1.
Geographic coordinate system
–
A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
2.
Dhow
–
Dhow is the generic name of a number of traditional sailing vessels with one or more masts with lateen sails used in the Red Sea and Indian Ocean region. Historians are divided as to whether the dhow was invented by Arabs or Indians, larger dhows have crews of approximately thirty, smaller ones typically around twelve. The exact origins of the dhow are lost to history, most scholars believe that it originated in India between 600 BC to 600 AD Some claim that the sambuk, a type of dhow, may be derived from the Portuguese caravel. The Yemeni Hadhrami people, as well as Omanis, for centuries came to Beypore, in Kerala and this was because of the good timber in the Kerala forests, the availability of good coir rope, and the skilled carpenters who specialized in ship building. In former times, the planks of a dhows hull were held together by coconut rope. Beypore dhows are known as Uru in Malayalam, the language of Kerala. Settlers from Yemen, known as Baramis, are active in making urus in Kerala. In the 1920s, British writers identified Al Hudaydah as the center for dhow building and those built in Al Hudaydah were smaller in size, and used for travel along the coasts. They were constructed of found in Yemen. Even to the present day, dhows make commercial journeys between the Persian Gulf and East Africa using sails as their means of propulsion. Their cargo is mostly dates and fish to East Africa and mangrove timber to the lands in the Persian Gulf and they often sail south with the monsoon in winter or early spring, and back again to Arabia in late spring or early summer. For celestial navigation, dhow sailors have used the kamal. The latter is a device that determines latitude by finding the angle of the Pole Star above the horizon. Baghlah – from the Arabic language word for mule, a heavy ship, the traditional deep-sea dhow. Baqarah or baggarah – from the Arabic word for cow, old type of small dhow similar to the Battil. Battil – featured long stems topped by large, club-shaped stem heads, badan – a smaller vessel requiring a shallow draft. Boum or dhangi – a large-sized dhow with a stern that is tapering in shape, the Arab boum has a very high prow, which is trimmed in the Indian version. Ghanjah or kotiya – a large vessel, similar to the Baghlah, with a curved stem, a fishing or trading dhow with a broad hull similar to the Jalibut, common in Lamu Island and the coast of Oman
3.
Belitung
–
Belitung is an island on the east coast of Sumatra, Indonesia in the Java Sea. It covers 4,800.6 km2, and had a population of 271,868 in 2014, administratively, it forms part of the province of Bangka-Belitung Islands. The island is known for its pepper and for its tin and it was in the possession of the United Kingdom from 1812 until Britain ceded control of the island to the Netherlands in the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824. Its main town is Tanjung Pandan, the population was 262,357 at the 2010 Census, the latest official estimate is 271,868. There is also a population of Madurese who were settled there in the Suharto era transmigration. As a result, Christian churches were unable to gain considerable numbers of followers, today, Belitung is a religiously diverse island. Sunni Islam is the most widely practised religion, with minorities of Buddhists, Christians. It is an island of about 1,840 square miles. The highest one is Mount Tajam with a height of less than 500 metres, Belitung is bordered by the Gaspar Strait, the South China Sea and the Java Sea. Its turquoise blue sea is calm and shallow, making for great sailing, snorkeling and swimming. Belitung is popular for its abstract granite boulders and brilliant white sand beaches in Tanjung Tinggi, Tanjung Kelayang, Tanjung Binga, Belitung is a source of tin, clay, iron ore and silica sands. The Dutch mining company NV Billiton Maatschappij derives its name from the islands name, Billiton merged with BHP in 2001 to form the largest diversified resources company, BHP Billiton. The island is also a producer of products, pepper, coconut. People work as farmers, fishermen and miners, the island is easily accessible with eight daily 1-hour flights from Jakarta and 2 daily flights, with duration of 30 minutes and 50 minutes each, from Pangkal Pinang. The white sand beaches and offshore islands are helping tourism to become a part of the economy. The main tourist destinations are beaches and offshore islands/islets, the beaches are Tanjung Tinggi Beach and Tanjung Kelayang Beach, both of which have clear blue water, sand, and rocky beaches. On East Belitung, specifically Kelapa Kampit city, you would find a new tourist attraction, a magnificent Kong Hu Chu temple called Fu De Ci temple is located in Muten street. This building shortly became a piece of its city
4.
Indonesia
–
Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a unitary sovereign state and transcontinental country located mainly in Southeast Asia with some territories in Oceania. Situated between the Indian and Pacific oceans, it is the worlds largest island country, with more than seventeen thousand islands. At 1,904,569 square kilometres, Indonesia is the worlds 14th-largest country in terms of area and worlds 7th-largest country in terms of combined sea. It has an population of over 260 million people and is the worlds fourth most populous country. The worlds most populous island, Java, contains more than half of the countrys population, Indonesias republican form of government includes an elected legislature and president. Indonesia has 34 provinces, of which five have Special Administrative status and its capital and countrys most populous city is Jakarta, which is also the most populous city in Southeast Asia and the second in Asia. The country shares land borders with Papua New Guinea, East Timor, other neighbouring countries include Singapore, Vietnam, the Philippines, Australia, Palau, and the Indian territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Despite its large population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that support the second highest level of biodiversity. The country has abundant natural resources like oil and natural gas, tin, copper, agriculture mainly produces rice, palm oil, tea, coffee, cacao, medicinal plants, spices and rubber. Indonesias major trading partners are Japan, United States, China, the Indonesian archipelago has been an important region for trade since at least the 7th century, when Srivijaya and then later Majapahit traded with China and India. Local rulers gradually absorbed foreign cultural, religious and political models from the early centuries CE, Indonesian history has been influenced by foreign powers drawn to its natural resources. Indonesia consists of hundreds of native ethnic and linguistic groups. The largest – and politically dominant – ethnic group are the Javanese, a shared identity has developed, defined by a national language, ethnic diversity, religious pluralism within a Muslim-majority population, and a history of colonialism and rebellion against it. Indonesias national motto, Bhinneka Tunggal Ika, articulates the diversity that shapes the country, Indonesias economy is the worlds 16th largest by nominal GDP and the 8th largest by GDP at PPP, the largest in Southeast Asia, and is considered an emerging market and newly industrialised country. Indonesia has been a member of the United Nations since 1950, Indonesia is a member of the G20 major economies and World Trade Organization. The name Indonesia derives from the Greek name of the Indós, the name dates to the 18th century, far predating the formation of independent Indonesia. In 1850, George Windsor Earl, an English ethnologist, proposed the terms Indunesians—and, his preference, in the same publication, one of his students, James Richardson Logan, used Indonesia as a synonym for Indian Archipelago. However, Dutch academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to use Indonesia, they preferred Malay Archipelago, the Netherlands East Indies, popularly Indië, the East, and Insulinde
5.
Java Sea
–
The Java Sea is a large shallow sea on the Sunda Shelf. It lies between the Indonesian islands of Borneo to the north, Java to the south, Sumatra to the west, karimata Strait to its northwest links it to the South China Sea. The Java Sea covers the section of the 1,790,000 km2 Sunda Shelf. A shallow sea, it has a depth of 46 m. It measures about 1,600 km east-west by 380 km north-south and it formed as sea levels rose at the end of the last ice age. The International Hydrographic Organization defines the Java Sea as being one of the waters of the East Indian Archipelago, the IHO defines its limits as follows, On the North. By the Southern limit of the South China Sea, the South coast of Borneo, by the Western limit of Flores Sea. By the Northern and Northwestern limits of Bali Sea, the North and West coasts of Java to Java Hoofd its Western point, the East coast of Sumatra between Vlakke Hoek and Lucipara Point. The Battle of the Java Sea from February to March 1942, was one of the costliest naval battles of World War II, the naval forces of the Netherlands, Britain, Australia, and the United States were nearly destroyed trying to defend Java from Japanese attack. On 28 December 2014, Indonesia AirAsia Flight 8501 crashed into the Java Sea while on route to Singapore from Surabaya, the southern section of the seafloor has long been recognized as geologically similar to northern Java, where oil fields occur and extend under the sea. Prospects are also favourable for oil fields in the waters off southeast Kalimantan, as the site of successful exploration for petroleum and natural gas, the Java Sea has become the basis of Indonesia’s export program. Fishing is an important economic activity in the Java Sea, over 3,000 species of marine life are found in the area. A number of parks exist in the area such as Karimunjawa. The Thousand Islands are located north of the national capital Jakarta, the area around the Java Sea is also a popular tourist destination. Scuba diving offers a chance to explore and photograph underwater caverns, wrecks, coral, sponges, and other marine life. Touwen, Jeroen Shipping and trade in the Java Sea region, 1870-1940, a collection of statistics on the major Java Sea ports ISBN 90-6718-162-5 Java Sea a study on its economic impacts
6.
Tang dynasty
–
The Tang dynasty was an imperial dynasty of China preceded by the Sui dynasty and followed by the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. It is generally regarded as a point in Chinese civilization. Its territory, acquired through the campaigns of its early rulers, rivaled that of the Han dynasty. The dynasty was founded by the Lǐ family, who seized power during the decline, the dynasty was briefly interrupted when Empress Wu Zetian seized the throne, proclaiming the Second Zhou dynasty and becoming the only Chinese empress regnant. In two censuses of the 7th and 8th centuries, the Tang records estimated the population by number of registered households at about 50 million people. Various kingdoms and states paid tribute to the Tang court, while the Tang also conquered or subdued several regions which it controlled through a protectorate system. Besides political hegemony, the Tang also exerted a powerful influence over neighboring states such as those in Korea, Japan. Like the previous Sui dynasty, the Tang dynasty maintained a service system by recruiting scholar-officials through standardized examinations and recommendations to office. This civil order was undermined by the rise of military governors known as jiedushi during the 9th century. Chinese culture flourished and further matured during the Tang era, it is considered the greatest age for Chinese poetry. Two of Chinas most famous poets, Li Bai and Du Fu, belonged to this age, as did many famous painters such as Han Gan, Zhang Xuan, there was a rich variety of historical literature compiled by scholars, as well as encyclopedias and geographical works. The adoption of the title Tängri Qaghan by the Tang Emperor Taizong in addition to his title as emperor was eastern Asias first simultaneous kingship, there were many notable innovations during the Tang, including the development of woodblock printing. Buddhism became an influence in Chinese culture, with native Chinese sects gaining prominence. However, Buddhism would later be persecuted by the state, subsequently declining in influence, although the dynasty and central government were in decline by the 9th century, art and culture continued to flourish. This family was known as the Longxi Li lineage, which includes the Tang poet Li Bai, the Tang Emperors also had Xianbei maternal ancestry, from Emperor Gaozu of Tangs Xianbei mother Duchess Dugu. He had prestige and military experience, and was a first cousin of Emperor Yang of Sui, Li Yuan rose in rebellion in 617, along with his son and his equally militant daughter Princess Pingyang, who raised and commanded her own troops. In winter 617, Li Yuan occupied Changan, relegated Emperor Yang to the position of Taishang Huang or retired emperor, and acted as regent to the puppet child-emperor, Emperor Gong of Sui. On the news of Emperor Yangs murder by General Yuwen Huaji on June 18,618, Li Yuan declared himself the emperor of a new dynasty, the Tang
7.
Monsoon
–
Usually, the term monsoon is used to refer to the rainy phase of a seasonally changing pattern, although technically there is also a dry phase. The term is sometimes used for locally heavy but short-term rains. The major monsoon systems of the world consist of the West African and Asia-Australian monsoons, the inclusion of the North and South American monsoons with incomplete wind reversal has been debated. The south-west monsoon winds are called Nairutya Maarut in India, the English monsoon came from Portuguese monção, ultimately from Arabic mawsim and/or Hindi mausam, perhaps partly via early modern Dutch monsun. Strengthening of the Asian monsoon has been linked to the uplift of the Tibetan Plateau after the collision of the Indian sub-continent and Asia around 50 million years ago. Because of studies of records from the Arabian Sea and that of the wind-blown dust in the Loess Plateau of China, testing of this hypothesis awaits deep ocean sampling by the Integrated Ocean Drilling Program. The monsoon has varied significantly in strength since this time, largely linked to climate change. A study of marine plankton suggested that the Indian Monsoon strengthened around 5 million years ago, then, during ice periods, the sea level fell and the Indonesian Seaway closed. When this happened, cold waters in the Pacific were impeded from flowing into the Indian Ocean and it is believed that the resulting increase in sea surface temperatures in the Indian Ocean increased the intensity of monsoons. Five episodes during the Quaternary at 2.22 Ma,1.83 Ma,0.68 Ma,0.45 Ma and 0.04 Ma were identified which showed a weakening of Leeuwin Current. The weakening of the LC would have an effect on the sea surface temperature field in the Indian Ocean, thus these five intervals could probably be those of considerable lowering of SST in the Indian Ocean and would have influenced Indian monsoon intensity. The impact of monsoon on the weather is different from place to place. In some places there is just a likelihood of having a more or less rain. In other places, quasi semi-deserts are turned into green grasslands where all sorts of plants. The Indian Monsoon turns large parts of India from a kind of semi-desert into green lands, see photos only taken 3 months apart in the Western Ghats. In places like this it is crucial for farmers to have the right timing for putting the seeds on the fields, Monsoons are large-scale sea breezes which occur when the temperature on land is significantly warmer or cooler than the temperature of the ocean. These temperature imbalances happen because oceans and land absorb heat in different ways, in contrast, dirt, sand, and rocks have lower heat capacities, and they can only transmit heat into the earth by conduction and not by convection. Therefore, bodies of water stay at an even temperature
8.
South China Sea
–
The South China Sea is a marginal sea that is part of the Pacific Ocean, encompassing an area from the Karimata and Malacca Straits to the Strait of Taiwan of around 3,500,000 square kilometres. The areas importance largely results from one-third of the worlds shipping sailing through its waters, the sea and its mostly uninhabited islands are subject to competing claims of sovereignty by several countries. These claims are reflected in the variety of names used for the islands. South China Sea is the dominant term used in English for the sea, and this name is a result of early European interest in the sea as a route from Europe and South Asia to the trading opportunities of China. In the sixteenth century Portuguese sailors called it the China Sea, the International Hydrographic Organization refers to the sea as South China Sea. The Classic of Poetry, Zuo Zhuan, and Guoyu classics of the Spring and Autumn period also referred to the sea, Nan Hai, the South Sea, was one of the Four Seas of Chinese literature. There are three other seas, one for each of the four cardinal directions, during the Eastern Han dynasty, Chinas rulers called the Sea Zhang Hai. Fei Hai became popular during the Southern and Northern Dynasties period, usage of the current Chinese name, Nan Hai, became gradually widespread during the Qing Dynasty. In Southeast Asia it was called the Champa Sea or Sea of Cham. The majority of the sea came under Japanese naval control during World War II following the acquisition of many surrounding South East Asian territories in 1941. Japan calls the sea Minami Shina Kai South China Sea and this was written 南支那海 until 2004, when the Japanese Foreign Ministry and other departments switched the spelling 南シナ海, which has become the standard usage in Japan. In China, it is called the South Sea, 南海 Nánhǎi, in Malaysia, Indonesia and the Philippines, it was long called the South China Sea, with the part within Philippine territorial waters often called the Luzon Sea, Dagat Luzon, by the Philippines. However, following an escalation of the Spratly Islands dispute in 2011, a PAGASA spokesperson said that the sea to the east of the Philippines will continue to be called the Philippine Sea. In September 2012, Philippine President Benigno Aquino III signed Administrative Order No, states and territories with borders on the sea include, the Peoples Republic of China, the Republic of China, the Philippines, Malaysia, Brunei, Indonesia, Singapore, and Vietnam. Major rivers that flow into the South China Sea include the Pearl, Min, Jiulong, Red, Mekong, Rajang, Pahang, Pampanga, the International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the South China Sea as follows, On the South. From Fuki Kaku the North point of Formosa to Kiushan Tao on to the South point of Haitan Tao, the Mainland, the Southern limit of the Gulf of Thailand and the East coast of the Malay Peninsula. The sea lies above a drowned continental shelf, during recent ice ages global sea level was hundreds of metres lower, the South China Sea opened around 45 million years ago when the Dangerous Ground rifted away from southern China. Extension culminated in seafloor spreading around 30 million years ago, a process that propagated to the SW resulting in the V-shaped basin we see today, extension ceased around 17 million years ago
9.
Vietnam
–
Vietnam, officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, is the easternmost country on the Indochina Peninsula in Southeast Asia. With an estimated 92.7 million inhabitants as of 2016, it is the worlds 14th-most-populous country, and its capital city has been Hanoi since the reunification of North and South Vietnam in 1976, with Ho Chi Minh City as a historical city as well. The northern part of Vietnam was part of Imperial China for over a millennium, an independent Vietnamese state was formed in 939, following a Vietnamese victory in the Battle of Bạch Đằng River. Following a Japanese occupation in the 1940s, the Vietnamese fought French rule in the First Indochina War, thereafter, Vietnam was divided politically into two rival states, North Vietnam, and South Vietnam. Conflict between the two sides intensified in what is known as the Vietnam War, the war ended with a North Vietnamese victory in 1975. Vietnam was then unified under a communist government but remained impoverished, in 1986, the government initiated a series of economic and political reforms which began Vietnams path towards integration into the world economy. By 2000, it had established relations with all nations. Since 2000, Vietnams economic growth rate has been among the highest in the world and its successful economic reforms resulted in its joining the World Trade Organization in 2007. It is also a member of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation and the Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie, Vietnam remains one of the worlds four remaining one-party socialist states officially espousing communism. The name Việt Nam is a variation of Nam Việt, a name that can be traced back to the Triệu Dynasty of the 2nd century BC. The word Việt originated as a form of Bách Việt. The form Vietnam is first recorded in the 16th-century oracular poem Sấm Trạng Trình, the name has also been found on 12 steles carved in the 16th and 17th centuries, including one at Bao Lam Pagoda in Haiphong that dates to 1558. Then, as recorded, rewarded Yuenan/Vietnam as their nations name, to also show that they are below the region of Baiyue/Bach Viet. Between 1804 and 1813, the name was used officially by Emperor Gia Long and it was revived in the early 20th century by Phan Bội Châus History of the Loss of Vietnam, and later by the Vietnamese Nationalist Party. The country was usually called Annam until 1945, when both the government in Huế and the Viet Minh government in Hanoi adopted Việt Nam. Archaeological excavations have revealed the existence of humans in what is now Vietnam as early as the Paleolithic age, Homo erectus fossils dating to around 500,000 BC have been found in caves in Lạng Sơn and Nghệ An provinces in northern Vietnam. The oldest Homo sapiens fossils from mainland Southeast Asia are of Middle Pleistocene provenance, teeth attributed to Homo sapiens from the Late Pleistocene have also been found at Dong Can, and from the Early Holocene at Mai Da Dieu, Lang Gao and Lang Cuom. The Hồng Bàng dynasty of the Hùng kings is considered the first Vietnamese state, in 257 BC, the last Hùng king was defeated by Thục Phán, who consolidated the Lạc Việt and Âu Việt tribes to form the Âu Lạc, proclaiming himself An Dương Vương
10.
Singapore Strait
–
The Singapore Strait is a 105-kilometer long, 16-kilometer wide strait between the Strait of Malacca in the west and the Karimata Strait in the east. Singapore is on the north of the channel and the Riau Islands are on the south, the Indonesia-Singapore border lies along the length of the straits. It includes Keppel Harbour and many small islands, the strait provides the deepwater passage to the Port of Singapore, which makes it very busy. The depth of the Singapore Strait defines the maximum draft of vessels going through the Straits of Malacca, the 9th century AD Muslim author Yaqubi referred a Bahr Salahit or Sea of Salahit, one of the Seven Seas to be traversed to reach China. Some have interpreted Sea of Salahit as referring to Singapore, although others considered it the Malacca Strait, among early Europeans travellers to South East Asia, the Strait of Singapore may refer to the southern portion of the Strait of Malacca as well as other stretches of water. It was mined during the Second World War, in 2009 the Maersk Kendal grounded on the Monggok Sebarok reef. The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Singapore Strait as follows, the Eastern limit of Malacca Strait. A line joining Tanjong Datok, the Southeast point of Johore through Horsburgh Reef to Pulo Koko, the Southern shore of Singapore Island, Johore Shoal and the Southeastern coast of the Malay Peninsula. A line joining Klein Karimoen to Pulo Pemping Besar thence along the Northern coasts of Batam, maps of Singapore and the Region. Collections from the National Library and National Archives of Singapore, 6-33, https, //www. academia. edu/8681191 Borschberg, Peter, The Singapore and Melaka Straits. Violence, Security and Diplomacy in the 17th Century, Singapore and Leiden, NUS Press, https, //www. academia. edu/4302722 Borschberg, Peter, Jacques de Coutres Singapore and Johor, 1595-c1625, Singapore, NUS Press,2015. Https, //www. academia. edu/9672124 Borschberg, Peter, Admiral Matelieffs Singapore and Johor, 1606-1616, https, //www. academia. edu/11868450 Borschberg, Peter, “The Singapore Straits in the Latter Middle Ages and Early Modern Period. Facts, Fancy and Historiographical Challenges”, Journal of Asian History,46.2, https, //www. academia. edu/4285020 Borschberg, Peter, “The Straits of Singapore, Continuity, Change and Confusion”, in Sketching the Straits. A Compilation of the Lecture Series on the Charles Dyce Collection, ed. Irene Lim, https, //www. academia. edu/4311413 Borschberg, Peter, “Fictitious Strait and Imagined Island, Singapura in the late 16th and early 17th century”, Oriente,18, 45-67. Https, //www. academia. edu/4302969 Gibson-Hill, Carl-Alexander, Singapore, Note on the History of the Old Straits, 1580–1850, Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society,27.1, maritime Southeast Asia Straits of Johor Straits of the South China Sea
11.
Strait of Malacca
–
The Strait of Malacca or Straits of Malacca is a narrow,550 mi stretch of water between the Malay Peninsula and the Indonesian island of Sumatra. It is named after the Malacca sultanate that ruled over the archipelago between 1400 and 1511, the International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Strait of Malacca as follows, On the West. A line joining Pedropunt, the Northernmost point of Sumatra and Lem Voalan the Southern extremity of Goh Puket in Siam, a line joining Tanjong Piai, the Southern extremity of the Malay Peninsula and The Brothers and thence to Klein Karimoen. The Southwestern coast of the Malay Peninsula, the Northeastern coast of Sumatra as far to the eastward as Tanjong Kedabu thence to Klein Karimoen. From an economic and strategic perspective, the Strait of Malacca is one of the most important shipping lanes in the world. The strait is the shipping channel between the Indian Ocean and the Pacific Ocean, linking major Asian economies such as India, China, Japan, Taiwan. Over 94,000 vessels pass through the strait each year, carrying about one-fourth of the traded goods, including oil, Chinese manufactured products. About a quarter of all oil carried by sea passes through the Strait, in 2007, an estimated 13.7 million barrels per day were transported through the strait, increasing to an estimated 15.2 million barrels per day in 2011. In addition, it is one of the worlds most congested shipping choke points because it narrows to only 2.8 km wide at the Phillips Channel. The maximum size of a vessel that can pass through the Strait is referred to as Malaccamax, for some of the worlds largest ships, the Straits minimum depth isnt deep enough. In addition, the next closest passageway is even more shallow and narrow than Malacca, therefore, these large ships must detour several thousand miles/kilometers and use the Lombok Strait, Makassar Strait, Sibutu Passage, or Mindoro Strait instead. Piracy has been a problem in the strait, piracy had been high in the 2000s, with additional increase after the events of September 11,2001. After attacks rose again in the first half of 2004, regional navies stepped up their patrols of the area in July 2004, subsequently, attacks on ships in the Strait of Malacca dropped, to 79 in 2005 and 50 in 2006. Recent reports indicate that attacks have dropped to levels in recent years. There are 34 shipwrecks, some dating to the 1880s, in the Traffic Separation Scheme and these pose a collision hazard in the narrow and shallow strait. Another risk is the annual haze due to raging bush fires in Sumatra and it may reduce visibility to 200 metres, forcing ships to slow down in the busy strait. The strait is used by Ships longer than 350 metres. Thailand has developed plans to diminish the economic significance of the strait
12.
Peninsular Malaysia
–
Peninsular Malaysia, also known as West Malaysia, is the part of Malaysia which lies on the Malay Peninsula and surrounding islands. Its area is 130,598 square kilometres and it shares a land border with Thailand in the north. To the south is the island of Singapore, across the Strait of Malacca to the west lies the island of Sumatra. East Malaysia is to the east across the South China Sea, Peninsular Malaysia accounts for the majority of Malaysias population and economy, as of 2015 its population is roughly 25 million. In 1963, the name Malaysia was adopted by the new federation uniting the Federation of Malaya, North Borneo, Sarawak, at the time, the Philippines had also contemplated adopting the name. Peninsular Malaysia is also known as West Malaysia or Malaya, in current everyday usage the word Malaya is almost always used jocularly, e. g. Gempar satu Malaya. Which roughly means shakes the whole of Malaya, the term Malaya generally included Singapore until 1946, when Singapore was excluded from the formation of Malayan Union. In Singapore law, Malaya includes Singapore, whereas the term States of Malaya does not, the majority of people on Peninsular Malaysia are ethnic Malays, predominantly Muslim. Large Chinese and Indian populations exist, the Orang Asli are the indigenous people of Peninsular Malaysia, they numbered around 140,000 and mostly lived in inland parts of the region. Unlike the East Coast, the West Coast is partitioned further into three regions, including, The Northern Region, Perlis, Kedah, Penang and Perak, the Central Region, Selangor and the federal territories of Kuala Lumpur and Putrajaya. The Southern Region, Negeri Sembilan, Malacca and Johor Even though Johor has a coastline facing the South China Sea and these rights were granted as part of Sarawaks 18-point agreement and Sabahs 20-point agreement with Federation of Malaya in forming the Federation of Malaysia. Malaya Malayan dollar Peninsular Malaysia travel guide from Wikivoyage
13.
Sumatra
–
Sumatra is a large island in western Indonesia that is part of the Sunda Islands. It is the largest island that is entirely in Indonesia and the sixth-largest island in the world at 473,481 km2, Sumatra is an elongated landmass spanning a diagonal northwest-southeast axis. The Indian Ocean borders the west, northwest, and southwest sides of Sumatra with the chain of Simeulue, Nias. On the northeast side the narrow Strait of Malacca separates the island from the Malay Peninsula, on the southeast the narrow Sunda Strait separates Sumatra from Java. The northern tip of Sumatra borders the Andaman Islands, while on the eastern side are the islands of Bangka and Belitung, Karimata Strait. The Bukit Barisan mountains, which several active volcanoes, form the backbone of the island, while the northeast sides are outlying lowlands with swamps, mangrove. The equator crosses the island at its center on West Sumatra, the climate of the island is tropical, hot and humid with lush tropical rain forest once dominating the landscape. Sumatra was known in ancient times by the Sanskrit names of Swarnadwīpa and Swarnabhūmi, the first word mentioning the name of Sumatra was the name of Srivijayan Haji Sumatrabhumi, who sent an envoy to China in 1017. Arab geographers referred to the island as Lamri in the tenth through thirteenth centuries, late in the 14th century the name Sumatra became popular in reference to the kingdom of Samudra Pasai, which was a rising power until it was replaced by Sultanate of Aceh. Sultan Alauddin Shah of Aceh, on letters written in 1602 addressed to Queen Elizabeth I of England, referred to himself as king of Aceh, the word itself is from Sanskrit Samudra, meaning gathering together of waters, sea or ocean. European writers in the 19th century found that the inhabitants did not have a name for the island. The Melayu Kingdom was absorbed by Srivijaya, Srivijaya was a Buddhist monarchy centred in what is now Palembang. Dominating the region trade and conquest throughout the 7th to 9th centuries. The empire was a thalassocracy or maritime power that extended its influence from island to island, Palembang was a center for scholarly learning, and it was there the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim I Ching studied Sanskrit in 671 CE before departing for India. On his journey to China, he spent four years in Palembang translating Buddhist texts, Srivijayan influence waned in the 11th century after it was defeated by the Chola Empire of southern India. At the same time, Islam made its way to Sumatra through Arabs, by the late 13th century, the monarch of the Samudra kingdom had converted to Islam. Marco Polo visited the island in 1292, and Ibn Battuta visited twice during 1345–1346, Samudra was succeeded by the powerful Aceh Sultanate, which survived to the 20th century. With the coming of the Dutch, the many Sumatran princely states fell under their control
14.
Coir
–
Coir, or coconut fibre, is a natural fibre extracted from the husk of coconut and used in products such as floor mats, doormats, brushes and mattresses. Coir is the material found between the hard, internal shell and the outer coat of a coconut. Other uses of brown coir are in upholstery padding, sacking, white coir, harvested from unripe coconuts, is used for making finer brushes, string, rope and fishing nets. The English word coir comes from the Malayalam and Tamil word kayar, ropes and cordage have been made from coconut fibre since ancient times. Indian navigators who sailed the seas to Malaya, Java, China, arab writers of the 11th century AD referred to the extensive use of coir for ship ropes and rigging. A coir industry in the UK was recorded before the half of the 19th century. Coir fibres are found between the hard, internal shell and the coat of a coconut. The individual fibre cells are narrow and hollow, with walls made of cellulose. They are pale when immature, but later become hardened and yellowed as a layer of lignin is deposited on their walls, each cell is about 1 mm long and 10 to 20 µm in diameter. Fibres are typically 10 to 30 centimetres long, the two varieties of coir are brown and white. Brown coir harvested from fully ripened coconuts is thick, strong and has high abrasion resistance and it is typically used in mats, brushes and sacking. Mature brown coir fibres contain more lignin and less cellulose than fibres such as flax and cotton, so are stronger, white coir fibres harvested from coconuts before they are ripe are white or light brown in color and are smoother and finer, but also weaker. They are generally spun to make yarn used in mats or rope, the coir fibre is relatively waterproof, and is one of the few natural fibres resistant to damage by saltwater. Fresh water is used to process brown coir, while seawater and it must not be confused with coir pith, or formerly cocopeat, which is the powdery material resulting from the processing of the coir fibre. Coir fibre is locally named coprah in some countries, adding to the confusion, green coconuts, harvested after about six to 12 months on the palm, contain pliable white fibres. Brown fibre is obtained by harvesting fully mature coconuts when the nutritious layer surrounding the seed is ready to be processed into copra, the fibrous layer of the fruit is then separated from the hard shell by driving the fruit down onto a spike to split it. A well-seasoned husker can manually separate 2,000 coconuts per day, machines are now available which crush the whole fruit to give the loose fibres. These machines can process up to 2,000 coconuts per hour, the fibrous husks are soaked in pits or in nets in a slow-moving body of water to swell and soften the fibres
15.
Marine worm
–
Any worm that lives in a marine environment is considered a marine worm. Marine worms are found in different phyla, including the Platyhelminthes, Nematoda, Annelida, Chaetognatha, Hemichordata. For a list of animals that have been called sea worms. Many of these worms have specialized tentacles used for exchanging oxygen and carbon dioxide, some marine worms are tube worms, of which the giant tube worm lives in waters near underwater volcanoes, and can withstand temperatures up to 90 degrees Celsius or about 194 degrees Fahrenheit. Some worms can live in the trench and these worms were first discovered in the Pacific Ocean off the Galapagos Islands
16.
Belitung shipwreck
–
The Belitung shipwreck is the wreck of an Arabian dhow which sailed en route from Africa to China around 830 CE. The ship completed the journey, but sank on the return journey, approximately 1 mile off the coast of Belitung Island. It is unclear why the ship was so far from its route back from China. Belitung is to the south-east of the Singapore Strait by 380 miles, and this route is more normal for ships travelling from the Java Sea. The treasure has been kept as one collection and, during the excavation, the wreck was discovered by fishermen in 1998 in the Gelasa Strait in 51 feet of water. The site location was purchased from local fishermen and a license to engage in excavation was awarded to a local Indonesian company, the excavations spanned two expeditions, one which commenced in August 1998 and the second in 1999. Seabed Explorations provided vessels and financed government naval operations to safeguard the wreck site before and it is unclear why the ship was so far from its expected route, as most ships leaving China for Arabia would have sailed through the South China Sea. They would then turn north-west after passing southern Vietnam, continuing through the Singapore Strait into the Straits of Malacca between Peninsular Malaysia and Sumatra, Belitung is some distance from this route, and it is unclear how the vessel came to be in this area. The wreck timbers were found under a sediment that preserved the remains of the wooden vessel, wrecks of this age are rare finds and this particular one was in such a good condition that much of the hull was preserved. Pieces of the timbers were preserved enough to allow scientists to analyse them. It is possible that the ship was constructed in western Asia and bought by Arabian merchants to be used for the Oman to China route, the ship was constructed around a 15.3 metres long keel of 14–15-centimetre thickness, which is believed to have survived intact. The front of the ship had a 61° angle of rake at the bow where the stem post was joined to the keel with mortise and tenon joints, the hull planks were stitched onto the frames and keel through holes spaced at 5–6-centimetre intervals. The boat had a keelson for added strength, which rested on the half-frames and he said that fully stitched boats were found from the African coast, Oman, in the Red Sea, on the Indian coast, and as far as the Maldives. He notes that Roman references by Procopius in the 6th century tell of boats with planks stitched together in a similar fashion used in Indian Seas, though Arabian ships of this type have not been found before, they are mentioned in text including the late-Tang Ling biao lu yi. Samples of wood from the shipwreck were sent for analysis at the Forest and Forest Products division of the Commonwealth Scientific, the analysis was conducted by Jugo Ilic of CSIRO, a wood identification specialist. Many of the samples were too deteriorated to be positively identified. The wooden box found in the area of the shipwreck was made from an Artocarpus genus of the family Moraceae. The species used for the planks was not positively identified but is thought to be Amoora of the Meliaceae family
17.
Boat building
–
Boat building, one of the oldest branches of engineering, is concerned with constructing the hulls of boats and, for sailboats, the masts, spars and rigging. Anchor- a heavy, pick like device, attached to a boats stem by a warp, common types are Plow or Fisherman and Danforth. Modern anchors are made of steel but in pre-industrial societies rocks were used, the chain is added to the lower anchor end to add weight and prevent chafing of the rope warp on rocks or shellfish beds. A Norsemen invention used in sailing ships from about the 10th century AD that predates blocks. They served the purpose of a block/jamb cleat in one unit and it was a flat section of wood about 150 high x 120 wide shaped like an angel/butterfly used in attaching stays to the hull. The V-shape at the part of the wings acted as a V jam cleat. Bitts - Two short strong posts often made of steel, located on the fore and aft decks of a heavily built boat or ship. Bilge - the lowest part of the interior, under the sole. Often water and or fuel tanks are placed in the bilges to lower the centre of gravity, bilge keel - a longitudinal, external, underwater member used to reduce a ships tendency to roll. In Britain twin bilge keels are often used on small boats moored in estuaries with a tidal range so the boat stay upright when dried out. With their much shallower draft yachts of this type can be sailed in shallow waters, not as hydro dynamically efficient as a fin keel. Bilge pump - a pump, either manual or electric with the set at the lowest point in the bilges where water will collect when the boat is upright. The inlet is protected by a screen to stop blockages Block a fitting with a wheel inside 2 cheeks designed to hold the turn of a rope. Originally made of wood, they are now made of plastic and they are mainly used in rigging in pairs or quads to allow a single person to operate a sail that creates a lot of force. Similar to a pulley or sheave, bow - The front and generally sharp end of the hull. It is designed to reduce the resistance of the cutting through water. Bowsprit - A spar that extends forward from the foredeck, outboard of the hull proper, common in square rigged ships where they were used to attach the outer or flying jib. In modern sailboats they are made of lightweight carbon and used for attaching the luff of lightweight down-wind sails
18.
Bow (ship)
–
The bow /ˈbaʊ/ is the forward part of the hull of a ship or boat, the point that is usually most forward when the vessel is underway. Both of the fore and forward mean towards the bow. The other end of the boat is the stern, from Middle Dutch boech or Old Norse bógr. The bow is designed to reduce the resistance of the cutting through water. On slower ships like tankers, a bow shape is used to maximise the volume of the ship for a given length. A wet bow results from seawater washing over the top of the hull, a raked stem can help to reduce the wetness of the bow. Aside from making the deck slippery, water can corrode the metal of the ship, if the temperature is low enough this water can also freeze on the deck, rails, turrets, and other exposed surfaces, increasing the topside weight. The bow may be reinforced to serve as an ice-breaker, one example being the bow of container-ship Sea Witch whose reinforcement assisted its destruction of another ship in a 1973 collision, the forward part of the bow, usually on the ships centreline, is called the stem. Traditionally, the stem was a timber or metal bar into which side planks or plates were joined. ISBN 0-7566-0944-5 Steward, Robert, Boatbuilding Manual, 3rd ed. International Marine Publishing Company
19.
Mortise and tenon
–
The mortise and tenon joint has been used for thousands of years by woodworkers around the world to join pieces of wood, mainly when the adjoining pieces connect at an angle of 90°. In its basic form it is simple and strong. Although there are many joint variations, the mortise and tenon comprises two components, the mortise hole and the tenon tongue. The tenon, formed on the end of a member generally referred to as a rail, is inserted into a square or rectangular hole cut into the corresponding member. The tenon is cut to fit the hole exactly and usually has shoulders that seat when the joint fully enters the mortise hole. The joint may be glued, pinned, or wedged to lock it in place and this joint is also used with other materials. For example, it is a method for stonemasons and blacksmiths. A mortise is a cavity cut into a timber to receive a tenon, there are several kinds of mortise, Open mortise a mortise that has only three sides. Stub mortise a mortise, the depth of which depends on the size of the timber. Through mortise a mortise that passes entirely through a piece, wedged half-dovetail a mortise in which the back is wider, or taller, than the front, or opening. The space for the wedge initially allows room for the tenon to be inserted and it is sometimes called a suicide joint, since it is a one-way trip. Through-wedged half-dovetail a wedged half-dovetail mortise that passes entirely through the piece, a tenon is a projection on the end of a timber for insertion into a mortise. Usually the tenon is taller than it is wide. There are several kinds of tenon, Stub tenon short, the depth of which depends on the size of the timber, through tenon a tenon that passes entirely through the piece of wood it is inserted into, being clearly visible on the back side. Loose tenon a tenon that is a part of the joint. Teasel tenon a term used for the tenon on top of a jowled or gunstock post, a common element of the English tying joint. Top tenon the tenon that occurs on top of a post, hammer-headed tenon a method of forming a tenon joint when the shoulders cannot be tightened with a clamp. Half shoulder tenon An asymmetric tenon with a shoulder on one side only, a common use is in framed, ledged and braced doors
20.
Hull (watercraft)
–
The hull is the watertight body of a ship or boat. Above the hull is the superstructure and/or deckhouse, where present, the line where the hull meets the water surface is called the waterline. The structure of the hull varies depending on the vessel type, the uppermost continuous deck may be called the upper deck, weather deck, spar deck, main deck, or simply deck. The particular name given depends on the type of ship or boat. In a typical wooden sailboat, the hull is constructed of wooden planking, supported by transverse frames and bulkheads, often but not always there is a centerline longitudinal member called a keel. In fiberglass or composite hulls, the structure may resemble wooden or steel vessels to some extent, in many cases, composite hulls are built by sandwiching thin fiber-reinforced skins over a lightweight but reasonably rigid core of foam, balsa wood, impregnated paper honeycomb or other material. The shape of the hull is entirely dependent upon the needs of the design, shapes range from a nearly perfect box in the case of scow barges, to a needle-sharp surface of revolution in the case of a racing multihull sailboat. Hulls come in varieties and can have composite shape, but are grouped primarily as follows. Examples are the flat-bottom, v-bottom, and multi-bottom hull and these types have at least one pronounced knuckle throughout all or most of their length. These hull shapes all have smooth curves, examples are the round bilge, semi-round bilge, and s-bottom hull. After this they can be categorized as, Displacement The hull is supported exclusively or predominantly by buoyancy, vessels that have this type of hull travel through the water at a limited rate that is defined by the waterline length. They are often, though not always, heavier than planing types, planing The planing hull form is configured to develop positive dynamic pressure so that its draft decreases with increasing speed. The dynamic lift reduces the surface and therefore also the drag. They are sometimes flat-bottomed, sometimes V-bottomed and more rarely, round-bilged, the most common form is to have at least one chine, which makes for more efficient planing and can throw spray down. Planing hulls are more efficient at speeds, although they still require more energy to achieve these speeds. An effective planing hull must be as light as possible with flat surfaces that are consistent with sea keeping. Sail boats that plane must also sail efficiently in displacement mode in light winds, semi-displacement, or semi-planing The hull form is capable of developing a moderate amount of dynamic lift, however, most of the vessels weight is still supported through buoyancy. At present, the most widely used form is the round bilge hull, in the inverted bell shape of the hull, with a smaller payload the waterline cross-section is less, hence the resistance is less and the speed is higher
21.
Procopius
–
Procopius of Caesarea was a prominent late antique scholar from Palaestina Prima. He is commonly held to be the last major historian of the ancient Western world, apart from his own writings, the main source for Procopius life is an entry in the Suda, a Byzantine encyclopaedia, written sometime after 975, which tells everything about his early life. He was a native of Caesarea in the Roman Province Palaestina Prima and he evidently knew Latin, as was natural for a man with legal training. In 527, the first year of Eastern Roman Emperor Justinians reign, he became the adsessor for Belisarius, Procopius was with Belisarius on the eastern front until the latter was defeated at the Battle of Callinicum in 531 and recalled to Constantinople. Procopius witnessed the Nika riots of January,532, which Belisarius, Procopius recorded a few of the extreme weather events of 535–536, although these were presented as a backdrop to Roman military activities, such as a mutiny, in and near Carthage. He rejoined Belisarius for his campaign against the Ostrogothic kingdom in Italy and experienced the Gothic siege of Rome that lasted a year and nine days and he witnessed Belisarius entry into the Gothic capital, Ravenna, in 540. Book Eight of the Wars of Justinian, and the Secret History, suggest that his relationship with Belisarius seems to have cooled thereafter. When Belisarius was sent back to Italy in 544 to cope with a renewal of the war with the Goths, now led by the able king Totila, Procopius appears to have no longer been on Belisarius staff. As magister militum, Belisarius was a vir illustris, and Procopius, as his adsessor, must and he thus belonged to the middle-ranking group of the ordo senatorius. However, the Suda, which is well informed in such matters. Should this information be correct, then Procopius had a seat in the senate of Constantinople and it is not known when Procopius himself died, and many historians date his death to 554, but in 562 there was an urban prefect of Constantinople who happened to be called Procopius. In that year, Belisarius was implicated in a conspiracy and was brought before this urban prefect, the writings of Procopius are the primary source of information for the rule of the Eastern Roman emperor Justinian. Procopius Wars of Justinian is clearly his most important work, although it is not as known as the Secret History. The first two deal with the conflict between the Romans and Sassanid Persia in Mesopotamia, Syria, Armenia, Lazica and Caucasian Iberia. They also cover the early career of the Roman general Belisarius, Procopius patron, the next two books, the Vandal War, cover Belisarius successful campaign against the Vandal kingdom in Roman Africa. The remaining books cover the Gothic War, the campaigns by Belisarius and others to recapture Italy and this includes accounts of the sieges of Naples and Rome. Later, Procopius added a book, which brings the history to 552/553. This eighth book covers both in Italy and on the Eastern frontier
22.
CSIRO
–
The Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation is the federal government agency for scientific research in Australia. Its chief role is to improve the economic and social performance of industry, CSIRO works with leading organisations around the world, and CSIRO Publishing issues journals with the latest research by leading scientists on a broad range of subjects. From its headquarters in Canberra, CSIRO maintains more than 50 sites across Australia and biological control research stations in France and Mexico, employing about 5000 in total. As of 1 July 2014, CSIRO is governed by a Board, chaired by David Thodey with nine directors inclusive of the CEO, daily management is led by a CEO, presently Dr Larry Marshall, with an executive team of seven. There are ten research flagships and twelve services areas, the CSIRO Flagship initiative was originally designed to integrate, focus and direct national scientific resources. In July 2014, all research Divisions and Flagships were merged into ten research flagships, the Bureau of Meteorology generates the high resolution weather forecasts and CSIRO has created computer models to calculate pollution levels. A precursor to CSIRO, the Advisory Council of Science and Industry, was established in 1916 at the initiative of prime minister Billy Hughes, however, the Advisory Council struggled with insufficient funding during the First World War. In 1920 the Council was renamed the Commonwealth Institute of Science and Industry, and was led by George Handley Knibbs, in 1926 The Science and Industry Research Act replaced the Institute with the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research. The CSIR was structured to represent the structure of Australian government, and had state-level committees. As well as this structure, the CSIR benefited from strong bureaucratic management under George Julius, David Rivett. CSIR research focussed on primary and secondary industries, early in its existence, it established divisions studying animal health and animal nutrition. After the depression, the CSIR extended into secondary industries such as manufacturing, CSIRO today has expanded into a wider range of scientific inquiry. This expansion began with the evolution of CSIR to the CSIRO by the Ben Chifley Labor government in 1949 which amended the Science and Industry Research Act, the amendment enlarged and reconstituted the organisation and its administrative structure. Under Ian Clunies Ross as chairman, CSIRO pursued new areas such as radioastronomy, in October 2005, the journal Nature announced CSIRO scientists had developed near-perfect rubber from resilin, the elastic protein which gives fleas their jumping ability and helps insects fly. On 19 August 2005, CSIRO and the University of Texas at Dallas announced they were able to make transparent carbon nanotube sheets that will bring carbon nanotube products to the masses, CSIRO had a pioneering role in the scientific discovery of the universe through radio eyes. A team led by Paul Wild built and operated the world’s first solar radiospectrograph, for three decades, the Division of Radiophysics had a world-leading role in solar research, attracting prominent solar physicists from around the world. CSIRO owned the first computer in Australia, CSIRAC, built as part of a project began in the Sydney Radiophysics Laboratory in 1947, the CSIR Mk 1 ran its first program in 1949, the fifth electronic computer in the world. It was over 1,000 times faster than the mechanical calculators available at the time and it was decommissioned in 1955 and recommissioned in Melbourne as CSIRAC in 1956 as a general purpose computing machine used by over 700 projects until 1964
23.
Tectona grandis
–
Teak is a tropical hardwood tree species placed in the flowering plant family Lamiaceae. Tectona grandis is a large, deciduous tree that occurs in mixed hardwood forests and it has small, fragrant white flowers and large papery leaves that are often hairy on the lower surface. It is sometimes known as the Burmese teak, Teak wood has a leather-like smell when it is freshly milled. It is particularly valued for its durability and water resistance, and is used for building, exterior construction, veneer, furniture, carving, turnings. Myanmars teak forests account for half of the worlds naturally occurring teak. Molecular studies show there are two centres of genetic origin of teak, one in India and the other in Myanmar. CP teak is a description of teak from the states of India. Nagpur teak is another regional Indian teak and it produces small, white flowers arranged in dense clusters at the end of the branches. Flowers contain both types of reproductive organs The word teak comes from, Tamil tekku, Malayalam word thekku, the plant is known as Thekka in Sinhala by Sri Lankan people. Teak is a large, deciduous tree up to 40 m tall with gray to grayish brown branches, leaves are ovate-elliptic to ovate, 15–45 cm long by 8–23 cm wide, and are held on robust petioles that are 2–4 cm long. Fragrant white flowers are borne on 25–40 cm long by 30 cm wide panicles from June to August, the corolla tube is 2. 5–3 mm long with 2 mm wide obtuse lobes. Tectona grandis sets fruit from September to December, fruits are globose and 1. 2-1.8 cm in diameter, flowers are weakly protandrous in that the anthers precede the stigma in maturity and pollen is shed within a few hours of the flower opening. The flowers are entomophilous, but can occasionally be anemophilous. A1996 study found that in its range in Thailand. Heartwood is brownish red in colour, sometimes there are dark patches on it. There is a scent in newly cut wood. Sapwood is whitish to yellowish brown in colour. It can easily separate from heartwood, wood texture is hard and ring porous
24.
Teredo navalis
–
Teredo navalis, the naval shipworm, is a species of saltwater clam, a marine bivalve mollusc in the family Teredinidae, the shipworms. This species is the species of the genus Teredo. This species may have originated in the northeast Atlantic Ocean, but has spread around the world and it tunnels into underwater piers and pilings and is a major cause of damage and destruction to submarine timber structures and the hulls of wooden boats. Teredo navalis has an elongated, reddish, wormlike body which is enclosed in a tunnel it has made in floating or submerged timber. At the front end of the animal are two triangular, calcareous plates and these are up to 2 cm long and correspond to the valves of other bivalve molluscs. They are white, with a covering of brown periostracum. The mollusc uses them to rasp the wood and slowly enlarges the burrow in which it lives and it has retractable inhalant and exhalant siphons which project through a small hole in the horny septum which blocks the opening of the burrow. When the animal is threatened, the siphons can be drawn inside the burrow, the tunnel is circular in cross section and is lined with calcareous material extruded by the mollusc. It can be up to 60 cm long and 1 cm in diameter, Teredo navalis is found in temperate and tropical seas and oceans worldwide. It may have originated in the northeast Atlantic Ocean, but it is difficult to establish where it came from because it has spread so efficiently around the world. It is found in the zone, living inside submerged timber, pilings, driftwood. It is found in waters as well as the open sea. It is also tolerant of a range of temperatures. Individuals have survived temperatures as high as 30 °C and as low as 1 °C, though growth and it can also live without air for about 6 weeks, using up its stored glycogen reserves. Dispersal to new habitats occurs both during the larval stage, by floating timbers carried along by currents, and, historically. In the Baltic Sea, there were several occurrences in the 1930s and 1950s. Food particles, mostly timber raspings but also some microalgae, are extracted from the passing through the gills where gas exchange also takes place. The gills also contain symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria, which enzymes that help to digest the cellulose in the wood
25.
Cupressus
–
The genus Cupressus is one of several genera within the family Cupressaceae that have the common name cypress, for the others, see cypress. It is considered a polyphyletic group, based on genetic and morphological analysis, the Cupressus genus is found in the Cupressoideae subfamily. The common name comes from Old French cipres and that from Latin cyparissus, as with other conifers, extensive cultivation has led to a wide variety of forms, sizes and colours, that are grown in parks and gardens throughout the world. They are evergreen trees or large shrubs, growing to 5–40 m tall, the leaves are scale-like, 2–6 mm long, arranged in opposite decussate pairs, and persist for three to five years. On young plants up to two old, the leaves are needle-like and 5–15 mm long. The cones are 8–40 mm long, globose or ovoid with four to 14 scales arranged in decussate pairs. The seeds are small, 4–7 mm long, with two wings, one along each side of the seed. In other species, the open at maturity to release the seeds. Many species are grown as trees in parks and, in Asia, around temples, in some areas. A few species are grown for their timber, which can be very durable and it was believed in the Hellenic culture that the Cypress tree was sacred to the goddess, Artemis. Current tendencies are to reduce the number of recognised species, when a species concept is adopted. See also the New World species for a split in the genus in the future. The Old World cypresses tend to have cones with more scales, each scale with a broad ridge. C. sempervirens is the species of the genus, defining the name Cupressus. These species have recently been transferred to Callitropsis. New World species are found in habitats with xeric soils. This type of results in disproportionate local abundance with most species restricted to small neighboring populations. In warm, Mediterranean climates, these plants release large quantities of pollen for approximately seven months each year, farjon, A. Monograph of Cupressaceae and Sciadopitys
26.
Cupressus torulosa
–
Cupressus torulosa, known as the Himalayan cypress or Bhutan cypress, is a species of cypress in southern Asia. It is a tree, up to 45 m high. The Himalayan cypress is a conifer tree species is found on limestone terrain in the western Himalaya from 300–2,800 metres. Information on its distribution further east is conflicting and it may occur in Sichuan, China and in Vietnam. However, according to Conifers of Vietnam, only cultivated trees exist in Vietnam, and the Flora of China reports it from Tibet, but not from Sichuan
27.
Rosewood
–
Rosewood refers to any of a number of richly hued timbers, often brownish with darker veining but found in many different hues. All genuine rosewoods belong to the genus Dalbergia and it is best known as Brazilian Rosewood, but also as Bahia rosewood. This wood has a sweet smell, which persists for many years. Another classic rosewood comes from Dalbergia latifolia known as Indian rosewood or sonokeling and it is native to India and is also grown in plantations elsewhere in Pakistan. Madagascar rosewood, known as bois de rose, is prized for its red color. It is overexploited in the wild, despite a 2010 moratorium on trade and illegal logging, throughout southeast Asia Dalbergia oliveri is harvested for use in woodworking. It has a fragrant and dense grain near the core, however the outer sapwood is soft. Dalbergia cultrata that has variegated burgundy to light color, a blackwood timber is sold as Burmese Rosewood. Products built with rosewood based engineered woods are sold as Malaysian Rosewood or as Dalbergia oliveri, some rosewood comes from Dalbergia retusa, also known as the Nicaraguan rosewood or as palisander is controlled by CITES under Appendix 2 which allows some commercial activity. Several species are known as Guatemalan rosewood or Panama rosewood, D. tucerencis, D. tucarensis, stevensonii, also on CITES Appendix 2, is used for marimba keys, guitar parts, clarinets and other musical and ornamental applications. Not all species in the large genus Dalbergia yield rosewoods, only about a species do. The woods of some species in the genus Dalbergia are notable—even famous—woods in their own right, African blackwood, cocobolo, kingwood. The woods of some species are usable for tool handles at best. The timber trade will sell many timbers under the name due to some similarities. A fair number of these come from other legume genera. Another that may be found in market from Southeast Asia is Pterocarpus indicus, Dalbergia sissoo is timber from rosewood species from India and Bangladesh, usually known as Sheesham or North-Indian Rosewood. It is extremely dense and has mild rot resistance, but it is porous and its exterior is soft and it is used for making cabinets, flooring and carving. It is exported as quality veneers, due to its after work quality when sealed and dyed, it is often sold as genuine rosewood or as teak
28.
Fabaceae
–
The Fabaceae, Leguminosae or Papilionaceae, commonly known as the legume, pea, or bean family, are a large and economically important family of flowering plants. It includes trees, shrubs, and perennial or annual herbaceous plants, the five largest of the genera are Astragalus, Acacia, Indigofera, Crotalaria and Mimosa, which constitute about a quarter of all legume species. The ca.19,000 known legume species amount to about 7% of flowering plant species, Fabaceae is the most common family found in tropical rainforests and in dry forests in the Americas and Africa. Recent molecular and morphological evidence supports the fact that the Fabaceae is a monophyletic family. These studies confirm that the Fabaceae are a group that is closely related to the Polygalaceae, Surianaceae and Quillajaceae families. Along with the cereals, some fruits and tropical roots a number of Leguminosae have been a human food for millennia. A number of species are also weedy pests in different parts of the world, including, Cytisus scoparius, Robinia pseudoacacia, Ulex europaeus, Pueraria lobata, the name Fabaceae comes from the defunct genus Faba, now included in Vicia. The term faba comes from Latin, and appears to simply mean bean, Leguminosae is an older name still considered valid, and refers to the fruit of these plants, which are called legumes. Fabaceae range in habit from giant trees to small annual herbs, plants have indeterminate inflorescences, which are sometimes reduced to a single flower. The flowers have a short hypanthium and a single carpel with a short gynophore, the Leguminosae have a wide variety of growth forms including trees, shrubs or herbaceous plants or even vines or lianas. The herbaceous plants can be annuals, biennials or perennials, without basal or terminal leaf aggregations and they are upright plants, epiphytes or vines. The latter support themselves by means of shoots that twist around a support or through cauline or foliar tendrils, plants can be heliophytes, mesophytes or xerophytes. The leaves are alternate and compound. Most often they are even- or odd-pinnately compound, often trifoliate and rarely palmately compound, in the Mimosoideae and they always have stipules, which can be leaf-like, thorn-like or be rather inconspicuous. Leaf margins are entire or, occasionally, serrate, both the leaves and the leaflets often have wrinkled pulvini to permit nastic movements. In some species, leaflets have evolved into tendrils, many species have leaves with structures that attract ants that protect the plant from herbivore insects. Extrafloral nectaries are common among the Mimosoideae and the Caesalpinioideae, and are found in some Faboideae. In some Acacia, the modified hollow stipules are inhabited by ants and are known as domatia, many Fabaceae host bacteria in their roots within structures called root nodules
29.
Dalbergia
–
Dalbergia is a large genus of small to medium-size trees, shrubs and lianas in the pea family, Fabaceae, subfamily Faboideae. It was recently assigned to the informal monophyletic Dalbergia clade of the Dalbergieae, the genus has a wide distribution, native to the tropical regions of Central and South America, Africa, Madagascar and southern Asia. A fossil Dalbergia phleboptera pod has been recovered from the stage Chattian of the Oligocene epoch in the municipality of Aix-en-Provence in France, fossils of Dalbergia nostratum have been recovered from rhyodacite tuff of Lower Miocene age in Southern Slovakia near the town of Lučenec. Many species of Dalbergia are important timber trees, valued for their decorative and often fragrant wood, the most famous of these are the rosewoods, so-named because of the smell of the timber when cut, but several other valuable woods are yielded by the genus. The second most desired rosewood in the world is D. latifolia known as Indian Rosewood or Sonokeling. Most rosewoods are a brown with a good figure. Note that only a number of Dalbergia species yield rosewood. Several East Asian species are important materials in traditional Chinese furniture, the Tulipwood is cream coloured with red or salmon stripes. It is most often used in crossbanding and other veneers, it should not be confused with the tulipwood of the American Tulip Tree Liriodendron tulipifera, the similarly used, and also Brazilian, Kingwood is yielded by D. cearensis. Both are smallish trees, to 10 m, Dalbergia sissoo is primarily used for furniture in northern India. Its export is highly regulated due to recent high rates of death due to unknown causes, Dalbergia sissoo, which has historically been the primary rosewood species of northern India. This wood is strong and tough. It is extreme durable and handsome and it maintains its shape well and it is difficult to work but it takes a fine polish. It is used for high quality furniture, plywoods, bridge piles, sport goods, railway sleepers and it is a very good material for decorative works and carvings. Its density is 770 kg/m³ and with golden to dark brown. African blackwood is a black wood in demand for making woodwind musical instruments. Dalbergia species are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including Bucculatrix mendax which feeds exclusively on Dalbergia sissoo, the Dalbergia species are notorious for causing allergic reactions due the presence of sensitizing quinones in the wood
30.
Pterocarpus
–
Pterocarpus is a pantropical genus of trees in the family Fabaceae. It belongs to the subfamily Faboideae, and was assigned to the informal monophyletic Pterocarpus clade within the Dalbergieae. Most species of Pterocarpus yield valuable timber traded as padauk, other names are mukwa or narra. The wood is marketed as amboyna when it has grown in the burl form, the scientific name is Latinized Ancient Greek and means wing fruit, referring to the unusual shape of the seed pods in this genus. Padauk wood is obtained from species of Pterocarpus. All padauks are of African or Asian origin, padauks are valued for their toughness, stability in use, and decorativeness, most having a reddish wood. Most Pterocarpus woods contain either water- or alcohol-soluble substances and can be used as dyes, the padauk found most often is African Padauk from Pterocarpus soyauxii which, when freshly cut, is a very bright red/orange but when exposed to sunlight fades over time to a warm brown. Its colour makes it a favourite among woodworkers, burmese Padauk is Pterocarpus macrocarpus while Andaman Padauk is Pterocarpus dalbergioides. Padauks can be confused with rosewoods to which they are somewhat related, like rosewood, padauk is sometimes used to make xylophone and marimba keys, and guitars. It is an important material in traditional Chinese furniture, Some padauks, e. g. P. soyauxii, are used as herbal medicines, for example to treat skin parasites and fungal infections. Pterocarpin is a found in Pterocarpus spp. A total of 35 species are accepted,1 Some sources treat Pterocarpus echinatus as a synonym of Pterocarpus indicus. Pterocarpus in West African plants – A Photo Guide
31.
Artocarpus
–
Artocarpus is a genus of approximately 60 trees and shrubs of Southeast Asian and Pacific origin, belonging to the mulberry family, Moraceae. All Artocarpus species are trees or shrubs that are composed of leaves, twigs. The fauna type is monoecious and produces flowers, furthermore. The plants produce small, greenish, female flowers grow on short. Following pollination, the flowers grow into a fruit. The stipulated leaves vary from small and entire to large and lobed, with the leaves of the species A. altilis ending in long. The name Artocarpus is derived from the Greek words artos and karpos and this name was coined by Johann Reinhold Forster and J. Georg Adam Forster, a father-and-son team of botanists aboard the HMS Resolution on James Cooks second voyage. It is maintained as a conserved name, several species in the genus bear edible fruit and are commonly cultivated, breadfruit, cempedak, jackfruit, kwai muk, lakoocha, pudau, anjily, chaplaish, and marang. Breadfruit and jackfruit are cultivated widely in the tropical Southeast Asia, other species are cultivated locally for their timber, fruit or edible seeds. Anjily, A. hirsutus, is grown for fruit and timber in the Western Ghats, subgenus Pseudojaca, Perianth is entirely connate. Subgenus Pseudojaca is allied to the genus Prainea, and some researchers treat this taxon as a subgenus of Artocarpus. A. altilis Fosberg - Breadfruit, Seeded Breadfruit, Antipolo, Camansi, a. camansi Blanco A. chama Buch. -Ham. - Chaplaish A. dadah Miq. A. elasticus Reinw, ex Blume - Bendo, Terap A. gomezianus Wall. - Nangka, Jackfruit A. hirsutus Lam, - Angily, Angelin, Hirsute Artocarpus, Aini Maram, Aini A. hypargyreus Hance ex Benth. - Kwai Muk A. integer Merr, - Lakoocha, monkey fruit A. lignanensis Merr. A. mariannensis Trécul A. nitidus Trécul - Butong A. nobilis Thwaites A. odoratissimus Blanco - Marang A. ovatus Blanco A. rigidus Blume - Monkey Jackruit A. rubrovenia Warb. A. sarawakensis F. M. Jarrett - Pingan A. scortechinii King - Two Winged Artocarpus A. sericicarpus F. M. Jarrett - Pedalai A. tamaran Becc, - Elephant jack A. tonkinensis A. Chev. A. treculianus Elmer - African breadfruit Zerega, N. J. C. and T. J. Motley, Artocarpus molecular phylogeny and the systematics and origins of breadfruit, Artocarpus altilis
32.
Morus (plant)
–
Morus, a genus of flowering plants in the family Moraceae, comprises 10–16 species of deciduous trees commonly known as mulberries, growing wild and under cultivation in many temperate world regions. The closely related genus Broussonetia is also known as mulberry, notably the paper mulberry. Mulberries are fast-growing when young, but soon become slow-growing and rarely exceed 10–15 metres tall, the leaves are alternately arranged, simple and often lobed and serrated on the margin. Lobes are more common on juvenile shoots than on mature trees, the trees can be monoecious or dioecious. The mulberry fruit is a fruit, approximately 2 to 3 cm long. Immature fruits are white, green, or pale yellow, in most species the fruits turn pink and then red while ripening, then dark purple or black, and have a sweet flavor when fully ripe. The fruits of the white-fruited cultivar are white when ripe, the fruit of this cultivar is also sweet, the taxonomy of Morus is complex and disputed. Morus classification is further complicated by widespread hybridisation, wherein the hybrids are fertile. Jams and sherbets are often made from the fruit in this region, black mulberry was imported to Britain in the 17th century in the hope that it would be useful in the cultivation of silkworms. It was much used in medicine, especially in the treatment of ringworm. Mulberries are also widespread in Greece, particularly in the Peloponnese, mulberries can be grown from seed, and this is often advised as seedling-grown trees are generally of better shape and health, but they are most often planted from large cuttings which root readily. The mulberry plants which are allowed to grow tall with a height of 5–6 feet from ground level. Usually, the plantation is raised and in formation with a spacing of 6 feet ×6 feet, or 8 feet ×8 feet, as plant to plant. The plants are usually pruned once a year during the season to a height of 5–6 feet. The leaves are harvested three or four times a year by a leaf-picking method under rain-fed or semiarid conditions, depending on the monsoon, the tree branches pruned during the fall season are cut and used to make durable baskets supporting agriculture and animal husbandry. Some North American cities have banned the planting of mulberries because of the amounts of pollen they produce. In actuality, only the male mulberry trees produce pollen, this light-weight pollen can be inhaled deeply into the lungs, conversely, female mulberry trees produce all-female flowers, which draw pollen and dust from the air. Because of this feature, all-female mulberry trees have an OPALS allergy scale rating of just 1
33.
Moraceae
–
The Moraceae — often called the mulberry family or fig family — are a family of flowering plants comprising about 38 genera and over 1180 species. Most are widespread in tropical and subtropical regions, less so in temperate climates, included are well-known plants such as the fig, banyan, breadfruit, mulberry, and Osage-orange. The flowers of Moraceae are often pseudanthia, cecropia, which has variously been placed in Moraceae, Urticaceae, or their own family, Cecropiaceae, is now included in Urticaceae. Dioecy appears to be the state in Moraceae. Monoecy has evolved independently at least four times within the family, Moraceae comprises the following, Modern molecular phylogenetics suggest the following relationships, Moraceae in L. Watson and M. J. Dallwitz
34.
Meliaceae
–
Meliaceae, or the Mahogany family, is a flowering plant family of mostly trees and shrubs in the order Sapindales. They are characterised by alternate, usually pinnate leaves without stipules, most species are evergreen, but some are deciduous, either in the dry season or in winter. Various species are used for oil, soap-making, insecticides. A generic monograph of the Meliaceae, Meliaceae in L. Watson and M. J. Dallwitz. Project Meliaceae For reference about the Malaysian species visit, http, //sites. google. com/site/malaysianedibleflora
35.
Afzelia
–
Afzelia is a genus in family Fabaceae. The thirteen species all are trees, native to tropical Africa or Asia, Afzelia species are used primarily for wood, though some species also have medicinal uses. The timber is most commonly traded under the collective name doussie, one of the common names is also pod mahogany, adding to the confusion surrounding the name mahogany. The seeds are red and black and are used as beads, the wood is often used as the surface material for outdoor velodromes. The highly figured wood of the Asian species, Afzelia xylocarpa, is sold as Afzelia xylay, the seeds and bark of this species are used as medicine. The dense and wavy wood of an Afzelia africana is used in ship-building, ILDIS world database of legumes Doussie technological characteristics, Tropix program, CIRAD Agricultural Research for Development Countries
36.
Afzelia africana
–
Afzelia africana is a tree species in the Fabaceae family. Mature trees grow between 10 and 20 meters in height and they are prized for their quality wood, their bark which has many medicinal uses, and their nitrogen-rich leaves which enrich the soil. Afzelia africana was used in the Middle Ages for ship building and it is one of the traditional djembe woods. The building of a reconstructed 9th-century Arab merchantman, the Jewel of Muscat, required thirty-eight tons of Afzelia africana wood, curved trees were chosen for the ships frames and timbers. Afzelia africana in West African plants – A Photo Guide,2006 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
37.
Jewel of Muscat
–
The Jewel of Muscat is a ship based on the design of the Belitung shipwreck, an Arabian dhow that was found off the coast of Belitung Island, Indonesia, in 1998 and subsequently salvaged. It was built in a joint effort by the governments of Oman and Singapore and Mike Flecker, present-day knowledge of the original materials and methods used in construction of the Jewel and this type of Arab dhow stems largely from the shipwreck itself, found preserved under sediment. The sediment preserved the remains of the vessel and without this the wreck would have been lost due to worms. Most important were the discoveries about the methods of construction which were repeated in the construction of the Jewel, fortunately pieces of the original timbers were preserved, allowing scientists to analyse the remains and determine the types of wood used. Timbers from a number of species were found, including one that is unique to central Africa. After analysing the hull form, timber species, and construction methods, archaeologists concluded that the wreck was of Indian or Arabian origin, the Jewel was built at Qantab near Muscat, the capital of Oman. Construction began in October 2008 and it set sail for Singapore on 16 February 2010, the ship is remarkable in that it was sewn together, following the construction techniques used in the wrecked ship, rather than the using more traditional methods of pegs or nails. The dhow is about 21 feet wide and 58 feet long and it is an accurate reproduction thanks to the measurements taken by Walterfangs team during the excavation. Timber for the ship was made from Afzelia africana trees felled in Ghana and cut into planks, trimmed boards were steamed individually in a fire-heated steambox to make them flexible. When workers removed a board from the box, they had two minutes to carry it to the ship and clamp it into place in a bent and slightly twisted shape before it would stiffen again. It was then sewn into position using coir rope and caulking made from strands of fine coir rope with a diameter of about 3 millimetres. In addition, the planks were coated with shark liver oil to make them water-resistant, the Jewel made one voyage, from its shipyard in Oman 5000 kilometers to its berth in Singapore, following an ancient trade route, in stages, via Galle in Sri Lanka. The captain was Saleh al Jabri, with 25 years of sailing experience, illustrations show that the ships were square-rigged, but the virtually nothing was known of their rigging. The sails were handmade from canvas, the main sail was 81 square metres and weighed over 150 kilograms. The second mast bore a smaller mizzen sail, mizzen is an Arabic word that means balance. The mizzen sail is used, in part, to steer the ship, a crew of at least eight is needed to manage the sails. An ancient navigational tool called a kamal is used to make sightings of stars compared to the horizon. The ship became becalmed and the captain procured a tow from the Indian Coast Guard and they were towed to the city of Cochin in Kerala State, India
38.
ArtScience Museum
–
ArtScience Museum is a museum located within the integrated resort of Marina Bay Sands in the Downtown Core of the Central Area in Singapore. Opened on 17 February 2011 by Singapores Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong, although it has a permanent exhibition, ArtScience Gallery, the ArtScience Museum mainly hosts touring exhibitions curated by other museums. The architecture is said to be a reminiscent of a lotus flower. It is designed by the architect Moshe Safdie, the design concept for each finger denotes various gallery spaces sporting skylights at the fingertips which are included as sustainable illumination for the curved interior walls. The ArtScience Museum has 21 gallery spaces with an area of 50,000 square feet. Rainwater is harvested and channelled down the centre of the building, flowing through its roof into a reflecting pond at the lowest level of the building. The rainwater is then recycled for use in the buildings restrooms, the permanent exhibition, the ArtScience Gallery, consists of three galleries - Curiosity, Inspiration, Expression. Tilman Walterfang and his team found the Tang dynasty artifacts in the Gaspar Strait in 1998 among the wreck of the Belitung shipwreck, for the next six years, they were desalinated, conserved and researched by his company Seabed Explorations Ltd in New Zealand. They were eventually purchased for around 32 million USD, an accurate reproduction of the Arab dhow ship, named The Jewel of Muscat, was recently presented by the Sultanate of Oman to the government and people of Singapore. The pièce de résistance of the exhibition is a cache of magnificent, intricately tooled vessels of silver and gold
39.
Marina Bay Sands
–
Marina Bay Sands is an integrated resort fronting Marina Bay in Singapore. At its opening in 2010, it was billed as the worlds most expensive standalone casino property at S$8 billion, the 20-hectare resort was designed by Moshe Safdie architects. The architect was Aedas, and they were responsible for employing all consultants, Engineering was provided by Arup and Parsons Brinkerhoff. The main contractor was Ssangyong Engineering and Construction, originally set to open in 2009, Las Vegas Sands faced delays caused by escalating costs of material and labour shortages from the outset. The global financial crisis also pressured the company to delay its projects elsewhere to complete the integrated resort, although Marina Bay Sands has been compared in scale and development costs to MGMs CityCenter, the latter is a mixed-use development, with condominium properties being sold off. The resort and SkyPark were officially opened on 23 and 24 June 2010 as part of a two-day celebration, the SkyPark opened the following day. The theatres were completed in time for the first performance of Riverdance on 30 November, the indoor skating rink, which uses artificial ice, opened to a performance by Michelle Kwan on 18 December. The ArtScience Museum opened to the public and the debut of a 13-minute light, the grand opening of Marina Bay Sands was held on 17 February 2011. It also marked the opening of the seven celebrity chef restaurants, the musical The Lion King debuted on 3 March 2011. Marina Bay Sands is one of two winning proposals for Singapores first integrated resorts, the other being the Resorts World Sentosa, which incorporates a family-friendly Universal Studios Theme Park. The two large-scale resorts were conceived to meet Singapores economic and tourism objectives for the decade and will have 30-year casino licenses. LVS submitted its bid on its own. Its original partner City Developments Limited, with a proposed 15% equity stake, however, Kwek was retained as an advisor for Sands bid. Las Vegas Sands initially committed to invest S$3.85 billion in the project, Las Vegas Sands declared the undertaking as one of the worlds most challenging construction projects and certainly the most expensive stand-alone integrated resort property ever built. It expects the casino to generate at least $1 billion in annual profit, half a million gamblers passed through the casino in June 2010. In the third quarter of 2012, the revenues of the Marina Bay Sands fell almost 28 per cent from a year earlier, the resort is designed by Moshe Safdie, who says it was initially inspired by card decks. The resorts architecture and major changes along the way were also approved by its feng shui consultants. The engineering for the project was headed by Arup and Parsons Brinckerhoff, Marina Bay Sands was originally planned to be completed in a single phase in 2009, but rising construction costs and the financial crisis forced the company to open it in phases
40.
Chinese ceramics
–
Chinese ceramics show a continuous development since pre-dynastic times and are one of the most significant forms of Chinese art and ceramics globally. The first pottery was made during the Palaeolithic era, Porcelain is so identified with China that it is still called china in everyday English usage. Most later Chinese ceramics, even of the finest quality, were made on an industrial scale, many of the most important kiln workshops were owned by or reserved for the Emperor, and large quantities of ceramics were exported as diplomatic gifts or for trade from an early date. The earliest Chinese pottery was earthenware, which continued in production for utilitarian uses throughout Chinese history, but was increasingly less used for fine wares. Porcelain, on a Western definition, is a term comprising all ceramic ware that is white and translucent. The Chinese tradition recognizes two categories of ceramics, high-fired and low-fired, so doing without stoneware, which in Chinese tradition is mostly grouped with porcelain. Terms such as porcellaneous or near-porcelain may be used for stonewares with porcelain-like characteristics, the Erya defined porcelain as fine, compact pottery. Chinese pottery can also classified as being either northern or southern, the kiln types were also different. Southern materials have high silica, low alumina and high potassium oxide, the northern materials are often very suitable for stoneware, while in the south there are also areas highly suitable for porcelain. Chinese porcelain is made by a combination of the following materials. Porcelain stone - decomposed micaceous or feldspar rocks, historically known as petunse. Feldspar Quartz In the context of Chinese ceramics, the term lacks a universally accepted definition. This in turn has led to confusion about when the first Chinese porcelain was made, claims have been made for the late Eastern Han dynasty, the Three Kingdoms period, the Six Dynasties period, and the Tang dynasty. Chinese kiln technology has always been a key factor in the development of Chinese pottery, the Chinese developed effective kilns capable of firing at around 1, 000°C before 2000 BC. These were updraft kilns, often built below ground, two main types of kiln were developed by about 200 AD and remained in use until modern times. Both could reliably produce the temperatures of up to 1300°C or more needed for porcelain, in the late Ming, the egg-shaped kiln or zhenyao was developed at Jingdezhen, but mainly used there. This was something of a compromise between the types, and offered locations in the firing chamber with a range of firing conditions. According to Science, pottery dating from 20,000 years ago were found at the Xianrendong Cave site
41.
Chinese influences on Islamic pottery
–
Chinese influences on Islamic pottery cover a period starting from at least the 8th century CE to the 19th century. This influence of Chinese ceramics has to be viewed in the context of the considerable importance of Chinese culture on Islamic arts in general. Despite the distances involved, there is evidence of contact between eastern and southwestern Asia from antiquity. Some very early Western influence on Chinese pottery seems to appear from the 3rd-4th century BCE. An Eastern Zhou red earthenware bowl, decorated with slip and inlaid with glass paste, foreign influence especially is thought to have encouraged the Eastern Zhou interest in glass decorations. Contacts between China and Central Asia were formally opened from the 2nd to 1st century BCE through the Silk Road, in the following centuries, a great cultural influx benefited China, embodied by the appearance in China of foreign art, new ideas and religions, and new lifestyles. Such mixed influences are visible in the earthenwares of Northern China in the 6th century. The best of these ceramics use bluish green, yellow or olive glazes, direct contacts between the Muslim and Chinese worlds were marked by the Battle of Talas in 751 in Central Asia. Muslim communities are known to have present in China as early as the 8th century CE, especially in commercial harbours such as Canton. From the 9th century onwards, Islamic merchants started to import Chinese ceramics and these exotic objects were cherished in the Islamic world and also became an inspiration for local potters. Archaeological finds of Chinese pottery in the Middle East go back to the 8th century, remains of Tang period ceramics have been found in Samarra and Ctesiphon in present-day Iraq, as well as in Nishapur in present-day Iran. These were less successful than those of Korean pottery, but eventually were able to provide attractive local competition to Chinese imports. Chinese production could adapt to the preferences of foreign markets, larger celadon dishes than the Chinese market wanted were favoured for serving princely banquets in the Middle East, celadon wares were believed there to have the ability to detect poison, by sweating or breaking. After about 1450 celadon wares fell out of fashion in China, and this style of ornament was then confined to blue and white, and is not found in the red and white painted wares then preferred by the Chinese themselves. The start of the Ming dynasty was followed by a decree of 1368. Often Islamic production imitated not the latest Chinese styles, but those of the late Yuan, in turn, Chinese potters began in the early 16th century to produce some items in overtly Islamic styles, including jumbled inscriptions in Arabic. These appear to have made for the growing Chinese Muslim market. Yue ware originated in the Yue kilns of Northern Zhejiang, in the site of Jiyuan near Shaoxing, called Yuezhou in ancient times
42.
Dehua porcelain
–
Dehua porcelain is a type of white Chinese porcelain, made at Dehua in the Fujian province. A traditional European term for it is Blanc de Chine and it has been produced from the Ming dynasty to the present day. Large quantities arrived in Europe as Chinese export porcelain in the early 18th century and it was copied at Meissen and it was also exported to Japan in large quantities. The area along the Fujian coast was one of the main ceramic exporting centers. Over one-hundred and eighty kiln sites have been identified extending in historical range from the Song period to present, the two principal kiln sites were those of Qudougong and Wanpinglun. The Wanpinglun site is the older of the two and manufactured pressed wares and others, the kilns of Dehua also produced other ceramic wares, including some with under glaze blue decoration. From the Ming period porcelain objects were manufactured that achieved a fusion of glaze and body traditionally referred to as ivory white and milk white. The special characteristic of Dehua porcelain is the small amount of iron oxide in it. The unfired porcelain body is not very plastic but vessel forms have been made from it, there was a large output of figures, especially religious figures, e. g. Guanyin, Maitreya, Luohan and Ta-mo figures. Guanyin, the Goddess of Mercy, was revered in Fujian. Donnelly says, “There is no doubt that figures constitute the great glory of blanc de Chine. ”Some have been produced with little modification from the late 16th or early 17th century. Crisply modeled figures with a white glaze were popular as were joss-stick holders, brush pots, Dogs of Fo, libation cups. The devotional objects produced at Dehua “conformed to the stipulations of the early Ming period, not only in their whiteness. They were probably used in the shrines that every Chinese home possessed. ”The numerous Dehua porcelain factories today make figures. During the Cultural Revolution “Dehua artisans applied their very best skills to produce immaculate statuettes of the Great Leader and the heroes of the revolution. Portraits of the stars of the new opera in their most famous roles were produced on a truly massive scale. ”Mao Zedong figures later fell out of favor but have been revived for foreign collectors. Precise dating of blanc de Chine of the Ming and Qing dynasties is often difficult because the conservatism of the Dehua potters led them to similar pieces for decades or even for centuries. There are blanc de Chine figures being made in Dehua today little different from those made in the Ming dynasty, notable artists in blanc de Chine, such as the late Ming period He Chaozong, signed their creations with their seals
.JPG)
