1.
Physical attractiveness
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Physical attractiveness is the degree to which a persons physical features are considered aesthetically pleasing or beautiful. The term often implies sexual attractiveness or desirability, but can also be distinct from either, there are many factors which influence one persons attraction to another, with physical aspects being one of them. Physical attraction itself includes universal perceptions common to all cultures, as well as aspects that are culturally and socially dependent. In many cases, humans subconsciously attribute positive characteristics, such as intelligence and honesty, from research done in the United States and United Kingdom, it was found that the association between intelligence and physical attractiveness is stronger among men than among women. A persons physical characteristics can signal cues to fertility and health, attending to these factors increases reproductive success, furthering the representation of ones genes in the population. The perception of attractiveness can have a significant effect on how people are judged in terms of employment or social opportunities, friendship, sexual behavior, symmetry may be evolutionarily beneficial as a sign of health because asymmetry signals past illness or injury. One study suggested people were able to gauge beauty at a level by seeing only a glimpse of a picture for one-hundredth of a second. Other important factors include youthfulness, skin clarity and smoothness of skin, however, there are numerous differences based on gender. Grammer and colleagues have identified eight pillars of beauty, youthfulness, symmetry, averageness, sex-hormone markers, body odor, motion, skin complexion, such studies consistently find that activity in certain parts of the orbitofrontal cortex increases with increasing attractiveness of faces. The same study finds that for faces and bodies alike, the part of the orbitofrontal cortex responds with greater activity to both very attractive and very unattractive pictures. Women, on average, tend to be attracted to men who have a relatively narrow waist, a V-shaped torso. Women also tend to be attracted to men who are taller than they are. With regard to male-male-attractiveness, one source reports that the most important factor that attracts gay men to other males is the physical attractiveness. The degree of differences between male and female anatomical traits is called sexual dimorphism, Female respondents in the follicular phase of their menstrual cycle were significantly more likely to choose a masculine face than those in menses and luteal phases. However, womens likeliness to exert effort to view male faces does not seem to depend on their masculinity and it is suggested that the masculinity of facial features is a reliable indication of good health, or, alternatively, that masculine-looking males are more likely to achieve high status. However, the correlation between attractive facial features and health has been questioned, sociocultural factors, such as self-perceived attractiveness, status in a relationship and degree of gender-conformity, have been reported to play a role in female preferences for male faces. In men, facial masculinity significantly correlates with facial symmetry—it has been suggested that both are signals of developmental stability and genetic health, in a cross-country study involving 4,794 women in their early twenties, a difference was found in womens average masculinity preference between countries. The study reasoned that the advantage for masculine male faces must have been due to some factor that is not directly tied to female perceptions of male facial attractiveness
2.
Personality psychology
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Personality psychology is a branch of psychology that studies personality and its variation among individuals. The word personality originates from the Latin persona, which means mask and it also predicts human reactions to other people, problems, and stress. There is still no consensus on the definition of personality in psychology. Gordon Allport described two major ways to study personality, the nomothetic and the idiographic, nomothetic psychology seeks general laws that can be applied to many different people, such as the principle of self-actualization or the trait of extraversion. Idiographic psychology is an attempt to understand the unique aspects of a particular individual, the study of personality has a broad and varied history in psychology with an abundance of theoretical traditions. The major theories include dispositional perspective, psychodynamic, humanistic, biological, behaviorist, evolutionary, however, many researchers and psychologists do not explicitly identify themselves with a certain perspective and instead take an eclectic approach. There is also an emphasis on the applied field of personality testing. Many of the ideas developed by historical and modern personality theorists stem from the philosophical assumptions they hold. The study of personality is not a purely empirical discipline, as it brings in elements of art, science, behavior is categorized as being either unconscious, environmental, or biological by various theories. Heredity versus environment – Personality is thought to be determined either by genetics and biology, or by environment. Contemporary research suggests that most personality traits are based on the joint influence of genetics, one of the forerunners in this arena is C. Robert Cloninger, who pioneered the Temperament and Character model. Uniqueness versus universality – This question discusses the extent of each humans individuality or similarity in nature, gordon Allport, Abraham Maslow, and Carl Rogers were all advocates of the uniqueness of individuals. Behaviorists and cognitive theorists, in contrast, emphasize the importance of universal principles, such as reinforcement, active versus reactive – This question explores whether humans primarily act through individual initiative or through outside stimuli. Most modern theorists agree that both are important, with aggregate behavior being primarily determined by traits and situational factors being the primary predictor of behavior in the short term. Optimistic versus pessimistic – Personality theories differ with regard to humans are integral in the changing of their own personalities. Theories that place a great deal of emphasis on learning are often more optimistic than those that do not, the study of personality is based on the essential insight that all people are similar in some ways, yet different in others. There have been many different definitions of personality proposed, however, many contemporary psychologists agree on the following defias differentiating the HEXACO model from other personality frameworks. Specifically, the H factor is described as sincere, honest, faithful/loyal, modest/unassuming, fair-minded, VERSUS sly, deceitful, greedy, pretentious, hypocritical, boastful, the H factor has been linked to criminal, materialistic, power-seeking, and unethical tendencies
3.
Bodybuilding
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Bodybuilding is the use of progressive resistance exercise to control and develop ones musculature. An individual who engages in this activity is referred to as a bodybuilder, the winner of the annual IFBB Mr. Olympia contest is generally recognized as the worlds top male professional bodybuilder. The title is held by Phil Heath, who has won every year from 2011 to 2016. The winner of the Womens Physique portion of the competition is widely regarded as the top female professional bodybuilder. The title is held by Juliana Malacarne, who has won every year since 2014. Since 1950, the NABBA Universe Championships have been considered the top amateur bodybuilding contests, with notable winners such as Reg Park, Lee Priest, Steve Reeves, stone-lifting traditions were practised in ancient Egypt and Greece. Western weightlifting developed in Europe from 1880 to 1953, with strongmen displaying feats of strength for the public, the focus was not on their physique, and they often had large bellies and fatty limbs. Bodybuilding developed in the late 19th century, promoted in England by German Eugen Sandow, now called the Father of Modern Bodybuilding and he allowed audiences to enjoy viewing his physique in muscle display performances. Although audiences were thrilled to see a well-developed physique, the men simply displayed their bodies as part of demonstrations or wrestling matches. Sandow had a stage show built around these displays through his manager, the Oscar-winning 1936 musical film The Great Ziegfeld depicts this beginning of modern bodybuilding, when Sandow began to display his body for carnivals. Sandow was so successful at flexing and posing his physique that he created several businesses around his fame. He was credited with inventing and selling the first exercise equipment for the masses, machined dumbbells, spring pulleys, even his image was sold by the thousands in cabinet cards and other prints. Sandow was a perfect gracilian, a standard of ideal body proportions close to those of ancient Greek, men were judged by how closely they matched these proportions. Sandow organised the first bodybuilding contest on September 14,1901 and it was held at the Royal Albert Hall in London. Judged by Sandow, Sir Charles Lawes, and Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, the trophy presented to the winner was a gold statue of Sandow sculpted by Frederick Pomeroy. The winner was William L. Murray of Nottingham, the silver Sandow trophy was presented to second-place winner D. Cooper. The bronze Sandow trophy, now the most famous of all, was presented to third-place winner A. C. Smythe, in 1950, this same bronze trophy was presented to Steve Reeves for winning the inaugural NABBA Mr. Universe. It would not resurface again until 1977, when the winner of the IFBB Mr. Olympia contest, Frank Zane, was presented with the bronze trophy, since then, Mr. Olympia winners have been awarded a replica of the bronze trophy
4.
Tiara
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A tiara is a jeweled, ornamental crown traditionally worn by women. It is worn during formal occasions, particularly if the code is white tie. Today, the tiara is often used interchangeably with the word diadem. Both words come from head ornaments worn by ancient men and women to high status. As Geoffrey Munn notes, The word tiara is actually Persian in origin — the name first denoted the high-peaked head-dresses of Persian kings, now, it is used to describe almost every form of decorative head ornament. Ancient Greeks and Romans used gold to make wreath-shaped head ornaments, the use of tiaras and diadems declined along with the decline of the Roman Empire and the rise of Christianity. In the late 18th century, Neoclassicism gave rise to a revival of tiaras, jewelers taking inspiration from Ancient Greece and Rome created new wreaths made from precious gemstones. Napoleon and his wife Joséphine de Beauharnais are credited with popularizing tiaras along with the new Empire style, napoleon wanted the French court to be the grandest in Europe and had given his wife many fabulous Parures which included tiaras. Queen Elizabeth II is said to have the largest and most valuable collection of tiaras in the world and she is often seen wearing them on state occasions. The Queen received many of them through inheritance, especially from Queen Alexandra, Queen Mary, consort of King George V, purchased the Grand Duchess Vladimir tiara in the 1920s. It consists of numerous interlocking diamond circles, pearl drops can be attached inside the circles or emeralds. Queen Mary had a made for the Delhi Durbar held in 1911 in India. It is now on loan for wearing by the Duchess of Cornwall, wife of Charles, Queen Elizabeth II commissioned a ruby and diamond tiara. A gift of aquamarines she received as a present from the people of Brazil were added to diamonds to make a new tiara, other queens, empresses, and princesses regularly wear tiaras at formal evening occasions. The Swedish Royal Family have a magnificent collection as do the Danish, the Dutch, many of the Danish royal jewels originally came into the collection when Princess Louise of Sweden married the future King Frederick VIII of Denmark. The Romanov dynasty had a superb collection up until the revolution of 1917, the Iranian royal family also had a large collection of tiaras. Since the Iranian Revolution, they are housed at the National Jewelry Museum in Tehran, although usually associated with women of reigning and noble families, tiaras have been worn by commoners as well, especially rich American socialites like Barbara Hutton. Tiaras are generally a semi-circular or circular band, usually of precious metal, Tiaras are worn by women around their head or on the forehead as a circlet on very formal or high social occasions
5.
Crown (headgear)
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In art, the crown may be shown being offered to those on Earth by angels. In religious art, a crown of stars is used similarly to a halo, crowns worn by rulers often contain jewels. A crown is often an emblem of the monarchy, a monarchs government, the word itself is used, particularly in Commonwealth countries, as an abstract name for the monarchy itself, as distinct from the individual who inhabits it. A specific type of crown is employed in heraldry under strict rules, costume headgear imitating a monarchs crown is also called a crown. Such costume crowns may be worn by actors portraying a monarch, people at parties, or ritual monarchs such as the king of a Carnival krewe. The nuptial crown, sometimes called a coronal, worn by a bride, in the present day, it is most common in Eastern Orthodox cultures. The Eastern Orthodox marriage service has a section called the crowning, wherein the bride and groom are crowned as king, in Greek weddings, the crowns are diadems usually made of white flowers, synthetic or real, often adorned with silver or mother of pearl. They are placed on the heads of the newlyweds and are held together by a ribbon of white silk and they are then kept by the couple as a reminder of their special day. In Slavic weddings, the crowns are made of ornate metal, designed to resemble an imperial crown. A parish usually owns one set to use for all the couples that are married there since these are more expensive than Greek-style crowns. This was common in Catholic countries in the past, a Crown of thorns according to the Bible, was placed on the head of Jesus before his crucifixion and has become a common symbol of martyrdom. According to Roman Catholic tradition, the Blessed Virgin Mary was crowned as Queen of Heaven after her assumption into heaven and she is often depicted wearing a crown, and statues of her in churches and shrines are ceremonially crowned during May. The Crown of Immortality is also common in historical symbolism, dancers of certain traditional Thai dances often wear crowns on their head. These are inspired in the worn by deities and by kings. Three distinct categories of crowns exist in those monarchies that use crowns or state regalia, coronation, worn by monarchs when being crowned. State, worn by monarchs on other state occasions, consort crowns, worn by queens consort, signifying rank granted as a constitutional courtesy protocol. In Classical antiquity, the crown that was awarded to people other than rulers, such as triumphal military generals or athletes, was actually a wreath or chaplet. Numerous crowns of various forms were used in antiquity, such as the Hedjet, Deshret, the Pschent double crown and it was referred to as the chaplet studded with sunbeams” by Lucian, about 180 AD
6.
Sash
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A sash is a large and usually colorful ribbon or band of material worn around the body, draping from one shoulder to the opposing hip, or else running around the waist. The sash around the waist may be worn in daily attire, ceremonial sashes are also found in a V-shaped format, draping from both shoulders to the stomach like a large necklace. In Latin America and some countries of Africa, a presidential sash indicates a presidents authority. Sashes traditionally form part of military attire. Most of the European Royal families wear sashes as a part of their royal regalia, some orders such as the Légion dhonneur include sashes as part of the seniormost grades insignia. Likewise Italian military officers wear light blue sashes over the shoulder on ceremonial occasions. Sashes are a feature of some regiments of the modern French Army for parade dress. In its traditional Franco-Algerian or zouave form the sash was four metres in length, in the historic French Army of Africa, sashes were worn around the waist in either blue for European or red for indigenous troops. At the time of the American Civil War silk sashes in crimson were authorized for officers, generals continued to wear buff silk sashes in full dress until 1917. In the Confederate Army of the Civil War period sash colour indicated the corps or status of the wearer. For example, gold for cavalry, burgundy for infantry, black for chaplains, red for sergeants, green or blue for medics, and grey or cream for general officers. With the exception of the West Point Band Drum Major, today the West Point cadet officer is the person in the US Army who wears a sword and sash. The modern British Army retains a scarlet sash for wear in certain orders of dress by sergeants and above serving in infantry regiments, over the right shoulder to the left hip. A similar crimson silk net sash is worn around the waist by officers of the Foot Guards in scarlet full dress, the same practice is followed in some Commonwealth armies. The present day armies of India and Pakistan both make use of waist-sashes for ceremonial wear. The colours vary according to regiment or branch and match those of the turbans where worn. Typically two or more colours are incorporated in the sash, in vertical stripes, one end hangs loose at the side and may have an ornamental fringe. The practice of wearing distinctive regimental sashes or cummerbunds goes back to the nineteenth century
7.
Sceptre
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A sceptre or scepter is a symbolic ornamental staff or wand held in the hand by a ruling monarch as an item of royal or imperial insignia. Figuratively, it means royal or imperial authority or sovereignty, either right or cruel, the ancient Indian work of Tirukkural dedicates a separate chapter each on the ethics of the right sceptre and the evils of the cruel sceptre. The Was and other types of staffs were signs of authority in Ancient Egypt, for this reason, they are often described as sceptres, even if they are full-length staffs. One of the earliest royal sceptres was discovered in the 2nd Dynasty tomb of Khasekhemwy in Abydos, kings were also known to carry a staff, and Pharaoh Anedjib is shown on stone vessels carrying a so-called mks-staff. The staff with the longest history seems to be the heqa-sceptre, the Bronze Age rulers of Mesopotamia are not regularly depicted with sceptres. However, in instances, they are shown armed, with bow and arrow. Use of a rod or staff as representing authority can be traced to the beginning of Classical Antiquity. Among the early Greeks, the sceptre was a staff, such as Agamemnon wielded or was used by respected elders, and came to be used by judges, military leaders, priests. It is represented on painted vases as a staff tipped with a metal ornament. When the sceptre is borne by Zeus or Hades, it is headed by a bird, when, in the Iliad, Agamemnon sends Odysseus to the leaders of the Achaeans, he lends him his sceptre. Among the Etruscans, sceptres of great magnificence were used by kings, many representations of such sceptres occur on the walls of the painted tombs of Etruria. The British Museum, the Vatican, and the Louvre possess Etruscan sceptres of gold, the Roman sceptre probably derived from the Etruscan. Under the Republic, a sceptre was a mark of consular rank. It was also used by generals who received the title of imperator. In the First Persian Empire, the Biblical Book of Esther mentions the sceptre of the King of Persia. Esther 5,2 When the king saw Esther the queen standing in the court, she obtained favor in his sight, so Esther came near, and touched the top of the scepter. Under the Roman Empire, the sceptrum Augusti was specially used by the emperors, the codes of the right and the cruel sceptre are found in the ancient Tamil work of Tirukkural, dating back to between the first and the third centuries BCE. With the advent of Christianity, the sceptre was tipped with a cross instead of with an eagle
8.
U.S. savings bonds
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U. S. savings bonds are debt securities issued by the U. S. Department of the Treasury to help pay for the U. S. government’s borrowing needs. U. S. savings bonds are considered one of the safest investments because they are backed by the full faith, minimum purchase, $25 Maximum purchase, $10,000 per person per bond type per year for electronic securities. $5,000 per year for paper I-Bonds, interest, Fixed rate for EE-Bonds, set upon purchase. Fixed rate for I-Bonds, set upon purchase plus a rate based on inflation. On February 1,1935, President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed legislation that allowed the U. S. Department of the Treasury to sell a new type of security, thus the savings bond was born. One month later, the first Series A savings bond proceeded to be issued with a value of $25. At first, the purpose was to help finance World War II. On April 30,1941 Roosevelt purchased the first bond from Treasury Secretary Henry Morgenthau, the next day, they were made available to the public. After the attack on Pearl Harbor, Defensive Bonds were informally known as War Savings Bonds, all the revenue coming in from the bonds went directly to support the war. Even after the war ended, savings bonds became popular with families, unlike before, people started to just wait to cash them so the bonds would grow in value. To help sustain post-war sales, they were advertised on television, films, when John F. Kennedy was president, he encouraged Americans to purchase them, which stimulated a large enrollment in savings bonds. By 1976, President Ford helped celebrate the 35th anniversary of the U. S. Savings Bond Program, the film, An American Partnership honored the role of citizens in financing the nations growth. In 1990, Congress created the Education Savings Bond program which helped Americans finance a college education, a bond purchased on or after January 1,1990, is tax-free if used to pay tuition and fees at an eligible institution. In 2002, the Department of the Treasurys Bureau of the Public Debt made savings bonds available for purchasing and redeeming online, finally, on January 1,2012 banks and other financial institutions terminated their sales of bonds. Currently, Americans can only buy U. S. savings bonds online at http, Savings bonds come in eight denominations, $25, $50, $75, $100, $200, $500, $1,000, and $5,000. After purchase, the holder must wait at least six months before cashing it in, when they will receive the capital plus some interest. For example, if you buy a bond with a value of $50 for $25, youll have to wait at least 17 years to get back your investment from the government, depending on the interest rate. The longer you wait, the greater interest you earn, however savings bonds have a 30-year maximum of interest accrual, after that the bond no longer accrues interest
9.
Georgiana Seymour, Duchess of Somerset
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Jane Georgiana Seymour, Duchess of Somerset, was the wife of Edward, Duke of Somerset. Jane Georgiana Sheridan was the daughter of Thomas Sheridan and his wife the novelist Caroline Callander, daughter of Sir James Callander of Craigforth. She was the sister of Helen Lady Dufferin, songwriter, composer, poet, and author, and Caroline Norton, society beauty, feminist, social reformer. Georgiana, Helen, and Caroline were the granddaughters of Irish playwright Richard Brinsley Sheridan, known for her loveliness, the Duchess was chosen to be the Queen of Beauty at the Eglinton Tournament in 1839. She married Duke Edward in 1830, when he was twenty-five and they had two sons and three daughters, Edward Adolphus Ferdinand, Earl St. Maur, had two illegitimate children by his maid. She is interred at Gerrards Cross, Buckinghamshire
10.
May Day
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May Day is a public holiday usually celebrated on May 1. It is an ancient northern hemisphere spring festival and it is also a traditional spring holiday in many cultures. Dances, singing, and cake are usually part of the celebrations that the day includes, in the late 19th century, May Day was chosen as the date for International Workers Day by the Socialists and Communists of the Second International to commemorate the Haymarket affair in Chicago. International Workers Day may also be referred to as May Day and it is also associated with the Gaelic Beltane, most commonly held on April 30. The day was a summer holiday in many pre-Christian European pagan cultures. While February 1 was the first day of spring, May 1 was the first day of summer, hence, as Europe became Christianised, the pagan holidays lost their religious character and May Day changed into a popular secular celebration. A significant celebration of May Day occurs in Germany where it is one of days on which St. Walburga. The secular versions of May Day, observed in Europe and America, may be best known for their traditions of dancing around the maypole and crowning the Queen of May. Fading in popularity since the late 20th century is the giving of May baskets, small baskets of sweets or flowers, usually left anonymously on neighbours doorsteps. May 1 is also one of two feast days of the Catholic patron saint of workers St Joseph the Worker, a carpenter, husband to Mother Mary, and surrogate father of Jesus. Replacing another feast to St. Joseph, this date was chosen by Pope Pius XII in 1955 as a counterpoint to the communist International Workers Day celebrations on May Day. In the late 20th century, many neopagans began reconstructing traditions, traditional English May Day rites and celebrations include crowning a May Queen and celebrations involving a maypole. Historically, Morris dancing has been linked to May Day celebrations, much of this tradition derives from the pagan Anglo-Saxon customs held during Þrimilci-mōnaþ along with many Celtic traditions. May Day has been a day of festivities throughout the centuries. May Day is most associated with towns and villages celebrating springtime fertility and revelry with village fetes, seeding has been completed by this date and it was convenient to give farm labourers a day off. Perhaps the most significant of the traditions is the maypole, around which traditional dancers circle with ribbons, the spring bank holiday on the first Monday in May was created in 1978, May Day itself – May 1 – is not a public holiday in England. Unlike the other Bank Holidays and common law holidays, the first Monday in May is taken off from schools by itself and this is because it has no Christian significance and does not otherwise fit into the usual school holiday pattern. May Day was abolished and its celebration banned by Puritan parliaments during the Interregnum, may 1,1707, was the day the Act of Union came into effect, joining England and Scotland to form the Kingdom of Great Britain
11.
May Queen
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The May Queen or Queen of May is a personification of the May Day holiday, and of Springtime and also Summer. Today the May Queen is a girl who must ride or walk at the front of a parade for May Day celebrations and she wears a white gown to symbolise purity and usually a tiara or crown. Her duty is to begin the May Day celebrations and she is generally crowned by flowers and makes a speech before the dancing begins. Certain age-groups dance round a Maypole celebrating youth and the spring time, the veracity of this belief is difficult to establish, it may just be a folk memory of ancient pagan customs. Still, frequent associations between May Day rituals, the occult and human sacrifice are still to be found in popular culture today, the Wicker Man, a cult horror film starring Christopher Lee, is a prominent example of these associations. In the High Middle Ages in England the May Queen was also known as the Summer Queen, homans points out, The time from Hocktide, after Easter Week, to Lammas was summer. Many areas keep this tradition alive today, the oldest unbroken tradition is Hayfield, Derbyshire based on a much older May Fair. Another notable event includes the one in the Brentham Garden Suburb and it has the second oldest unbroken tradition although the May Queen of All London Festival at Hayes Common in Bromley is a close contender. A May Day festival is held on the green at Aldborough, North Yorkshire on a site that dates back to Roman times. A May queen is selected from a group of 13 upward girls by the young dancers and she returns the next year to crown the new May Queen and stays in the procession. The largest event in this tradition in modern Britain is the Beltane Fire Festival in Edinburgh, the May Queen is an early poem by Alfred, Lord Tennyson. The May Queen is the subject of Edward Germans opera Merrie England, a cantata The May Queen was composed by William Sterndale Bennett for the opening of the Leeds Town Hall in 1858. May Queen is the name of a trading vessel built in 1867 at Franklin. She had a 106-year working life and is the oldest boat of her type afloat in the world and she is on the International Register of Significant Ships. Benjamin Brittens chamber opera Albert Herring concerns the search for a suitable May Queen. Lyrics in the 1971 Led Zeppelin song Stairway to Heaven make reference, If theres a bustle in your hedgerow and its just a spring clean for the May Queen. Their are several meanings to its use in the song, one of which is a reference to menarche. The lyrics of the 2001 song Angel, Wont You Call Me. by The Decemberists make reference, Saw them crown you May Queen, the lyrics to the song Pinwheels by Smashing Pumpkins, Flies for the May Queen, but love for the prince
12.
Archibald Montgomerie, 13th Earl of Eglinton
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Archibald William Montgomerie, 13th Earl of Eglinton, 1st Earl of Winton KT PC, styled Lord Montgomerie from 1814 to 1819, was a British Conservative politician. He was Lord Lieutenant of Ireland in 1852 and again from 1858 to 1859, Eglinton was born in Palermo, Sicily, the son of Major-General Archibald Montgomerie, Lord Montgomerie, the eldest son of Hugh Montgomerie, 12th Earl of Eglinton. His mother was Lady Mary Montgomerie, daughter of General Archibald Montgomerie, as a pastime he enjoyed playing golf. One of his partners was James Ogilvie Fairlie. In 1846, he was a whip in the House of Lords, on 28 May 1846, he spoke against the Corn Importation Bill, in February 1852, he became Lord Lieutenant of Ireland under the Earl of Derby. He retired with the ministry in the following December, when Derby returned to office in February 1858 he was again appointed Lord-Lieutenant, and he discharged the duties of this post until June 1859. Anstruther gives the date for creation as 1840. He died at Mount Melville House, near St. Andrews, on 4 October 1861, Lord Eglintons main object of interest for some years was the turf, he kept a large racing stud and won success and reputation in the sporting world. His most successful horse was The Flying Dutchman which won the Epsom Derby, in 1839, Lord Eglintons name became more widely known in connection with the Eglinton Tournament. This took place at Eglinton castle and is said to have cost him £30,000 or £40,000, contemporary ridicule is better remembered today than it successes. Prince Louis Napoleon and Lady Seymour, a granddaughter of Richard Brinsley Sheridan, a list of the challengers with an account of the jousts and the mêlée will be found in the volume on the tournament written by the Reverend John Richardson, with drawings by James Henry Nixon. It was also described in Disraelis Endymion, Lord Eglinton married, firstly, Theresa Howe Cockerell, nee Newcomen, widow of Captain Richard Howe Cockerell RN. Mrs Cockerell was a daughter of Thomas Gleadowe-Newcomen, 2nd Viscount Newcomen and his long-term mistress Harriet Holland. Theresa Newcomen was born in Calcutta in 1809, and died on 16 December 1853 at Eglintoun Castle, after Theresas death in December 1853, her widower married, secondly, the Hon. Adela Caroline Harriett, daughter of Arthur Capell, 6th Earl of Essex, in 1858. They had the children, Lady Sybil Amelia Montgomerie Lady Hilda Rose Montgomerie, married Tonman Mosley. Lady Adela died in December 1860, aged only 32, Lord Eglinton survived her by less than a year and died in October 1861, aged 49. He was succeeded by his eldest son Archibald, Eglinton Country Park Eglinton Tournament Bridge Attribution This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Barker, George Fisher Russell. The Scottish Nation, Or, The Surnames, Families, Literature, Honours, a. Fullarton & co. p.125
13.
Edward Seymour, 12th Duke of Somerset
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Edward Adolphus Seymour, 12th Duke of Somerset, etc. KG, PC, styled Lord Seymour until 1855, was a British Whig aristocrat and politician, Somerset was the eldest son of Edward St. Maur, 11th Duke of Somerset, and Lady Charlotte, daughter of Archibald Hamilton, 9th Duke of Hamilton. He was baptized on 16 February 1805 at St. Georges, Hanover Square and he was educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford. Somerset sat as Member of Parliament for Okehampton between 1830 and 1831 and for Totnes between 1834 and 1855 and he served on the Royal Commission on the British Museum. In August 1851 he was appointed to the newly created office of First Commissioner of Works by Russell, in October of the same year he entered the cabinet and was sworn of the Privy Council. He remained First Commissioner of Works until the government fell in February 1852, Somerset succeeded his father in the dukedom in 1855 and entered the House of Lords. He held this post until 1866, the last year under the premiership of Russell and he refused to join William Ewart Gladstones first ministry in 1868, but gave independent support to the chief measures of the government. He was made a Knight of the Garter in 1862 and in 1863 he was created Earl St. Maur, St. Maur was supposed to have been the original form of the family name and Seymour a later corruption. From some time in the early 19th century until 1923, St. Maur was used for the family name, Somerset was also the author of Christian Theology and Modern Scepticism, and Monarchy and Democracy. Between 1861 and 1885 he served as Lord Lieutenant of Devon, Somerset married in Grosvenor Square, London, on 10 June 1830, Jane Georgiana Sheridan. Hon. Lord Henry Frederick Thynne, Privy Councilor, Member of Parliament and Treasurer of the Household, son of the 3rd Marquesses of Bath Edward Adolphus Ferdinand Seymour, Lady Guendolen inherited the Bulstrode estate. The Duchess of Somerset died in December 1884, Somerset survived her by less than a year and died in November 1885, aged 80, and was buried with her in St Jamess Churchyard in Gerrards Cross, Buckinghamshire. As his two sons had died in his lifetime, the family titles devolved on his younger brother, Archibald Seymour. The 12th Duke left his London residence, Somerset House in Park Lane, hansard 1803–2005, contributions in Parliament by the Duke of Somerset Ducal House of Somerset
14.
Caroline Norton
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Caroline Elizabeth Sarah Norton was an English social reformer, and author of the early and mid-nineteenth century. Caroline left her husband in 1836, following which her husband sued her close friend Lord Melbourne, the jury threw out the claim, but Caroline was unable to obtain a divorce and was denied access to her three sons. Carolines intense campaigning led to the passing of the Custody of Infants Act 1839, the Matrimonial Causes Act 1857 and the Married Womens Property Act 1870. Caroline modelled for the fresco of Justice in the House of Lords by Daniel Maclise, Caroline was born in London to Thomas Sheridan and the novelist Caroline Henrietta Callander. Her father was an actor, soldier, and colonial administrator, and her mother was Scottish, the daughter of a landed gentleman, Col. Sir James Callander of Craigforth and Lady Elizabeth MacDonnell, the sister of an Irish peer, Mrs. Sheridan authored three short novels described by one of her daughters biographers as rather stiff with the style of the eighteenth century, but none without a certain charm and wit. In 1817, her father died in South Africa, where he was serving as the secretary at the Cape of Good Hope. His family was left virtually penniless, the combined beauty and accomplishments of the Sheridan sisters led to their being collectively referred to as the Three Graces. The eldest sister, Helen, was a songwriter who married Price Blackwood, through her, Caroline became the aunt of Frederick Hamilton-Temple-Blackwood, 1st Marquess of Dufferin and Ava, who later served as the third Governor General of Canada and eighth Viceroy of India. Her younger sister, Georgiana, considered the prettiest of the three, later became the wife of Edward Seymour, 12th Duke of Somerset, in 1827, Caroline married George Chapple Norton, barrister, M. P. for Guildford, and the younger brother of Lord Grantley. Norton was a jealous and possessive husband, given to violent fits of drunkenness, to make matters worse, Norton was unsuccessful in his chosen career as a barrister, and the couple fought bitterly over money. During the early years of her marriage, Caroline used her beauty, wit, Carolines unorthodox behaviour and candid conversation raised more than a few eyebrows among 19th-century British high society, she made enemies and admirers in almost equal measure. In spite of his jealousy and pride, Norton encouraged his wife to use her connections to advance his career and it was entirely due to her influence that in 1831 he was made a Metropolitan Police Magistrate. During these years, Caroline turned to prose and poetry as a means of releasing her inner emotions and her first book, The Sorrows of Rosalie, was well received. The Undying One, a romance founded upon the legend of the Wandering Jew, in 1836, Caroline left her husband. Caroline managed to subsist on her earnings as an author, but Norton claimed these as his own, arguing successfully in court that, as her husband, paid nothing by her husband, her earnings confiscated, Caroline used the law to her own advantage. Running up bills in her husbands name, Caroline told the creditors when they came to collect, not long after their separation, Norton abducted their sons, hiding them with relatives in Scotland and later in Yorkshire, refusing to tell Caroline anything of their whereabouts. Norton accused Caroline of being involved in an affair with her close friend, Lord Melbourne
15.
P. T. Barnum
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Phineas Taylor P. T. Barnum was an American politician, showman, and businessman remembered for promoting celebrated hoaxes and for founding the Barnum & Bailey Circus. Barnum is widely, but erroneously, credited with coining the phrase Theres a sucker born every minute, born in Bethel, Connecticut, Barnum became a small-business owner in his early twenties, and founded a weekly newspaper, before moving to New York City in 1834. Barnum used the museum as a platform to promote hoaxes and human curiosities such as the Feejee mermaid, in 1850 he promoted the American tour of singer Jenny Lind, paying her an unprecedented $1,000 a night for 150 nights. After economic reversals due to bad investments in the 1850s, and years of litigation and public humiliation, he used a lecture tour, mostly as a temperance speaker and his museum added Americas first aquarium and expanded the wax-figure department. While in New York, he converted to Universalism and was a member of the Church of the Divine Paternity, Barnum served two terms in the Connecticut legislature in 1865 as a Republican for Fairfield. It may tenant the body of a Chinaman, a Turk, elected in 1875 as Mayor of Bridgeport, Connecticut, he worked to improve the water supply, bring gas lighting to streets, and enforce liquor and prostitution laws. Barnum was instrumental in starting Bridgeport Hospital, founded in 1878, the circus business was the source of much of his enduring fame. He established P. T. Barnums Grand Traveling Museum, Menagerie, Caravan & Hippodrome, a circus, menagerie and museum of freaks. Barnum died in his sleep at home in 1891, and was buried in Mountain Grove Cemetery, Bridgeport, Barnum was born in Bethel, Connecticut, the son of inn keeper, tailor and store-keeper Philo Barnum and second wife Irene Taylor. He was the great grandson of Thomas Barnum, the English immigrant ancestor of the Barnum family in North America. His maternal grandfather Phineas Taylor was a Whig, legislator, landowner, justice of the peace, and lottery schemer, Barnum was adept at arithmetic but hated physical work. He started as a store-keeper, and he learned haggling and using deception to make a sale and he was involved with the first lottery mania in the United States. At the age of 19, he married Charity Hallett, the young husband had several businesses, a general store, a book auctioning trade, real estate speculation, and a statewide lottery network. He became active in politics and advocated against blue laws promulgated by Calvinists who sought to restrict gambling. Barnum started a paper in 1829, The Herald of Freedom, in Danbury. His editorials against church elders led to libel suits and a prosecution which resulted in imprisonment for two months, but he became a champion of the movement upon his release. In 1834, when lotteries were banned in Connecticut, cutting off his income, Barnum sold his store. Joice Heth died in 1836, no more than 80 years old, Barnum improved the attraction, renamed Barnums American Museum, upgrading the building and adding exhibits, and it became a popular showplace
16.
Spa, Belgium
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Spa is a Belgian town, located in the Province of Liège, and is the town which gave its name to every spa in the world. The town of Spa is situated in a valley in the Ardennes mountains 35 kilometres southeast of Liège and 45 kilometres southwest of Aachen. In 2006, Spa had a population of 10,543, Spa is one of Belgiums main tourist cities. The town of Spa is famous for its natural mineral springs. Nearby Spa, in the village of Francorchamps, the renowned Circuit de Spa-Francorchamps is situated, the first beauty pageant in the world was the Concours de Beauté, held in Spa on 19 September 1888. Spa is also the location of the worlds first Casino, Spa hosted the finish of Stage 2 of the 2010 Tour de France on July 5. As the famed site of healing springs, Spa has been frequented as a watering-place since as early as the 14th century. The Spa town grew at that time, in the oldest iron, the ban Spa, was created around 1335 and included two urban concentrations, vilhe of Creppe and vilhe Spas, two kilometers away. The steel industry prior to the exploitation of mineral water developed lines of communication, which made possible the development of the spa town. Pliny the Elder, noted In Tongrie, country of Gaul, there is a source, whose water, while sparkling bubbles. This water purge the body, cures fevers and dispels calculous affections, in 1559 appeared in the famous work of Gilbert Lymborh Fountains acids of the Ardennes forest and primarily those located in Spa. It was translated into Latin, Italian and Spanish, in 1547 already, Agustino, physician to the King of England, Henry VIII, was staying at Spa and helped give knowledge to the world of the value of the Spa water. In July 1565 the gentry of the met in Spa under the pretext of taking the waters. It is in the hotel Aux Armes of England it was agree to oppose the edicts of Philip II which were austere and intolerant, in 1654, the stay of Charles II of England in Spa will brought even greater fame. From 1699, a system is set up between Spa and the outside world. Since the 18th century casinos have also located in the town. During the Great War of 1914-1918, Spa was an important German convalescent hospital town from 1914 to 1917, the general headquarters of Kaiser Wilhelm II was, in 1918, the last place where he resided before his removal due to the German surrender. In 1920, In July 1920 it hosted the Spa Conference, German delegates were invited to this to discuss war reparations
17.
Miss America
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Miss America refers to both The Miss America Organization and The Miss America Foundation. The competition is a pageant that is held annually and is open to women from the United States between the ages of 17 and 24. Originating in 1921 as a bathing beauty revue, the contest is now judged on competitors talent performances, Miss America travels about 20,000 miles a month, changing her location every 24 to 48 hours, touring the nation and promoting her particular platform of interest. The winner is crowned by the previous years titleholder, the current titleholder, Miss America 2017, is Miss Arkansas 2016, Savvy Shields, who was crowned on September 11,2016, by her predecessor Betty Cantrell. The origins of the Miss America pageant lie in a 1920 event entitled The Fall Frolic, three hundred and fifty men pushed the chairs. However, the attractions were the young maidens who sat in the rolling chairs, headed by a Miss Ernestine Cremona. The event was so successful that The Businessmens League planned to repeat it the year as a beauty pageant or a bathers revue. Thus, newspapers as far west as Pittsburgh and as far south as Washington, the winners would participate in the Atlantic City contest. If the local newspaper would pay for the wardrobe, the Atlantic City Businessmens League would pay for the contestants travel to compete in the Inter-City Beauty Contest. Herb Test, a newspaperman coined the term for the winner as, on September 8,1921,100,000 people gathered at the Boardwalk to watch the contestants from Washington, D. C. Pittsburgh, Harrisburg, Ocean City, Camden, Newark, New York, the 16-year-old winner from Washington, D. C. Margaret Gorman, was crowned the Golden Mermaid and won $100. With its revival in 1933, 15-year-old Marian Bergeron won, prompting future contestants to be between the ages of 18 to 26, in 1935, Lenora Slaughter was hired to re-invent the pageant and served for 32 years as its Director. By 1938, a talent section was added to the competition, in 1940, the title officially became The Miss America Pageant and the pageant was held in Atlantic Citys Convention Hall. In 1944, compensation for Miss America switched from furs and movie contracts to college scholarships, an idea generally credited to Jean Bartel, Miss America 1943. During the early years of the pageant, under the directorship of Lenora Slaughter, it became segregated via rule number seven that stated, contestants must be of good health, rule number seven was abolished in 1950. Although there were Native American, Latina, and Asian-American contestants, in 1970, however, Cheryl Browne, Miss Iowa 1970, competed as the first African-American contestant in the Miss America 1971 pageant. She also participated in one of the last USO-Miss America tours in Vietnam, a decade later in 1983, Miss New York 1983, Vanessa Williams, faced discrimination in response to her win and later resigned under pressure due to a scandal involving nude photographs. Two years later at the Miss America 2016 pageant, Miss America CEO Sam Haskell apologized to Vanessa Williams for what was said to her during the events of 1984, the contest that year was won by Mary Katherine Campbell and again in 1923
18.
Atlantic City, New Jersey
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Atlantic City is a resort city in New Jersey, United States, known for its casinos, boardwalk and beach. In 2010, it had a population of 39,558, incorporated on May 1,1854, from portions of Egg Harbor Township and Galloway Township, the city borders Absecon, Brigantine, Pleasantville, Ventnor City, West Atlantic City and the Atlantic Ocean. Atlantic City inspired the American version of the board game Monopoly, especially the street names, since 1921, Atlantic City has been the home of the Miss America pageant. Because of its location in South Jersey, hugging the Atlantic Ocean between marshlands and islands, Atlantic City was viewed by developers as prime real estate and a resort town. In 1853, the first commercial hotel, the Belloe House, was built at the intersection of Massachusetts, the city was incorporated in 1854, the same year in which the Camden and Atlantic Railroad train service began. Built on the edge of the bay, this served as the link of this remote parcel of land with Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. That same year, construction of the Absecon Lighthouse, designed by George Meade of the Corps of Topographical Engineers, was approved, by 1874, almost 500,000 passengers a year were coming to Atlantic City by rail. In Boardwalk Empire, The Birth, High Times, and Corruption of Atlantic City, the hotel was owned by the railroad. It was a sprawling, four-story structure built to house 2,000 guests and it opened while it was still under construction, with only one wing standing, and even that wasnt completed. By years end, when it was constructed, the United States Hotel was not only the first hotel in Atlantic City. Its rooms totaled more than 600, and its grounds covered some 14 acres, the first boardwalk was built in 1870 along a portion of the beach in an effort to help hotel owners keep sand out of their lobbies. Businesses were restricted and the boardwalk was removed each year at the end of the peak season, because of its effectiveness and popularity, the boardwalk was expanded in length and width, and modified several times in subsequent years. The historic length of the boardwalk, before the destructive 1944 Great Atlantic Hurricane, was about 7 miles and it extended from Atlantic City to Longport, through Ventnor, the first road connecting the city to the mainland at Pleasantville was completed in 1870 and charged a 30-cent toll. Albany Avenue was the first road to the mainland available without a toll, by 1878, because of the growing popularity of the city, one railroad line could no longer keep up with demand. Soon, the Philadelphia and Atlantic City Railway was also constructed to transport tourists to Atlantic City, at this point massive hotels like The United States and Surf House, as well as smaller rooming houses, had sprung up all over town. The United States Hotel took up a city block between Atlantic, Pacific, Delaware, and Maryland Avenues. These hotels were not only impressive in size, but featured the most updated amenities, in the early part of the 20th century, Atlantic City went through a radical building boom. Many of the modest boarding houses dotted the boardwalk were replaced with large hotels
19.
Galveston, Texas
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Galveston is a coastal resort city on Galveston Island and Pelican Island in the U. S. state of Texas. The community of 209.3 square miles, with a population of 50,180 in 2015, is the county seat. It is within Houston–The Woodlands–Sugar Land metropolitan area, the Port of Galveston was established in 1825 by the Congress of Mexico following its independence from Spain. The city was the port for the Texas Navy during the Texas Revolution. During the 19th century, Galveston became a major U. S. commercial center and it was devastated by the 1900 Galveston Hurricane, whose effects included flooding and a storm surge. The natural disaster on the barrier island is still ranked as the deadliest in United States history. Much of Galvestons economy is centered in the tourism, health care, shipping, the 84-acre University of Texas Medical Branch campus with an enrollment of more than 2,500 students is a major economic force of the city. Galveston Island was originally inhabited by members of the Karankawa and Akokisa tribes who called the island Auia, the Spanish explorer Cabeza de Vaca and his crew were shipwrecked on the island or nearby in November 1528, calling it Isla de Malhado. They began their trek to a Spanish settlement in Mexico City. During his charting of the Gulf Coast in 1785, the Spanish explorer José de Evia named the island Villa Gálvez or Gálveztown in honor of Bernardo de Gálvez y Madrid, Count of Gálvez. The islands first permanent European settlements were constructed around 1816 by the pirate Louis-Michel Aury to support Mexicos rebellion against Spain, in 1817, Aury returned from an unsuccessful raid against Spain to find Galveston occupied by the pirate Jean Lafitte. Lafitte organized Galveston into a kingdom he called Campeche, anointing himself the islands head of government. Lafitte remained in Galveston until 1821, when the United States Navy forced him, in 1825 the Congress of Mexico established the Port of Galveston and in 1830 erected a customs house. Galveston served as the capital of the Republic of Texas when in 1836 the interim president David G. Burnet relocated his government there. In 1836, the French-Canadian Michel Branamour Menard and several associates purchased 4,605 acres of land for $50,000 to found the town that would become the city of Galveston. As Anglo-Americans migrated to the city, they brought along or purchased enslaved African-Americans, some of whom worked domestically or on the waterfront, in 1839, the City of Galveston adopted a charter and was incorporated by the Congress of the Republic of Texas. The city was by then a port of entry and attracted many new residents in the 1840s and later among the flood of German immigrants to Texas. Together with ethnic Mexican residents, these tended to oppose slavery, support the Union during the Civil War
20.
International Pageant of Pulchritude
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The International Pageant of Pulchritude, also known as the International Beauty Contest or Miss Universe, was a beauty contest that began in 1920, featuring contestants from multiple nations. The last pageant event in the USA was held in 1931 although additional Miss Universe events were held until 1935, the pageant was the first international contest and served as a model for modern contests. The contest originated in Galveston, Texas, USA, the last Miss Universe event of this pre-World War II era was held in Brussels, Belgium. Though this contest served as a model and inspiration for the modern Miss Universe contests, Beauty contests had existed around the U. S. since the 19th century as a means to build tourism for local communities. These events were local affairs featuring women from the communities themselves. In 1920 promoter C. E. Barfield organized a new event in Galveston known as Splash Day, the event featured a Bathing Girl Revue competition as the centerpiece of its attractions. Splash Day was the kick-off of the summer tourist season in the city and was carried forward annually, at its height the event was one of the largest beauty contests and would literally triple the islands population during the weekend when it ran, attracting spectators from around the nation. In 1926, taking advantage of this trend, the Galveston event became a competition known as the International Pageant of Pulchritude. The winner of the contest was awarded the title of Miss Universe, in 1927 the contest became two separate events held over two days, one to award the title of Miss United States and one to award Miss Universe. The Miss United States pageant drew contestants from as far away as New York, the Miss Universe pageant included contestants from a variety of countries including England, Russia, Turkey, Austria, and many others. Prizes were given to the top competitors, in 1929, for example, Miss Universe was given US$2000 in gold and a silver plaque. The event became an international sensation although, ironically, the media in the USA gave the event far less attention than the press in some other countries. The media in Brazil was particularly enamored with the 1929 contest, huge crowds were reported near the offices of Brazils major newspapers awaiting word of the fate of Miss Brazil. She did not, however, even place in the contest, angered, Brazil hosted its own Miss Universe contest in 1930 leading to two separate titleholders in that year. In the Brazilian event, Miss United States was unable to place in the competition, the event in Galveston was discontinued in 1932 because of the Great Depression. Miss Universe events were held in Belgium in 1932 and 1935. After 1935 international competitions were discontinued until the modern Miss Universe contest was created in 1952 in California, the following were the titleholders for the annual pageants. The pageant was not held during 1933 and 1934, the Pageant of Pulchritude served as a model for modern pageants
21.
Russia
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Russia, also officially the Russian Federation, is a country in Eurasia. The European western part of the country is more populated and urbanised than the eastern. Russias capital Moscow is one of the largest cities in the world, other urban centers include Saint Petersburg, Novosibirsk, Yekaterinburg, Nizhny Novgorod. Extending across the entirety of Northern Asia and much of Eastern Europe, Russia spans eleven time zones and incorporates a range of environments. It shares maritime borders with Japan by the Sea of Okhotsk, the East Slavs emerged as a recognizable group in Europe between the 3rd and 8th centuries AD. Founded and ruled by a Varangian warrior elite and their descendants, in 988 it adopted Orthodox Christianity from the Byzantine Empire, beginning the synthesis of Byzantine and Slavic cultures that defined Russian culture for the next millennium. Rus ultimately disintegrated into a number of states, most of the Rus lands were overrun by the Mongol invasion. The Soviet Union played a role in the Allied victory in World War II. The Soviet era saw some of the most significant technological achievements of the 20th century, including the worlds first human-made satellite and the launching of the first humans in space. By the end of 1990, the Soviet Union had the second largest economy, largest standing military in the world. It is governed as a federal semi-presidential republic, the Russian economy ranks as the twelfth largest by nominal GDP and sixth largest by purchasing power parity in 2015. Russias extensive mineral and energy resources are the largest such reserves in the world, making it one of the producers of oil. The country is one of the five recognized nuclear weapons states and possesses the largest stockpile of weapons of mass destruction, Russia is a great power as well as a regional power and has been characterised as a potential superpower. The name Russia is derived from Rus, a state populated mostly by the East Slavs. However, this name became more prominent in the later history, and the country typically was called by its inhabitants Русская Земля. In order to distinguish this state from other states derived from it, it is denoted as Kievan Rus by modern historiography, an old Latin version of the name Rus was Ruthenia, mostly applied to the western and southern regions of Rus that were adjacent to Catholic Europe. The current name of the country, Россия, comes from the Byzantine Greek designation of the Kievan Rus, the standard way to refer to citizens of Russia is Russians in English and rossiyane in Russian. There are two Russian words which are translated into English as Russians
22.
Turkey
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Turkey, officially the Republic of Turkey, is a transcontinental country in Eurasia, mainly in Anatolia in Western Asia, with a smaller portion on the Balkan peninsula in Southeast Europe. Turkey is a democratic, secular, unitary, parliamentary republic with a cultural heritage. The country is encircled by seas on three sides, the Aegean Sea is to the west, the Black Sea to the north, and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. The Bosphorus, the Sea of Marmara, and the Dardanelles, Ankara is the capital while Istanbul is the countrys largest city and main cultural and commercial centre. Approximately 70-80% of the countrys citizens identify themselves as ethnic Turks, other ethnic groups include legally recognised and unrecognised minorities. Kurds are the largest ethnic minority group, making up approximately 20% of the population, the area of Turkey has been inhabited since the Paleolithic by various ancient Anatolian civilisations, as well as Assyrians, Greeks, Thracians, Phrygians, Urartians and Armenians. After Alexander the Greats conquest, the area was Hellenized, a process continued under the Roman Empire. The Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm ruled Anatolia until the Mongol invasion in 1243, the empire reached the peak of its power in the 16th century, especially during the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent. During the war, the Ottoman government committed genocides against its Armenian, Assyrian, following the war, the conglomeration of territories and peoples that formerly comprised the Ottoman Empire was partitioned into several new states. Turkey is a member of the UN, an early member of NATO. Turkeys growing economy and diplomatic initiatives have led to its recognition as a regional power while her location has given it geopolitical, the name of Turkey is based on the ethnonym Türk. The first recorded use of the term Türk or Türük as an autonym is contained in the Old Turkic inscriptions of the Göktürks of Central Asia, the English name Turkey first appeared in the late 14th century and is derived from Medieval Latin Turchia. Similarly, the medieval Khazar Empire, a Turkic state on the shores of the Black. The medieval Arabs referred to the Mamluk Sultanate as al-Dawla al-Turkiyya, the Ottoman Empire was sometimes referred to as Turkey or the Turkish Empire among its European contemporaries. The Anatolian peninsula, comprising most of modern Turkey, is one of the oldest permanently settled regions in the world, various ancient Anatolian populations have lived in Anatolia, from at least the Neolithic period until the Hellenistic period. Many of these peoples spoke the Anatolian languages, a branch of the larger Indo-European language family, in fact, given the antiquity of the Indo-European Hittite and Luwian languages, some scholars have proposed Anatolia as the hypothetical centre from which the Indo-European languages radiated. The European part of Turkey, called Eastern Thrace, has also been inhabited since at least forty years ago. It is the largest and best-preserved Neolithic site found to date, the settlement of Troy started in the Neolithic Age and continued into the Iron Age
23.
Montreal
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Montreal, officially Montréal, is the most populous municipality in the Canadian province of Quebec and the 2nd-most populous in Canada as a whole. Originally called Ville-Marie, or City of Mary, it is believed to be named after Mount Royal, the city has a distinct four-season continental climate, with warm-to-hot summers and cold, snowy winters. In 2016, Montreal had a population of 1,704,694, Montreals metropolitan area had a population of 4,098,927 and a population of 1,958,257 in the urban agglomeration, with all of the municipalities on the Island of Montreal included. Legally a French-speaking city,60. 5% of Montrealers speak French at home,21. 2% speak English and 19. 8% speak neither, Montreal is one of the most bilingual cities in Quebec and Canada, with 56% of the population able to speak both official languages. Montreal is the second-largest primarily French-speaking city in the world after Paris, historically the commercial capital of Canada, it was surpassed in population and economic strength by Toronto in the 1970s. It remains an important centre of commerce, aerospace, finance, pharmaceuticals, technology, design, education, culture, tourism, gaming, film, Montreal was also named a UNESCO City of Design. In 2009, Montreal was named North Americas leading host city for international events, according to the 2009 preliminary rankings of the International Congress. According to the 2015 Global Liveability Ranking by the Economist Intelligence Unit, in the 2017 edition of their Best Student Cities ranking, Quacquarelli Symonds ranked Montreal as the worlds best city to study abroad. Also, Montreal has 11 universities with 170,000 students enrolled, the Greater Montréal region has the highest number of university students per capita among all metropolitan areas in North America. It is the only Canadian city to have held the Summer Olympics, currently, the city hosts the Canadian Grand Prix of Formula One, the Montreal International Jazz Festival and the Just for Laughs festival. In 2012, Montreal was ranked as a Beta+ world city, in Kanien’kéha, or Mohawk language, the island is called Tiohtià, ke Tsi or Ka-wé-no-te. In Anishinaabemowin, or Ojibwe language, the land is called Mooniyaang, though the city was first named by French colonizers Ville Marie, or City of Mary, its current name comes from Mount Royal, the triple-peaked hill in the heart of the city. The most popular theory is that the name derives from Mont Réal, Cartiers 1535 diary entry, naming the mountain, according to the Commission de toponymie du Québec and the Geographical Names Board of Canada, Canadian place names have only one official form. Thus, Montreal is officially spelled with an accent over the e in both English and French. In practice, this is limited to governmental uses. English-speaking Montrealers, including English-language media, regularly omit the accent when writing in English, archaeological evidence demonstrates that First Nations native people occupied the island of Montreal as early as 4,000 years ago. By the year AD1000, they had started to cultivate maize, within a few hundred years, they had built fortified villages. Archeologists have found evidence of their habitation there and at locations in the valley since at least the 14th century
24.
Miss World
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Miss World is the oldest running international beauty pageant. It was created in the United Kingdom by Eric Morley in 1951, since his death in 2000, Morleys widow, Julia Morley, has co-chaired the pageant. Alongside with its rival, the Miss Universe and Miss Earth contests, the current Miss World is Stephanie Del Valle of Puerto Rico who was crowned on 18 December 2016 in Washington, D. C. In 1951, Eric Morley organised a bikini contest as part of the Festival of Britain celebrations that he called the Festival Bikini Contest, the event was popular with the press, and was dubbed Miss World by the media. The swimsuit competition was intended as a promotion for the bikini which had recently been introduced onto the market. When the 1951 Miss World pageant winner, Kerstin Kiki Hakansson from Sweden, was crowned in a bikini, the pageant was originally planned as a Pageant for the Festival of Britain, but Eric Morley decided to make the Miss World pageant an annual event. Morley registered the Miss World name as a trademark, and all future pageants were held under that name. Objection to the bikini led to its replacement in all future pageants with what was accepted as more modest swimwear, håkansson remains the only Miss World crowned in a bikini. In Miss World 2013 all participants wore a one-piece swimsuit plus a traditional sarong below the waist as a compromise with local culture, Miss World Order or I’ll give you the results in reverse order. Morley announced the Miss World winners in the order No 3, No 2 and this keeps the tension up and avoids the anticlimax if Nos 2 and 3 are announced after the winner. In 1959, the BBC started broadcasting the pageant, the pageants popularity grew with the advent of television. During the 1960s and 1970s, Miss World would be among the most watched programs of the year on British television, however, in 1970, the Miss World contest in London was disrupted by womens liberation protesters armed with flour bombs, stink bombs, and water pistols. In the 1980s, the pageant repositioned itself with the slogan Beauty With a Purpose, with added tests of intelligence, however, there have been various objections to the contest. Although it still enjoys success worldwide, it was no longer broadcast in BBC since 1980, Eric Morley died in 2000, and his wife, Julia, succeeded as chairwoman of the Miss World organisation. The first black African Miss World winner, Agbani Darego of Nigeria, was crowned in 2001 and it also sells its Talent, Beach Beauty and Sports events as television specials to broadcasters. In 2002 the pageant was slated for Abuja, the city of Nigeria to host its final. In the Miss World 2014 ceremony, Aishwarya Rai was crowned Most Successful Miss World by the Miss World Organisation and she attended the celebration with her husband Abhishek Bachchan, daughter Aaaradhya and mother Brinda Rai. The Miss World Organisation owns and manages the annual Miss World Finals, since its launch in 1951, the Miss World organisation has raised more than £250 million for childrens charities that help disabled and underprivileged children
25.
Miss Universe
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Miss Universe is an annual international beauty pageant that is run by the Miss Universe Organization. Along with its rival contests, Miss World and Miss Earth and it is held in more than 190 countries worldwide and seen by more than half a billion people annually. The Miss Universe Organization and the brand is owned, along with Miss USA and Miss Teen USA. The pageant was founded in 1952 by the California-based clothing company Pacific Knitting Mills, Miss Universe Organization licenses local organizations that wish to select the Miss Universe contestant for their country, and approves the selection method for national delegates. The current Miss Universe logo – the woman with stars – was created in 1998, in September 2015, Trump bought NBCs share of the Miss Universe Organization, becoming its sole owner for three days, then sold the entire company to the WME/IMG talent agency. The current Miss Universe is Iris Mittenaere of France who was crowned on 30 January 2017 in Manila, the title Miss Universe was first used by the International Pageant of Pulchritude in 1926. This contest was held annually until 1935, when the Great Depression, the current Miss Universe pageant was founded in 1952 by Pacific Knitting Mills, a California-based clothing company and manufacturer of Catalina Swimwear. The company was the sponsor of the Miss America pageant until 1951, so in 1952 Pacific Knitting Mills organised the Miss USA and Miss Universe pageants, co-sponsoring them for decades to follow. The first Miss Universe Pageant was held in Long Beach, California in 1952 and it was won by Armi Kuusela from Finland, who gave up her title, though not officially, to get married, shortly before her year was completed. Until 1958, the Miss Universe title, like that of Miss America, was dated by the following the contest. Since its founding by Pacific Mills, the pageant has been organized and conducted by the Miss Universe Organization, eventually Pacific Mills and its subsidiaries were acquired by the Kayser-Roth Corporation, which was in turn acquired by Gulf and Western Industries. The pageant was first televised in 1955, CBS began broadcasting the combined Miss USA and Miss Universe pageants in 1960, and as separate contests in 1965. John Charles Daly hosted the pageant from 1955 to 1966, Bob Barker from 1967 to 1987, Alan Thicke in 1988, John Forsythe in 1989, Dick Clark from 1990 to 1993, and Bob Goen from 1994 to 1996. Donald Trump bought the company, Miss Universe, Inc. in 1996 from ITT Corp. Trump struck a broadcasting arrangement with CBS for a few years. In 1998, Miss Universe, Inc. changed its name to Miss Universe Organization, in 2002 Trump entered into a joint venture with NBC, which in 2003 outbid the other networks for the TV rights. From 2003 to 2014, the pageant was broadcast in the US on NBC, as part of the legal settlement, in September 2015, Trump bought out NBCs 50% stake in the company making him the companys sole owner. Three days later he sold the company to WME/IMG. Following the change of ownership, in October 2015, Fox and Azteca became the broadcaster of the Miss Universe
26.
Miss USA
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The Miss USA is an American beauty pageant that has been held annually since 1952 to select the American entrant in the Miss Universe pageant. The Miss Universe Organization operates both pageants, as well as Miss Teen USA, the pageant was owned by the current President of the United States of America, Donald Trump from 1996 to 2015, and was previously broadcast on NBC. In September 2015, WME/IMG purchased the pageant from Trump, currently, Fox holds the broadcast rights for the pageant. The current Miss USA is Deshauna Barber of the District of Columbia who was crowned on June 5,2016 in Las Vegas, Nevada. The Miss USA pageant was conceived in 1950 when Yolande Betbeze, winner of the rival Miss America pageant, Pageant sponsor Catalina decided to pull their sponsorship off the pageant and create their own competition. Other owners have included a subsidiary of Gulf+Western Industries, ITT Corporation, the first Miss USA and Miss Universe pageants were held concurrently in Long Beach, California in 1952, the first Miss USA winner was Miss New York USA Jackie Loughery. There were thirty delegates in the first year of competition, from the 1970s, each state and the District of Columbia have sent a delegate each year. Alaska first competed in 1959 and Hawaii in 1960, both had competed at Miss Universe until this time. The pageant aired on CBS from 1963 until 2002, and for years was known for having a CBS game show host as pageant host. John Charles Daly hosted the show from 1963–1966, Bob Barker from 1967 until 1987, Alan Thicke in 1988, Dick Clark from 1989 to 1993, the shows highest ratings were in the early 1980s, when it regularly topped the Nielsen ratings. Viewership dropped sharply from the 1990s to the 2000s, from an estimated viewership of 20 million to an average of 7 million from 2000–2001. In 2002, owner Donald Trump brokered a new deal with NBC, giving them half-ownership of the Miss USA, Miss Universe and Miss Teen USA, the pageants were first shown on NBC in 2003. Historically, the winner of the Miss USA title represented the U. S. in its sister pageant Miss Universe, since its inception, eight Miss USA titleholders have gone on to win Miss Universe. In the mid-1960s, the established a rule that when a Miss USA wins the Miss Universe title. This occurred in 1980,1995,1997, and 2012, in 1967, the first runner-up Susan Bradley of California declined the title and the crown went to the second runner-up Cheryl Patton of Florida. The only instance when a first runner-up assumed the title of Miss USA prior to this period was in 1957 and she also gains exclusive access to events such as fashion shows and opening galas, as well as access to casting calls and modeling opportunities throughout New York City. When Donald Trump owned the pageant, the winner was given the use of a Trump Place apartment in New York City during her reign, which she shared with the Miss Universe and Miss Teen USA titleholders. If the winner, for any reason, cannot fulfill her duties as Miss USA, including if she wins the title of Miss Universe, presidential campaign, resulting in both Miss USA and Miss Universe being dropped from their schedules
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Miss International
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Miss International is a Tokyo-based international beauty pageant organized by The International Culture Association. The pageant was first held in 1960, the current Miss International is Kylie Verzosa from the Philippines who was crowned on October 27,2016 in Tokyo, Japan. The pageant was created in Long Beach, California, USA in 1960 after the departure of the Miss Universe pageant to Miami Beach. Hosted in Long Beach until 1967, the pageant moved to Japan from 1968–1970, for 1971, it was held in Long Beach again, but since that time it has been held annually in Japan until 2003. Since 2004, it is held in China or Japan, the pageant is also called Miss International Beauty. The ultimate goal of the Miss International beauty pageant is to world peace, goodwill. For full list and details List of Miss International titleholders, List of beauty contests Miss International Trivia, Surprising Facts And Controversies
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Miss Black America
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The Miss Black America beauty contest is a competition for young African-American women – essentially the black version of the popular Miss America pageant. The pageant has garnered the support of artists, activists and performers including Stevie Wonder, Curtis Mayfield, after 40 years, in 2009 the pageant had a kick off in Washington, D. C. to rebrand the competition. The first teen winner was Ashley Anglin, the first runner-up teen was Monet Jackson, a resident of Mitchellville, MD, and Destiny Welch, second runner-up and also an MD resident. The adult winner was DC native and MD resident, Miss Kamilla Collier-Mullin, the first runner-up Miss Cherie A. Bryant, a northern Virginia resident, and the second runner up was Miss Janesia Simmons in the adult pageant. It was originally a local Philadelphia area contest to protest the lack of women in the Miss America pageant. J. Morris Anderson created and produced the Miss Black America Pageant on August 17,1968, in September 1977, NBC televised the Miss Black America contest, the day before CBS televised Miss America
29.
Miss Teen USA
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Miss Teen USA is a beauty pageant run by the Miss Universe Organization for girls aged 14–19. Unlike its sister pageants Miss Universe and Miss USA, which are broadcast on Fox, the pageant was first held in 1983 and has been broadcast live on CBS until 2002 and then on NBC from 2003–2007. In March 2007, it was announced that the broadcast of the Miss Teen USA pageant on NBC had not been renewed, from 2008–15, the pageant was held at the Atlantis Paradise Island Resort, located in Nassau, Bahamas. Notable pageant winners include actresses Kelly Hu, Bridgette Wilson, Charlotte Lopez-Ayanna, Vanessa Minnillo, Shelley Hennig, the current titleholder is Karlie Hay of Texas who was crowned on July 30,2016 in The Venetian Resort Hotel Casino, Las Vegas, Nevada. The following is a list of pageant editions and information, during the final competition, the semi-finalists are announced and go on to compete in swimsuit and evening gown. From 1983 to 2002 all semi-finalists also competed in a competition as well as both swimsuit and evening gown, followed by one or two final interview questions. In 2003, a new format was introduced where the top fifteen competed in evening gown, the top ten competed in swimsuit, in 2006, the order of competition was changed where the top fifteen competed in swimsuit and the top ten in evening gown. Former Miss Teen USA, Katherine Haik wanted to eliminate the swimsuit competition, the swimsuit category was chastised for exploiting and sexualizing young women and not promoting diverse body types. The new active-wear portion will increase the focus on wellness and health of young ladies and this is a list of women who have won the Miss Teen USA beauty pageant. Seven Miss Teen USA delegates have appeared on reality television and two have been game show models, a sixth delegate is an ESPN presenter. A seventh is a reporter for Access Hollywood, brandi Sherwood, Ashley Coleman and Claudia Jordan, Miss Rhode Island Teen USA1990 have been Barkers Beauties on The Price Is Right. Jordan has also been a model on Deal or No Deal. Delegates who have appeared on The Amazing Race are Erika Shay, Christie Lee Woods, delegate who appeared on Americas Prom Queen is Macy Erwin 2007. Delegates who have appeared on Survivor are Misty Giles and Danni Boatwright, danielle Boatwright represented Kansas at Miss Teen USA in 1992 and was 2nd runner-up to Jamie Solinger. Four years later, she represented Kansas again at Miss USA in 1996, in 2005, she appeared on Survivor, Guatemala and won the $1 million first-place prize, beating out Stephenie LaGrossa at the final tribal council. Nicole Briscoe became a journalist and is currently an ESPN presenter, maria Menounos became a reporter for Entertainment Tonight before going to Access Hollywood and hosted the Eurovision Song Contest in 2006. Cerina Vincent went on to become a model and actress, with many film. Her most notable role being Maya, the Yellow Ranger in the television series Power Rangers Lost Galaxy, Shelley Hennig currently stars on the MTV series Teen Wolf, playing the character Malia Tate
30.
Miss Earth
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Miss Earth is an annual international environmental-themed beauty pageant promoting environmental awareness. The Miss Earth winner is the spokesperson for the Miss Earth Foundation, the current Miss Earth is Katherine Espín of Ecuador who was crowned on 29 October 2016 in Pasay, Philippines. Those who participate in the pageant are involved with humanitarian and environmental causes, the pageant winner is expected to be involved in international projects, which are also promoted during the pageants broadcast. The delegates also take part in tree planting ceremonies, environmental and cultural programs, sponsor visits. In October 2001, Miss Earth adopted the slogan Beauties For a Cause, the Miss Earth Foundation campaign focuses in educating the youth in environmental awareness. Its major project “I Love Planet Earth School Tour, teaches and distributes educational aides for school children, the Miss Earth pageant has grown over the years, with an increasing number of countries participating each year. The number of national Miss Earth pageants has grown on every continent as well, in 2006, the host country Chile failed to meet the requirements of the host committee, the pageant was moved back to the Philippines. The outfit designs are made from recyclable, natural materials, organic materials, the pageant introduced in 2011 the Miss Earth Declaration, a manifesto pledging the support of all the candidates for a common environmental mission to be implemented in their respective countries. In 2003, Vida Samadzai, an Afghan woman, now residing in the United States, Samadzai was the first Afghan woman to compete in an international beauty pageant in almost three decades, but the fact that she wore a bikini caused an uproar in her native country. Miss Earth also made headlines in 2005 when a Pakistani beauty queen, Naomi Zaman, shes the first delegate from Pakistan to compete in any major international pageants. Beauty pageants are frowned-upon in Pakistan and she also advocated for the boundaries of acceptable social etiquette towards modernity, in a traditionally conservative Tibetan culture, where most grown women wear ankle-length dresses. Nevertheless, her participation in the pageant received an approval from the Dalai Lama, in 2007, Carousel Productions licensed the Miss Cuba organization to select the first Cuban representative to Miss Earth. Ariana Barouk won and became the first Miss Cuba in several decades, also in 2007, Miss Earth made history when delegates from China, Hong Kong, Macau, Taiwan, and Tibet competed altogether for the first time in any international pageant. In 2008, the Buddhist Kingdom of Bhutan, one of the worlds most isolated nations, sent its first Miss Bhutan, Rwanda also sent its first ever Miss Rwanda national winner, Cynthia Akazuba, both of them competed at the Miss Earth 2008 pageant. The pageant had been held in the Philippines every year from 2001 to 2009, Miss Earth 2006 was scheduled to be held in Santiago, Chile on November 15, but organizational problems forced the pageant to move back to the Philippines. In 2008, the pageant was held for the first time outside Metropolitan Manila and it was held at the Clark Expo Amphitheater in Angeles City, Pampanga on November 9,2008. In 2009, the pageant took place for the first time outside Luzon Island, the coronation night venue for Miss Earth 2009 was held at the Boracay Ecovillage Resort and Convention Center in the Island of Boracay, Philippines. In 2010, the pageant finally took place for the first time outside the Philippines, the coronation night venue for Miss Earth 2010 was held at the Vinpearl Land Amphitheater at Nha Trang, Vietnam
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Swimsuit competition
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Bodybuilding competitions may also feature a bikini contest segment. Participants in such contests may be competing for prizes including trophies, money, in the United States, beauty pageants of women in bathing costumes became popular from the 1880s. However, such events were not regarded as respectable, beauty contests became more respectable with the first modern Miss America contest held in 1921, though less respectable beauty contests continued to be held. The organisers may also specify the age range. There may be a panel of at least three judges, one or two announcers present the competition, and they may also help the contestants to connect with the crowd. Bikini contests may be organised or sponsored by related companies for marketing purposes or to try to find, Miss Hawaiian Tropic is organized by Playtex to promote Hawaiian Tropic, its suntan lotion. NOPI runs the annual Hot Import Nights bikini contest, which is held in conjunction with the import car-show in Atlanta, Georgia, despite their popularity and womens voluntary participation, swimsuit competitions, especially bikini contests, may be controversial. This pursuit of beauty even encourages some women to diet to the point of harming themselves. The first Miss World contest was organized by Eric Morley in 1951 as a promotion for swimwear at the Festival of Britain, the press welcomed the spectacle and referred to it as Miss World. When the winner Kiki Håkansson from Sweden was crowned in a bikini, the bikinis were outlawed and evening gowns introduced instead. Håkansson remains the only Miss World crowned in a bikini, a crowning that was condemned by the Pope, the bikini was banned from Miss World beauty pageants after the controversy. Bikinis reappeared in later contests amid additional controversy, in the 1970s and 1980s the contest was regularly picketed by feminist protesters. Social activist Subhashini Ali commented, Its not an IQ test, neither is it a charity show. Its a beauty contest in which things have been added on as sops. The protests were so intense that the organizers were finally compelled to shift the venue of the Swimsuit Round to Seychelles, countering these claims, the contest organizer says that the organization has raised ₤300 million for charity in many of the countries where it operates since 2000. In 2013, the Miss World event was hosted by Indonesia, the organizers later announced that the bikini would be replaced by one-piece swimsuits and sarongs, traditional beachwear on the resort island of Bali. Pageant Chairwoman Julia Morley explained, I do not want to upset or get anyone in a situation where we are being disrespectful, critics accuse the Miss World organizers of caving to extremist pressures. They point out that Bali is a destination for tourists from across the world who often wear minimal swimwear
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Roman Catholic
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The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church or the Universal Church, is the largest Christian church, with more than 1.28 billion members worldwide. As one of the oldest religious institutions in the world, it has played a prominent role in the history, headed by the Bishop of Rome, known as the Pope, the churchs doctrines are summarised in the Nicene Creed and the Apostles Creed. Its central administration is located in Vatican City, enclaved within Rome, the Catholic Church is notable within Western Christianity for its sacred tradition and seven sacraments. It teaches that it is the one church founded by Jesus Christ, that its bishops are the successors of Christs apostles. The Catholic Church maintains that the doctrine on faith and morals that it declares as definitive is infallible. The Latin Church, the Eastern Catholic Churches, as well as such as mendicant orders and enclosed monastic orders. Among the sacraments, the one is the Eucharist, celebrated liturgically in the Mass. The church teaches that through consecration by a priest the sacrificial bread and wine become the body, the Catholic Church practises closed communion, with only baptised members in a state of grace ordinarily permitted to receive the Eucharist. The Virgin Mary is venerated in the Catholic Church as Queen of Heaven and is honoured in numerous Marian devotions. The Catholic Church has influenced Western philosophy, science, art and culture, Catholic spiritual teaching includes spreading the Gospel while Catholic social teaching emphasises support for the sick, the poor and the afflicted through the corporal and spiritual works of mercy. The Catholic Church is the largest non-government provider of education and medical services in the world, from the late 20th century, the Catholic Church has been criticised for its doctrines on sexuality, its refusal to ordain women and its handling of sexual abuse cases. Catholic was first used to describe the church in the early 2nd century, the first known use of the phrase the catholic church occurred in the letter from Saint Ignatius of Antioch to the Smyrnaeans, written about 110 AD. In the Catechetical Discourses of Saint Cyril of Jerusalem, the name Catholic Church was used to distinguish it from other groups that call themselves the church. The use of the adjective Roman to describe the Church as governed especially by the Bishop of Rome became more widespread after the Fall of the Western Roman Empire and into the Early Middle Ages. Catholic Church is the name used in the Catechism of the Catholic Church. The Catholic Church follows an episcopal polity, led by bishops who have received the sacrament of Holy Orders who are given formal jurisdictions of governance within the church. Ultimately leading the entire Catholic Church is the Bishop of Rome, commonly called the pope, in parallel to the diocesan structure are a variety of religious institutes that function autonomously, often subject only to the authority of the pope, though sometimes subject to the local bishop. Most religious institutes only have male or female members but some have both, additionally, lay members aid many liturgical functions during worship services
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Pope Pius XII
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Pope Pius XII, born Eugenio Maria Giuseppe Giovanni Pacelli, reigned as Pope from 2 March 1939 to his death in 1958. After the war Pius XII advocated peace and reconciliation, including lenient policies towards Axis, the Church experienced severe persecution and mass deportations of Catholic clergy in the Eastern Bloc. Pius XII was an opponent of Communism and of the Italian Communist Party. He explicitly invoked ex cathedra papal infallibility with the dogma of the Assumption of Mary in his 1950 Apostolic constitution Munificentissimus Deus and his magisterium includes almost 1,000 addresses and radio broadcasts. His forty-one encyclicals include Mystici corporis, the Church as the Body of Christ, Mediator Dei on liturgy reform and he eliminated the Italian majority in the College of Cardinals in 1946. In 1954, Pius XII began to suffer ill health. The embalming of his body was mishandled, with effects that were evident during the funeral and he was buried in the Vatican grottos and was succeeded by Pope John XXIII. In the process toward sainthood, his cause for canonization was opened on 18 November 1965 by Pope Paul VI during the session of the Second Vatican Council. He was made a Servant of God by Pope John Paul II in 1990, Eugenio Maria Giuseppe Giovanni Pacelli was born on 2 March 1876 in Rome into a family of intense Catholic piety with a history of ties to the papacy. His parents were Filippo Pacelli and Virginia Pacelli, together with his brother Francesco and his two sisters, Giuseppina and Elisabetta, he grew up in the Parione district in the centre of Rome. Soon after the family had moved to Via Vetrina in 1880 he began school at the convent of the French Sisters of Divine Providence in the Piazza Fiammetta, the family worshipped at Chiesa Nuova. Eugenio and the children made their First Communion at this church. In 1886 too he was sent to the school of Professor Giuseppe Marchi. In 1891 Pacellis father sent Eugenio to the Liceo Ennio Quirino Visconti Institute, a school situated in what had been the Collegio Romano. He was also enrolled at the State University, La Sapienza where he studied modern languages, at the end of the first academic year however, in the summer of 1895, he dropped out of both the Capranica and the Gregorian University. According to his sister Elisabetta, the food at the Capranica was to blame, having received a special dispensation he continued his studies from home and so spent most of his seminary years as an external student. In 1899 he completed his education in Sacred Theology with a degree awarded on the basis of a short dissertation. Shortly after ordination he began studies in canon law at SantApollinaire
34.
Vida Samadzai
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Vida Samadzai is an Afghan-American actress, model and beauty pageant titleholder who was Miss Afghanistan in 2003. She also entered in the season of the Indian reality television show Bigg Boss. Samadzai, an ethnic Pashtun, was born and raised in Kabul, Afghanistan and she was the second Miss Afghanistan to take part in a beauty contest since Zohra Daoud was crowned Miss Afghanistan in 1974. Her participation in the Miss Earth beauty pageant in 2003 was condemned by the Afghan Supreme Court, saying such a display of the body goes against Islamic law. In particular, traditionalists objected to her appearance in a red bikini during the press presentation. She was given a special Beauty for a Cause award at that years Miss Earth competition, the following year, Samadzai returned to the pageant and was among the 11 jurors who helped choose Priscilla Meirelles as Miss Earth 2004. On coronation night, the womens rights activist wore a gown, saying. On May 1,2005, Vida Samadzai won the Ms. America 2005-06 pageant
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Afghanistan
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Afghanistan, officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, is a landlocked country located within South Asia and Central Asia. It has a population of approximately 32 million, making it the 42nd most populous country in the world. It is bordered by Pakistan in the south and east, Iran in the west, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan in the north and its territory covers 652,000 km2, making it the 41st largest country in the world. The land also served as the source from which the Kushans, Hephthalites, Samanids, Saffarids, Ghaznavids, Ghorids, Khiljis, Mughals, Hotaks, Durranis, the political history of the modern state of Afghanistan began with the Hotak and Durrani dynasties in the 18th century. In the late 19th century, Afghanistan became a state in the Great Game between British India and the Russian Empire. Following the Third Anglo-Afghan War in 1919, King Amanullah unsuccessfully attempted to modernize the country and it remained peaceful during Zahir Shahs forty years of monarchy. A series of coups in the 1970s was followed by a series of wars that devastated much of Afghanistan. The name Afghānistān is believed to be as old as the ethnonym Afghan, the root name Afghan was used historically in reference to a member of the ethnic Pashtuns, and the suffix -stan means place of in Persian. Therefore, Afghanistan translates to land of the Afghans or, more specifically in a historical sense, however, the modern Constitution of Afghanistan states that he word Afghan shall apply to every citizen of Afghanistan. An important site of historical activities, many believe that Afghanistan compares to Egypt in terms of the historical value of its archaeological sites. The country sits at a unique nexus point where numerous civilizations have interacted and it has been home to various peoples through the ages, among them the ancient Iranian peoples who established the dominant role of Indo-Iranian languages in the region. At multiple points, the land has been incorporated within large regional empires, among them the Achaemenid Empire, the Macedonian Empire, the Indian Maurya Empire, and the Islamic Empire. Archaeological exploration done in the 20th century suggests that the area of Afghanistan has been closely connected by culture and trade with its neighbors to the east, west. Artifacts typical of the Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic, Bronze, urban civilization is believed to have begun as early as 3000 BCE, and the early city of Mundigak may have been a colony of the nearby Indus Valley Civilization. More recent findings established that the Indus Valley Civilisation stretched up towards modern-day Afghanistan, making the ancient civilisation today part of Pakistan, Afghanistan, in more detail, it extended from what today is northwest Pakistan to northwest India and northeast Afghanistan. An Indus Valley site has found on the Oxus River at Shortugai in northern Afghanistan. There are several smaller IVC colonies to be found in Afghanistan as well, after 2000 BCE, successive waves of semi-nomadic people from Central Asia began moving south into Afghanistan, among them were many Indo-European-speaking Indo-Iranians. These tribes later migrated further into South Asia, Western Asia, the region at the time was referred to as Ariana
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Bali
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Bali is an island and province of Indonesia. The province includes the island of Bali and a few smaller neighbouring islands, notably Nusa Penida, Nusa Lembongan and it is located at the westernmost end of the Lesser Sunda Islands, between Java to the west and Lombok to the east. Its capital, Denpasar, is located in the part of the island. With a population of 3,890,757 in the 2010 census, and 4,225,000 as of January 2014, the island is home to most of Indonesias Hindu minority. According to the 2010 Census,83. 5% of Balis population adhered to Balinese Hinduism, followed by 13. 4% Muslim, Christianity at 2. 5%, Bali is a popular tourist destination, which has seen a significant rise in tourists since the 1980s. Tourism-related business makes up 80% of its economy and it is renowned for its highly developed arts, including traditional and modern dance, sculpture, painting, leather, metalworking, and music. The Indonesian International Film Festival is held every year in Bali, in March 2017, Tripadvisor named the island the worlds top destination in its Travelers choice award. Bali is part of the Coral Triangle, the area with the highest biodiversity of marine species, in this area alone over 500 reef building coral species can be found. For comparison, this is about 7 times as many as in the entire Caribbean, most recently, Bali was the host of the 2011 ASEAN Summit,2013 APEC and Miss World 2013. Bali is the home of the Subak Irrigation System, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, Bali was inhabited around 2000 BC by Austronesian people who migrated originally from Southeast Asia and Oceania through Maritime Southeast Asia. Culturally and linguistically, the Balinese are closely related to the people of the Indonesian archipelago, Malaysia, stone tools dating from this time have been found near the village of Cekik in the islands west. In ancient Bali, nine Hindu sects existed, namely Pasupata, Bhairawa, Siwa Shidanta, Waisnawa, Bodha, Brahma, Resi, Sora, each sect revered a specific deity as its personal Godhead. Inscriptions from 896 and 911 dont mention a king, until 914 and they also reveal an independent Bali, with a distinct dialect, where Buddhism and Sivaism were practiced simultaneously. Mpu Sindoks great-granddaughter, Mahendradatta, married the Bali king Udayana Warmadewa around 989 and this marriage also brought more Hinduism and Javanese culture to Bali. Suradhipa reigned from 1115 to 1119, and Jayasakti from 1146 until 1150, jayapangus appears on inscriptions between 1178 and 1181, while Adikuntiketana and his son Paramesvara in 1204. Balinese culture was influenced by Indian, Chinese, and particularly Hindu culture. The name Bali dwipa has been discovered from inscriptions, including the Blanjong pillar inscription written by Sri Kesari Warmadewa in 914 AD. It was during this time that the people developed their complex irrigation system subak to grow rice in wet-field cultivation, some religious and cultural traditions still practiced today can be traced to this period
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Indonesia
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Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a unitary sovereign state and transcontinental country located mainly in Southeast Asia with some territories in Oceania. Situated between the Indian and Pacific oceans, it is the worlds largest island country, with more than seventeen thousand islands. At 1,904,569 square kilometres, Indonesia is the worlds 14th-largest country in terms of area and worlds 7th-largest country in terms of combined sea. It has an population of over 260 million people and is the worlds fourth most populous country. The worlds most populous island, Java, contains more than half of the countrys population, Indonesias republican form of government includes an elected legislature and president. Indonesia has 34 provinces, of which five have Special Administrative status and its capital and countrys most populous city is Jakarta, which is also the most populous city in Southeast Asia and the second in Asia. The country shares land borders with Papua New Guinea, East Timor, other neighbouring countries include Singapore, Vietnam, the Philippines, Australia, Palau, and the Indian territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Despite its large population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that support the second highest level of biodiversity. The country has abundant natural resources like oil and natural gas, tin, copper, agriculture mainly produces rice, palm oil, tea, coffee, cacao, medicinal plants, spices and rubber. Indonesias major trading partners are Japan, United States, China, the Indonesian archipelago has been an important region for trade since at least the 7th century, when Srivijaya and then later Majapahit traded with China and India. Local rulers gradually absorbed foreign cultural, religious and political models from the early centuries CE, Indonesian history has been influenced by foreign powers drawn to its natural resources. Indonesia consists of hundreds of native ethnic and linguistic groups. The largest – and politically dominant – ethnic group are the Javanese, a shared identity has developed, defined by a national language, ethnic diversity, religious pluralism within a Muslim-majority population, and a history of colonialism and rebellion against it. Indonesias national motto, Bhinneka Tunggal Ika, articulates the diversity that shapes the country, Indonesias economy is the worlds 16th largest by nominal GDP and the 8th largest by GDP at PPP, the largest in Southeast Asia, and is considered an emerging market and newly industrialised country. Indonesia has been a member of the United Nations since 1950, Indonesia is a member of the G20 major economies and World Trade Organization. The name Indonesia derives from the Greek name of the Indós, the name dates to the 18th century, far predating the formation of independent Indonesia. In 1850, George Windsor Earl, an English ethnologist, proposed the terms Indunesians—and, his preference, in the same publication, one of his students, James Richardson Logan, used Indonesia as a synonym for Indian Archipelago. However, Dutch academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to use Indonesia, they preferred Malay Archipelago, the Netherlands East Indies, popularly Indië, the East, and Insulinde
38.
New Jersey
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New Jersey is a state in the Northeastern and mid-Atlantic regions of the United States. It is bordered on the north and east by New York, on the southeast and south by the Atlantic Ocean, on the west by Pennsylvania, New Jersey is the fourth-smallest state but the 11th-most populous and the most densely populated of the 50 United States. New Jersey lies entirely within the statistical areas of New York City. New Jersey was inhabited by Native Americans for more than 2,800 years, in the early 17th century, the Dutch and the Swedes made the first European settlements. New Jersey was the site of decisive battles during the American Revolutionary War in the 18th century. In the 19th century, factories in cities such as Camden, Paterson, Newark, Trenton, around 180 million years ago, during the Jurassic Period, New Jersey bordered North Africa. The pressure of the collision between North America and Africa gave rise to the Appalachian Mountains, around 18,000 years ago, the Ice Age resulted in glaciers that reached New Jersey. As the glaciers retreated, they left behind Lake Passaic, as well as rivers, swamps. New Jersey was originally settled by Native Americans, with the Lenni-Lenape being dominant at the time of contact, scheyichbi is the Lenape name for the land that is now New Jersey. The Lenape society was divided into clans that were based upon common female ancestors. These clans were organized into three distinct phratries identified by their animal sign, Turtle, Turkey, and Wolf and they first encountered the Dutch in the early 17th century, and their primary relationship with the Europeans was through fur trade. The Dutch became the first Europeans to lay claim to lands in New Jersey, the Dutch colony of New Netherland consisted of parts of modern Middle Atlantic states. Although the European principle of ownership was not recognized by the Lenape. The first to do so was Michiel Pauw who established a patronship called Pavonia in 1630 along the North River which eventually became the Bergen, peter Minuits purchase of lands along the Delaware River established the colony of New Sweden. During the English Civil War, the Channel Island of Jersey remained loyal to the British Crown and it was from the Royal Square in St. Helier that Charles II of England was proclaimed King in 1649, following the execution of his father, Charles I. The North American lands were divided by Charles II, who gave his brother, the Duke of York, the region between New England and Maryland as a proprietary colony. James then granted the land between the Hudson River and the Delaware River to two friends who had remained loyal through the English Civil War, Sir George Carteret and Lord Berkeley of Stratton, the area was named the Province of New Jersey. Since the states inception, New Jersey has been characterized by ethnic, New England Congregationalists settled alongside Scots Presbyterians and Dutch Reformed migrants
39.
Bangalore
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Bangalore /bæŋɡəˈlɔːr/, officially known as Bengaluru, is the capital of the Indian state of Karnataka. It has a population of about 8.42 million and a population of about 8.52 million, making it the third most populous city. It is located in southern India on the Deccan Plateau and its elevation is over 900 m above sea level, the highest of Indias major cities. In 1638, the Marāthās conquered and ruled Bangalore for almost 50 years, after which the Mughals captured and it was captured by the British after victory in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War, who returned administrative control of the city to the Maharaja of Mysore. The old city developed in the dominions of the Maharaja of Mysore and was capital of the Princely State of Mysore. In 1809, the British shifted their cantonment to Bangalore, outside the old city, and a grew up around it. Following Indias independence in 1947, Bangalore became the capital of Mysore State, the two urban settlements of Bangalore – city and cantonment – which had developed as independent entities merged into a single urban centre in 1949. The existing Kannada name, Bengalūru, was declared the name of the city in 2006. Bangalore is sometimes referred to as the Silicon Valley of India because of its role as the leading information technology exporter. Indian technological organisations ISRO, Infosys, Wipro and HAL are headquartered in the city, a demographically diverse city, Bangalore is the second fastest-growing major metropolis in India. Numerous state-owned aerospace and defence organisations, such as Bharat Electronics, Hindustan Aeronautics, the city also houses the Kannada film industry. The name Bangalore represents a version of the Kannada language name. It is the name of a village near kodegehalli and was copied by Kempegowda to the city of Bangalore, Bangalore was built on a venue earlier called as Shivanasamudram in the 16th century. The earliest reference to the name Bengalūru was found in a ninth-century Western Ganga Dynasty stone inscription on a vīra gallu, in this inscription found in Begur, Bengalūrū is referred to as a place in which a battle was fought in 890 CE. It states that the place was part of the Ganga Kingdom until 1004 and was known as Bengaval-uru, an apocryphal story recounts that the 12th century Hoysala king Veera Ballala II, while on a hunting expedition, lost his way in the forest. Tired and hungry, he came across an old woman who served him boiled beans. The grateful king named the place benda-kaal-uru, which evolved into Bengalūru. On 11 December 2005, the Government of Karnataka announced that it had accepted a proposal by Jnanpith Award winner U. R. Ananthamurthy to rename Bangalore to Bengalūru, on 27 September 2006, the Bruhat Bangalore Mahanagara Palike passed a resolution to implement the proposed name change
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