1.
Standing rib roast
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A standing rib roast, also known as prime rib, is a cut of beef from the primal rib, one of the nine primal cuts of beef. While the entire rib section comprises ribs six through 12, a standing rib roast may contain anywhere from two to seven ribs and it is most often roasted standing on the rib bones so that the meat does not touch the pan. An alternative cut removes the top end of the ribs for easier carving, rib eye steaks are cut from a standing rib, boned with most of the fat and lesser muscles removed. While often referred to as prime rib, the USDA does not require the cut to be derived from USDA Prime grade beef. A slice of standing rib roast will include portions of the eye of the rib, as well as the outer. The traditional preparation for a standing rib roast is to rub the outside of the roast with salt and seasonings, list of steak dishes Food portal The Meat Buyers Guide, North American Meat Processors Association
2.
Meat
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Meat is animal flesh that is eaten as food. Humans have hunted and killed animals for meat since prehistoric times, the advent of civilization allowed the domestication of animals such as chickens, sheep, pigs and cattle. This eventually led to their use in production on an industrial scale with the aid of slaughterhouses. Meat is mainly composed of water, protein, and fat and it is edible raw, but is normally eaten after it has been cooked and seasoned or processed in a variety of ways. Unprocessed meat will spoil or rot within hours or days as a result of infection with and decomposition by bacteria, most often, meat refers to skeletal muscle and associated fat and other tissues, but it may also describe other edible tissues such as offal. The word meat comes from the Old English word mete, which referred to food in general, the term is related to mad in Danish, mat in Swedish and Norwegian, and matur in Icelandic and Faroese, which also mean food. The word mete also exists in Old Frisian to denote important food, differentiating it from swiets, paleontological evidence suggests that meat constituted a substantial proportion of the diet of even the earliest humans. Early hunter-gatherers depended on the hunting of large animals such as bison. Several breeds of sheep were established in ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt by 3500–3000 BC, today, more than 200 sheep-breeds exist. Cattle were domesticated in Mesopotamia after settled agriculture was established about 5000 BC, modern domesticated cattle fall into the groups Bos taurus and Bos indicus, both descended from the now-extinct aurochs. The breeding of cattle, cattle optimized for meat production as opposed to animals best suited for draught or dairy purposes. Domestic pigs, which are descended from boars, are known to have existed about 2500 BC in modern-day Hungary and in Troy, earlier pottery from Jericho. Pork sausages and hams were of commercial importance in Greco-Roman times. Pigs continue to be bred intensively as they are being optimized to produce meat best suited for meat products. Other animals are or have raised or hunted for their flesh. The type of meat consumed varies much between different cultures, changes over time, depending on such as tradition and the availability of the animals. The amount and kind of meat consumed also varies by income, horses are commonly eaten in France, Italy, Germany and Japan, among other countries. Horses and other mammals such as reindeer were hunted during the late Paleolithic in western Europe
3.
Cattle
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Cattle—colloquially cows—are the most common type of large domesticated ungulates. They are a prominent modern member of the subfamily Bovinae, are the most widespread species of the genus Bos, cattle are raised as livestock for meat, as dairy animals for milk and other dairy products, and as draft animals. Other products include leather and dung for manure or fuel, in some regions, such as parts of India, cattle have significant religious meaning. From as few as 80 progenitors domesticated in southeast Turkey about 10,500 years ago, according to an estimate from 2011, in 2009, cattle became one of the first livestock animals to have a fully mapped genome. Some consider cattle the oldest form of wealth, and cattle raiding consequently one of the earliest forms of theft. Cattle were originally identified as three species, Bos taurus, the European or taurine cattle, Bos indicus, the zebu, and the extinct Bos primigenius. The aurochs is ancestral to both zebu and taurine cattle and these have been reclassified as one species, Bos taurus, with three subspecies, Bos taurus primigenius, Bos taurus indicus, and Bos taurus taurus. Complicating the matter is the ability of cattle to interbreed with other related species. Hybrid individuals and even breeds exist, not only between taurine cattle and zebu, but also one or both of these and some other members of the genus Bos – yaks, banteng. Hybrids such as the breed can even occur between taurine cattle and either species of bison, leading some authors to consider them part of the genus Bos. However, cattle cannot successfully be hybridized with more distantly related bovines such as water buffalo or African buffalo, the aurochs originally ranged throughout Europe, North Africa, and much of Asia. In historical times, its range became restricted to Europe, breeders have attempted to recreate cattle of similar appearance to aurochs by crossing traditional types of domesticated cattle, creating the Heck cattle breed. Cattle did not originate as the term for bovine animals and it was borrowed from Anglo-Norman catel, itself from medieval Latin capitale principal sum of money, capital, itself derived in turn from Latin caput head. Cattle originally meant movable personal property, especially livestock of any kind, the word is a variant of chattel and closely related to capital in the economic sense. The term replaced earlier Old English feoh cattle, property, which today as fee. The word cow came via Anglo-Saxon cū, from Common Indo-European gʷōus = a bovine animal, compare Persian gâv, Sanskrit go-, Welsh buwch. The plural cȳ became ki or kie in Middle English, and a plural ending was often added, giving kine, kien. This is the origin of the now archaic English plural, kine, the Scots language singular is coo or cou, and the plural is kye
4.
Skeletal muscle
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Skeletal muscle is one of three major muscle types, the others being cardiac muscle and smooth muscle. It is a form of striated muscle tissue which is under the control of the somatic nervous system. Most skeletal muscles are attached to bones by bundles of collagen fibers known as tendons, a skeletal muscle refers to multiple bundles of cells called muscle fibers. The fibres and muscles are surrounded by connective tissue layers called fasciae, Muscle fibres, or muscle cells, are formed from the fusion of developmental myoblasts in a process known as myogenesis. Muscle fibres are cylindrical, and have more than one nucleus, Muscle fibers are in turn composed of myofibrils. The myofibrils are composed of actin and myosin filaments, repeated in units called sarcomeres, the sarcomere is responsible for the striated appearance of skeletal muscle, and forms the basic machinery necessary for muscle contraction. Connective tissue is present in all muscles as fascia, Muscle fibres are the individual contractile units within muscle. A single muscle such as the biceps contains many muscle fibres, another group of cells, the myosatellite cells are found between the basement membrane and the sarcolemma of muscle fibers. These cells are normally quiescent but can be activated by exercise or pathology to provide additional myonuclei for muscle growth or repair, development Individual muscle fibers are formed during development from the fusion of several undifferentiated immature cells known as myoblasts into long, cylindrical, multi-nucleated cells. Differentiation into this state is completed before birth with the cells continuing to grow in size thereafter. Microanatomy Skeletal muscle exhibits a distinctive banding pattern when viewed under the due to the arrangement of cytoskeletal elements in the cytoplasm of the muscle fibers. The principal cytoplasmic proteins are myosin and actin which are arranged in a unit called a sarcomere. The interaction of myosin and actin is responsible for muscle contraction, every single organelle and macromolecule of a muscle fiber is arranged to ensure form meets function. The cell membrane is called the sarcolemma with the known as the sarcoplasm. In the sarcoplasm are the myofibrils, the myofibrils are long protein bundles about 1 micrometer in diameter each containing myofilaments. Pressed against the inside of the sarcolemma are the unusual flattened myonuclei, between the myofibrils are the mitochondria. While the muscle fiber does not have a smooth endoplasmic reticulum, the sarcoplasmic reticulum surrounds the myofibrils and holds a reserve of the calcium ions needed to cause a muscle contraction. Periodically, it has dilated end sacs known as terminal cisternae and these cross the muscle fiber from one side to the other
5.
Pot roast
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Pot roast is a braised beef dish, typically made by browning a roast-sized piece of beef in order to induce a Maillard reaction, then slow-cooking in or over liquid in a covered dish. The result is tender, succulent meat and a liquid that lends itself to gravy. In North America, where it is known as Yankee pot roast, pot roast is often served with vegetables such as carrots. Pot roast is an American variation of the French dish boeuf à la mode, French immigrants to the United States are known for a cooking method called à létouffée for tenderizing meats. Their influence through New Hampshire and Maine can be seen as evidence for this origin. Later immigrants from Germany to Pennsylvania and the Mid West cooked sauerbraten and marinated roasts, larded and slow cooked for taste, in New Orleans, daube was a popular dish. An early cook book titled The Yankee Cook Book, by Imogene Wolcott, has a recipe for pot roast that includes raisins along with the traditional ingredients
6.
Short ribs
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Short ribs are a cut of beef taken from the brisket, chuck, plate, or rib areas of beef cattle. They consist of a portion of the rib bone, which is overlain by meat which varies in thickness. English cut short ribs may be served individually, or three or four may served connected to one another, short ribs are popular in many international cuisines. Banfield notes that the short ribs comes from the fact that the cut of meat contains only a portion of each long beef rib. Using American butchers nomenclature, short ribs may be taken from the brisket, chuck, plate, the serratus ventralis muscle defines the area in the beef carcass from where short ribs come, and is the preferred muscle tissue for short ribs. This muscle originates near the second rib, and covers most of the rib cage, in the chuck area, the muscle is much thicker. Moving toward the rump, the serratus ventralis becomes less dense, outside of the chuck, the serratus ventralis covers the entire rib with a degree of thickness only in the plate area. The latissimus dorsi muscle lies atop the serratus ventralis muscle, and is separated from it by a layer of fat and this muscle is generally found in the chuck area and the upper portion of the plate. It adds thickness to chuck and rib short ribs, but is prized by chefs than the serratus ventralis muscle. Chuck short ribs tend to be meatier than the two types of ribs, but they are also tougher due to the more extensive connective tissues in them. Plate short ribs tend to be fattier than the two types. Short ribs cut from the rib area near the spine are known as back ribs or dinosaur ribs. They consist of what remains of the rib in this area after the rib chop is removed, due to the thinness of the serratus ventralis here, the meat on these ribs is generally intercostal muscle. Short ribs, by definition, are not the length of rib. When the rib bone is cut into a 3-to-6-inch length, left as a section of meat containing three or four ribs or cut into individual ribs with meat attached, the rib is known as an English cut. They may also be known as ribs, braising ribs. A section of short ribs from the plate is known as a short plate, rib short ribs are almost always sold as a plate. When the carcass is cut across the bone to create strips of meat with multiple rib bones and these may also be known as crosscut ribs, Eastern European-style ribs, Hawaiian-style ribs, Jewish ribs, Korean-style ribs, or kosher ribs
7.
Steak
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A steak is a meat generally sliced perpendicular to the muscle fibers, potentially including a bone. When the word steak is used without qualification, it refers to a beefsteak. In a larger sense, there are also fish steaks, ground meat steaks, pork steak, Steaks are usually grilled, but they can be pan-fried, or broiled. Steak is often grilled in an attempt to replicate the flavor of steak cooked over the coals of an open fire. Steak can also be cooked in sauce, such as in steak and kidney pie, or minced and formed into patties, for some meats, such as pork, lamb and mutton, chevon and veal, these cuts are often referred to as chops. Some cured meat, such as gammon, is served as steak. Grilled Portobello mushroom may be called mushroom steak, and similarly for other vegetarian dishes, the word steak originates from the mid-15th century Scandinavian word steik, or stickna in the Middle English dialect, along with the Old Norse word steikja. An early written usage of the word comes from a 15th-century cookbook. Livestock for meat to be used as steak cuts may be raised on a farm or ranch, the meat from various wild game may also be used for steak cuts. Countries with enough land for grazing animals, in particular cattle, have a history of production. Such countries include Argentina, Ireland, New Zealand, Australia, South Africa, the United States, in Asian countries, such as China and South Korea, steak is traditionally sliced and stir-fried and served in smaller amounts as part of a mixed dish. In Argentina, beef represents a portion of the countrys export market. A total of 11.8 million animals were slaughtered in 2010, the country has one of the largest consumptions of beef per capita worldwide, and much of it is barbecued steak. Beef steak consumption is described as part of the Argentine national identity, in 2010, there were 244,000 cattle producers in Argentina. In Argentina, a steakhouse is referred to as a parrilla, portion sizes of steak dishes in Argentine restaurants tend to be large, with steaks weighing over 454 grams being commonplace. Asado is a dish that often includes steak and is also the standard word for barbecue in Argentina. Asado is considered a dish of the country. The Irish agricultural beef market is a contributor to the economy of Ireland, a significant amount of Irish beef is exported to other countries, with over 50% of exported beef going to the United Kingdom
8.
Filet mignon
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Filet mignon is a steak cut of beef taken from the smaller end of the tenderloin, or psoas major of the beef carcass, usually a steer or heifer. In French this cut can also be called filet de bœuf, when found on a menu in France, filet mignon generally refers to pork rather than beef. The tenderloin runs along both sides of the spine, and is harvested as two long snake-shaped cuts of beef. The tenderloin is sometimes sold whole, when sliced along the short dimension, creating roughly round cuts, and tube cuts, the cuts from the small forward end are considered to be filet mignon. Those from the center are tournedos, however, some butchers in the United States label all types of tenderloin steaks filet mignon. In fact, the shape of the filet mignon may be a hindrance when cooking. The tenderloin is the most tender cut of beef and is arguably the most desirable. The average steer or heifer provides no more than 500 grams of filet mignon, because the muscle is not weight-bearing, it contains less connective tissue, which makes it tender. However, it is not as flavorful as some other cuts of beef. Both the central and large end of the tenderloin are often sold as filet mignon in supermarkets and restaurants, the French terms for these cuts are tournedos, châteaubriand, and biftek. Porterhouse steaks and T-bone steaks are large cuts that include the fillet, filet mignon may be cut into 1- to 2-inch-thick portions, then grilled and served as-is. One also may find filet mignon in stores already cut into portions, high heat is the usual method for cooking the filet mignon, either grilling, pan frying, broiling, or roasting. Traditionally in European and American restaurants, fillets are most often served in a cream sauce, au poivre with peppercorns. Bacon is often used in cooking filet mignon because of the low levels of fat found in the cut, as fillets have low levels of marbling, bacon is wrapped around the fillet and pinned closed with a wooden toothpick. This adds flavor and keeps the fillet from drying out during the cooking process, traditional cooking calls for the filet mignon to be seared on each side using intense heat for a short time and then transferred to a lower heat to cook the meat all the way through. Filet mignon is often served rarer than other meats and those preferring a more well-done steak can request a butterflied filet, meaning that the meat is cut down the middle and opened up to expose more of it to heat during the cooking process. Tournedos Rossini – A French dish prepared with filet mignon Food portal
9.
Sirloin steak
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The sirloin steak is cut from the back of the animal. In a common U. S. butchery, the steak is cut from the back portion of the animal, continuing off the short loin from which T-bone, porterhouse. The sirloin is actually divided into types of steak. The top sirloin is the most prized of these and is marked for sale under that name. The bottom sirloin, which is less tender and much larger, is marked for sale simply as sirloin steak. The bottom sirloin in turn connects to the sirloin tip roast, because of this difference in terminology, in these countries, the T-bone steak is regarded as a cut of the sirloin. The word sirloin derives from the Middle English surloine, itself derived from the Old French word surloigne, in Modern French, the cut of meat is called aloyau or faux-filet. Cut of beef List of steak dishes USDA Institutional Meat Purchase Specifications
10.
Rib steak
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A rib steak is a beef steak sliced from the rib primal of a beef animal, with rib bone attached. In the United States, the rib eye steak is used for a rib steak with the bone removed, however in some areas. The rib eye or ribeye was originally, as the name implies and it is considered a more flavorful cut than other steaks, such as the fillet, due to the muscle being exercised by the animal during its life. Its marbling of fat makes this suitable for roasting or grilling cooked to different degrees of doneness. The short ribs, several ribs cut from the rib and plate primals, in the United States cuisine a bone-attached beef rib can be called rib steak, beef rib, bone-in beef rib, bone-in rib steak, ribeye cowboy steak or cowboy cut. In Australia a bone-in rib steak is called a ribeye, when the bone is removed, Australians call the resulting piece of meat a Scotch fillet or whiskey fillet. In French cuisine the rib steak is a popular dish. The French entrecôte corresponds to the rib eye steak, that is, in Argentine cuisine roast short ribs are called indistinctly asado de tira or tira de asado. The bone-attached rib steak is called bife de costilla, but when the bone is removed Argentine terminology calls it bife de chorizo, in spite of the fact that no real chorizo is related to the cut of meat itself. Rib eye steak Pork ribs Cotoletta
11.
Rib eye steak
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The rib eye or ribeye is a beef steak from the rib section. The rib section of beef spans from ribs six through twelve, ribeye steaks are mostly composed of the longissimus dorsi muscle but also contain the complexus and spinalis muscles. A rib steak is a beef steak sliced from the rib primal of a beef animal, with rib bone attached. In the United States, the rib eye steak is used for a rib steak with the bone removed, however in some areas. The term cowboy ribeye or cowboy cut is used in American restaurants for a bone-in rib eye. The rib eye or ribeye was originally, as the name implies, in Australia, ribeye is used when this cut is served with the bone in. With the bone removed, it is called Scotch fillet and it is both flavorful and tender, coming from the lightly worked upper rib cage area. Its marbling of fat makes it good for fast and hot cooking. Beef ribs Cheesesteak Delmonico Entrecôte List of steak dishes Prime rib Green, http, //www. beeffoodservice. com/recipecut. aspx. id=329 USDA Institutional Meat Purchase Specifications Picture and Diagram of beef cuts National Cattlemens Beef Association
12.
Hanger steak
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A hanger steak is a cut of beef steak prized for its flavor. Derived from the diaphragm of a steer or heifer, it weighs about 450 to 675 grams. This cut is taken from the plate, which is the belly of the animal. In the past it was known as butchers steak, because butchers would often keep it for themselves rather than offer it for sale. Hanger steak resembles flank steak in texture and flavor and it is a vaguely V-shaped pair of muscles with a long, inedible membrane running down the middle. The hanger steak is usually the most tender cut on an animal, anatomically speaking, the hanger steak is the crura, or legs, of the diaphragm. The steak is said to hang from the diaphragm of the heifer or steer, the hanger is attached to the last rib and to the front of several of the lumbar vertebrae. The right side is larger and stronger than the left, in South Texas this cut of beef is known as fajitas arracheras. It is sometimes referred to as flap steak or flap meat. The hanger steak has historically more popular in Europe. In Britain it is referred to as skirt, which is not to be confused with the American skirt steak, in French it is known as the onglet, in Italian the lombatello, in Flanders the kroaie and in Spanish the solomillo de pulmón. Its U. S. meat-cutting classification is NAMP140, dyce, K. M. C. J. G. Sack, W. O. Wensing
13.
Corned beef
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Corned beef is a salt-cured beef product. The term comes from the treatment of the meat with large grained rock salt and it features as an ingredient in many cuisines. Most recipes include nitrates or nitrites, which convert the natural myoglobin in beef to nitroso-myoglobin, nitrates and nitrites reduce the risk of dangerous botulism during curing by inhibiting the growth of Clostridium botulinum spores. Beef cured with salt only has a color and is sometimes called New England corned beef. Often sugar and spices are added to recipes for corned beef. It was popular during both World Wars, when meat was rationed. Corned beef remains popular in the United Kingdom and countries with British culinary traditions and is used in sandwiches, corned beef hash or eaten with chips. It also remains popular in Canada in a variety of dishes. Although the exact beginnings of corned beef are unknown, it most likely came about when people began preserving meat through salt-curing, evidence of its legacy is apparent in numerous cultures, including Ancient Europe and the Middle East. The word corn derives from Old English and is used to any small. In the case of corned beef, the word may refer to the coarse granular salts used to cure the beef, the word corned may also refer to the corns of potassium nitrate, also known as saltpeter, which were formerly used to preserve the meat. Although the practice of curing beef was found locally in many cultures, the product was also traded to the French for use in Caribbean sugar plantations as sustenance for the colonists and the slave laborers. The 17th-century British industrial processes for corned beef did not distinguish between different cuts of beef beyond the tough and undesirable parts such as the beef necks and shanks. Rather, the grading was done by the weight of the cattle into small beef, cargo beef, and best mess beef, the former being the worst and the latter the best. Much of the undesirable portions and lower grades were traded to the French, Ireland produced a significant amount of the corned beef in the Atlantic trade from local cattle and salt imported from the Iberian Peninsula and southwestern France. Coastal cities, such as Dublin, Belfast, and Cork, created vast beef curing and packing industries, Ireland had been used to pasture cows for centuries. The Irish, transforming much of their countryside into an extended grazing land to raise cattle for a consumer market at home. The British taste for beef had a impact on the impoverished and disenfranchised people of
14.
Jerky
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Jerky is lean meat that has been trimmed of fat, cut into strips, and then dried to prevent spoilage. Normally, this includes the addition of salt, to prevent bacteria from developing on the meat before sufficient moisture has been removed. The word jerky is derived from the Quechua word charki which means dried, salted meat, all that is needed to produce basic jerky is a low-temperature drying method, and salt to inhibit bacterial growth. Modern manufactured jerky is normally marinated in a spice rub or liquid. Some product manufacturers finely grind meat, mix in seasonings, the resulting jerky from the above methods would be a salty and/or savory snack. However, often a sweet or semi-sweet recipe is used, with sugar being a major ingredient, Jerky is ready-to-eat and needs no additional preparation. It can be stored for months without refrigeration, when the protein to moisture content ratio is correct, the resulting meat is cured, or preserved. There are many products in the marketplace which are sold as jerky which consist of highly processed, chopped and formed meat, rather than traditional sliced, whole-muscle meat. These products may contain more fat, but moisture content, like the whole-muscle product, chemical preservatives can be used to prevent oxidative spoilage, but the moisture to protein ratio prevents microbial spoilage by low water activity. Many jerky products are high in sugar and are therefore very sweet, unlike biltong. A typical 30 g portion of fresh jerky contains 10–15 g of protein,1 g of fat, since traditional jerky recipes use a basic salt cure, sodium can be a concern for some people. A30 g serving of jerky could contain more than 600 mg of sodium, any particular preparation or recipe for jerky typically uses only one type of meat. Around the world, meat from domestic and wild animals is used to make jerky, meats from domestic animals include beef, pork, goat and mutton or lamb. Wild animals including deer, kudu, springbok, kangaroo, recently, other animals such as turkey, ostrich, salmon, alligator, crocodile, tuna, emu, horse, camel, and earthworm. Most of the fat must be trimmed off prior to drying the meat, as fat does not dry, the meat must be dried quickly, to limit bacterial growth during the critical period where the meat is not yet dry. To do this, the meat is sliced, or pressed thinly. The strips of meat are dried at low temperatures, to cooking it. In factories in the 2010s, large ovens are built using insulated panels
15.
Ground beef
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Ground beef, beef mince, minced beef, minced meat is a ground meat made of beef that has been finely chopped with a large knife or a meat grinder. It is used in many recipes including hamburgers and spaghetti bolognese, in some parts of the world, meat grinders are called mincers. In many countries, food laws define specific categories of ground beef, for example, in the United States, beef fat may be added to hamburger but not to ground beef if the meat is ground and packaged at a USDA-inspected plant. In the U. S. a maximum of 30% fat by weight is allowed in either hamburger or ground beef, the allowable amount in France is 5 to 20%. In Germany, regular ground beef may contain up to 15% fat while the special Tatar for steak tartare may contain less than 5% fat, both hamburger and ground beef can have added seasoning, phosphate, extenders, or binders added, but no additional water is permitted. Ground beef is often marketed in a range of different fat contents to match the preferences of customers, Ground beef is generally made from the less tender and less popular cuts of beef. Trimmings from tender cuts may also be used, small amounts of bone and cartilage may have been detached during the separation process. Connective tissue Blood vessels Peripheral nerve tissue, brain tissue was not detected in any of the samples. Adipose tissue—The amount of lipid observed was considerable and was seen in both adipose tissue and as lipid droplets, lipid content on oil-red-O staining was graded as 1+ in 6 burgers and 2+ in 2 burgers. Meat processing methods used by such as Beef Products, Inc. and Cargill Meat Solutions produce lean, finely textured beef product, otherwise known as pink slime. This meat-based product has to be treated with an agent to remove salmonella and other pathogens. From 2001 the United States Department of Agriculture has approved the product for limited human consumption, in a 2009 article by The New York Times, the safety of the beef processing method used by BPI was questioned. After the USDAs approval, this became a component in ground beef used by McDonalds, Burger King. In government and industry records in testing for the lunch program. Between 2005 and 2009, E. coli was found three times and salmonella 48 times, BPI had a rate of 36 positives for salmonella per 1,000 tests, compared to a rate of nine positives per 1,000 tests for other suppliers for the program. However, the continued to source from BPI because its price was substantially lower than ordinary meat trimmings. Cargill, among the largest hamburger makers in the U. S. is a big buyer of the product from BPI for its patties. It suspended buying meat from two plants owned by BPI for several months in 2006 after excessive levels of salmonella were found
16.
Mincing
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Mincing is a food preparation technique in which food ingredients are finely divided into uniform pieces. Minced food is in smaller pieces than diced or chopped foods, for a true mince, the effect is to create a closely bonded mixture of ingredients and a soft or pasty texture. However, in recipes, the intention is for firmer foods such as onions. Flavoring ingredients such as garlic, ginger, and fresh herbs may be minced in this way to distribute more evenly in a mixture. Additionally bruising of the tissue can release juices and oils to deliver flavors uniformly in a sauce, mincemeat tarts/mince pies and pâtés employ mincing in the preparation of mouldable paste. Meat is also minced and this technique is used in Greek cuisine
17.
Sausage
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A sausage is a cylindrical meat product usually made from ground meat, often pork, beef, or veal, along with salt, spices and other flavourings, and breadcrumbs, with a skin around it. Typically, a sausage is formed in a traditionally made from intestine. Sausages that are sold uncooked are usually cooked in many ways, some sausages are cooked during processing and the casing may then be removed. Sausage making is a food preservation technique. Sausages may be preserved by curing, drying, smoking, or freezing, some cured or smoked sausages can be stored without refrigeration. Most fresh sausages must be refrigerated or frozen until they are cooked, there is a huge range of national and regional varieties of sausages, which differ by their flavouring or spicing ingredients, the meat used in them and their manner of preparation. The word sausage was first used in English in the mid-15th century and this word came. from Old North French saussiche. The French word saussiche came. from Vulgar Latin *salsica sausage, from salsicus seasoned with salt, Sausage making is an outcome of efficient butchery. Traditionally, sausage makers would salt various tissues and organs such as scraps, organ meats, blood and they would then stuff them into tubular casings made from the cleaned intestines of the animal, producing the characteristic cylindrical shape. Hence, sausages, puddings, and salami are among the oldest of prepared foods, whether cooked, early humans made the first sausages by stuffing roasted intestines into stomachs. The Greek poet Homer mentioned a kind of sausage in the Odyssey, Epicharmus wrote a comedy titled The Sausage. Evidence suggests that sausages were already popular both among the ancient Greeks and Romans, and most likely with the tribes occupying the larger part of Europe. The most famous sausage in ancient Italy was from Lucania and was called lucanica, during the reign of the Roman emperor Nero, sausages were associated with the Lupercalia festival. Early in the 10th century during the Byzantine Empire, Leo VI the Wise outlawed the production of blood sausages following cases of food poisoning, traditionally, sausage casings were made of the cleaned intestines, or stomachs in the case of haggis and other traditional puddings. Today, however, natural casings are often replaced by collagen, cellulose, or even plastic casings, some forms of sausage, such as sliced sausage, are prepared without a casing. Additionally, luncheon meat and sausage meat are now available without casings in tin cans, a sausage consists of meat, cut into pieces or ground, and filled into a casing, with other ingredients. Ingredients may include a cheap starch filler such as breadcrumbs, seasoning and flavourings such as spices, the meat may be from any animal, but is often pork, beef, or veal. The lean meat-to-fat ratio is dependent upon the style and producer, speciality sausages with other ingredients such as apple and leek are also made
18.
Blood sausage
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Blood sausages are sausages filled with blood that are cooked or dried and mixed with a filler until they are thick enough to solidify when cooled. Pig, cattle, sheep, duck, and goat blood can be used, in Europe and the Americas, typical fillers include meat, fat, suet, bread, cornmeal, onion, chestnuts, barley, and oatmeal. In Spain, Portugal, and Asia, northern-climate cereals are often replaced by rice, in Kenya fillers include fresh minced goat or beef, fat, and red onions. Black pudding is the native British version of blood sausage and it is generally made from pork blood and a relatively high proportion of oatmeal. It can be cold, as it is cooked in production. It is often served sliced and fried or grilled as part of a full breakfast. Black pudding is now part of the cuisine of New Zealand. Stornoway Black Pudding produced on the Isle of Lewis, Scotland, is one of the most renowned varieties and has been granted Protected Geographical Indicator of Origin status, the similar white pudding is a further important feature of the traditional Northumbrian, Scottish, Irish and Newfoundland breakfast. Black and white pudding, as well as a variant, red pudding, is served battered in some chip shops in England, Scotland and Ireland as an alternative to fish. While blood sausage in English is understood in Britain, the term is applied only to foreign usage, the most common variant of German Blutwurst is made from pork rind, pork blood and regionally different fillers such as barley. Though already cooked and ready to eat it is served warm. In the Rhineland, where it is traditionally made from horse meat. In particular in Cologne, the traditional Himmel und Erde combines apple sauce, mashed potatoes, in Berlin, hot Blutwurst mixed together with liverwurst and potatoes is called Tote Oma. Other German variants are Zungenwurst, which is Blutwurst mixed with pieces of pickled ox tongue, a variety of Blutwurst, the Rotwurst from Thuringia has geographical indication protection under EU law, with PGI status. Kartoffelwurst is a post-World War II variety popular in the Palatinate, in Austria it is often prepared in a dish known as Blunzngröstl, which consists of pan-fried potatoes and blood sausage. This is usually served with grated horseradish. In France, boudin is traditionally prepared in charcuteries, shops that prepare mainly pork products, but also smoked and dried sausages, pâtés. It is usually called boudin noir and is made with cream with apples or onions as a filler
19.
Offal
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Offal /ˈɒfəl/, also called variety meats, pluck or organ meats, refers to the internal organs and entrails of a butchered animal. The word does not refer to a particular list of organs, which varies by culture and region. As an English mass noun, the term offal has no plural form, some cultures shy away from offal as food, while others use it as everyday food, or in delicacies. Certain offal dishes—including foie gras, pâté and sweetbread—are considered gourmet food in international cuisine, others remain part of traditional regional cuisine and may be consumed especially in connection with holidays. This includes Scottish haggis, Jewish chopped liver, U. S. chitterlings, intestines are traditionally used as casing for sausages. Depending on the context, offal may refer to parts of an animal carcass discarded after butchering or skinning, it may also refer to the by-products of milled grains. In earlier times, mobs sometimes threw offal and other rubbish at condemned criminals as a show of public disapproval. The word shares its etymology with several Germanic words, Frisian ôffal, German Abfall, afval in Dutch and Afrikaans, avfall in Norwegian and Swedish and these Germanic words all mean garbage or waste, or —literally— off-fall, referring to that which has fallen off during butchering. However, these words are not often used to refer to food with the exception of Afrikaans in the agglutination afvalvleis which does indeed mean offal, for instance, the German word for offal is Innereien meaning innards and the Swedish word is innanmat literally meaning inside-food. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the word entered Middle English from Middle Dutch in the form afval, derived from af, the traditional Scottish haggis consists of sheep stomach stuffed with a boiled mix of liver, heart, lungs, rolled oats and other ingredients. In the English Midlands and South Wales, faggots are made from ground or minced pig offal, bread, herbs and onion wrapped in pigs caul fat. Brawn is a British English term for cheese, or the collection of meat and tissue found on an animals skull that is cooked, chilled. Luncheon tongue refers to reformed pork tongue pieces, ox tongue made from pressed complete tongue, is more expensive. Both kinds of tongue are found in tinned form and in slices in supermarkets, home cooking and pressing of tongue has become less common over the last fifty years. Bleached tripe was a dish in Northern England with many specialist tripe shops in industrial areas. Today, in South Lancashire certain markets may still sell tripe, Elder is the name given to cooked cows udder - another Lancashire offal dish rarely seen today. Offal connoiseurs such as Ben Greenwood OBE have frequently campaigned to bring Elder back on the menu of restaurants across Yorkshire and Lancashire, in Norway the smalahove is a traditional dish, usually eaten around and before Christmas time, made from a sheeps head. The skin and fleece of the head is torched, the brain removed, and the head is salted, sometimes smoked, the head is boiled for about 3 hours and served with mashed rutabaga/swede and potatoes
20.
Oxtail
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Oxtail is the culinary name for the tail of cattle. Formerly, it referred only to the tail of an ox or steer, an oxtail typically weighs 2 to 4 lbs. and is skinned and cut into short lengths for sale. Oxtail is a bony, gelatin-rich meat, which is usually slow-cooked as a stew or braised and it is a traditional stock base for a soup. Although traditional preparations often involve hours of cooking, modern methods usually take a shortcut by utilizing a pressure cooker. Oxtail is the ingredient of the Italian dish coda alla vaccinara. It is a flavour for powder, instant and premade canned soups in the United Kingdom. Versions of oxtail soup are popular dishes in South America, West Africa, China, Spain. In Korean cuisine, a made with oxtail is called kkori gomtang. It is a thick soup seasoned with salt and eaten with a bowl of rice and it can be used as a stock for making tteokguk. Stewed oxtail with butter beans or as main dish is popular in Jamaica, Trinidad, oxtail is also very popular in South Africa where it is often cooked in a traditional skillet called a potjie, which is a three-legged cast iron pot placed over an open fire. Oxtail is also eaten in southern parts of Africa like Zimbabwe and served with sadza. In the United States, oxtail is a mainstay in African American, in Cuban cuisine, a stew can be made from oxtail called rabo encendido. In the Philippines, it is prepared in a peanut based stew called Kare-kare, in the United States, oxtail has the meat-cutting classification NAMP1791
21.
Liver (food)
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The liver of mammals, fowl, and fish is commonly eaten as food by humans. Domestic pig, ox, lamb, calf, chicken, goose, animal livers are rich in iron, copper and preformed vitamin A.100 g cod liver contains 5 mg of vitamin A and 100 µg of vitamin D. Liver can be baked, boiled, broiled, fried, stir-fried, in many preparations, pieces of liver are combined with pieces of meat or kidneys, like in the various forms of Middle Eastern mixed grill. Liver is often made into spreads, well-known examples include liver pâté, foie gras, chopped liver, and leverpostej. Liver sausages such as Braunschweiger and liverwurst are also a valued meal, liver sausages may also be used as spreads. A traditional South African delicacy, namely Skilpadjies, is made of minced lambs liver wrapped in netvet, some fish livers are valued as food, especially the stingray liver. It is used to prepare delicacies, such as poached skate liver on toast in England, cod liver is a popular spread for bread or toast in several European countries. In Russia, it is served with potatoes, cod liver oil is commonly used as a dietary supplement. Very high doses of vitamin A have the potential to be toxic and can cause hypervitaminosis A, a dangerous disorder. There have been anecdotal reports and a few scientific studies of vitamin A poisoning due to the consumption of the livers of polar bears, walruses, bearded seals, moose. The livers of animals can contain very high levels of vitamin A. The Inuit will not eat the liver of polar bears or bearded seals and it has been estimated that consumption of 500 grams of polar bear liver would result in a toxic dose for a human. Russian sailor Alexander Konrad, who accompanied explorer Valerian Albanov in a tragic ordeal over the Arctic ice in 1912, vitamin A poisoning is less likely from consuming oil-based vitamin A products and liver than from consuming water-based and solid preparations. In 2012 the Government of Nunavut warned pregnant women to avoid eating ringed seal liver due to elevated levels of mercury, unrelated to its vitamin content, the liver of the pufferfish contains the highest concentration of the neurotoxin tetrodotoxin, which characterizes the species. As a result, it is not eaten, and its consumption is tightly regulated by Japanese law. Pig liver is a food in Hawaii. It used to be eaten on New Years Eve
22.
Beef tongue
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Beef tongue or neats tongue is the tongue of a cow. Beef tongue is very high in fat, at 72% of its calories derived, some countries, including Canada and specifically the province of Alberta, export large quantities of beef tongue. Beef tongue is often seasoned with onion and other spices, after it has cooked the skin is removed. Pickled tongue is used by the preparer because it is already spiced. If cooked in a sauce, it can later be reused as a sauce for meatballs or any other food item. Another way of preparing beef tongue is to scald it in hot water and remove the skin, then roast the tongue in an oven, using the pan drippings to prepare a gravy. Beef tongue is used in North America as an ingredient of tongue toast. It is widely used in Mexican cuisine, and often seen in tacos and burritos, in Puerto Rican cuisine, lengua al caldero, pot roast tongue, and lengua rellena, braised stuffed tongue, are both served with Pique criollo. In Belgium and France, boiled tongue is often prepared with mushrooms in a Madeira sauce. In Ashkenazi Jewish, Russian and Ukrainian cuisine, boiled tongue is often served with chrain, beef tongue or veal tongue is also found in classic recipes for Russian salad. In Austria, Germany and Poland, it is served either with chrain or with horseradish cream sauce. The traditional Berlin / North-German variant adds capers and vinegar to the sauce based on the broth with white roux, in Japanese cuisine, the dish gyūtan, originating in the city of Sendai, is made of grilled tongue. List of beef dishes Cat tongue
23.
Tripe
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Tripe is a type of edible lining from the stomachs of various farm animals. Beef tripe is usually made from the wall of only the first three chambers of a cows stomach, the rumen, the reticulum, and the omasum. Abomasum tripe is seen less frequently, owing to its glandular tissue content. Though tripe tends to refer to the cow stomach cooked as food, in some cases, other names have been applied to the tripe of other animals. For example, tripe from pigs may be referred to as paunch, hog stomach is also eaten under the term hog maw. Washed tripe is more known as dressed tripe. To dress the tripe, the stomachs are cleaned and the fat trimmed off and it is then boiled and bleached, giving it the white color more commonly associated with tripe as seen on market stalls and in butchers shops. The task of dressing the tripe is usually carried out by a professional tripe dresser, dressed tripe was a popular nutritious and cheap dish for the British working classes from Victorian times until the latter half of the 20th century. While still popular in parts of the world today, the number of tripe eaters. Tripe has come to be regarded as a pet food, as the increased affluence of postwar Britain has reduced the appeal of this staple food. It remains a popular dish in parts of continental Europe such as France. In France, a popular dish, sold in most supermarkets, is tripes à la mode de Caen. Tripe is eaten in parts of the world. Tripe soup is made in many varieties in the Eastern European cuisine, the stomach is used only as a vessel for the stuffing and is not eaten. Kista — Assyrian cooked traditionally in a stew and stuffed with soft rice, bile from the gall bladder and the half-digested contents of the stomach give the dish a unique, slightly bitter flavour. It can also be made with the offal of a goat, tripes à la mode de Caen — in Normandy, this is a traditional stew made with tripe. It has a very codified recipe, preserved by the brotherhood of La tripière dor that organises a competition every year to elect the worlds best tripes à la mode de Caen maker. Tripe and beans — in Jamaica, this is a thick, spicy stew made with tripe, the dish is usually served steamed with spring onion and garlic sauce, or just boiled in water served with sweet soya sauce with chilli and spring onions as a dipping sauce
24.
Rumen
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The rumen, also known as a paunch, forms the larger part of the reticulorumen, which is the first chamber in the alimentary canal of ruminant animals. It serves as the site for microbial fermentation of ingested feed. The smaller part of the reticulorumen is the reticulum, which is continuous with the rumen. The rumen is composed of several muscular sacs, the sac, ventral sac, ventral blindsac. The lining of the wall is covered in small fingerlike projections called papillae. The reticulum is lined with ridges that form a honeycomb pattern. The ridges are approximately 0.1 -0.2 mm wide and are raised 5 mm above the reticulum wall, the hexagons in the reticulum are approximately 2–5 cm wide in cattle. These features increase the area of the reticulorumen wall, facilitating the absorption of volatile fatty acids. Despite the differences in the texture of the lining of the two parts of the reticulorumen, it represents one functional space. Digested food in the rumen is not uniform, but rather stratified into gas, liquid, and particles of different sizes, densities, and other physical characteristics. Additionally, digesta does not merely enter and exit the rumen without event, but it is subject to extensive mixing, after being swallowed, food travels down the oesophagus and is deposited in the dorsal part of the reticulum. Contractions of the reticulorumen propel and mix the recently ingested feed into the ruminal mat, the mat is a thick mass of digesta, consisting of partially degraded, long, fibrous material. Most material in the mat has been ingested, and as such, has considerable fermentable substrate remaining. Microbial fermentation proceeds rapidly in the mat, releasing many gases, some of these gases are trapped in the mat, causing the mat to be buoyant. As fermentation proceeds, fermentable substrate is exhausted, gas production decreases, digesta in the mat hence goes through a phase of increasing buoyancy followed by decreasing buoyancy. Simultaneously, the size of digesta particles–relatively large when ingested–is reduced by microbial fermentation and, later, incomplete digestion of plant material here will result in the formation of a type of bezoar called Phythobezoars. Once in the sac, digesta continues to ferment at decreased rates, further losing buoyancy. It is soon swept into the ventral reticulum by ruminal contractions, in the ventral reticulum, less dense, larger digesta particles may be propelled up into the oesophagus and mouth during contractions of the reticulum
25.
Gland
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A gland is an organ in an animals body that synthesizes substances for release into the bloodstream or into cavities inside the body or its outer surface. Every gland is formed by an ingrowth from an epithelial surface and this ingrowth may in the beginning possess a tubular structure, but in other instances glands may start as a solid column of cells which subsequently becomes tubulated. As growth proceeds, the column of cells may divide or give off offshoots, in many glands, the number of branches is limited, in others a very large structure is finally formed by repeated growth and sub-division. As a rule, the branches do not unite with one another, but in one instance, the liver, glands are classified according to their shape. If the gland retains its shape as a tube throughout it is termed a tubular gland, in the second main variety of gland the secretory portion is enlarged and the lumen variously increased in size. These are termed alveolar or saccular glands, glands are divided based on their function into two groups, Endocrine glands secrete substances that circulate through the blood stream. These glands that secrete their products through the basal lamina into the blood stream and these glands often secrete hormones, and play an important role in maintaining homeostasis. The pineal gland, thymus gland, pituitary gland, thyroid gland, exocrine glands secrete their products through a duct onto an outer surface of the body, such as the skin or the gastrointestinal tract. Secretion is directly onto the apical surface, the glands in this group can be divided into three groups, Apocrine glands a portion of the secreting cells body is lost during secretion. E. g. mammary gland, sweat gland of arm pit, pubic region, skin around anus, lips, holocrine glands the entire cell disintegrates to secrete its substances, meibomian and zeis glands. Merocrine glands cells secrete their substances by exocytosis, E. g. max sweat gland of humans, goblet cells, salivary gland, tear gland, intestinal glands. The type of product of exocrine glands may also be one of three categories, Serous glands secrete a watery, often protein-rich, fluid-like product, e. g. sweat glands. Mucous glands secrete a viscous product, rich in carbohydrates, e. g. goblet cells, sebaceous glands secrete a lipid product. These glands are known as oil glands, e. g. Fordyce spots. Adenosis is any disease of a gland, the diseased gland has abnormal formation or development of glandular tissue which is sometimes tumorous. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh
26.
Sweetbread
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Sweetbreads or ris are culinary names for the thymus or the pancreas, especially of calf and lamb, and, less commonly, of beef and pork. The heart sweetbreads are more spherical in shape, and surrounded symmetrically by the throat sweetbreads, various other glands used as food may also sometimes be called sweetbreads, including the parotid gland, the sublingual glands as well as ovary and testicles. One common preparation of sweetbreads involves soaking in water, then poaching in milk. Once dried and chilled, they are breaded and fried. They are also used for stuffing or in pâtés and they are grilled in many Latin American cuisines, such as in the Argentine asado, and served in bread in Turkish cuisine. The word sweetbread is first attested in the 16th century, sweet is perhaps used since the thymus is sweet and rich-tasting, as opposed to savory-tasting muscle flesh. Bread may come from brede, roasted meat or from the Old English brǣd
27.
Brain
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The brain is an organ that serves as the center of the nervous system in all vertebrate and most invertebrate animals. The brain is located in the head, usually close to the organs for senses such as vision. The brain is the most complex organ in a vertebrates body, in a human, the cerebral cortex contains approximately 15–33 billion neurons, each connected by synapses to several thousand other neurons. Physiologically, the function of the brain is to exert centralized control over the other organs of the body, the brain acts on the rest of the body both by generating patterns of muscle activity and by driving the secretion of chemicals called hormones. This centralized control allows rapid and coordinated responses to changes in the environment, the operations of individual brain cells are now understood in considerable detail but the way they cooperate in ensembles of millions is yet to be solved. This article compares the properties of brains across the range of animal species. It deals with the human brain insofar as it shares the properties of other brains, the ways in which the human brain differs from other brains are covered in the human brain article. Several topics that might be covered here are instead covered there because more can be said about them in a human context. The most important is brain disease and the effects of brain damage, the shape and size of the brain varies greatly between species, and identifying common features is often difficult. Nevertheless, there are a number of principles of architecture that apply across a wide range of species. Some aspects of structure are common to almost the entire range of animal species, others distinguish advanced brains from more primitive ones. The simplest way to gain information about brain anatomy is by visual inspection, Brain tissue in its natural state is too soft to work with, but it can be hardened by immersion in alcohol or other fixatives, and then sliced apart for examination of the interior. Visually, the interior of the consists of areas of so-called grey matter, with a dark color, separated by areas of white matter. Further information can be gained by staining slices of tissue with a variety of chemicals that bring out areas where specific types of molecules are present in high concentrations. It is also possible to examine the microstructure of brain tissue using a microscope, the brains of all species are composed primarily of two broad classes of cells, neurons and glial cells. Glial cells come in types, and perform a number of critical functions, including structural support, metabolic support, insulation. Neurons, however, are considered the most important cells in the brain. The property that makes neurons unique is their ability to send signals to target cells over long distances
28.
Bovine spongiform encephalopathy
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BSE has a long incubation period, of 2.5 to 5 years, usually affecting adult cattle at a peak age onset of four to five years. BSE is caused by a misfolded protein—a prion, in the United Kingdom, the country worst affected by an epidemic in 1986–1998, more than 180,000 cattle were infected and 4.4 million slaughtered during the eradication program. The disease may be most frequently transmitted to humans by eating food contaminated with the brain, spinal cord, however, the infectious agent, although most highly concentrated in nervous tissue, can be found in virtually all tissues throughout the body, including blood. Between 460,000 and 482,000 BSE-infected animals had entered the food chain before controls on high-risk offal were introduced in 1989. The epidemic was probably accelerated by the recycling of infected bovine tissues prior to the recognition of BSE, the origin of the disease itself remains unknown. The infectious agent is distinctive for the temperatures at which it remains viable. This contributed to the spread of the disease in the United Kingdom, another contributory factor was the feeding of infected protein supplements to very young calves. Symptoms are not seen immediately in cattle due to the extremely long incubation period. Some cattle have been observed to have an abnormal gait, changes in behavior, tremors, hindlimb ataxia affects the animal’s gait and occurs when muscle control is lost. This results in poor balance and coordination, behavioural changes may include aggression, anxiety relating to certain situations, nervousness, frenzy or an overall change in temperament. Some rare but previously observed symptoms also include persistent pacing, rubbing or licking, additionally, nonspecific symptoms have also been observed which include weight loss, decreased milk production, lameness, ear infections and teeth grinding due to pain. Some animals may show a combination of symptoms, while others may only be observed demonstrating one of the many reported. Once clinical symptoms arise, they typically get worse over the weeks and months, eventually leading to recumbency, coma. The infectious agent in BSE is a type of misfolded protein called a prion. Prions can be transmitted to humans by eating food contaminated with them, Prions are not destroyed even if the beef or material containing them is cooked or heat-treated. Prion proteins carry the disease between individuals and cause deterioration of the brain, transmission can occur when healthy animals come in contact with tainted tissues from others with the disease. In the brain, these proteins cause native cellular prion protein to deform into the infectious state, Different hypotheses exist for the origin of prion proteins in cattle. In the 5th century BC, Hippocrates described a similar illness in cattle and sheep, publius Flavius Vegetius Renatus recorded cases of a disease with similar characteristics in the fourth and fifth centuries AD
29.
Rocky Mountain oysters
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Rocky Mountain oysters, also known as prairie oysters in Canada, is a dish made of bull, pig or sheep testicles. The organs are often deep-fried after being peeled, coated in flour, pepper and salt and this delicacy is most often served as an appetizer with a cocktail sauce dip. The novelty dish is served in parts of the American West and Western Canada where cattle ranching is prevalent, prairie oysters is the preferred name in Canada where they are served in a demi-glace. In Oklahoma and the Texas Panhandle, they are sometimes called calf fries, in Spain, Argentina and many parts of Mexico they are referred to as criadillas, and they are colloquially referred to as huevos de toro in Central and South America. Rocky Mountain oysters are sometimes confused with lamb fries or animelles, a few other terms, such as cowboy caviar, Montana tendergroins, dusted nuts, bull fries or swinging beef may be used. The dish, purportedly cowboy fare, is most commonly served at festivals, amongst ranching families, or at certain specialty eating establishments. They are, however, also available at some public venues. Eagle, Idaho, claims to have the Worlds Largest Rocky Mountain Oyster Feed during its Eagle Fun Days, the primary goal of testicle removal is not culinary. Lamb Fries List of beef dishes List of deep fried foods List of delicacies List of hors doeuvre Earles, Rocky Mountain Oysters, Expanding on the List of Organ Meats, The Weston A. Delicacy of the Wild West Lives on for Those So Bold, The New York Times, Wednesday, March 18,2009. Rocky Mountain Oysters, Songwriter Dwight Lakeys song about Rocky Mountain oysters, ©2007 Brown Barn Publishing & Dwight Lakey, Danville, VT, & Julesburg, CO, All Rights Reserved
30.
Gastrointestinal tract
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Gastrointestinal is an adjective meaning of or pertaining to the stomach and intestines. A tract is a collection of related anatomic structures or a series of connected body organs, the mouth, oesophagus, stomach, and intestines are part of the human alimentary canal. All bilaterians have a gastrointestinal tract, also called a gut or an alimentary canal and this is a tube that transfers food to the organs of digestion. In large bilaterians, the gastrointestinal tract generally also has an exit, some small bilaterians have no anus and dispose of solid wastes by other means. The gastrointestinal tract contains thousands of different bacteria in their gut flora, the human gastrointestinal tract consists of the esophagus, stomach, and intestines, and is divided into the upper and lower gastrointestinal tracts. In contrast, the digestive system comprises the gastrointestinal tract plus the accessory organs of digestion. The tract may also be divided into foregut, midgut, and hindgut, the whole human GI tract is about nine metres long at autopsy. The GI tract releases hormones from enzymes to help regulate the digestive process, the structure and function can be described both as gross anatomy and as microscopic anatomy or histology. The tract itself is divided into upper and lower tracts, the upper gastrointestinal tract consists of the buccal cavity, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, and duodenum. The exact demarcation between the upper and lower tracts is the muscle of the duodenum. Upon dissection, the duodenum may appear to be an organ, but it is divided into four segments based upon function, location. The four segments of the duodenum are as follows, bulb, descending, horizontal, the suspensory muscle attaches the superior border of the ascending duodenum to the diaphragm. The suspensory muscle is an important anatomical landmark which shows the division between the duodenum and the jejunum, the first and second parts of the small intestine. This is a muscle which is derived from the embryonic mesoderm. The lower gastrointestinal tract includes most of the intestine and all of the large intestine. In humans, the intestine is further subdivided into the duodenum, jejunum and ileum while the large intestine is subdivided into the cecum, colon, rectum. The small intestine begins at the duodenum, which receives food from the stomach and it is a tubular structure, usually between 6 and 7 m long. The area of the human, adult small intestinal mucosa is about 30 m2 and its main function is to absorb the products of digestion into the bloodstream
31.
Stock (food)
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Stock is a flavored liquid preparation. It forms the basis of many dishes, particularly soups and sauces, making stocks involves simmering animal bones or meat, seafood, or vegetables in water or wine, adding mirepoix or other aromatics for more flavor. Traditionally, stock is made by simmering various ingredients in water, a newer approach is to use a pressure cooker. The ingredients may include some or all of the following, Meat Leftover cooked meat, quantities recommended are in the ratio of 1 part fresh meat to 2 parts water. Bones Veal, beef, and chicken bones are most commonly used, the flavour of the stock comes from the cartilage and connective tissue in the bones. Connective tissue has collagen in it, which converted into gelatin that thickens the liquid. Stock made from bones needs to be simmered for longer than stock made from meat, pressure cooking methods shorten the time necessary to extract the flavour from the bones. Mirepoix Mirepoix is a combination of onions, carrots, celery, often, the less desirable parts of the vegetables that may not otherwise be eaten are used. The use of parts is highly dependent upon the chef. Herbs and spices The herbs and spices used depend on availability, in classical cuisine, the use of a bouquet garni consisting of parsley, bay leaves, a sprig of thyme, and possibly other herbs, is common. This is often placed in a sachet to make it easier to remove once the stock is cooked, today, ready-made stock and stock cubes consisting of dried, compressed stock ingredients are readily available. These are commonly known as bouillon cubes, as cooking base in the US, or as Oxo cubes in Britain, the difference between broth and stock is one of both cultural and colloquial terminology but certain definitions prevail. Stock is the liquid produced by simmering raw ingredients, solids are removed and this yields classic stock as made from beef, veal, chicken, fish and vegetables. Broth differs in that it is a soup where the solid pieces of flavoring meat or fish, along with some vegetables. It is often made more substantial by adding starches such as rice, traditionally, broth contained some form of meat or fish, however, nowadays it is acceptable to refer to a strictly vegetable soup as a broth. Chicken stock is cooked for several hours. Fish stock is made with fish bones and finely chopped mirepoix, fish stock should be cooked for 20–25 minutes—cooking any longer spoils the flavour. Concentrated fish stock is called fish fumet, in Japanese cooking, a fish and kelp stock called dashi is made by briefly cooking skipjack tuna flakes called katsuobushi in nearly boiling water
32.
Reproduction
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Reproduction is the biological process by which new individual organisms – offspring – are produced from their parents. Reproduction is a feature of all known life, each individual organism exists as the result of reproduction. There are two forms of reproduction, asexual and sexual, in asexual reproduction, an organism can reproduce without the involvement of another organism. Asexual reproduction is not limited to single-celled organisms, the cloning of an organism is a form of asexual reproduction. By asexual reproduction, an organism creates a similar or identical copy of itself. The evolution of reproduction is a major puzzle for biologists. The two-fold cost of reproduction is that only 50% of organisms reproduce. This produces offspring organisms whose genetic characteristics are derived from those of the two parental organisms, Asexual reproduction is a process by which organisms create genetically similar or identical copies of themselves without the contribution of genetic material from another organism. Bacteria divide asexually via binary fission, viruses take control of host cells to produce more viruses, Hydras and these organisms often do not possess different sexes, and they are capable of splitting themselves into two or more copies of themselves. Most plants have the ability to reproduce asexually and the ant species Mycocepurus smithii is thought to reproduce entirely by asexual means, some species that are capable of reproducing asexually, like hydra, yeast and jellyfish, may also reproduce sexually. For instance, most plants are capable of vegetative reproduction—reproduction without seeds or spores—but can also reproduce sexually, likewise, bacteria may exchange genetic information by conjugation. Other ways of asexual reproduction include parthenogenesis, fragmentation and spore formation that involves only mitosis, parthenogenesis is the growth and development of embryo or seed without fertilization by a male. Parthenogenesis occurs naturally in some species, including plants, invertebrates. It is sometimes used to describe reproduction modes in hermaphroditic species which can self-fertilize. Sexual reproduction is a process that creates a new organism by combining the genetic material of two organisms in a process that starts with meiosis, a specialized type of cell division. Each of two parent organisms contributes half of the genetic makeup by creating haploid gametes. Most organisms form two different types of gametes, in these anisogamous species, the two sexes are referred to as male and female. In isogamous species, the gametes are similar or identical in form, for example, in the green alga, Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, there are so-called plus and minus gametes
33.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
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Grassland
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Grasslands are areas where the vegetation is dominated by grasses, however sedge and rush families can also be found. Grasslands occur naturally on all continents except Antarctica, grasslands are found in most ecoregions of the Earth. For example, there are five terrestrial ecoregion classifications of the grasslands, savannas, and shrublands biome. Grassland vegetation can vary in height from short, as in chalk grassland, to quite tall, as in the case of North American tallgrass prairie, South American grasslands. Woody plants, shrubs or trees, may occur on some grasslands – forming savannas, scrubby grassland or semi-wooded grassland, as flowering plants and trees, grasses grow in great concentrations in climates where annual rainfall ranges between 500 and 900 mm. The root systems of perennial grasses and forbs form complex mats that hold the soil in place, graminoids are among the most versatile life forms. Existing forest biomes declined, and grasslands became much more widespread, following the Pleistocene ice ages, grasslands expanded in range in the hotter, drier climates, and began to become the dominant land feature worldwide. Grasslands often occur in areas with annual precipitation between 600 mm and 1,500 mm and average annual temperatures ranges from −5 and 20 °C. However, some occur in colder and hotter climatic conditions. Grassland can exist in habitats that are disturbed by grazing or fire. Grasslands dominated by unsown wild-plant communities can be called natural or semi-natural habitats. The majority of grasslands in temperate climates are semi-natural and these grasslands contain many species of wild plants – grasses, sedges, rushes and herbs –25 or more species per square metre is not unusual. Chalk downlands in England can support over 40 species per square metre, in many parts of the world, few examples have escaped agricultural improvement. For example, original North American prairie grasslands or lowland wildflower meadows in the UK are now rare and their associated wild flora equally threatened. Some of the worlds largest expanses of grassland are found in African savanna, grasslands may occur naturally or as the result of human activity. Grasslands created and maintained by human activity are called anthropogenic grasslands, hunting peoples around the world often set regular fires to maintain and extend grasslands, and prevent fire-intolerant trees and shrubs from taking hold. The tallgrass prairies in the U. S. Midwest may have been extended eastward into Illinois, Indiana, much grassland in northwest Europe developed after the Neolithic Period, when people gradually cleared the forest to create areas for raising their livestock. Grassland types by Schimper, meadow steppe savannah Grassland types by Ellenberg & Mueller-Dombois, terrestrial herbaceous communities A. Savannas and related grasslands B
35.
Feedlot
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Large beef feedlots are called concentrated animal feeding operations in the United States and intensive livestock operations or confined feeding operations in Canada. They may contain thousands of animals in an array of pens, most feedlots require some type of governmental permit and must have plans in place to deal with the large amount of waste that is generated. The Environmental Protection Agency has authority under the Clean Water Act to regulate all animal feeding operations in the United States and this authority is delegated to individual states in some cases. In Canada, regulation of feedlots is shared between all levels of government, whilst in Australia this role is handled by the National Feedlot Accreditation Scheme. Prior to entering a feedlot, cattle spend most of their life grazing on rangeland or on fields of grain such as green wheat pasture. Because of the availability of products, a farmer who uses his own grain can formulate his own rations and be assured his animals are getting the recommended levels of minerals. In the American northwest and Canada, barley, low grade durum wheat, chick peas, oats, in a typical feedlot, a cows diet is roughly 62% roughage, 31% grain, 5% supplements, and 2% premix. High-grain diets lower the pH in the animals rumen, due to the stressors of these conditions, and due to some illnesses, it may be necessary to give the animals antibiotics on occasion. Feedlot diets are high in protein, to growth of muscle mass. The marbling is desirable to consumers, as it contributes to flavor, the animal may gain an additional 400 pounds during its approximate 200 days in the feedlot. Once cattle are fattened up to their weight, the fed cattle are transported to a slaughterhouse. Increasing numbers of cattle feedlots are utilizing out-wintering pads made of timber residue bedding in their operations, nutrients are retained in the waste timber and livestock effluent and can be recycled within the farm system after use. The beef industry today is highly dependent upon technology, but this has not always been true, in the early 20th century, feeder operations were separate from all other related operations and feedlots were non-existent. They appeared in the 1950s and 1960s as a result of hybrid grains and irrigation techniques, however, the first known feedlot was designed and built by Gustavus Swift in 1876 on the south side of Chicago. It was suddenly possible to feed large numbers of cattle in one location and so, to cut costs, grain farm. Cattle were no longer sent from all across the states to places like California. In the 1980s, meat packers followed the path of feedlots and are now located close by them as well, there are many methods used to sell cattle to meat packers. Spot, or cash, marketing is the traditional and most commonly used method, prices are influenced by current demand and are determined by live weight or per head
36.
Concentrated animal feeding operation
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There are roughly 257,000 AFOs in the United States, of which 15,500 meet the more narrow criteria for CAFOs. The EPA has delineated three categories of CAFOs, ordered in terms of capacity, large, medium and small, the relevant animal unit for each category varies depending on species and capacity. For instance, large CAFOs house 1,000 or more cattle, medium CAFOs can have 300–999 cattle, the table below provides some examples of the size thresholds for CAFOs, The categorization of CAFOs affects whether a facility is subject to regulation under the Clean Water Act. A small CAFO will also be designated a CAFO for purposes of the CWA if it discharges pollutants into waterways of the United States through a man-made conveyance such as a road, ditch or pipe. Alternatively, a small CAFO may be designated an animal feeding operation once its animal waste management system is certified at the site. Since it first coined the term, the EPA has changed the definition for CAFOs on several occasions, private groups and individuals use the term CAFO colloquially to mean many types of both regulated and unregulated facilities, both inside and outside the United States. The definition used in everyday speech may vary considerably from the statutory definition in the CWA. CAFOs are commonly characterized as having large numbers of animals crowded into a confined space, livestock production has become increasingly dominated by CAFOs in the United States and other parts of the world. Most of the poultry consumed by humans was raised in CAFOs starting in the 1950s, CAFOs now dominate livestock and poultry production in U. S. and the scope of their market share is steadily increasing. In 1966, it one million farms to house 57 million pigs, by the year 2001. See manure lagoon, for information on environmental and health impacts The EPA has focused on regulating CAFOs because they generate millions of tons of manure every year. When improperly managed, the manure can pose risks to the environment. In order to manage their waste, CAFOs have developed Agricultural wastewater treatment plans, the most common of these plans, is the anaerobic lagoon, which has significantly contributed to environmental and health problems attributed to the CAFO. The large amounts of waste from CAFOs present a risk to water quality. According to the EPA, states with high concentrations of CAFOs experience on average 20 to 30 serious water quality problems per year as a result of management issues. Animal waste includes a number of harmful pollutants. The two main contributors to pollution caused by CAFOs are soluble nitrogen compounds and phosphorus. The eutrophication of bodies from such waste is harmful to wildlife and water quality in aquatic system like streams, lakes
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Grain
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Grains are small, hard, dry seeds, with or without attached hulls or fruit layers, harvested for human or animal consumption. Agronomists also call the plants producing such seeds grain crops, the two main types of commercial grain crops are cereals such as wheat and rye, and legumes such as beans and soybeans. Because of the ubiquity of grain as a source, the term grain is often used to describe something small. After being harvested, dry grains are more durable than other foods, such as starchy fruits. Thus, major global commodity markets exist for canola, maize, rice, soybeans, wheat, in botany, grains and cereals are synonymous with caryopses, the fruits of the grass family. In agronomy and commerce, seeds or fruits from other plant families are called if they resemble caryopses. For example, amaranth is sold as grain amaranth, and amaranth products may be described as whole grains, the pre-Hispanic civilizations of the Andes had grain-based food systems but, at the higher elevations, none of the grains was a cereal. All three grains native to the Andes are broad-leafed plants rather than such as corn, rice. All cereal crops are members of the grass family, cereal grains contain a substantial amount of starch, a carbohydrate that provides dietary energy. As is the case all other whole plant foods, pulses also contain carbohydrate. Vegetable oils provide dietary energy and some essential fatty acids and they are also used as fuel or lubricants. Those who handle grain at grain facilities may encounter numerous occupational hazards, risks include grain entrapment, where workers are submerged in the grain and unable to remove themselves, explosions caused by fine particles of grain dust, and falls
38.
Roughage
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Dietary fiber or roughage is the indigestible portion of food derived from plants. It has two components, Soluble fiber, which dissolves in water, is readily fermented in the colon into gases and physiologically active byproducts. It delays gastric emptying which in turn can cause a feeling of fullness. Insoluble fiber, which does not dissolve in water, is inert and provides bulking, or it can be prebiotic. Bulking fibers absorb water as they move through the digestive system, Dietary fibers can act by changing the nature of the contents of the gastrointestinal tract and by changing how other nutrients and chemicals are absorbed. Some types of soluble fiber absorb water to become a gelatinous, viscous substance which is fermented by bacteria in the digestive tract, some types of insoluble fiber have bulking action and are not fermented. Lignin, a major dietary insoluble fiber source, may alter the rate, other types of insoluble fiber, notably resistant starch, are fully fermented. A novel position has been adopted by the US Department of Agriculture to include functional fibers as isolated fiber sources that may be included in the diet, the term fiber is something of a misnomer, since many types of so-called dietary fiber are not actually fibrous. Food sources of fiber are often divided according to whether they provide soluble or insoluble fiber. Plant foods contain both types of fiber in varying degrees, according to the plants characteristics, a disadvantage of a diet high in fiber is the potential for significant intestinal gas production and bloating. Originally, fiber was defined to be the components of plants that resist human digestive enzymes, the definition was later changed to also include resistant starch, along with inulin and other oligosaccharides. Official definition of dietary fiber differs a little among different institutions, Dietary fibers are found in fruits, vegetables, the exact amount of fiber contained in the food can be seen in the following table of expected fiber in USDA food groups/subgroups Dietary fiber is found in plants. While all plants contain some fiber, plants with high concentrations are generally the most practical source. Fiber-rich plants can be eaten directly, or, alternatively, they can be used to make supplements and fiber-rich processed foods. The Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, formerly the American Dietetic Association, some plants contain significant amounts of soluble and insoluble fiber. For example, plums and prunes have a thick skin covering a juicy pulp, the skin is a source of insoluble fiber, whereas soluble fiber is in the pulp. Grapes also contain an amount of fiber. The root of the plant, or glucomannan, produces results similar to fiber
39.
Pork
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Pork is the culinary name for meat from the domestic pig. It is the most commonly consumed meat worldwide, with evidence of pig husbandry dating back to 5000 BC, Pork is eaten both freshly cooked and preserved. Curing extends the life of the pork products. Ham, smoked pork, gammon, bacon and sausage are examples of preserved pork, charcuterie is the branch of cooking devoted to prepared meat products, many from pork. Pork is the most popular meat in East and Southeast Asia and it is highly prized in Asian cuisines for its fat content and pleasant texture. Consumption of pork is forbidden by Jewish and Muslim dietary law, the sale of pork is illegal or severely restricted in Israel and in certain Muslim countries, particularly those where sharia law is part of their constitution. The pig is one of the oldest forms of livestock, having been domesticated as early as 5000 BC and it is believed to have been domesticated either in the Near East or in China from the wild boar. The adaptable nature and omnivorous diet of this creature allowed early humans to domesticate it much earlier than other forms of livestock. Pigs were mostly used for food, but people also used their hides for shields and shoes, their bones for tools and weapons, and their bristles for brushes. Charcuterie is the branch of cooking devoted to prepared meat products such as bacon, ham, sausage, terrines, galantines, pâtés, and confit, primarily from pork. Originally intended as a way to preserve meats before the advent of refrigeration, in 15th century France, local guilds regulated tradesmen in the food production industry in each city. The guilds that produced charcuterie were those of the charcutiers, the members of this guild produced a traditional range of cooked or salted and dried meats, which varied, sometimes distinctively, from region to region. The only raw meat the charcutiers were allowed to sell was unrendered lard, the charcutier prepared numerous items, including pâtés, rillettes, sausages, bacon, trotters, and head cheese. Due to the nature of the meat in Western culinary history. The year-round availability of meat and fruits has not diminished the popularity of this combination on Western plates, Pork is the most widely eaten meat in the world, accounting for about 38% of meat production worldwide. Consumption varies widely from place to place, the meat is taboo to eat in the Middle East and most of the Muslim world because of Jewish kosher and Islamic Halal dietary restrictions. But pork is widely consumed in East and Southeast Asia, Europe, Sub-Saharan Africa, as the result, large numbers of pork recipes are developed throughout the world. Feijoada for example, the dish of Brazil, is traditionally prepared with pork trimmings, ears, tail
40.
Poultry
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Poultry are domesticated birds kept by humans for the eggs they produce, their meat, or their feathers. These birds are most typically members of the superorder Galloanserae, especially the order Galliformes, if there are ducks and or geese that are kept as pets they shall not be considered poultry unlike domesticated chickens. Poultry also includes other birds that are killed for their meat, such as the young of pigeons but does not include wild birds hunted for sport or food. The word poultry comes from the French/Norman word poule, itself derived from the Latin word pullus, the domestication of poultry took place several thousand years ago. This may have originally been as a result of people hatching and rearing young birds from eggs collected from the wild, but later involved keeping the birds permanently in captivity. Domesticated chickens may have used for cockfighting at first and quail kept for their songs. Selective breeding for fast growth, egg-laying ability, conformation, plumage and docility took place over the centuries, although some birds are still kept in small flocks in extensive systems, most birds available in the market today are reared in intensive commercial enterprises. Poultry is the second most widely eaten type of meat globally and, along with eggs, all poultry meat should be properly handled and sufficiently cooked in order to reduce the risk of food poisoning. The word poultry comes from the Middle English pultrie, from Old French pouletrie, from pouletier, poultry dealer, the word pullet itself comes from Middle English pulet, from Old French polet, both from Latin pullus, a young fowl, young animal or chicken. The word fowl is of Germanic origin, poultry can be defined as domestic fowls, including chickens, turkeys, geese and ducks, raised for the production of meat or eggs and the word is also used for the flesh of these birds used as food. The Encyclopædia Britannica lists the bird groups but also includes guinea fowl. In colloquial speech, the term fowl is often used near-synonymously with domesticated chicken, or with poultry or even just bird, both words are also used for the flesh of these birds. Poultry can be distinguished from game, defined as wild birds or mammals hunted for food or sport, chickens are medium-sized, chunky birds with an upright stance and characterised by fleshy red combs and wattles on their heads. Males, known as cocks, are larger, more boldly coloured. Chickens are gregarious, omnivorous, ground-dwelling birds that in their natural surroundings search among the leaf litter for seeds, invertebrates and they seldom fly except as a result of perceived danger, preferring to run into the undergrowth if approached. Todays domestic chicken is descended from the wild red junglefowl of Asia. Domestication is believed to have taken place between 7,000 and 10,000 years ago, and what are thought to be fossilized chicken bones have been found in northeastern China dated to around 5,400 BC. Archaeologists believe domestication was originally for the purpose of cockfighting, the bird being a doughty fighter
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