held on August 14,1938 and the 75th Rally in 2015 saw more than 1 million bikers visit the Black Hills. Devils Tower National Monument, located in the Wyoming Black Hills, is an important nearby attraction and was the United States first national monument. Scientists have been able to utilize carbon-dating to evaluate the age of tools found in the area, stratigraphic records indicate environmental changes in the land, such as flood and drought patterns. For example, large-scale flooding of the Black Hill basins occurs at a probability rate of 0.01, however, during The Medieval Climate Anomaly, or the Medieval Warm Period, flooding increased in the basins. The Arikara arrived by AD1500, followed by the Cheyenne, Crow, Kiowa, the Lakota arrived from Minnesota in the 18th century and drove out the other tribes, who moved west. They claimed the land, which they called Ȟe Sápa, the mountains commonly became known as the Black Hills. François and Louis de La Vérendrye probably travelled near the Black Hills in 1743, fur trappers and traders had some dealings with the Native Americans. European Americans increasingly encroached on Lakota territory, in this treaty, they protected the Black Hills forever from European-American settlement. Both the Sioux and Cheyenne also claimed rights to the land, saying that in their cultures, it was considered the axis mundi, an official announcement of gold was made by the newspaper reporters accompanying the expedition. The following year, the Newton-Jenney Party conducted the first detailed survey of the Black Hills, the surveyor for the party, Dr. Valentine McGillycuddy, was the first European American to ascend to the top of Black Elk Peak. This highest point in the Black Hills is 7,242 feet above sea level, during the 1875–1878 gold rush, thousands of miners went to the Black Hills, in 1880, the area was the most densely populated part of the Dakota Territory. Three large towns developed in the Northern Hills, Deadwood, Central City, around these were groups of smaller gold camps, towns, and villages
14.
Black Elk Peak
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Black Elk Peak is the highest natural point in South Dakota. It lies in the Black Elk Wilderness area, in southern Pennington County, the peak lies 3.7 mi WSW of Mount Rushmore. At 7,242 feet, it has described by the Board on Geographical Names as the highest summit in the United States east of the Rocky Mountains. It is also known as Hinhan Kaga, the Federal Board of Geographic Names has designated it Black Elk Peak. Guadalupe Peak and Sierra Blanca also lie far to the east of the Continental Divide and are substantially higher, but they are located south of the Rockies. Professional but unofficial measurements in 2016 found the highest natural rock to be at 7,231.32 feet NAVD88 and this peak was called Hinhan Kaga by the Lakota Sioux). They dominated this region and occupied the territory at the time of European colonization and they considered it a sacred site within the Black Hills, which they call Pahá Sápa, also written He Sapa. The mountain was named Harney Peak in 1855 by American Lieutenant Gouverneur K. Warren in honor of US General William S. Harney, Harney later commanded the United States military in the Black Hills area in the late 1870s. The Lakota have tried to get the name of the peak changed for 50 years, in 2014 the Sioux renewed their effort to get the name changed, in an effort led by Basil Brave Heart of the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation. A Korean War veteran, he felt that Harney had not honored the military with his action, some Lakota requested state officials in 2015 to reinstate their original name Hinhan Kaga for the peak. He became known beyond the Lakota in part through the book Black Elk Speaks, South Dakota Governor Dennis Daugaard opposed the name change, as did other state officials, and no action was taken in 2015. Board on Geographic Names officially changed the name from Harney Peak to Black Elk Peak on August 11,2016, by a unanimous vote of 12–0. On August 18,2016, Gov. Daugaard announced that the state would accept the new name, American settlement was concentrated east of the river, where there was more water for farming. The first Americans believed to have reached the summit were a party led by General George Armstrong Custer in 1874, the federal government took back the Black Hills and another strip of land in a new treaty in 1877. More than a later, it broke up the Great Sioux Reservation in 1889 into five smaller reservations. The government made some 9 million acres of former Lakota land available for purchase for ranching and homesteading, most American settlement in West River did not start until the early 20th century. The area attracted many European immigrants as well as migrants from the East, Harney Peak is the site where Black Elk received his Great Vision when nine years old. He later became a man known for his wisdom
15.
Wind Cave National Park
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Wind Cave National Park is a United States national park 10 miles north of the town of Hot Springs in western South Dakota. Established in 1903 by President Theodore Roosevelt, it was the seventh U. S. National Park, the cave is notable for its displays of the calcite formation known as boxwork. Approximately 95 percent of the worlds discovered boxwork formations are found in Wind Cave, Wind Cave is also known for its frostwork. The cave is considered a three-dimensional maze cave, recognized as the densest cave system in the world. The cave is currently the sixth-longest in the world with 140.47 miles of explored cave passageways, above ground, the park includes the largest remaining natural mixed-grass prairie in the United States. The first documented discovery of the cave by White Americans was in 1881, according to the story, when Tom looked into the hole, the wind blew his hat off of his head. The caves found in the park are said to breathe, that is, air moves into or out of a cave, equalizing the atmospheric pressure of the cave. When the air pressure is higher outside the cave than in it, air flows into the cave, when the air pressure inside the cave is higher than outside it, air flows out of it, lowering the air pressure within the cave. A large cave with only a few small openings will breathe more obviously than a cave with many large openings. Rapid weather changes, accompanied by rapid changes, are a feature of Western South Dakota weather. From 1881 to 1889, few people ventured far into Wind Cave, then in 1889 the South Dakota Mining Company hired Jesse D. McDonald to oversee their mining claim on the cave site, the South Dakota Mining Company may have hoped to find minerals of value, or it may from the start have had commercial development of the cave in mind. No valuable mineral deposits were found, and the McDonald family began developing the cave for tourism, Jesse initially hired his son Alvin and, beginning in 1891, Alvins brother Elmer, to explore and help develop the cave. Alvin fell in love with the cave and kept a cave diary, others who worked at Wind Cave and helped explore it between 1890 and 1903 include Katie Stabler, Emma McDonald, Inez McDonald, and Tommy McDonald. By February 1892 the cave was open for visitors, the standard tour fee was apparently $1.00, tourists, with their guide, explored the cave by candlelight. These early tours were physically demanding and sometimes involved crawling through narrow passages, like the nearby Jewel Cave National Monument, currently the third longest cave, Herb and Jan Conn played an important role in cave exploration during the 1960s. Wind Cave National Park protects an ecosystem with eastern and western plant. Many visible animals inhabit this park include raccoons, elk, bison, coyotes, skunks, badgers, ermines, black-footed ferrets, cougars, bobcats, red foxes, minks, pronghorn and prairie dogs
16.
Jewel Cave National Monument
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Jewel Cave National Monument contains Jewel Cave, currently the third longest cave in the world, with 181.89 miles of mapped passageways. It is located approximately 13 mi west of the town of Custer in South Dakotas Black Hills and it became a national monument in 1908. Frank and Albert Michaud, two prospectors, discovered the cave in 1900, when they felt cold air blowing out of a small hole in a canyon. It is unknown whether any previous inhabitants of the area were aware of the cave opening. After enlarging the cave entrance with dynamite, the Michauds found a cavern lined with calcite crystals, the brothers tried to capitalize on the discovery, widening the opening, building walkways inside, and opening it to tourists. Although their venture was unsuccessful, news of the discovery eventually reached Washington, president Theodore Roosevelt proclaimed Jewel Cave a National Monument on February 7,1908. The area around the entrance to the cave was further developed by the Civilian Conservation Corps in the 1930s. The National Park Service assumed management of the monument in 1933, as recently as 1959, less than 2 miles of passageway had been discovered. That year, however, Herb and Jan Conn, local climbers, began exploring. Much of the new discoveries lay outside the boundaries of the monument, the two agencies performed a land swap in 1965, establishing the present boundaries of the park, and enabling the development of a new part of the cave. The Park Service sunk a 300 feet elevator shaft to a remote cave area. The Scenic Tour was opened in 1972, most modern-day visitors tour that part of the cave. In August 2000, an 83,000 acres forest fire burned 90% of the monument, the visitor center and historic buildings were spared. By 1979, Herb and Jan Conn had discovered, named, although they largely retired from caving by the early 1980s, exploration has continued unabated. Because the areas being explored take many hours to reach, explorers now sometimes camp in the cave during expeditions of as long as four days, the cave is mapped by traditional survey techniques, using compass, clinometer and today with lasers instead of tape measures. Its 181.89 mi of mapped passageway make Jewel Cave the third longest cave in the world, after Mammoth Cave System in Kentucky and Sistema Sac Actun at the Yucatán Peninsula, at 198 mi. The discovered areas in the account for only about 3 to 5% of the estimated total air volume of the cave. The cave volume is estimated by measuring the amount of air that the cave exhales when the air pressure drops
17.
National Monument (United States)
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Historically, some national monuments were managed by the War Department. National monuments can be so designated through the power of the Antiquities Act of 1906, President Theodore Roosevelt used the act to declare Devils Tower in Wyoming as the first national monument. The Antiquities Act of 1906 resulted from concerns about protecting mostly prehistoric Native American ruins, the Act authorized permits for legitimate archaeological investigations and penalties for taking or destroying antiquities without permission. Among the next three monuments he proclaimed in 1906 was Petrified Forest in Arizona, another natural feature, in 1908, Roosevelt used the act to proclaim more than 800,000 acres of the Grand Canyon as a national monument. In 1918, President Woodrow Wilson proclaimed Katmai National Monument in Alaska, Katmai was later enlarged to nearly 2,800,000 acres by subsequent Antiquities Act proclamations and for many years was the largest national park system unit. Petrified Forest, Grand Canyon, and Katmai were among the national monuments later converted to national parks by Congress. Substantial opposition did not materialize until 1943, when President Franklin D. Roosevelt proclaimed Jackson Hole National Monument in Wyoming. He did this to accept a donation of lands acquired by John D. Rockefeller, roosevelts proclamation unleashed a storm of criticism about use of the Antiquities Act to circumvent Congress. A bill abolishing Jackson Hole National Monument passed Congress but was vetoed by Roosevelt, the proclamation authority was not used again anywhere until 1996, when President Bill Clinton proclaimed the Grand Staircase-Escalante National Monument in Utah. This action was unpopular in Utah, and bills were introduced to further restrict the presidents authority. To date, none of them have been enacted, presidents have used the Antiquities Acts proclamation authority not only to create new national monuments but to enlarge existing ones. For example, Franklin D. Roosevelt significantly enlarged Dinosaur National Monument in 1938, lyndon B. Johnson added Ellis Island to Statue of Liberty National Monument in 1965, and Jimmy Carter made major additions to Glacier Bay and Katmai National Monuments in 1978. Marine National Monument List of U. S. National Forests List of areas in the National Park System of the United States List of U. S
18.
Custer State Park
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Custer State Park is a state park and wildlife reserve in the Black Hills of southwestern South Dakota, USA. The park is South Dakotas largest and first state park, named after Lt. Colonel George Armstrong Custer, the area originally started out as sixteen sections, but was later changed into one block of land because of the challenges of the terrain. The park began to grow rapidly in the 1920s and gained new land, during the 1930s the Civilian Conservation Corps built miles of roads, laid out parks and campgrounds, and built three dams that set up a future of water recreation at the park. In 1964 an additional 22,900 acres were added to the park, the park covers an area of over 71,000 acres of hilly terrain and is home to many wild animals. The park is home to a herd of 1500 free roaming bison. Elk, coyotes, mule deer, white tailed deer, mountain goats, prairie dogs, bighorn sheep, river otters, pronghorn, cougars, the park is famous for its scenery, its scenic drives, with views of the bison herd and prairie dog towns. This park is accessible by road from Rapid City. Other nearby attractions are Wind Cave National Park, Mount Rushmore, Jewel Cave National Monument, Crazy Horse Memorial, the annual roundups began in 1965, more than 10,000 people now attend each one. The Peter Norbeck Center is listed on the National Register of Historic Places, exhibits focus on the parks natural history and cultural heritage, and include wildlife dioramas, a CCC bunkhouse and a gold prospecting display. The center is named for South Dakota Governor and Senator Peter Norbeck, many of the parks naturalist programs begin at the center. Badger Hole, also known as Badger Clark Historical Site, was the home of Charles Badger Clark, the house is maintained as it was when Clark lived there. Visitors can tour the home and hike the adjacent Badger Clark Historic Trail, Begging Burros is a name used to refer to the donkeys in Custer State Park. For many years, these donkeys have earned this nickname as they approach various passing cars through the park begging for food, after earning this reputation, the burros have become famous now garnering the attention of most travelers through the park inside and outside of cars. Many people bring food to the park specifically for the purpose of feeding these animals, the Begging Burros inhabit one area of the park upon a hill where approximately 50 of them try to obtain any food they can. Custer State Parks roadway is blocked off by these animals so use caution, Custer State Park Tatanka, The 2011 Guide to Custer State Park Badger Clark Memorial Society
19.
Black Hills National Forest
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Black Hills National Forest is located in southwestern South Dakota and northeastern Wyoming. The forest has an area of over 1.25 million acres and is managed by the Forest Service, Forest headquarters are located in Custer, South Dakota. There are local district offices in Custer, Rapid City, and Spearfish in South Dakota. Predominantly ponderosa pine, the forest also includes hard woods like aspen, bur oak, the lower elevations include grassland prairie, but the National Forest System lands encompass most of the mountainous region known as the Black Hills of South Dakota and Wyoming. Within the forest is Black Elk Peak which is the tallest mountain in South Dakota, after a series of devastating wildfires in 1893, U. S. President Grover Cleveland created the Black Hills Forest Reserve on February 22,1897. Upon the creation of the Forest Service in 1905, the reserve was transferred to the new agency under the United States Department of Agriculture, lakota words pahá sápa meaning hills that are black may be one of the factors in the regions naming. Early settlers and explorers called the Laramie Range the Black Hills prior to Lt. G. K. Warrens expedition in 1857. Prior to explorations by the La Verendrye brothers in 1742, many tribes frequented the Black Hills including Ponca, Kiowa Apache, Arapaho, Kiowa and Cheyenne for at least the past 10,000 years. The smallpox epidemics of 1771 to 1781 broke the will of the Arikara who prior to that held the Sioux east of the Missouri. American Horses winter count of 1775-76 is interpreted as depicting the Sioux discovery of the Black Hills, the forest is located in parts of seven counties in South Dakota and Wyoming. In descending order of forestland area they are Pennington, Custer, Lawrence, Crook, Fall River, Meade, the Forest is located immediately west and south of Rapid City and can be accessed from Interstate 90. The forest headquarters is located in Custer, South Dakota, although surrounded by Black Hills National Forest, both Jewel Cave National Monument and Mount Rushmore National Memorial are separate areas administered by the National Park Service. Wind Cave National Park, which is another area administered by the National Park Service, Black Elk Wilderness is a wilderness within the Forest and no motorized transport is permitted. Outside of the wilderness, mining, logging, and ranching are permitted on public lands through land leases with companies and private parties, referred to as permittees. The Black Hills National Forest encompasses three distinct mountain ranges, the Black HIlls and the Elk Mountains in South Dakota as well as the Bear Lodge Mountains in Wyoming, the Black Hills are by far the largest of the three ranges. While ponderosa pine is the most common species found in the forest. Elk, mule deer, pronghorn and white-tailed deer are commonly seen, Black bears have been spotted in the Black Hills. Cougars are increasing dramatically as a result of prolific herds of deer, coyotes, bighorn sheep and mountain goats are also frequently seen by visitors
20.
United States National Forest
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National Forest is a classification of protected and managed federal lands in the United States. The National Forest System was created by the Land Revision Act of 1891, abbot Kinney and forester Theodore Lukens were key spokesmen for the effort. In the United States there are 155 National Forests containing almost 190 million acres of land and these lands comprise 8.5 percent of the total land area of the United States, an area about the size of Texas. Some 87 percent of National Forest land lies west of the Mississippi River in the ranges of the Western United States. Alaska has 12 percent of all National Forest lands, the U. S. Forest Service also manages all of the United States National Grasslands, and around half of the United States National Recreation Areas. There are two different types of forests within the National Forest system. Those east of the Great Plains in the Midwestern and Eastern United States were primarily acquired by the government since 1891. The land had long been in the domain and sometimes repeatedly logged since colonial times. These are mostly lands that were kept in the domain, with the exception of inholdings. Land management of these areas focuses on conservation, timber harvesting, livestock grazing, watershed protection, wildlife, unlike national parks and other federal lands managed by the National Park Service, extraction of natural resources from national forests is permitted, and in many cases encouraged. National Forests are categorized by the U. S. as IUCN Category VI protected areas, however, the first-designated wilderness areas, and some of the largest, are on National Forest lands. There are management decision conflicts between conservationists and environmentalists, and natural resource extraction companies and lobbies, over the protection and/or use of National Forest lands, many ski resorts and summer resorts operate on leased land in National Forests
21.
Black Elk Wilderness
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The Black Elk Wilderness is located in the U. S. state of South Dakota. The wilderness was designated by an act of Congress in 1980, managed by the U. S. Forest Service, Black Elk Wilderness is part of Black Hills National Forest. This 13,426 acre region is considered sacred to Native Americans, especially the Sioux and is named after Black Elk, an Oglala Sioux holy man. Mount Rushmore National Memorial is immediately to the north and much of the rest of the wilderness is bordered by other protected land under the jurisdiction of state and federal agencies. Black Elk Peak, which at 7,242 feet is the tallest mountain in South Dakota, is located in the wilderness, craggy peaks and rocky slopes mixed with ponderosa pine, spruce and fir trees make for a varied ecosystem. Mountain goats and bighorn sheep inhabit the more rugged mountain slopes, while deer, elk. A sizeable population of hawks and falcons inhabit the wilderness. Wilderness Areas do not allow motorized or mechanized vehicles, including bicycles, although camping and fishing are allowed with proper permit, no roads or buildings are constructed and there is also no logging or mining, in compliance with the 1964 Wilderness Act. Wilderness areas within National Forests and Bureau of Land Management areas also allow hunting in season, by 2010,80 percent of the trees in the wilderness had been killed by the Mountain pine beetle. Wilderness Areas Wilderness Act Black Elk Speaks Official website Black Elk Wilderness, Wilderness Legislation, The Wilderness Act of 1964
22.
Buffalo Gap National Grassland
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Buffalo Gap National Grassland is a National Grassland located primarily in southwestern South Dakota, United States. It is also the second largest National Grassland, after Little Missouri National Grassland in North Dakota, characteristics of the grasslands include mixed prairie and chalky badlands. The grassland is managed by the U. S. Forest Service and is a division of Nebraska National Forest, in descending order of land area it is located in parts of Fall River, Pennington, Jackson, and Custer counties. There are local district offices located in Hot Springs and Wall. It also surrounds Badlands National Park and Minuteman Missile National Historic Site, the act would allow the continuation of grazing and hunting on the land and would create the first national grassland wilderness in the country. 2013, Charmaine White Face raised concerns about exposure of South Dakota Army National Guard soldiers in the Buffalo Gap National Grassland. The National Grasslands Visitor Center in Wall, South Dakota is part of the Buffalo Gap National Grassland – Wall Ranger District, the center features exhibits about grassland wildlife and plants, grazing management and the history of the Great Plains. There is also a theater with a video about the grasslands, restrooms, media related to Buffalo Gap National Grassland at Wikimedia Commons Buffalo Gap National Grassland – Nebraska National Forests and Grasslands National Grasslands Visitor Center
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United States National Grassland
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National Grassland is a classification of protected and managed federal lands in the United States authorized by Title III of the Bankhead–Jones Farm Tenant Act of 1937. For administrative purposes, they are identical to United States National Forests. Like National Forests, National Grasslands may be open for hunting, grazing, mineral extraction, recreation, various National Grasslands are typically administered in conjunction with nearby National Forests. All but three National Grasslands are on or at the edge of the Great Plains and those three are in southeastern Idaho, northeastern California, and central Oregon. The three National Grasslands in North Dakota, together with one in northwestern South Dakota, are administered jointly as the Dakota Prairie Grasslands, National Grasslands are generally much smaller than National Forests. Whereas a typical National Forest would be about 1,000,000 acres, the largest National Grassland, the Little Missouri National Grassland in North Dakota, covers 1,028,784 acres, which is approximately the median size of a National Forest. As of September 30,2007, the area of all 20 National Grasslands was 3,838,280 acres. The catastrophic Dust Bowl of the 1930s led to the creation of the Soil Conservation Service in 1933 and this and subsequent federal laws paved the way for establishing national grasslands. Grassland Prairie Temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands List of U. S. National Forests Wilderness preservation systems in the United States
24.
Sylvan Lake (South Dakota)
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Sylvan Lake, known as the crown jewel of Custer State Park, is located in the Black Hills of South Dakota. Created in 1881 when Theodore Reder built a dam across Sunday Gulch, it offers picnic areas, rock climbing, small boats, swimming. It is also popular as a point for excursions to Black Elk Peak. A hotel was operated on the shore of the lake in the early 20th century, the lake was featured in Disneys 2007 film National Treasure, Book of Secrets. The film made the lake appear to be located directly behind Mount Rushmore when in reality it is five miles southwest of Mount Rushmore
25.
Pactola Lake
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Pactola Lake is the largest reservoir in the Black Hills of South Dakota and is created by the Pactola Dam. It was started on 25 November 1952, contrary to popular belief there is no town at the bottom of Pactola Lake. The Bureau of Reclamation clear cut and cleaned the bottom before it filled. The few buildings still there by the time the dam was finished on August 15,1956 were moved or auctioned off, the only structure under the water is the old Civilian Conservation Corp camp dynamite bunker. The lake is located on Rapid Creek in Pennington County, South Dakota, the lake provides the water supply for the Rapid City Metro Area. Boating and fishing are popular, with a walk-in fly fishing area located on Rapid Creek below the dam. In the summer, the USFS operates a center on the dam. Pactola Lake is accessible via US Highway 385 north from Hill City, South Dakota and Sheridan Lake Forks or south from Lead and Deadwood, or via the Rimrock Highway, from Rapid City, fees are charged in summertime for all facilities. Boating, fishing, swimming, and other activities are popular in the summer, in wintertime, ice-fishing, ice-skating. List of South Dakota lakes List of lakes Pactola
26.
Peter Norbeck Scenic Byway
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The Peter Norbeck Scenic Byway is a National Scenic Byway in the Black Hills National Forest in South Dakota, United States. It is a loop which is composed of portions of U. S. Route 16A, South Dakota Highway 244, South Dakota Highway 87, and South Dakota Highway 89. Parts of the byway enter Black Hills National Forest, Custer State Park and the Mt. Rushmore National Memorial, the byway is named after Peter Norbeck, who served as governor of and senator for South Dakota. The Peter Norbeck Scenic Byway consists of a made up of four numbered highways. The byway is part of US 16A, the Iron Mountain Road and this portion of the highway includes several tunnels and pigtail bridges. The byway enters Custer State Park along its edge and turns west at its intersection with SD36. In the western part of the park, the byway splits into two highways, one which follows US 16A westward and one which follows SD87 northward. The US 16A portion of the byway runs into Custer, where the byway becomes part of SD89 and this portion of the byway meets the SD87 portion in the northwest corner of Custer State Park. The byway then follows SD87 to its intersection with US16 and US385, the byway follows SD244 westward into the Mount Rushmore National Memorial, where it meets up with US 16A. Most of the roads which make up the Peter Norbeck Scenic Byway were proposed by Peter Norbeck when he was a U. S. Senator, norbecks first major proposal was the Needles Highway, which comprises the SD87 portion of the byway and cuts through the Needles. Though engineers of the time said a highway could not be built in the Needles, Norbeck also proposed the Iron Mountain Road, the US 16A section of the byway. The byway was established on September 23,1996, and named in honor of Norbeck, National Scenic Byway Program - Peter Norbeck Scenic Byway
27.
Geology
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Geology is an earth science concerned with the solid Earth, the rocks of which it is composed, and the processes by which they change over time. Geology can also refer generally to the study of the features of any terrestrial planet. Geology gives insight into the history of the Earth by providing the evidence for plate tectonics, the evolutionary history of life. Geology also plays a role in engineering and is a major academic discipline. The majority of data comes from research on solid Earth materials. These typically fall into one of two categories, rock and unconsolidated material, the majority of research in geology is associated with the study of rock, as rock provides the primary record of the majority of the geologic history of the Earth. There are three types of rock, igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. The rock cycle is an important concept in geology which illustrates the relationships between three types of rock, and magma. When a rock crystallizes from melt, it is an igneous rock, the sedimentary rock can then be subsequently turned into a metamorphic rock due to heat and pressure and is then weathered, eroded, deposited, and lithified, ultimately becoming a sedimentary rock. Sedimentary rock may also be re-eroded and redeposited, and metamorphic rock may also undergo additional metamorphism, all three types of rocks may be re-melted, when this happens, a new magma is formed, from which an igneous rock may once again crystallize. Geologists also study unlithified material which typically comes from more recent deposits and these materials are superficial deposits which lie above the bedrock. Because of this, the study of material is often known as Quaternary geology. This includes the study of sediment and soils, including studies in geomorphology, sedimentology and this theory is supported by several types of observations, including seafloor spreading, and the global distribution of mountain terrain and seismicity. This coupling between rigid plates moving on the surface of the Earth and the mantle is called plate tectonics. The development of plate tectonics provided a basis for many observations of the solid Earth. Long linear regions of geologic features could be explained as plate boundaries, mid-ocean ridges, high regions on the seafloor where hydrothermal vents and volcanoes exist, were explained as divergent boundaries, where two plates move apart. Arcs of volcanoes and earthquakes were explained as convergent boundaries, where one plate subducts under another, transform boundaries, such as the San Andreas Fault system, resulted in widespread powerful earthquakes. Plate tectonics also provided a mechanism for Alfred Wegeners theory of continental drift and they also provided a driving force for crustal deformation, and a new setting for the observations of structural geology
28.
Laccolith
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A laccolith is a sheet intrusion that has been injected between two layers of sedimentary rock. The pressure of the magma is high enough that the strata are forced upward. Laccoliths tend to form at shallow depths and are typically formed by relatively viscous magmas, such as those that crystallize to diorite, granodiorite. Cooling underground takes place slowly, giving time for crystals to form in the cooling magma. The surface rock above laccoliths often erodes away completely, leaving the mound of igneous rock. The term was first applied as laccolite by Grove Karl Gilbert after his study of intrusions of diorite in the Henry Mountains of Utah in about 1875, horizontal sheeted intrusions were fed by vertical intrusions. It is often difficult to reconstruct shapes of intrusions, for instance, Devils Tower in Wyoming was thought to be a volcanic neck, but study has revealed it to be an eroded laccolith. The rock would have had to very slowly so as to form the slender pencil-shaped columns of phonolite porphyry seen today. At other localities, such as in the Henry Mountains and other isolated mountain ranges of the Colorado Plateau, the small Barber Hill syenite-stock laccolith in Charlotte, Vermont, has several volcanic trachyte dikes associated with it. Molybdenite is also visible in outcrops on this exposed laccolith, in Big Bend Ranch State Park, at the southwesternmost visible extent of the Ouachita orogeny, lies the Solitario. One of the largest laccoliths in the United States is Pine Valley Mountain in the Pine Valley Mountain Wilderness area near St. George, there are many examples of possible laccoliths on the surface of the Moon. These igneous features may be confused with impact cratering
29.
State park
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State parks are parks or other protected areas managed at the sub-national level within those nations which use state as a political subdivision. State parks are established by a state to preserve a location on account of its natural beauty, historic interest. There are state parks under the administration of the government of each U. S. state, some of the Mexican states, the term is also used in the Australian state of Victoria. The equivalent term used in Canada, Argentina, South Africa, similar systems of local government maintained parks exist in other countries, but the terminology varies. State parks are thus similar to parks, but under state rather than federal administration. Similarly, local government entities below state level may maintain parks, in general, state parks are smaller than national parks, with a few exceptions such as the Adirondack Park in New York and Anza-Borrego Desert State Park in California. As of 2014, there were 10,234 state park units in the United States, there are some 739 million annual visits to the countrys state parks. The NASPD further counts over 43,000 miles of trail,217,367 campsites, many states include designations beyond state park in their state parks systems. Other designations might be state recreation areas, state beaches, some state park systems include long-distance trails and historic sites. The title of oldest state park in the United States is claimed by Niagara Falls State Park in New York, however several public parks previously or currently maintained at the state level pre-date it. Indian Springs State Park has been operated continuously by the state of Georgia as a park since 1825. In 1864 Yosemite Valley and Mariposa Grove were ceded by the government to California until Yosemite National Park was proclaimed in 1890. In 1878 Wisconsin set aside a vast swath of its forests as The State Park but, needing money. The first state park with the designation of state park was Mackinac Island State Park in 1895, list of U. S. state parks National Association of State Park Directors Wilderness preservation systems in the United States Ahlgren, Carol. The Civilian Conservation Corps and Wisconsin State Park Development, the State Park Movement in America, A Critical Review excerpt and text search Larson, Zeb. Silver Falls State Park and the Early Environmental Movement, oregon Historical Quarterly 112#1 pp, 34-57 in JSTOR Newton, Norman T. When Forests Trumped Parks, The Maryland Experience, 1906-1950, Maryland Historical Magazine 101#2 pp, 203-224
30.
Plains Indians
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Plains Indians are usually divided into two broad classifications which overlap to some degree. The first group became a nomadic horse culture during the 18th and 19th centuries, following the vast herds of buffalo. These include the Blackfoot, Arapaho, Assiniboine, Cheyenne, Comanche, Crow, Gros Ventre, Kiowa, Lakota, Lipan, Plains Apache, Plains Cree, Plains Ojibwe, Sarsi, Nakoda, and Tonkawa. The second group of Plains Indians were semi-sedentary, and, in addition to hunting buffalo, they lived in villages, raised crops, and actively traded with other tribes. These include the Arikara, Hidatsa, Iowa, Kaw, Kitsai, Mandan, Missouria, Omaha, Osage, Otoe, Pawnee, Ponca, Quapaw, Wichita, and the Santee Dakota, Yanktonai and Yankton Dakota. Both groups included people indigenous to the region as well as those who were pushed west by population pressure linked to the expansion of white culture. Indigenous peoples of the Great Plains are often separated into Northern and Southern Plains tribes, the tribes followed the seasonal grazing and migration of buffalo. The Plains Indians lived in teepees because they were disassembled and allowed the nomadic life of following game. When horses were obtained, the Plains tribes rapidly integrated them into their daily lives, people in the southwest began to acquire horses in the 16th century by trading or stealing them from Spanish colonists in New Mexico. As horse culture moved northward, the Comanche were among the first to commit to a fully mounted nomadic lifestyle and this occurred by the 1730s, when they had acquired enough horses to put all their people on horseback. The Spanish explorer Francisco Vásquez de Coronado was the first European to describe the Plains Indian culture, while searching for a reputedly wealthy land called Quivira in 1541, Coronado came across the Querechos in the Texas panhandle. The Querechos were the later called Apache. According to the Spaniards, the Querechos lived in tents made of the skins of the cows. They empty a large gut and fill it with blood, Coronado described many common features of Plains Indians culture, skin tepees, travois pulled by dogs, Plains Indian Sign Language, and staple foods such as jerky and pemmican. The Plains Indians found by Coronado had not yet obtained horses, by the 19th century, the typical year of the Lakota and other northern nomads was a communal buffalo hunt as early in spring as their horses had recovered from the rigors of the winter. In June and July the scattered bands of the gathered together into large encampments. These gatherings afforded leaders to meet to make decisions, plan movements, arbitrate disputes. In the fall, people would split up into smaller bands to facilitate hunting to procure meat for the long winter, between the fall hunt and the onset of winter was a time when Lakota warriors could undertake raiding and warfare
31.
Europe
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Europe is a continent that comprises the westernmost part of Eurasia. Europe is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, yet the non-oceanic borders of Europe—a concept dating back to classical antiquity—are arbitrary. Europe covers about 10,180,000 square kilometres, or 2% of the Earths surface, politically, Europe is divided into about fifty sovereign states of which the Russian Federation is the largest and most populous, spanning 39% of the continent and comprising 15% of its population. Europe had a population of about 740 million as of 2015. Further from the sea, seasonal differences are more noticeable than close to the coast, Europe, in particular ancient Greece, was the birthplace of Western civilization. The fall of the Western Roman Empire, during the period, marked the end of ancient history. Renaissance humanism, exploration, art, and science led to the modern era, from the Age of Discovery onwards, Europe played a predominant role in global affairs. Between the 16th and 20th centuries, European powers controlled at times the Americas, most of Africa, Oceania. The Industrial Revolution, which began in Great Britain at the end of the 18th century, gave rise to economic, cultural, and social change in Western Europe. During the Cold War, Europe was divided along the Iron Curtain between NATO in the west and the Warsaw Pact in the east, until the revolutions of 1989 and fall of the Berlin Wall. In 1955, the Council of Europe was formed following a speech by Sir Winston Churchill and it includes all states except for Belarus, Kazakhstan and Vatican City. Further European integration by some states led to the formation of the European Union, the EU originated in Western Europe but has been expanding eastward since the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991. The European Anthem is Ode to Joy and states celebrate peace, in classical Greek mythology, Europa is the name of either a Phoenician princess or of a queen of Crete. The name contains the elements εὐρύς, wide, broad and ὤψ eye, broad has been an epithet of Earth herself in the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European religion and the poetry devoted to it. For the second part also the divine attributes of grey-eyed Athena or ox-eyed Hera. The same naming motive according to cartographic convention appears in Greek Ανατολή, Martin Litchfield West stated that phonologically, the match between Europas name and any form of the Semitic word is very poor. Next to these there is also a Proto-Indo-European root *h1regʷos, meaning darkness. Most major world languages use words derived from Eurṓpē or Europa to refer to the continent, in some Turkic languages the originally Persian name Frangistan is used casually in referring to much of Europe, besides official names such as Avrupa or Evropa
32.
Lakota people
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They speak the Lakota language, the westernmost of the three Siouan language groups, occupying lands in both North and South Dakota. Siouan language speakers may have originated in the lower Mississippi River region and they were agriculturalists and may have been part of the Mound Builder civilization during the 9th–12th centuries CE. In the late 16th and early 17th centuries, Dakota-Lakota speakers lived in the upper Mississippi Region in present-day Minnesota, Wisconsin, Iowa, conflicts with Anishnaabe and Cree peoples pushed the Lakota west onto the Great Plains in the mid- to late-17th century. Early Lakota history is recorded in their Winter counts, pictorial calendars painted on hides or later recorded on paper, the Battiste Good winter count records Lakota history back to 900 CE, when White Buffalo Calf Woman gave the Lakota people the White Buffalo Calf Pipe. Around 1730, Cheyenne people introduced the Lakota to horses, called šuŋkawakaŋ, after their adoption of horse culture, Lakota society centered on the buffalo hunt on horseback. The total population of the Sioux was estimated at 28,000 by French explorers in 1660, the Lakota population was first estimated at 8,500 in 1805, growing steadily and reaching 16,110 in 1881. The Lakota were, thus, one of the few Native American tribes to increase in population in the 19th century, the number of Lakota has now increased to more than 170,000, of whom about 2,000 still speak the Lakota language. However, by about 1750 the Saône had moved to the east bank of the Missouri River, followed 10 years later by the Oglála, the large and powerful Arikara, Mandan, and Hidatsa villages had long prevented the Lakota from crossing the Missouri. However, the smallpox epidemic of 1772–1780 destroyed three-quarters of these tribes. The Lakota crossed the river into the drier, short-grass prairies of the High Plains and these newcomers were the Saône, well-mounted and increasingly confident, who spread out quickly. In 1765, a Saône exploring and raiding party led by Chief Standing Bear discovered the Black Hills, ten years later, the Oglála and Brulé also crossed the river. In 1776, the Lakota defeated the Cheyenne, who had taken the region from the Kiowa. The Cheyenne then moved west to the Powder River country, initial United States contact with the Lakota during the Lewis and Clark Expedition of 1804–1806 was marked by a standoff. Lakota bands refused to allow the explorers to continue upstream, and the expedition prepared for battle, some bands of Lakotas became the first Indians to help the United States Army in an Indian war west of the Missiouri during the Arikara War in 1823. In 1843, the southern Lakotas attacked Pawnee Chief Blue Coats village near the Loup in Nebraska, killing many, next time the Lakotas inflicted a blow so severe on the Pawnee would be in 1873, during the Massacre Canyon battle near Republican River. The Cheyenne and Lakota had previously attacked emigrant parties in a competition for resources, the Fort Laramie Treaty acknowledged Lakota sovereignty over the Great Plains in exchange for free passage on the Oregon Trail for as long as the river flows and the eagle flies. The United States government did not enforce the treaty restriction against unauthorized settlement, Lakota and other bands attacked settlers and even emigrant trains, causing public pressure on the U. S. Army to punish the hostiles. On September 3,1855,700 soldiers under American General William S. Harney avenged the Grattan Massacre by attacking a Lakota village in Nebraska, killing about 100 men, women, and children
33.
Sioux
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The Sioux /ˈsuː/ are groups of Native American tribes and First Nations peoples in North America. The term can refer to any group within the Great Sioux Nation or to any of the nations many language dialects. The Sioux comprise three major divisions based on divisions, the Dakota, Lakota, and Nakota. The Santee Dakota reside in the extreme east of the Dakotas, Minnesota, the Yankton and Yanktonai Dakota, collectively also referred to by the endonym Wičhíyena, reside in the Minnesota River area. They are considered to be the middle Sioux, and have in the past been erroneously classified as Nakota, the actual Nakota are the Assiniboine and Stoney of Western Canada and Montana. The Lakota, also called Teton, are the westernmost Sioux, known for their hunting, the name Sioux was adopted in English by the 1760s from French. It is abbreviated from Nadouessioux, first attested by Jean Nicolet in 1640, the name is sometimes said to be derived from an Ojibwe exonym for the Sioux meaning little snakes. The spelling in -x is due to the French plural marker, the Proto-Algonquian form *na·towe·wa, meaning Northern Iroquoian, has reflexes in several daughter languages that refer to a small rattlesnake. An alternative explanation is derivation from an exonym na·towe·ssiw, from a verb meaning to speak a foreign language. The current Ojibwe term for the Sioux and related groups is Bwaanag, presumably, this refers to the style of cooking the Sioux used in the past. The alternative English spelling of Ogallala is considered improper, the historical Sioux referred to the Great Sioux Nation as the Očhéthi Šakówiŋ, meaning Seven Council Fires. Each fire was a symbol of an oyate, the seven nations that comprise the Sioux are, Bdewákaŋthuŋwaŋ, Waȟpéthuŋwaŋ, Waȟpékhute, Sisíthuŋwaŋ, the Iháŋkthuŋwaŋ, Iháŋkthuŋwaŋna, and the Thítȟuŋwaŋ. The Seven Council Fires would assemble each summer to hold council, renew kinships, decide tribal matters, the seven divisions would select four leaders known as Wičháša Yatápika from among the leaders of each division. The last meeting of the Seven Council Fires was in 1850, today the Teton, Santee and the Minnesota Dakota, and Yankton/Yanktonai are usually known, respectively, as the Lakota, Eastern Dakota, or Western Dakota. In any of the three dialects, Lakota or Dakota translate to mean friend or ally, referring to the alliance that once bound the Great Sioux Nation. The Dakota are first recorded to have resided at the source of the Mississippi River during the seventeenth century, by 1700 some had migrated to present-day South Dakota. Late in the 17th century, the Dakota entered into an alliance with French merchants, the French were trying to gain advantage in the struggle for the North American fur trade against the English, who had recently established the Hudsons Bay Company. The first recorded encounter between the Sioux and the French occurred when Radisson and Groseilliers reached what is now Wisconsin during the winter of 1659–60
34.
Cheyenne
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The Cheyenne are one of the Indigenous peoples of the Great Plains and their language is of the Algonquian language family. The Cheyenne comprise two Native American tribes, the Sótaeoo or Sótaétaneoo and the Tsétsêhéstâhese and these tribes merged in the early 19th century. At the time of their first contact with the Europeans, the Cheyenne were living in the area of what is now Minnesota, at times they have been allied with the Lakota and Arapaho, and at other points enemies of the Lakota. In the early 18th century they migrated west across the Mississippi River and into North and South Dakota, having settled the Black Hills of South Dakota and the Powder River Country of present-day Montana, they introduced the horse culture to Lakota bands about 1730. Allied with the Arapaho, the Cheyenne pushed the Kiowa to the Southern Plains, in turn, they were pushed west by the more numerous Lakota. The Cheyenne Nation or Tsêhéstáno was at one time composed of ten bands that spread across the Great Plains from southern Colorado to the Black Hills in South Dakota and they fought their traditional enemies, the Crow and later the United States Army forces. In the mid-19th century, the bands began to split, with some choosing to remain near the Black Hills. Tribal enrollment figures, as of late 2014, indicate there are approximately 10,840 members. Approximately 91% of the population are Native Americans, with 72. 8% identifying themselves as Cheyenne, slightly more than one quarter of the population five years or older spoke a language other than English. The Southern Cheyenne, known in Cheyenne as Heévâhetaneoo meaning Roped People, together with the Southern Arapaho, form the Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes and their combined population is 12,130, as of 2008. In 2003, approximately 8,000 of these identified themselves as Cheyenne, the Tsétsêhéstâhese, which translates to those who are like this. Though the identity of the Šahíya is not known, many Great Plains tribes assume it means Cree or some people who spoke an Algonquian language related to Cree. The Cheyenne word for Ojibwe is Sáheaeoo, a word that sounds similar to the Dakota word Šahíya, another of the common etymologies for Cheyenne is a bit like the alien speech. The etymology of the name Tsitsistas, which the Cheyennes call themselves, is uncertain, grinnells record is typical, he states They call themselves Tsistsistas, which the books commonly give as meaning people. It most likely related to one another, similarly bred, like us, our people. The term for the Cheyenne homeland is Tsiihistano, the Cheyenne of Montana and Oklahoma speak the Cheyenne language, known as Tsêhésenêstsestôtse. Approximately 800 people speak Cheyenne in Oklahoma, there are only a handful of vocabulary differences between the two locations. The Cheyenne alphabet contains 14 letters, the Cheyenne language is one of the larger Algonquian-language group
35.
American bison
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The American bison, also commonly known as the American buffalo or simply buffalo, is a North American species of bison that once roamed the grasslands of North America in massive herds. Bison were seen in North Carolina near Buffalo Ford on the Catawba River as late as 1750. Two subspecies or ecotypes have been described, the bison, smaller in size and with a more rounded hump. Furthermore, the bison has been suggested to consist of a northern. However, this is not supported. The wood bison is one of the largest wild species of bovid in the world, surpassed by only the Asian gaur and it is the largest extant land animal in the Americas. The American bison is the mammal of the United States. The term buffalo is considered to be a misnomer for this animal, and could be confused with true buffalos, the Asian water buffalo. The name buffalo is listed in dictionaries as an acceptable name for American buffalo or bison. In reference to animal, the term buffalo dates to 1625 in North American usage when the term was first recorded for the American mammal. It thus has a longer history than the term bison. The American bison is very related to the wisent or European bison. In Plains Indian languages in general, male and female buffaloes are distinguished, a bison has a shaggy, long, dark-brown winter coat, and a lighter-weight, lighter-brown summer coat. As is typical in ungulates, the bison is slightly larger than the female and, in some cases. Plains bison are often in the range of sizes. Head-and-body lengths range from 2 to 3.5 m long, shoulder heights in the species can range from 152 to 186 cm. Weights can range from 318 to 1,000 kg Mature bulls tend to be larger than cows. Cow weights have had reported medians of 450 to 495 kg, with one small sample averaging 479 kg, the heaviest wild bull ever recorded weighed 1,270 kg
36.
Mike Rounds
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Marion Michael Mike Rounds is an American politician and the junior United States Senator from South Dakota, since January 2015. A member of the Republican Party, Rounds served as the 31st Governor of South Dakota from 2003 to 2011 and he holds the U. S. Senate seat previously held by retired Democrat Tim Johnson. Rounds, the eldest of eleven siblings, was born in Huron, South Dakota and he has German, Belgian, Swedish, and English ancestry. Rounds has lived in the capital of Pierre since he was three years old. He was named for an uncle, Marion Rounds, who was killed in the Pacific theater during the Second World War, several members of the Rounds family have been involved in state government. His father worked at times as state director of highway safety. Rounds brother, Tim Rounds, is a member of the South Dakota State Legislature representing District 24, Rounds attended South Dakota State University in Brookings, where he earned his B. S. in political science. Rounds is a partner in Fischer Rounds & Associates, an insurance and real estate firm with offices in Pierre, Rapid City, Mitchell, Watertown. Rounds represented District 24, which was based in Pierre, in 1990, Rounds defeated incumbent state Senator Jacqueline Kelley, 53%-47%. He won re-election in 1992,1994,1996, and 1998, Rounds was barred from seeking re-election in 2000 by legislative term limits, which South Dakota voters had passed in 1994. He represented Hughes, Lyman, Stanley, and Sully counties, in 1993, Rounds became Senate Minority Whip. In 1995, Rounds was selected by his peers to be Senate Majority Leader, until late in 2001, then-Congressman John Thune was the front-runner for the nomination. When Thune passed on the race to challenge Senator Tim Johnson, state Attorney General Mark Barnett, however, the contest between Kirby and Barnett soon became very negative and dirty. Kirby invested in the company after the scandal broke and Barnett attacked him for it in television advertisements, however, the advertisements backfired because the claims were so outlandish, that people thought for sure that they were exaggerated or completely fabricated. After winning the Republican nomination, Rounds selected state senator Dennis Daugaard of Dell Rapids to be his running mate and their Democratic opponents were University of South Dakota President Jim Abbott of Vermillion and his running mate, former state representative Mike Wilson of Rapid City. Rounds was elected governor on November 5,2002, billion easily defeated Wiese for the nomination and selected Rapid City school board member Eric Abrahamson as his running mate. The Rounds/Daugaard ticket was reelected on November 7,2006, Rounds served as the 2008 Chair of the Midwestern Governors Association. Roundss 2010 Initiative established 10 research centers at state-supported universities, on February 22,2006, the state legislature of South Dakota passed an act banning all medical abortions except those necessary to save the mothers life
37.
Intrusive rock
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Intrusive rock is formed when magma crystallizes and solidifies underground to form intrusions, for example plutons, batholiths, dikes, sills, laccoliths, and volcanic necks. Intrusive rock forms within Earths crust from the crystallization of magma, magma slowly pushes up from deep within the earth into any cracks or spaces it can find, sometimes pushing existing country rock out of the way, a process that can take millions of years. As the magma slowly cools into a solid, the different parts of the magma crystallize into rocks, many mountain ranges, such as the Sierra Nevada in California, are formed mostly from large granite intrusions, see Sierra Nevada Batholith. Intrusions are one of the two ways igneous rock can form, the other is extrusive rock, that is, an eruption or similar event. Technically speaking, an intrusion is any formation of igneous rock, rock formed from magma that cools. In contrast, an extrusion consists of rock, rock formed above the surface of the crust. Large bodies of magma that solidify underground before they reach the surface of the crust are called plutons, plutonic rocks form 7% of the Earths current land surface. Coarse-grained intrusive igneous rocks form at depth within the earth are called abyssal while those that form near the surface are called subvolcanic or hypabyssal. The term intrusive suite seems near synonymous, there is, however, a modest difference, An intrusive suite is a group of plutons related in time and space. Intrusions vary widely, from mountain-range-sized batholiths to thin veinlike fracture fillings of aplite or pegmatite, when exposed by erosion, such batholiths may occupy large areas. A well-known example of an intrusion is Devils Tower, another is Shiprock, New Mexico, USA. Be the pluton is large, it may be called a batholith or a stock, Intrusive rocks are characterized by large crystal sizes, and as the individual crystals are visible, the rock is called phaneritic. This is as the magma cools underground, and while cooling may be fast or slow, cooling is slower than on the surface, if it runs parallel to rock layers, it is called a sill. If an intrusion makes rocks above rise to form a dome, as heat dissipation is slow, and as the rock is under pressure, crystals form, and no vitreous rapidly chilled matter is present. The intrusions did not flow while solidifying, hence do not show lines, contained gases could not escape through the thick strata, thus form cavities, which can often be observed. Because their crystals are of the rough equal size, these rocks are said to be equigranular, there is typically no distinction between a first generation of large well-shaped crystals and a fine-grained ground-mass. Earlier crystals originated at a time when most of the rock was still liquid and are more or less perfect, later crystals are less regular in shape because they were compelled to occupy the spaces left between the already-formed crystals. The former case is said to be idiomorphic, the latter is xenomorphic, there are also many other characteristics that serve to distinguish the members of these two groups
38.
Magma
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Besides molten rock, magma may also contain suspended crystals, dissolved gas and sometimes gas bubbles. Magma often collects in magma chambers that may feed a volcano or solidify underground to form an intrusion, magma is capable of intruding into adjacent rocks, extrusion onto the surface as lava, and explosive ejection as tephra to form pyroclastic rock. Magma is a complex high-temperature fluid substance, temperatures of most magmas are in the range 700 °C to 1300 °C, but very rare carbonatite magmas may be as cool as 600 °C, and komatiite magmas may have been as hot as 1600 °C. Environments of magma formation and compositions are commonly correlated, environments include subduction zones, continental rift zones, mid-ocean ridges and hotspots. Despite being found in such locales, the bulk of the Earths crust. Except for the outer core, most of the Earth takes the form of a rheid. Magma, as liquid, preferentially forms in high temperature, low pressure environments within several kilometers of the Earths surface, magma compositions may evolve after formation by fractional crystallization, contamination, and magma mixing. By definition rock formed of solidified magma is called igneous rock, melting of solid rocks to form magma is controlled by three physical parameters, temperature, pressure, and composition. Mechanisms are discussed in the entry for igneous rock, as a rock melts, its volume changes. When enough rock is melted, the small globules of melt link up, under pressure within the earth, as little as a fraction of a percent partial melting may be sufficient to cause melt to be squeezed from its source. The degree of melting is critical for determining what type of magma is produced. The degree of partial melting required to form a melt can be estimated by considering the relative enrichment of incompatible elements versus compatible elements, incompatible elements commonly include potassium, barium, cesium, and rubidium. Rock types produced by small degrees of melting in the Earths mantle are typically alkaline. Typically, primitive melts of this composition form lamprophyre, lamproite, kimberlite and sometimes nepheline-bearing mafic rocks such as alkali basalts, pegmatite may be produced by low degrees of partial melting of the crust. Some granite-composition magmas are eutectic melts, and they may be produced by low to high degrees of melting of the crust. At high degrees of melting of the crust, granitoids such as tonalite, granodiorite and monzonite can be produced. Being only the time in recorded history that magma had been reached, IDDP decided to invest in the hole. A cemented steel case was constructed in the hole with a perforation at the close to the magma
39.
Eocene
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The Eocene Epoch, lasting from 56 to 33.9 million years ago, is a major division of the geologic timescale and the second epoch of the Paleogene Period in the Cenozoic Era. The Eocene spans the time from the end of the Paleocene Epoch to the beginning of the Oligocene Epoch. The start of the Eocene is marked by a period in which the concentration of the carbon isotope 13C in the atmosphere was exceptionally low in comparison with the more common isotope 12C. As with other periods, the strata that define the start and end of the epoch are well identified. The name Eocene comes from the Ancient Greek ἠώς and καινός, the Eocene epoch is conventionally divided into early, middle, and late subdivisions. The corresponding rocks are referred to as lower, middle, the Ypresian stage constitutes the lower, the Priabonian stage the upper, and the Lutetian and Bartonian stages are united as the middle Eocene. The Eocene Epoch contained a variety of different climate conditions that includes the warmest climate in the Cenozoic Era. During this period of time, little to no ice was present on Earth with a difference in temperature from the equator to the poles. Following the maximum was a descent into an icehouse climate from the Eocene Optimum to the Eocene-Oligocene transition at 34 million years ago. During this decrease ice began to reappear at the poles, greenhouse gases, in particular carbon dioxide and methane, played a significant role during the Eocene in controlling the surface temperature. For the early Eocene there is discussion on how much carbon dioxide was in the atmosphere. This is due to numerous proxies representing different atmospheric carbon dioxide content, for contrast, today the carbon dioxide levels are at 400 ppm or 0. 04%. At about the beginning of the Eocene Epoch the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere more or less doubled. During the early Eocene, methane was another gas that had a drastic effect on the climate. In comparison to carbon dioxide, methane has much effect on temperature as methane is ~34 times more effective per molecule than carbon dioxide on a 100-year scale. Most of the methane released to the atmosphere during this period of time would have been from wetlands, swamps, the atmospheric methane concentration today is 0. 000179% or 1.79 ppmv. Due to the climate and sea level rise associated with the early Eocene, more wetlands, more forests. Comparing the early Eocene production of methane to current levels of atmospheric methane, biogenic production of methane produces carbon dioxide and water vapor along with the methane, as well as yielding infrared radiation
40.
Devils Tower
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Devils Tower is a laccolithic butte composed of igneous rock in the Bear Lodge Mountains near Hulett and Sundance in Crook County, northeastern Wyoming, above the Belle Fourche River. It rises dramatically 1,267 feet above the Belle Fourche River, the summit is 5,112 feet above sea level. Devils Tower was the first declared United States National Monument, established on September 24,1906, the Monuments boundary encloses an area of 1,347 acres. In recent years, about 1% of the Monuments 400,000 annual visitors climbed Devils Tower, the name Devils Tower originated in 1875 during an expedition led by Colonel Richard Irving Dodge, when his interpreter reportedly misinterpreted a native name to mean Bad Gods Tower. All information signs in that use the name Devils Tower. Native American names for the monolith include, Bears House or Bears Lodge, Aloft on a Rock, Tree Rock, Great Gray Horn, and Brown Buffalo Horn. In November 2014, one Arvol Looking Horse again proposed renaming the geographical feature Bear Lodge, a second proposal was submitted to request that the US acknowledge the offensive mistake and to rename the monument and sacred site Bear Lodge National Historic Landmark. The formal public comment period ended in fall 2015, local state senator Ogden Driskill opposed the change. The landscape surrounding Devils Tower is composed mostly of sedimentary rocks, the oldest rocks visible in Devils Tower National Monument were laid down in a shallow sea during the Triassic period,225 to 195 million years ago. This dark red sandstone and maroon siltstone, interbedded with shale, oxidation of iron minerals causes the redness of the rocks. This rock layer is known as the Spearfish Formation, above the Spearfish formation is a thin band of white gypsum, called the Gypsum Springs Formation. This layer of gypsum was deposited during the Jurassic period,195 to 136 million years ago, created as sea levels and climates repeatedly changed, gray-green shales were interbedded with fine-grained sandstones, limestones, and sometimes thin beds of red mudstone. This composition, called the Stockade Beaver member, is part of the Sundance Formation, the Hulett Sandstone member, also part of the Sundance formation, is composed of yellow fine-grained sandstone. Resistant to weathering, it forms the vertical cliffs which encircle the Tower itself. During the Paleocene Epoch,56 to 66 million years ago, the Rocky Mountains, magma rose through the crust, intruding into the existing sedimentary rock layers. Geologists Carpenter and Russell studied Devils Tower in the late 19th century, modern geologists agree that it was formed by the intrusion of igneous material, but not on exactly how that process took place. Several believe the molten rock comprising the Tower might not have surfaced, in 1907, scientists Darton and OHarra decided that Devils Tower must be an eroded remnant of a laccolith. A laccolith is a mass of igneous rock which is intruded through sedimentary rock beds without reaching the surface
41.
Missouri Buttes
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Missouri Buttes are located in Crook County in northeast Wyoming on the northwest flank of the Black Hills Uplift. The buttes are 3.5 miles northwest of Devils Tower between the Little Missouri and the Belle Fourche rivers, the Missouri Buttes consist of four separate summits which arise from an eroded mesa platform, the Butte Divide, which has an elevation of 4,650 feet. The butte peaks form a rough rectangle 0.5 x 0.65 mi. in size, the northwest butte is the highest with a summit at 5,374 feet. The northeast butte has an elevation of 5,212 feet, the southwest butte has an elevation of 5,020 feet, a small lake, the Missouri Buttes Lake, lies 800 metres west of the buttes. As with Devils Tower, the buttes are composed of igneous intrusive phonolite which exhibits columnar jointing, the rocks of the buttes have been interpreted to be part of a laccolith, a magmatic stock or volcano conduits that became exposed at the surface after overlying rocks eroded away
42.
Rocky Mountains
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The Rocky Mountains, commonly known as the Rockies, are a major mountain range in western North America. The Rocky Mountains stretch more than 3,000 miles from the northernmost part of British Columbia, in western Canada, to New Mexico, in the Southwestern United States. Within the North American Cordillera, the Rockies are somewhat distinct from the Pacific Coast Ranges, the Rocky Mountains were initially formed from 80 million to 55 million years ago during the Laramide orogeny, in which a number of plates began to slide underneath the North American plate. The angle of subduction was shallow, resulting in a belt of mountains running down western North America. Since then, further tectonic activity and erosion by glaciers have sculpted the Rockies into dramatic peaks, at the end of the last ice age, humans started to inhabit the mountain range. The first mention of their present name by a European was in the journal of Jacques Legardeur de Saint-Pierre in 1752, the Rocky Mountains are commonly defined as stretching from the Liard River in British Columbia south to the Rio Grande in New Mexico. The United States definition of the Rockies includes the Cabinet and Salish Mountains of Idaho and their counterparts north of the Kootenai River, the Columbia Mountains, are considered a separate system in Canada, lying to the west of the huge Rocky Mountain Trench. This runs the length of British Columbia from its beginnings in the middle Flathead River valley in western Montana to the bank of the Liard River. The Rockies vary in width from 70 to 300 miles, also west of the Rocky Mountain Trench, farther north and facing the Muskwa Range across the trench, are the Stikine Ranges and Omineca Mountains of the Interior Mountains system of British Columbia. A small area east of Prince George, British Columbia on the side of the Trench. In Canada geographers define three main groups of ranges, the Continental Ranges, Hart Ranges and Muskwa Ranges, the Muskwa and Hart Ranges together comprise what is known as the Northern Rockies. The western edge of the Rockies includes ranges such as the Wasatch near Salt Lake City, the Great Basin and Columbia River Plateau separate these sub-ranges from distinct ranges further to the west, most prominent among which are the Sierra Nevada, Cascade Range and Coast Mountains. The Rocky Mountain System within the United States is a United States physiographic region, the Rocky Mountains are notable for containing the highest peaks in central North America. The ranges highest peak is Mount Elbert located in Colorado at 14,440 feet above sea level, Mount Robson in British Columbia, at 12,972 feet, is the highest peak in the Canadian Rockies. The Continental Divide of the Americas is located in the Rocky Mountains, triple Divide Peak in Glacier National Park is so named because water that falls on the mountain reaches not only the Atlantic and Pacific, but Hudson Bay as well. Farther north in Alberta, the Athabasca and other rivers feed the basin of the Mackenzie River, see Rivers of the Rocky Mountains for a list of rivers. Human population is not very dense in the Rocky Mountains, with an average of four people per square kilometer, however, the human population grew rapidly in the Rocky Mountain states between 1950 and 1990. The 40-year statewide increases in range from 35% in Montana to about 150% in Utah
43.
Red Cloud
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Red Cloud was an important leader of the Oglala Lakota. He led from 1868 to 1909, the largest action of the war, the Fetterman Fight, was the worst military defeat suffered by the US on the Great Plains until the Battle of the Little Bighorn ten years later. After signing the Treaty of Fort Laramie, Red Cloud led his people in the important transition to reservation life, some of his US opponents mistakenly thought of him as overall leader of the Sioux groups. The large tribe had several divisions and was highly decentralized. Bands among the Oglala and other divisions operated independently, even though some individual leaders, such as Red Cloud, were renowned as warriors, Red Cloud was born close to the forks of the Platte River, near the modern-day city of North Platte, Nebraska. His mother, Walks As She Thinks, was an Oglala Lakota and his father and they came from two of the major seven Lakota divisions. As was traditional among the matrilineal Lakota, in which the children belonged to the clan and people, Red Cloud was mentored as a boy by his maternal uncle. Old Chief Smoke played a role in the boys childhood. He brought Red Cloud into the Smoke household when the parents died around 1825. At a young age, Red Cloud fought against neighboring Pawnee and Crow bands, Red Clouds War was the name the US Army gave to a series of conflicts fought with Native American Plains tribes in the Wyoming and Montana territories. The battles were waged between the Northern Cheyenne, allied with Lakota and Arapaho bands, against the United States Army between 1866 and 1868, captain Frederick Brown accompanied Fetterman, the two were confident in their troops and anxious to go to battle with the Native Americans. They disobeyed orders to stay behind the Lodge Trail Ridge, and pursued a small band of warriors. The decoy was the prominent warrior Crazy Horse, Fetterman and his troops followed the decoy into an ambush by more than 2,000 Sioux, Cheyenne, and Arapaho. Combined Native American forces suffered only 14 casualties, while they killed the entire 81-man US detachment, following this battle, a US peace commission toured the Plains in 1867 to gather information to help bring about peace among the tribes and with the US. Finding that the Native Americans had been provoked by white encroachment and competition for resources, the Lakota, Northern Cheyenne, Arapaho, and other bands settled for peace with the US under the Treaty of Fort Laramie. The US agreed to abandon its forts and withdraw completely from Lakota territory, the treaty established the Great Sioux Reservation, covering the territory of West River, west of the Missouri River in present-day Nebraska, and including parts of South Dakota. Uneasy relations between the expanding United States and the natives continued, in 1870, Red Cloud visited Washington D. C. and met with Commissioner of Indian Affairs Ely S. Parker, and President Ulysses S. Grant. In 1871, the government established the Red Cloud Agency on the Platte River, as outlined in the 1868 Treaty, the agency staff were responsible for issuing weekly rations to the Oglala, as well as providing the annually distributed supply of cash and annuity goods
44.
Crazy Horse
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Crazy Horse, literally His-Horse-Is-Crazy, was a Native American war leader of the Oglala Lakota. He ranks among the most notable and iconic of Native American tribal members and was honored by the U. S. Postal Service in 1982 with a 13¢ Great Americans series postage stamp. Sources differ on the year of Crazy Horses birth. According to a friend, he and Crazy Horse were both born in the same year at the same season of the year, which census records. Among the Oglala winter counts, the stealing of 100 horses is noted by Cloud Shield, oral history accounts from relatives on the Cheyenne River Reservation place his birth in the spring of 1840. On the evening of his sons death, the elder Crazy Horse told Lieutenant H. R. Lemly 1840, Crazy Horse was named at birth Cha-O-Ha His mothers nickname for him was Curly or Light Hair, as his light curly hair resembled that of his mother. Crazy Horse was born to parents from two tribes of the Lakota division of the Sioux, his father was an Oglala and his mother was a Miniconjou and his father, born in 1810, was also named Crazy Horse. One account said that after the son had reached maturity and shown his strength, his father gave him his name and took a new one and his mother Rattling Blanket Woman died when Crazy Horse was only four years old. Crazy Horses cousin was Touch the Clouds and he saved Crazy Horses life at least once and was with him when he died. Rattling Blanket Woman was the daughter of Black Buffalo and White Cow and her older siblings were Lone Horn and Good Looking Woman. Her younger sister was named Looks At It, later given the name They Are Afraid of Her, the historian George Hyde wrote that Rattling Blanket Woman was Miniconjou and the sister of Spotted Tail, who became a Brulé head chief. In the summer of 1844, Waglula went on a buffalo hunt and he came across a Minneconjou Lakota village under attack by Crow warriors. He led his party of warriors to the village and rescued it. Corn, the man of the village, had lost his wife in the raid. In gratitude he gave Waglula his two eldest daughters as wives, Iron Between Horns and Kills Enemy, corns youngest daughter, Red Leggins, who was 15 at the time, requested to go with her sisters, all became Waglulas wives. According to Frederick Hoxies Encyclopedia of North American Indians, Crazy Horse was the third in his line to bear the name of Crazy Horse. Tasunke Witko III was the son of Rattling Blanket Woman and Tasunke Witko II, the love of his life was Black Buffalo Woman, whom he courted, but she married another man named No Water. At one point, Crazy Horse persuaded Black Buffalo Woman to run away with him, No Water borrowed a pistol and ran after his wife
45.
Sitting Bull
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Sitting Bull was a Hunkpapa Lakota holy man who led his people during years of resistance to United States government policies. He was killed by Indian agency police on the Standing Rock Indian Reservation during an attempt to arrest him, Sitting Bulls leadership inspired his people to a major victory. S. A small remnant of his band under Waŋblí Ǧi decided to stay at Wood Mountain, after working as a performer with Buffalo Bills Wild West show, Sitting Bull returned to the Standing Rock Agency in South Dakota. Because of fears that he would use his influence to support the Ghost Dance movement and his body was taken to nearby Fort Yates for burial. In 1953, his Lakota family exhumed what were believed to be his remains, reburying them near Mobridge, South Dakota, Sitting Bull was born on land later included in the Dakota Territory. In 2007, Sitting Bulls great-grandson asserted from family tradition that Sitting Bull was born along the Yellowstone River, south of present-day Miles City. He was named Jumping Badger at birth, and nicknamed Hunkesi, or Slow, said to describe his careful, when the boy was fourteen years old he accompanied a group of Lakota warriors in a raiding party to take horses from a camp of Crow warriors. Jumping Badger displayed bravery by riding forward and counting coup on one of the surprised Crow, upon returning to camp his father gave a celebratory feast at which he conferred his own name upon his son. The name, Tȟatȟáŋka Íyotaŋka, which in the Lakota language means Buffalo Bull Who Sits Down, thereafter, Sitting Bulls father was known as Jumping Bull. Despite being embroiled in the American Civil War, the United States Army retaliated in 1863 and 1864, in 1864, two brigades of about 2200 soldiers under Brigadier General Alfred Sully attacked a village. The defenders were led by Sitting Bull, Gall and Inkpaduta, the Lakota and Dakota were driven out, but skirmishing continued into August. In September, Sitting Bull and about one hundred Hunkpapa Lakota encountered a party near what is now Marmarth, North Dakota. They had been left behind by a wagon train commanded by Captain James L. Fisk to effect repairs to an overturned wagon. When he led an attack, Sitting Bull was shot in the hip by a soldier. The bullet exited out through the small of his back, from 1866 to 1868, Red Cloud as a leader of the Oglala Lakota fought against US forces, attacking their forts in an effort to keep control of the Powder River Country of Montana. In support of him, Sitting Bull led numerous war parties against Fort Berthold, Fort Stevenson, Sitting Bull also made guerrilla attacks on emigrant parties and smaller forts throughout the upper Missouri River region. By early 1868, the U. S. government desired a settlement to Red Clouds War. It agreed to Red Clouds demands that the US abandon forts Phil Kearny, Gall of the Hunkpapa signed a form of the Treaty of Fort Laramie on July 2,1868 at Fort Rice
46.
George Armstrong Custer
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George Armstrong Custer was a United States Army officer and cavalry commander in the American Civil War and the American Indian Wars. Raised in Michigan and Ohio, Custer was admitted to West Point in 1857, with the outbreak of the Civil War, Custer was called to serve with the Union Army. Custer developed a reputation during the Civil War. He participated in the first major engagement, the First Battle of Bull Run on July 21,1861, near Washington and his association with several important officers helped his career as did his success as a highly effective cavalry commander. He was wounded in the Battle of Culpeper Court House in Virginia on September 13,1863, in 1864, Custer was awarded another star and brevetted to major general rank. At the conclusion of the Appomattox Campaign, in which he and his troops played a role, Custer was present at General Robert E. Lees surrender to General Ulysses S. Grant. After the Civil War, Custer remained a general in the United States Volunteers until they were mustered out in February 1866. He reverted to his permanent rank of captain and was appointed a lieutenant colonel in the 7th Cavalry Regiment in July 1866 and he was dispatched to the west in 1867 to fight in the American Indian Wars. The battle is known in American history as Custers Last Stand. Custer and his regiment were defeated so decisively at the Little Bighorn that it has overshadowed all of his prior achievements, according to family letters, Custer was named after George Armstrong, a minister, in his devout mothers hope that her son might join the clergy. Custer was born in New Rumley, Ohio, to Emanuel Henry Custer, a farmer and blacksmith and he had two younger brothers, Thomas Custer and Boston Custer, both of whom died with him on the battlefield at Little Bighorn. His other full siblings were the familys youngest child, Margaret Custer, and Nevin Custer, Custer also had three older half-siblings. It was in large, close knit family that Custer. Emanuel Custer was an outspoken Democrat who taught his children politics, in a February 3,1887 letter to his sons widow, Libby, he related an incident when Autie was about four years old. He had to have a tooth drawn, and he was much afraid of blood. When I took him to the doctor to have the tooth pulled, it was in the night and I told him if it bled well it would get right away. When he got to the doctor he took his seat, the forceps slipped off and he had to make a second trial. He pulled it out, and Autie never even scrunched, going home, I led him by the arm
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Prospecting
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Prospecting is the first stage of the geological analysis of a territory. It is the search for minerals, fossils, precious metals or mineral specimens. Prospecting is a form of mineral exploration which is an organised. Prospecting is physical labour, involving traversing, panning, sifting and outcrop investigation, in other areas publicly held lands are open to prospecting without staking a mining claim. In the case of gold, all streams in an area would be panned at the appropriate trap sites looking for a show of colour or gold in the river trail. For most base metal shows, the rock would have been mined by hand and crushed on site, often, these shows were short-lived, exhausted and abandoned quite soon, requiring the prospector to move onwards to the next and hopefully bigger and better show. Occasionally, though, the prospector would strike it rich and be joined by other prospectors, although these are thought of as old prospecting methods, these techniques are still used today but usually coupled with more advanced techniques such as geophysical magnetic or gravity surveys. In most countries in the 19th and early 20th century, it was unlikely that a prospector would retire rich even if he was the one who found the greatest of lodes. For instance Patrick Hannan, who discovered the Golden Mile, Kalgoorlie, the same story repeated at Bendigo, Ballarat, Klondike and California. In the United States and Canada prospectors were lured by the promise of gold, silver and they traveled across the mountains of the American West, carrying picks, shovels and gold pans. The majority of early prospectors had no training and relied mainly on luck to discover deposits, other gold rushes occurred in Papua New Guinea, Australia at least four times, and in South Africa and South America. In all cases, the rush was sparked by idle prospecting for gold and minerals which. Modern prospectors today rely on training, the study of geology, knowledge of previous prospecting in an area helps in determining location of new prospective areas. Prospecting includes geological mapping, rock assay analysis, and sometimes the intuition of the prospector, prospecting pickaxes are used to scrape at rocks and minerals, obtaining small samples that can be tested for trace amounts of ore. Modern prospecting pickaxes are also equipped with magnets, to aid in the gathering of ferromagnetic ores. Prospecting pickaxes are usually equipped with a head, with a very sharp point
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World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
49.
Frank Fools Crow
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Frank Fools Crow was a deeply–respected Oglala Lakota civic and religious leader. Grandfather, or Grandpa Frank as he was called, was a nephew of Black Elk who worked to preserve Lakota traditions, including the Sun Dance. He supported Lakota sovereignty and treaty rights, and was a leader of the faction during the armed standoff at Wounded Knee in 1973. With writer Thomas E. Mails, he produced two books about his life and work, Fools Crow in 1979, and Fools Crow, Wisdom and Power in 1990. Fools Crow was born near Porcupine Creek on Pine Ridge Indian Reservation in South Dakota on either June 24 or 27 between 1890 and 1892 and his father, Fools Crow, who was also called Eagle Bear, was the Porcupine District leader. His mother was Spoon Hunter, who died four days after giving birth to him and she was the daughter of Porcupine Tail, for whom the community was named. Raised in the way by his father, aunt, and stepmother Emily Big Road. This is why he did not speak fluent English, as a young man he traveled around the United States with the Buffalo Bill Codys Buffalo Bills Wild West show. He spent much of his serving his people as a medicine man, healer. His first wife, Fannie Afraid of Hawk, died in 1954 and his second wife, Kate, died in October 1988. Fools Crow died on November 27,1989 near Kyle, SD and he is believed to have been 99 years old. On February 28,1973, members of the American Indian Movement, with their allies and supporters, including Fools Crow, seized and occupied the village of Wounded Knee. It was here, in 1890, that the followers of Spotted Elk, two weeks before that, Sitting Bull himself had been killed, by police acting at the behest of these new rulers. Thus had begun the relentless suppression of the Lakota nation, their institutions, the religion, each decade since that time of great melancholy, when hopes for sovereignty had died in bloody snow, brought renewed demands for more Lakota land, always in violation of treaty agreements. Dick Wilson had become chairman of the Pine Ridge Reservation in 1972, a heavy–drinking bootlegger known for corruption, he favored giving up more Lakota land, even the Pahá Sápa itself. He soon used federal government funds to create his own private vigilante goon squad and those who opposed Wilson and his regime formed the Oglala Sioux Civil Rights Organization, led by Pedro Bissonette, and worked to impeach him. One petition to impeach Wilson contained more signatures than the number of people who had voted for him. Wilson postponed impeachment hearings which were scheduled for February 14, immediately thereafter, federal forces moved into the area, including a counter–insurgency Special Operations Group, which set up and manned sand–bagged machine gun positions at the BIA building
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