1.
Percussion instrument
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A percussion instrument is a musical instrument that is sounded by being struck or scraped by a beater, struck, scraped or rubbed by hand, or struck against another similar instrument. The percussion family is believed to include the oldest musical instruments, the percussion section of an orchestra most commonly contains instruments such as timpani, snare drum, bass drum, cymbals, triangle and tambourine. However, the section can also contain non-percussive instruments, such as whistles and sirens, percussive techniques can also be applied to the human body, as in body percussion. On the other hand, keyboard instruments, such as the celesta, are not normally part of the percussion section, Percussion instruments may play not only rhythm, but also melody and harmony. Percussion is commonly referred to as the backbone or the heartbeat of an ensemble, often working in close collaboration with bass instruments. In jazz and other popular ensembles, the pianist, bassist, drummer. Most classical pieces written for full orchestra since the time of Haydn and Mozart are orchestrated to place emphasis on the strings, woodwinds, however, often at least one pair of timpani is included, though they rarely play continuously. Rather, they serve to provide additional accents when needed, in the 18th and 19th centuries, other percussion instruments have been used, again generally sparingly. The use of percussion instruments became more frequent in the 20th century classical music, in almost every style of music, percussion plays a pivotal role. In classic jazz, one almost immediately thinks of the rhythm of the hi-hats or the ride cymbal when the word swing is spoken. Because of the diversity of instruments, it is not uncommon to find large musical ensembles composed entirely of percussion. Rhythm, melody, and harmony are all represented in these ensembles, music for pitched percussion instruments can be notated on a staff with the same treble and bass clefs used by many non-percussive instruments. Music for percussive instruments without a pitch can be notated with a specialist rhythm or percussion-clef. The word percussion has evolved from Latin terms, percussio, as a noun in contemporary English it is described in Wiktionary as the collision of two bodies to produce a sound. Hornbostel–Sachs has no high-level section for percussion, Most percussion instruments are classified as idiophones and membranophones.1 Concussion idiophones or clappers, played in pairs and beaten against each other, such as zills and clapsticks. 111.2 Percussion idiophones, includes many percussion instruments played with the hand or by a mallet, such as the hang, gongs and the xylophone. 21 Struck drums, includes most types of drum, such as the timpani, snare drum, (Included in most drum sets or 412. Stringed instruments played with such as the hammered dulcimer
2.
Musical instrument classification
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Throughout history, various methods of musical instrument classification have been used. The most commonly used system divides instruments into string instruments, woodwind instruments, brass instruments and percussion instruments, the oldest known scheme of classifying instruments is Chinese and dates from the 3rd millennium BC. It grouped instruments according to the materials they are made of. However, the Chou-Li, an anonymous treatise compiled from sources in about the 2nd century BC, had the following order, metal, stone, clay, leather, silk, wood, gourd. The same order was presented in the Tso Chuan, attributed to Tso Chiu-Ming, more usually, instruments are classified according to how the sound is initially produced. The modern system divides instruments into wind, strings and percussion, the scheme was later expanded by Martin Agricola, who distinguished plucked string instruments, such as guitars, from bowed string instruments, such as violins. Classical musicians today do not always maintain this division, but distinguish between wind instruments with a reed and those where the air is set in motion directly by the lips, many instruments do not fit very neatly into this scheme. The serpent, for example, ought to be classified as a brass instrument, however, it looks more like a woodwind instrument, and is closer to one in many ways, having finger-holes to control pitch, rather than valves. Keyboard instruments do not fit easily into this scheme, for example, the piano has strings, but they are struck by hammers, so it is not clear whether it should be classified as a string instrument or a percussion instrument. Ottoman encyclopedist Hadji Khalifa also recognized the three classes in his Kashf al-Zunun an Asami al-Kutub wa al-Funun, a treatise on the origin. The division pervades Tboli thought about cosmology, social characters of men and women, victor-Charles Mahillon later adopted a system very similar to this. This scheme was taken up by Erich von Hornbostel and Curt Sachs who published an extensive new scheme for classication in Zeitschrift für Ethnologie in 1914. Their scheme is used today, and is most often known as the Hornbostel-Sachs system. Electrophones, such as the guitar or electric bass, which produce sound through electricity and is required to be plugged in to an amplifier. Later Sachs added a category, electrophones, such as theremins. Modern synthesizers and electronic instruments fall in this category, within each category are many subgroups. The system has been criticised and revised over the years, in 1932, comparative musicologist André Schaeffner developed a new classification scheme that was exhaustive, potentially covering all real and conceivable instruments. The Kpelle of West Africa also use this system and they distinguish the struck, including both beaten and plucked, and the blown
3.
Struck idiophone
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A chime bar or resonator bell is a percussion instrument consisting of a tuned metal bar similar to a glockenspiel bar, with each bar mounted on its own wooden resonator. Chime bars are played with mallets again similar to a glockenspiel, the sound is similar to a glockenspiel, but with much more sustain, similar in this respect to a vibraphone but without the vibrato. Chime bars can be arranged on a table to be played by a player, or played by a group in a similar fashion to handbells, with each member holding a chime in one hand. They are used from professional music to classrooms, tubular bell, also known as bar chime. Mark tree, also known as bar chimes
4.
Range (music)
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In music, the range of a musical instrument is the distance from the lowest to the highest pitch it can play. For a singing voice, the equivalent is vocal range, the range of a musical part is the distance between its lowest and highest note. The terms sounding range, written range, designated range, duration range, a piccolo, for example, typically has a sounding range one octave higher than its written range. The designated range is the set of notes the player should or can achieve while playing, all instruments have a designated range, and all pitched instruments have a playing range. Timbre, dynamics, and duration ranges are interrelated and one may achieve registral range at the expense of timbre, the designated range is thus the range in which a player is expected to have comfortable control of all aspects. The duration range is the difference between the shortest and longest rhythm used, dynamic range is the difference between the quietest and loudest volume of an instrument, part or piece of music. Although woodwind instruments and string instruments have no upper limit to their range. Brass instruments, on the hand, can play beyond their designated ranges. Notes lower than the brass instruments designated range are called pedal tones, the playing range of a brass instrument depends on both the technical limitations of the instrument and the skill of the player. Classical arrangements seldom make woodwind or brass instruments play beyond their designed range, string musicians play the bottom of their ranges very frequently, but the top of a string instruments range is rather fuzzy, and it is unusual for a string player to exceed the designated range. It is quite rare for wind musicians to play the extremes of their instruments, the most common exception is that in many 20th century works, pedal tones are called for in bass trombones. This chart uses standard numberings for octaves where middle C corresponds to C4, in the MIDI language middle C is referred to as MIDI note number 60. The lowest note that an organ can sound is C−1. However, if acoustic combination counts, the lowest note is C−2, *This chart only displays down to C0, though some pipe organs, such as the Boardwalk Hall Auditorium Organ, extend down to C−1. Also, the frequency of the subcontrabass tuba is B♭−1
5.
Musical instrument
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A musical instrument is an instrument created or adapted to make musical sounds. In principle, any object that produces sound can be a musical instrument—it is through purpose that the object becomes a musical instrument, the history of musical instruments dates to the beginnings of human culture. Early musical instruments may have used for ritual, such as a trumpet to signal success on the hunt. Cultures eventually developed composition and performance of melodies for entertainment, Musical instruments evolved in step with changing applications. The date and origin of the first device considered an instrument is disputed. The oldest object that some refer to as a musical instrument. Some consensus dates early flutes to about 37,000 years ago, many early musical instruments were made from animal skins, bone, wood, and other non-durable materials. Musical instruments developed independently in many populated regions of the world, however, contact among civilizations caused rapid spread and adaptation of most instruments in places far from their origin. By the Middle Ages, instruments from Mesopotamia were in maritime Southeast Asia, development in the Americas occurred at a slower pace, but cultures of North, Central, and South America shared musical instruments. By 1400, musical instrument development slowed in areas and was dominated by the Occident. Musical instrument classification is a discipline in its own right, Instruments can be classified by their effective range, their material composition, their size, etc. However, the most common method, Hornbostel-Sachs, uses the means by which they produce sound. The academic study of instruments is called organology. Once humans moved from making sounds with their bodies—for example, by using objects to create music from sounds. Primitive instruments were designed to emulate natural sounds, and their purpose was ritual rather than entertainment. The concept of melody and the pursuit of musical composition were unknown to early players of musical instruments. A player sounding a flute to signal the start of a hunt does so without thought of the notion of making music. Musical instruments are constructed in an array of styles and shapes
6.
Cowbell (instrument)
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The cowbell is an idiophone hand percussion instrument used in various styles of music including salsa and infrequently in popular music. It is named after the similar bell historically used by herdsmen to keep track of the whereabouts of cows, while the cowbell is commonly found in musical contexts, its origin can be traced to freely roaming animals. In order to identify the herd to which these animals belonged. As the animals moved about the bell would ring, thus making it easier to know of the animals whereabouts, though the bells were used on various types of animals, they are typically referred to as cowbells due to their extensive use with cattle. Since they are tuned differently, in order to distinguish individual animals, they can be collected from the pasture in random tunings, the metal clapper is retained, and they sound much more noisy than handbells, which are otherwise used similarly in ensembles. Composers who included Almglocken among their musical palette include Tōru Takemitsu, Jo Kondo, Gustav Mahler, Richard Strauss, Roy Harter, John Adams, Joseph Schwantner, and Karlheinz Stockhausen. Olivier Messiaen used multiple chromatic sets of cowbells in several of his compositions, notably Et expecto resurrectionem mortuorum. Clapperless cowbells made of metal are an important element in Latin-American and these cowbells are struck with a stick – the tone being modulated by striking different parts of the bell and by damping with the hand holding the bell. In several parts of the pairs or trios of clapperless bells are joined in such a way that they can be struck separately or clashed together. The Brazilian name for these is agogo bells, cylindrical wood blocks played in the same way are also called Agogô. In Cuban music the cowbell is called cencerro and often played by the player as the bongos. In Caribbean music two or three are mounted together with a pair of timbales. This type of cowbell can also be played with the using a modified bass drum pedal or bowed with a double bass bow. Although cowbells first appeared in American hillbilly music in the 1920s, they have also been used as an instrument in more recent popular music. The intro and ending to the 1958 track Heartbeat by the American artist Buddy Holly, the Roland TR-808 drum machine was noted for its distinctive cowbell sound, which sounded almost nothing like an actual cowbell, the sound was highly electronic with a sharp, short decay. DFA Records are noted for using a lot of cowbell in their remixes, the cowbell gained popular attention as the subject of an April 8,2000 Saturday Night Live sketch popularly known as More Cowbell. The sketch--considered one of the best SNL sketches of all time--parodied Blue Öyster Cults The Reaper, the guitar riffs and cowbell drew from Born on the Bayou, by Creedence Clearwater Revival. Though Queens of the Stone Age have also used the cowbell in many songs, but when they performed it on Saturday Night Live, Will Ferrell, dressed like Gene Frenkle from the More Cowbell sketch, got up on stage and played the jam block part on the cowbell
7.
Handbell
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A handbell is a bell designed to be rung by hand. An individual handbell can be used simply as a signal to catch peoples attention or summon them together, the first tuned handbells were developed by brothers Robert and William Cor in Aldbourne, Wiltshire, England, between 1696 and 1724. Originally, tuned sets of handbells, such as the ones made by the Cor brothers, were used by change ringers to rehearse outside their towers. The handbell sets used by change ringers had the number of bells as in the towers - generally six or 12 tuned to a diatonic scale. Handbells were first brought to the United States from England by Margaret Shurcliff in 1902, the bells used in American handbell choirs are almost always English handbells. English handbells is a reference to a type of handbells. While some American handbell choirs do use bells made in England, in America, however, they are all called English handbells. The two major defining characteristics of English handbells are their clappers and ability to produce overtones, the clapper on an English handbell is on a hinge and moves back and forth in a single direction, unlike a school bell in which the clapper swings freely in any direction. It also has a spring that holds the clapper away from the casting after the strike to allow the bell to ring freely, furthermore, the shaft of the clapper is rigid, such that the bell may be held with its mouth facing upward. The overtones on an English handbell are a 12th above the fundamental, Handbells can weigh as little as 7 oz or upwards of 18 lb. A handbell choir or handbell ensemble or handbell team is a group that rings recognizable music with melodies and harmony, the bells used generally include all notes of the chromatic scale within the range of the bell set. While a smaller group uses only 25 bells, the sets are often larger, the bells are typically arranged chromatically on foam-covered tables, these tables protect the bronze surface of the bell, as well as keep the bells from rolling when placed on their sides. The coordination of the bell ringers requires a different approach than other ensembles, all the ringers read from a complete score. Handbell music is one octave lower than the actual sound the bells make. A few composers and arrangers write longer and more works for handbells. The tone of the bell will continue to resonate, decaying naturally until it completely, or until the ringer stops the tone by damping the bell with a hand, on the body. Handbell techniques have changed much over the years. He is also credited for promoting precise damping or stopping of the sound by touching the bell casting to a soft surface
8.
Gong
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A gong is an East and South East Asian musical percussion instrument that takes the form of a flat, circular metal disc which is hit with a mallet. It originated in China and later spread to Southeast Asia, Gongs are broadly of three types. Suspended gongs are more or less flat, circular discs of metal suspended vertically by means of a cord passed through holes near to the top rim, bossed or nipple gongs have a raised centre boss and are often suspended and played horizontally. Bowl gongs are bowl-shaped, and rest on cushions and belong more to bells than gongs, Gongs are made mainly from bronze or brass but there are many other alloys in use. Gongs produce two types of sound. A gong with a flat surface vibrates in multiple modes. This category of gong is called a tam-tam to distinguish it from the bossed gongs that give a tuned note. In Indonesian gamelan ensembles, some bossed gongs are made to generate in addition a beat note in the range from about 1 to 5 Hz. The use of the gong for both these types of instrument is common. Suspended gongs are played with hammers and are of two types, flat faced discs either with or without a turned edge, and gongs with a raised centre boss. In general, the larger the gong, the larger and softer the hammer, in Western symphonic music the flat faced gongs are generally referred to as tam-tams to distinguish them from their bossed counterparts, and the term gong is reserved to the bossed type only. The gong has been a Chinese instrument for millennia and their first use may have been to signal peasant workers in from the fields as some gongs are loud enough to be heard from up to five miles away. In Japan, they are used to start the beginning of sumo wrestling contests. Large flat gongs may be primed by lightly hitting them before the stroke, greatly enhancing the sound and causing the instrument to speak sooner. Keeping this priming stroke inaudible calls for a deal of skill. The smallest suspended gongs are played with sticks, or even western-style drumsticks. Contemporary and avant-garde music, where different sounds are sought, will often use friction mallets, bass bows, rock gongs are large stones struck with smaller stones to create a metallic resonating sound. By far the most familiar to most Westerners is the chau gong or bullseye gong, large chau gongs, called tam-tams have become part of the symphony orchestra
9.
Strike tone
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The strike tone, strike note, or tap note, of a bell when struck is the dominant note perceived immediately by the human ear. It is also known as the prime or fundamental note, the correct harmonic tuning of the bell is therefore important in creating a good strike tone. When a bell is struck, the energy imparted causes vibration of the bell in a complex manner and this atonal strike sound includes many inharmonic that die out quickly, giving way to a strike note or strike tone that is dominated by the prominent partials of the bell. Most observers identify the metallic strike note as having a pitch at or near the frequency of the second partial. Finally, as the sound of the bell ebbs, the slowly decaying hum tone lingers on, the low sound heard after the strike note has lost its intensity is called the hum. There are also present a third and perfect fifth in the first octave. Regarding their names, When struck by its clapper, a bell vibrates in a complex way. In general and these partials are customarily given names such as hum, prime, minor third, fifth, octave, upper octave, etc. The strike note of the bell, which is determined by three partials, is close to the pitch of the prime in a well-tuned bell. Bells with good tone are well-tuned, above the nominal the major 3rd and perfect 5th can be heard in bells of considerable size, in smaller bells they are so weak as not to be worthy of consideration. However, historical approached to bell tuning meant that in the past Very few bells agree with these conditions, generally the hum note is a sixth or seventh, and in rare cases a ninth below the strike note. The nominal is somewhere about an octave or a ninth above the note. Bells that are swung are more likely to conform to the conditions than those that are struck, when the strike note or fundamental of a bell is tuned, its harmonic series must be tuned with it. Bells often contain secondary strike tones which are inharmonic, or unrelated to the series of the original strike note. The strike note is of great interest to psychoacousticians, because it is a subjective tone created by three strong nearly harmonic partials in the bell sound. The octave or nominal, the twelfth, and the upper octave normally have frequencies nearly in the ratios 2,3,4, the ear assumes these to be partials of a missing fundamental, which it hears as the strike note. In a well-tuned bell the strike note is generally close to the prime, play chime note on C Below are the names and relative frequencies of important partials of tuned church bell or carillon bell
10.
Resonator
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The oscillations in a resonator can be either electromagnetic or mechanical. Resonators are used to generate waves of specific frequencies or to select specific frequencies from a signal. Musical instruments use acoustic resonators that produce sound waves of specific tones, another example is quartz crystals used in electronic devices such as radio transmitters and quartz watches to produce oscillations of very precise frequency. A cavity resonator is one in which waves exist in a space inside the device. Acoustic cavity resonators, in sound is produced by air vibrating in a cavity with one opening, are known as Helmholtz resonators. A physical system can have as many resonant frequencies as it has degrees of freedom, systems with one degree of freedom, such as a mass on a spring, pendulums, balance wheels, and LC tuned circuits have one resonant frequency. Systems with two degrees of freedom, such as coupled pendulums and resonant transformers can have two resonant frequencies, a crystal lattice composed of N atoms bound together can have N resonant frequencies. As the number of coupled harmonic oscillators grows, the time it takes to transfer energy from one to the next becomes significant, the vibrations in them begin to travel through the coupled harmonic oscillators in waves, from one oscillator to the next. The term resonator is most often used for an object in which vibrations travel as waves, at an approximately constant velocity, bouncing back. The material of the resonator, through which the waves flow, therefore, they can have millions of resonant frequencies, although only a few may be used in practical resonators. The oppositely moving waves interfere with other, and at its resonant frequencies reinforce each other to create a pattern of standing waves in the resonator. If the distance between the sides is d, the length of a trip is 2 d. To cause resonance, the phase of a sinusoidal wave after a round trip must be equal to the initial phase so the waves self-reinforce. The above analysis assumes the medium inside the resonator is homogeneous, so the waves travel at a constant speed, and they are then called overtones instead of harmonics. There may be several such series of resonant frequencies in a single resonator, an electrical circuit composed of discrete components can act as a resonator when both an inductor and capacitor are included. Oscillations are limited by the inclusion of resistance, either via a specific resistor component, such resonant circuits are also called RLC circuits after the circuit symbols for the components. A distributed-parameter resonator has capacitance, inductance, and resistance that cannot be isolated into separate lumped capacitors, inductors, an example of this, much used in filtering, is the helical resonator. A single layer coil that is used as a secondary or tertiary winding in a Tesla coil or magnifying transmitter is also a distributed resonator
11.
Jingle bell
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A jingle bell or sleigh bell is a type of bell which produces a distinctive jingle sound, especially in large numbers. They find use in areas as a percussion instrument, including the classic sleigh bell sound. They are typically used as an alternative to small classic bells. The simplest jingle bells are produced from a piece of sheet metal bent into a roughly spherical shape to contain a small ball bearing or short piece of metal rod. This method of production results in the classic two- or four-leaved shape, two halves may also be crimped together, resulting in a ridge around the middle. A glass marble may also be used as the ringer on larger bells, bells of this type were developed centuries ago for fastening to harnesses used with horses or teams of horses. Typically they were used for vehicles, such as carriages. The bell was designed to make sound whenever the horse and thus the vehicle was in motion, the purpose was perhaps to herald the approach of someone important, or likely to warn pedestrians of the vehicles approach so that they might step aside to avoid collisions and potential injuries. This was especially important for sleighs, which make almost no sound as they travel over packed snow. Jingle bells are used on Christmas decorations or as Christmas ornaments themselves. They can also be strung onto a wire and bent into a wreath shape. Rather than the opening in the bottom, other designs may be cut into the bell. Small designs like stars may also be cut into the part of the bell. Like many Christmas decorations, jingle bells are made in versions for other holidays. Gustav Mahler makes use of bells in his Symphony No.4. Sergei Prokofiev calls for sleigh bells in his Lieutenant Kijé Suite
12.
Bell metal
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Bell metal is a hard alloy used for making bells and related instruments, such as cymbals. It is a form of bronze with a tin content. The higher tin content increases the rigidity of the metal, and it also has industrial uses, being specified for valve bodies, piston rings, bearings, and bushings. This metal combination produces a tough, long-wearing material that is resistant to oxidation, verdigris forms a protective patina on the surface of bells which coats it against further oxidation. Specifically, it is the combination of low internal damping and low internal sound velocity that makes bell metal specially suitable for resonant percussion instruments. The bronze alloy type C91300 is typically cited as bell bronze with a hardness number of 160. Most commonly, and as per its name, bell metal has been. The bell-metal used is an alloy of copper and tin only. This is a higher tin component than that used in statuary bronze. A range of percentages of tin content can vary from 20% - 26%, bell metal in this range of ratios has been used for more than 3,000 years, and is known for its resonance and attractive sound. The crystal lattice formation of this alloy is able to high impact energies, such as from a bell clapper or hammer, without distortion. This results in a resonant sound and causes the bell to vibrate strongly in a complex nodal system, in esoteric Buddhism, bells may be cast with a special 5-Metal alloy. Each of the metals represents one of the 5 Buddhas / Wisdoms, a 7-Metal alloy containing trace amounts of silver and gold is also sometimes used. A similar alloy is employed for the gongs, saron, demung, in this case the tin, copper ratio is traditionally given as 3,10 by weight. Whereas bells are cast and then left to cool, the metal of Indonesian gongs and metallophones is cast as rough blanks, bell metal was used to cast many early Spanish, Portuguese and Malay cannon, most notably the Javanese cannon known erroneously as lantaka. In Java, bell metal mixtures including tin were used for the manufacture of figurines, objet dart, sculptures. This material was adopted by the Javanese-influenced cultures of Thailand, Khmer. Bell metal is particularly prized for its excellent sonorous qualities, also found in bell metal cannons which produce a distinct, later, disaffected smiths and noble entourages emigrating from Java brought these cannon-founding skill to Philippines, Brunei, Malaysia and Myanmar
13.
Bronze
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These additions produce a range of alloys that may be harder than copper alone, or have other useful properties, such as stiffness, ductility, or machinability. The archeological period where bronze was the hardest metal in use is known as the Bronze Age. In the ancient Near East this began with the rise of Sumer in the 4th millennium BC, with India and China starting to use bronze around the same time, everywhere it gradually spread across regions. The Bronze Age was followed by the Iron Age starting from about 1300 BC and reaching most of Eurasia by about 500 BC, the discovery of bronze enabled people to create metal objects which were harder and more durable than previously possible. Bronze tools, weapons, armor, and building such as decorative tiles were harder and more durable than their stone. It was only later that tin was used, becoming the major ingredient of bronze in the late 3rd millennium BC. Tin bronze was superior to arsenic bronze in that the process could be more easily controlled. Also, unlike arsenic, metallic tin and fumes from tin refining are not toxic, the earliest tin-alloy bronze dates to 4500 BCE in a Vinča culture site in Pločnik. Other early examples date to the late 4th millennium BC in Africa, Susa and some ancient sites in China, Luristan, ores of copper and the far rarer tin are not often found together, so serious bronze work has always involved trade. Tin sources and trade in ancient times had a influence on the development of cultures. In Europe, a source of tin was the British deposits of ore in Cornwall. In many parts of the world, large hoards of bronze artefacts are found, suggesting that bronze also represented a store of value, in Europe, large hoards of bronze tools, typically socketed axes, are found, which mostly show no signs of wear. With Chinese ritual bronzes, which are documented in the inscriptions they carry and from other sources and these were made in enormous quantities for elite burials, and also used by the living for ritual offerings. Pure iron is soft, and the process of beating and folding sponge iron to wrought iron removes from the metal carbon. Careful control of the alloying and tempering eventually allowed for wrought iron with properties comparable to modern steel, Bronze was still used during the Iron Age, and has continued in use for many purposes to the modern day. Among other advantages, it does not rust, the weaker wrought iron was found to be sufficiently strong for many uses. Archaeologists suspect that a disruption of the tin trade precipitated the transition. The population migrations around 1200–1100 BC reduced the shipping of tin around the Mediterranean, limiting supplies, there are many different bronze alloys, but typically modern bronze is 88% copper and 12% tin
14.
Bell-gable
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The bell gable is an architectural element crowning at the upper end of the wall of church buildings, usually in lieu of a church tower. It consists of an end in stone, with small hollow semi-circular arches where the church bells are placed. It is an example of the simplicity of romanesque architecture. Bell-gables or espadañas are a feature of Romanesque architecture in Spain, since they were easier and cheaper to build than a church tower or bell tower, they are especially common in small village churches throughout the Iberian Peninsula. This simple and sober architectural element would later be brought to the Americas and the Philippines by Iberian colonizers. The bell gable usually rises over the front façade wall, in Catalonia and the Valencian Community bell-gables are also known as campanar de paret or campanar de cadireta. Because it reminds one of the back of a chair, in Écija the bell tower of the church of Santa Bárbara fell destroyed by a lightning strike in 1892 and was replaced by an espadaña, a more expedient solution than rebuilding the tower. Zvonnitsa Bell tower Bamboo or Brick, The travails of building churches in Spanish Colonial Philippines by Jose Regalado Trota, Ayala Museum
15.
Ring of bells
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A Ring of bells is the name bell ringers give to a set of bells hung in the English full circle ringing style. The term peal of bells is often used, but a peal refers to a change ringing performance of more than about 5,000 changes. A set of bells rung in this manner can be made to strike in different sequences and this ability to control the speed of bells soon led to the development of change ringing where the striking sequence of the bells is changed to give variety and musicality to the sound. The vast majority of rings are in church towers in the Anglican church in England and they are tuned to the notes of a diatonic scale, and range from a few hundredweight up to a few tons in weight. They are most commonly associated with churches as a means of calling the congregation to worship, smaller rings of bells, known as mini-rings have come recently into existence for training, demonstration or leisure purposes, with bells weighing just a few kilogrammes. The full-circle bell is hung from bearings at the headstock and can be swung through an arc of over 360 degrees using a rope wrapping round a circular bell wheel in alternate directions. This allows the speed of the bell to be changed, by controlling the arc of the swing, the larger the arc, the slower the rate of striking. The bells are mounted within a bellframe of steel or wood, each bell is suspended from a headstock fitted on trunnions mounted to the belfry framework so that the bell assembly can rotate. The headstock is fitted with a stay, which, in conjunction with a slider. To the headstock a large wheel is fitted and to which a rope is attached. The rope wraps and unwraps as the bell rotates backwards and forwards and this is full circle ringing and quite different from fixed or limited motion bells, which chime. Within the bell the clapper is constrained to swing in the direction that the bell swings, the clapper is a rigid steel or wrought iron bar with a large ball to strike the bell. The thickest part of the mouth of bell is called the soundbow, beyond the ball is a flight, which controls the speed of the clapper. In very small bells this can be nearly as long as the rest of the clapper, the rope is attached to one side of the wheel so that a different amount of rope is wound on and off as it swings to and fro. The first stroke is the handstroke with an amount of rope on the wheel. The ringer pulls on the sally and when the bell swings up it draws up more rope onto the wheel and the sally rises to, or beyond, the ringer keeps hold of the tail-end of the rope to control the bell. After a controlled pause with the bell, on or close to its balancing point, as the sally rises, the ringer catches it to pause the bell at its balance position. Each time it is pulled, a motion begins in the mouth-upwards position
16.
Carillon
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A carillon is a musical instrument that is typically housed in the bell tower of a church or municipal building. The instrument consists of at least 23 cast bronze, cup-shaped bells, a traditional manual carillon is played by striking a keyboard – the stick-like keys of which are called batons – with the fists, and by pressing the keys of a pedal keyboard with the feet. Although unusual, real carillons have occasionally been fitted to theatre organs, such as the Christie organ installed at the Regal Cinema, Marble Arch, a carillon-like instrument with fewer than 23 bells is called a chime. The carillon is the second heaviest of all extant musical instruments, the heaviest carillon in the world weighs over 100 tons, whereas the Wanamaker organ in Philadelphia weighs 287 tons. The word carillon is from the French quadrillon, meaning four bells, in German, a carillon is also called a Glockenspiel, while the percussion instrument called a glockenspiel by English speakers is often called a carillon in French. In medieval times, swinging bells were first used as a way of notifying people of imminent church services, however, the use of bells to play melodic musical compositions originated in the 16th century in the Low Countries. The first carillon was in Flanders, where a fool performed music on the bells of Oudenaarde Town Hall in 1510 by using a baton keyboard, major figures in the evolution of the modern carillon were Pieter and François Hemony working in the 17th century. They are credited as being the greatest carillon bell founders in the history of the Low Countries, since each separate note is produced by an individual bell, a carillons musical range is determined by the number of bells it has. Different names are assigned to instruments based on the number of bells they comprise, players of these instruments often use music arranged specifically for their limited range of notes. A concert carillon has a range of at least four octaves and this is sometimes referred to as the standard-sized carillon. The Riverside Carillon in New York City has the largest tuned bell in the world. Travelling or mobile carillons are not placed in a tower, some of them can even be played indoors—in a concert hall or church—like the mobile carillon of Frank Steijns. The World Carillon Federation defines a carillon as A musical instrument composed of tuned bronze bells which are played from a baton keyboard, only those carillons having at least 23 bells may be taken into consideration. The carillonneur or carillonist is the title of the musician who plays the carillon, the carillonneur/carillonist usually sits in a cabin beneath the bells and presses down, with a loosely closed fist, on a series of baton-like keys arranged in the same pattern as a piano keyboard. The batons are almost never played with the fingers as one does a piano, though this is sometimes used as a special carillon playing technique. The keys activate levers and wires that directly to the bells clappers, thus, as with a piano. In addition to the keys, the heavier bells are also played with a pedal keyboard. These notes can either be played with the hands or the feet, poorly tuned bells often give an out of tune impression and also can be out of tune with themselves
17.
Russian Orthodox bell ringing
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Russian Orthodox bell ringing has a history starting from the baptism of Rus in 988 and plays an important role in the traditions of the Russian Orthodox Church. The ringing of bells is one of the most essential elements of an Orthodox church, the use of bells is not only practical, but is also considered to be spiritual. There is also a service for the blessing of a bell ringer, Bells are blessed with a ritual containing many of the elements of the Rite of Baptism. The new bell is blessed with water and censed, both outside and inside, and the priest lays hands on the bell to bless it. During the rite, the bell is named, the bell is also anointed with chrism, just as an Orthodox Christian is at chrismation. Sometimes Orthodox churches and monasteries will combine the use of bells with the striking of a wooden or metal semantron, with the semantron being sounded first, after the conversion of Kievan Rus to Christianity in the 10th century, bells came gradually into use everywhere. Originally, a piece of wood or metal called a semantron would be beaten rhythmically with a mallot to summon the faithful to services. This was especially true in monasteries, some of still to this day use both semantrons and bells. While the semantron was inherited from Greece, the use of bells was imported into Russia from Western Europe. The Russian word for bell is kolokol, which comes from the German word glocke, derived from the Latin clocca, the word for bell in Church Slavonic is kampan, which is derived from Latin campana. During the fifteenth century the semantron began to be replaced by bells. At that time, several foundries for bell making were established in Russia, Russian church bells are commonly cast using a mixture of bronze and tin, often with silver added to the bell metal, to produce their unique sonority and resonance. Russian bells also tend to differ from Western bells in the proportion of their height to width, the clapper of the bell also follows a different design than that used in the West. The art of bellfounding reached its pinnacle in the 18th century, the largest bell in the world, the Tsar Bell was cast in 1733 for the Ivan the Great Bell Tower in Moscow. Unfortunately, the Tsar Bell was damaged in a fire in 1737 before it could be successfully hung, the largest working bell in the world is the Dormition Bell which hangs in the same Ivan the Great Bell Tower. After the Bolshevik Revolution, the Soviet Union severely persecuted Christianity, numerous bells were destroyed and during certain periods the production of church bells all but stopped. After the fall of the Iron Curtain the production of bells resumed, technically, bells rung in the Russian tradition are sounded exclusively by chiming and never by swinging the bell. For the Russian tradition a special system of ropes is used, designed individually for each belltower
18.
Bell tower
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A bell tower is a tower that contains one or more bells, or that is designed to hold bells even if it has none. Church bell towers often incorporate clocks, and secular towers usually do, the Italian term campanile, deriving from the word campana meaning bell, is synonymous with bell tower, though in English usage Campanile tends to be used to refer to a free standing bell tower. A bell tower may also in some traditions be called a belfry, though this term may refer specifically to the substructure that houses the bells. The tallest free-standing bell tower in the world, approximately 110 m high, is the Joseph Chamberlain Memorial Clock Tower, located at the University of Birmingham, bells are rung from a tower to enable them to be heard at a distance. Church bells can signify the time for worshippers to go to church for a communal service and they are also rung on special occasions such as a wedding, or a funeral service. In some religious traditions they are used within the liturgy of the service to signify to people that a particular part of the service has been reached. A bell tower may have a bell, or a collection of bells which are tuned to a common scale. They may be stationary and chimed, rung randomly by swinging through a small arc and they may house a carillon or chimes, in which the bells are sounded by hammers connected via cables to a keyboard. These can be found in churches and secular buildings in Europe and America including college. A variety of electronic devices exist to simulate the sound of bells, some churches have an exconjuratory in the bell tower, a space where ceremonies were conducted to ward off weather-related calamities, like storms and excessive rain. The main bell tower of the Cathedral of Murcia has four, in addition, most Christian denominations ring church bells to call the faithful to worship, signalling the start of a mass or service of worship. The Christian tradition of the ringing of bells from a belltower is analogous to Islamic tradition of the adhan from a minaret. In AD400, Paulinus of Nola introduced church bells into the Christian Church, by the 11th century, bells housed in belltowers became commonplace. Historic bell towers exist throughout Europe, the Irish round towers are thought to have functioned in part as bell towers. Famous medieval European examples include Bruges, Ypres, Ghent, perhaps the most famous European free-standing bell tower, however, is the so-called Leaning Tower of Pisa, which is the campanile of the Duomo di Pisa in Pisa, Italy. In 1999 thirty-two Belgian belfries were added to the UNESCOs list of World Heritage Sites, in 2005 this list was extended with one Belgian and twenty-three Northern French belfries and is since known as Belfries of Belgium and France. In the Middle Ages, cities sometimes kept their important documents in belfries, not all are on a large scale, the bell tower of Katúň, in Slovakia, is typical of the many more modest structures that were once common in country areas. Archaic wooden bell towers survive adjoining churches in Lithuania and as well as in parts of Poland
19.
Striking clock
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A striking clock is a clock that sounds the hours audibly on a bell or gong. The striking feature of clocks was originally more important than their faces, the earliest clocks struck the hours. The development of clocks in Europe was motivated by the need to ring bells upon the canonical hours to call the community to prayer. The earliest known mechanical clocks were striking clocks installed in towers in monasteries or public squares. As the modern 12-hour clock became more widespread, particularly in Great Britain and Northern Europe, 12-hour striking became more widespread, in addition to striking on the hour, many striking clocks play sequences of chimes on the quarter-hours. The most common sequence is Westminster Quarters, today the time-disseminating functions of clock striking are almost totally unnecessary, and striking clocks are kept for historical, traditional, and aesthetic reasons. Historic clock towers in towns, universities, and religious institutions worldwide still strike the hours, famous examples being Big Ben in London, home striking clocks, such as mantel clocks, cuckoo clocks, and grandfather clocks are also common. The most basic sort of striking clock simply sounds a bell every hour. This sort of striking clock is called a passing strike clock. It is far simpler to create such a clock, all that must be done is to attach a cam to a shaft that rotates once an hour and this sort of striking is still found in some skeleton clocks. It does not require a separate train to arm and release the single stroke sounded. The Tang Dynasty Chinese Buddhist monk and inventor Yi Xing created a rotating globe that was given motive power by hydraulics of a turning waterwheel. This featured two wooden gear jacks on its surface with a drum and a bell, the bell being struck automatically every hour. It is recorded that Confucian students in the year 730 were required to write an essay on this device in order to pass the Imperial examinations. The use of jacks to sound the hours were used in later clock towers of Song Dynasty China, such as those designed by Zhang Sixun and Su Song in the 10th and 11th centuries. A striking clock outside of China was the tower near the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus, Syria. It was constructed by the Arab engineer al-Kaysarani in 1154, the Florentine writer Dante Alighieri made a reference to the gear works of striking clocks in 1319. The most famous original striking clock tower still standing is possibly the one in St Marks Clocktower in St Marks Square, Venice
20.
Campanology
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Campanology is the study of bells. It encompasses the technology of bells – how they are cast, tuned, rung, and sounded – as well as the history, methods and it is common to collect together a set of tuned bells and treat the whole as one musical instrument. In this sense, however, the word campanology is most often used in reference to relatively large bells and it is not usually applied to assemblages of smaller bells, such as a glockenspiel, a collection of tubular bells, or an Indonesian gamelan. A campanologist is one who studies campanology, though it is popularly mis-used to refer to a bell ringer, the carillon is a collection of tuned bells for playing conventional melodic music. The bells are stationary and struck by hammers linked to a clavier keyboard. The carillon of Kirk in the Hills, Bloomfield Hills, Michigan, United States, along with the one at Hyechon College in Daejoen, modern large carillon edifices have been erected as stand-alone instruments across the world, for instance the Netherlands Carillon at Arlington National Cemetery. The carillon in the Church of St Peter, Aberdyfi, Gwynedd, a carillon-like instrument with fewer than 23 bells is called a chime. American chimes usually have one to one and a half diatonic octaves, many chimes play an automated piece of music, such as clock chimes. Chime bells generally used to lack dynamic variation and inner tuning, or the balance of a bells complex sound. Since the 20th century, in Belgium and The Netherlands, clock chime bells have inner tuning and these chimes should not be confused with another musical instrument also called chimes nor with a wind chime. The bells in Russian tradition are sounded by their clappers, attached to ropes, all the ropes are gathered in one place, where the bell-ringer stands. The ropes are not pulled, but rather pressed with hands or legs, since one end of every rope is fixed, and the ropes are kept in tension, a press or even a punch on a rope makes a clapper move. The Russian Tsar Bell is the largest extant bell in the world, in English style full circle ringing the bells in a church tower are hung so that on each stroke the bell swings through a complete circle, actually a little more than 360 degrees. Each alternate pull or stroke is identified as either handstroke or backstroke - handstroke where the sally is pulled followed by a pull on the plain tail. At East Bergholt in the English county of Suffolk, there is a set of bells that are not in a tower and are rung full circle by hand. They are the heaviest ring of five listed in Doves Guide for Church Bell Ringers at 4.25 tons in total. These rings of bells have relatively few bells, compared with a carillon, six or eight-bell towers are common, to swing the heavy bells requires a ringer for each bell. Furthermore, the great inertias involved mean that a ringer has only a limited ability to retard or accelerate his/her bells cycle, along with the relatively limited palette of notes available, the upshot is that such rings of bells do not easily lend themselves to ringing melodies
21.
Low German
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Low German or Low Saxon is a West Germanic language spoken mainly in northern Germany and the eastern part of the Netherlands. It is descended from Old Saxon in its earliest form, as an Ingvaeonic language, Low German is quite distinct from the Irminonic languages like Standard German. It is closely related to Anglo-Frisian group of languages and more distantly to Dutch and this difference resulted from the High German consonant shift, with the Uerdingen and Benrath lines being two notable linguistic borders. Dialects of Low German are widely spoken in the area of the Netherlands and are written there with an orthography based on Standard Dutch orthography. Small portions of northern Hesse and northern Thuringia are traditionally Low Saxon-speaking too, historically, Low German was also spoken in formerly German parts of Poland as well as in East Prussia and the Baltic States of Estonia and Latvia. Under the name Low Saxon, there are speakers in the Dutch north-eastern provinces of Groningen, Drenthe, Stellingwerf, Overijssel, German speakers in this area fled the Red Army or were forcibly expelled after the border changes at the end of World War II. Today, there are still speakers outside Germany and the Netherlands to be found in the areas of present-day Poland. In some of these countries, the language is part of the Mennonite religion, there are Mennonite communities in Ontario, Saskatchewan, Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba, and Minnesota which use Low German in their religious services and communities. The type of Low German spoken in communities and in the Midwest region of the United States has diverged since emigration. The survival of the language is tenuous in many places and has died out in places where assimilation has occurred. Mennonite colonies in Paraguay, Belize, and Chihuahua, Mexico have made Low German a co-official language of the community, in Germany, native speakers of Low German call it Platt, Plattdüütsch or Nedderdüütsch. In the Netherlands, native speakers refer to their language as dialect, plat, nedersaksies, or the name of their village, officially, Low German is called Niederdeutsch by the German authorities and Nedersaksisch by the Dutch authorities. Plattdeutsch/Niederdeutsch and Platduits/Nedersaksisch are seen in texts from the German. In Danish it is called Plattysk, Nedertysk or, rarely, Mennonite Low German is called Plautdietsch. Etymologically Platt meant clear in the sense of a language the people could understand. In Dutch, the word Plat can also mean improper, or rude, the ISO 639-2 language code for Low German has been nds since May 2000. The question of whether Low German should be considered a separate language, linguistics offers no simple, generally accepted criterion to decide this question. Scholarly arguments have been put forward in favour of classifying Low German as a German dialect, as said, these arguments are not linguistic but rather socio-political and build mainly around the fact that Low German has no official standard form or use in sophisticated media
22.
Middle Low German
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Middle Low German or Middle Saxon is a language that is the descendant of Old Saxon and the ancestor of modern Low German. It served as the lingua franca of the Hanseatic League. It was spoken from about 1100 to 1600, Middle Low German is a term used with varying degrees of inclusivity. It is distinguished from Middle High German, spoken to the south, Middle Low German provided a large number of loanwords to languages spoken around the Baltic Sea as a result of the activities of Hanseatic traders. It is considered the largest single source of loanwords in Estonian, Latvian, Middle Low German was the lingua franca of the Hanseatic League, spoken all around the North Sea and the Baltic Sea. Traces of the importance of Middle Low German can be seen by the many found in the Scandinavian, Finnic
23.
Dutch language
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It is the third most widely spoken Germanic language, after English and German. Dutch is one of the closest relatives of both German and English and is said to be roughly in between them, Dutch vocabulary is mostly Germanic and incorporates more Romance loans than German but far fewer than English. In both Belgium and the Netherlands, the official name for Dutch is Nederlands, and its dialects have their own names, e. g. Hollands, West-Vlaams. The use of the word Vlaams to describe Standard Dutch for the variations prevalent in Flanders and used there, however, is common in the Netherlands, the Dutch language has been known under a variety of names. It derived from the Old Germanic word theudisk, one of the first names used for the non-Romance languages of Western Europe. It literarily means the language of the people, that is. The term was used as opposed to Latin, the language of writing. In the first text in which it is found, dating from 784, later, theudisca appeared also in the Oaths of Strasbourg to refer to the Germanic portion of the oath. This led inevitably to confusion since similar terms referred to different languages, owing to Dutch commercial and colonial rivalry in the 16th and 17th centuries, the English term came to refer exclusively to the Dutch. A notable exception is Pennsylvania Dutch, which is a West Central German variety called Deitsch by its speakers, Jersey Dutch, on the other hand, as spoken until the 1950s in New Jersey, is a Dutch-based creole. In Dutch itself, Diets went out of common use - although Platdiets is still used for the transitional Limburgish-Ripuarian Low Dietsch dialects in northeast Belgium, Nederlands, the official Dutch word for Dutch, did not become firmly established until the 19th century. This designation had been in use as far back as the end of the 15th century, one of them was it reflected a distinction with Hoogduits, High Dutch, meaning the language spoken in Germany. The Hoog was later dropped, and thus, Duits narrowed down in meaning to refer to the German language. g, in English, too, Netherlandic is regarded as a more accurate term for the Dutch language, but is hardly ever used. Old Dutch branched off more or less around the same time Old English, Old High German, Old Frisian and Old Saxon did. During that period, it forced Old Frisian back from the western coast to the north of the Low Countries, on the other hand, Dutch has been replaced in adjacent lands in nowadays France and Germany. The division in Old, Middle and Modern Dutch is mostly conventional, one of the few moments linguists can detect somewhat of a revolution is when the Dutch standard language emerged and quickly established itself. This is assumed to have taken place in approximately the mid-first millennium BCE in the pre-Roman Northern European Iron Age, the Germanic languages are traditionally divided into three groups, East, West, and North Germanic. They remained mutually intelligible throughout the Migration Period, Dutch is part of the West Germanic group, which also includes English, Scots, Frisian, Low German and High German
24.
Germanic languages
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It is the third most spoken Indo-European subdivision, behind Italic and Indo-Iranian, and ahead of Balto-Slavic languages. Limburgish varieties have roughly 1.3 million speakers along the Dutch–Belgian–German border, the main North Germanic languages are Norwegian, Danish, Swedish, Icelandic, and Faroese, which have a combined total of about 20 million speakers. The East Germanic branch included Gothic, Burgundian, and Vandalic, the last to die off was Crimean Gothic, spoken in the late 18th century in some isolated areas of Crimea. The total number of Germanic languages throughout history is unknown, as some of them—especially East Germanic languages—disappeared during or after the Migration Period. Proto-Germanic, along all of its descendants, is characterized by a number of unique linguistic features. Early varieties of Germanic enter history with the Germanic tribes moving south from Scandinavia in the 2nd century BC, to settle in the area of todays northern Germany, furthermore, it is the de facto language of the United Kingdom, the United States and Australia. It is also a language in Nicaragua and Malaysia. German is a language of Austria, Belgium, Germany, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg and Switzerland and has regional status in Italy, Poland, Namibia. German also continues to be spoken as a minority language by immigrant communities in North America, South America, Central America, Mexico, a German dialect, Pennsylvania Dutch, is still present amongst Anabaptist populations in Pennsylvania in the United States. Dutch is a language of Aruba, Belgium, Curaçao. The Netherlands also colonised Indonesia, but Dutch was scrapped as a language after Indonesian independence. Dutch was until 1925 an official language in South Africa, but evolved in and was replaced by Afrikaans, Afrikaans is one of the 11 official languages in South Africa and is a lingua franca of Namibia. It is used in other Southern African nations as well, low German is a collection of sometimes very diverse dialects spoken in the northeast of the Netherlands and northern Germany. Scots is spoken in Lowland Scotland and parts of Ulster, frisian is spoken among half a million people who live on the southern fringes of the North Sea in the Netherlands, Germany, and Denmark. Luxembourgish is mainly spoken in the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, though it extends into small parts of Belgium, France. Limburgish varieties are spoken in the Limburg and Rhineland regions, along the Dutch–Belgian–German border, Swedish is also one of the two official languages in Finland, along with Finnish, and the only official language in the Åland Islands. Danish is also spoken natively by the Danish minority in the German state of Schleswig-Holstein, Norwegian is the official language of Norway. Icelandic is the language of Iceland, and is spoken by a significant minority in the Faroe Islands
25.
Icelandic language
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Icelandic /aɪsˈlændɪk/ is a North Germanic language, the language of Iceland. It is an Indo-European language belonging to the North Germanic or Nordic branch of the Germanic languages, historically, it was the westernmost of the Indo-European languages prior to the colonisation of the Americas. Icelandic, Faroese, Norn, and Western Norwegian formerly constituted West Nordic, Danish, Eastern Norwegian, modern Norwegian Bokmål is influenced by both groups, leading the Nordic languages to be divided into mainland Scandinavian languages and Insular Nordic. Most Western European languages have reduced levels of inflection, particularly noun declension. In contrast, Icelandic retains a four-case synthetic grammar comparable to, Icelandic is distinguished by a wide assortment of irregular declensions. Icelandic also has many instances of oblique cases without any governing word, for example, many of the various Latin ablatives have a corresponding Icelandic dative. The vast majority of Icelandic speakers—about 320, 000—live in Iceland, more than 8,000 Icelandic speakers live in Denmark, of whom approximately 3,000 are students. The language is spoken by some 5,000 people in the United States. Notably in the province of Manitoba, while 97% of the population of Iceland consider Icelandic their mother tongue, the language is in decline in some communities outside Iceland, particularly in Canada. Icelandic speakers outside Iceland represent recent emigration in almost all cases except Gimli, Manitoba, the state-funded Árni Magnússon Institute for Icelandic Studies serves as a centre for preserving the medieval Icelandic manuscripts and studying the language and its literature. Since 1995, on 16 November each year, the birthday of 19th-century poet Jónas Hallgrímsson is celebrated as Icelandic Language Day, the oldest preserved texts in Icelandic were written around 1100 AD. Much of the texts are based on poetry and laws traditionally preserved orally, the most famous of the texts, which were written in Iceland from the 12th century onward, are the Icelandic Sagas. They comprise the historical works and the eddaic poems, the language of the sagas is Old Icelandic, a western dialect of Old Norse. Danish rule of Iceland from 1380 to 1918 had little effect on the evolution of Icelandic, though more archaic than the other living Germanic languages, Icelandic changed markedly in pronunciation from the 12th to the 16th century, especially in vowels. The modern Icelandic alphabet has developed from an established in the 19th century. The later Rasmus Rask standard was a re-creation of the old treatise, with changes to fit concurrent Germanic conventions. Various archaic features, as the letter ð, had not been used much in later centuries, rasks standard constituted a major change in practice. Later 20th-century changes include the use of é instead of je, apart from the addition of new vocabulary, written Icelandic has not changed substantially since the 11th century, when the first texts were written on vellum
26.
Old English
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Old English or Anglo-Saxon is the earliest historical form of the English language, spoken in England and southern and eastern Scotland in the early Middle Ages. It was brought to Great Britain by Anglo-Saxon settlers probably in the mid 5th century, Old English developed from a set of Anglo-Frisian or North Sea Germanic dialects originally spoken by Germanic tribes traditionally known as the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes. As the Anglo-Saxons became dominant in England, their language replaced the languages of Roman Britain, Common Brittonic, a Celtic language, Old English had four main dialects, associated with particular Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, Mercian, Northumbrian, Kentish and West Saxon. It was West Saxon that formed the basis for the standard of the later Old English period, although the dominant forms of Middle. The speech of eastern and northern parts of England was subject to strong Old Norse influence due to Scandinavian rule, Old English is one of the West Germanic languages, and its closest relatives are Old Frisian and Old Saxon. Like other old Germanic languages, it is different from Modern English. Old English grammar is similar to that of modern German, nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and verbs have many inflectional endings and forms. The oldest Old English inscriptions were using a runic system. Old English was not static, and its usage covered a period of 700 years, from the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain in the 5th century to the late 11th century, some time after the Norman invasion. While indicating that the establishment of dates is a process, Albert Baugh dates Old English from 450 to 1150, a period of full inflections. Perhaps around 85 per cent of Old English words are no longer in use, Old English is a West Germanic language, developing out of Ingvaeonic dialects from the 5th century. It came to be spoken over most of the territory of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms which became the Kingdom of England and this included most of present-day England, as well as part of what is now southeastern Scotland, which for several centuries belonged to the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Northumbria. Other parts of the island – Wales and most of Scotland – continued to use Celtic languages, Norse was also widely spoken in the parts of England which fell under Danish law. Anglo-Saxon literacy developed after Christianisation in the late 7th century, the oldest surviving text of Old English literature is Cædmons Hymn, composed between 658 and 680. There is a corpus of runic inscriptions from the 5th to 7th centuries. The Old English Latin alphabet was introduced around the 9th century, with the unification of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms by Alfred the Great in the later 9th century, the language of government and literature became standardised around the West Saxon dialect. In Old English, typical of the development of literature, poetry arose before prose, a later literary standard, dating from the later 10th century, arose under the influence of Bishop Æthelwold of Winchester, and was followed by such writers as the prolific Ælfric of Eynsham. This form of the language is known as the Winchester standard and it is considered to represent the classical form of Old English
27.
Bianzhong of Marquis Yi of Zeng
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The bianzhong were made in 433 B. C. The bianzhong are hung on two sets of wooden racks, one rack is 7.48 metres long and 2.65 metres wide. The other rack is 3.35 metres long and 2.73 metres wide, the two racks are perpendicular to each other. The instrument contains a total of 64 bianzhong, which are hung at three levels and are divided into eight groups, there are 19 bells in three groups at the top level. 33 bells are in three groups in the middle level, there are 12 bells in two groups at the bottom level. The biggest bell is 153.4 centimetres in height and weighs 203.6 kilograms weight, the smallest bell is 20.4 centimetres high and weighs 2.4 kilograms. Each bell can play two tones with three degrees interval between them, the tonal range of Zenghouyi Bells is from C2 to D7. In the middle area of the range, it can play all twelve half tones. The wooden hammers used to strike the bells were also unearthed from the Zeng-hou-yi Tomb, the original bells are currently on display at the Hubei Provincial Museum in Wuhan. Copies have been made for other museums, list of Chinese cultural relics forbidden to be exhibited abroad Lee, Yuan-Yuan and Shen, Sinyan. Chinese Music Society of North America Press, ISBN 1-880464-03-9 Shen, Sinyan, Acoustics of Ancient Chinese Bells, Scientific American,256,94. Suspended music, chime-bells in the culture of Bronze Age China
28.
Yangshao culture
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The Yangshao culture was a Neolithic culture that existed extensively along the Yellow River in China. It is dated from around 5000 BC to 3000 BC, the culture is named after Yangshao, the first excavated representative village of this culture, which was discovered in 1921 in Henan Province by the Swedish archaeologist Johan Gunnar Andersson. The culture flourished mainly in the provinces of Henan, Shaanxi and Shanxi, the main food of the Yangshao people was millet, with some sites using foxtail millet and others broom-corn millet, though some evidence of rice has been found. The exact nature of Yangshao agriculture, small-scale slash-and-burn cultivation versus intensive agriculture in permanent fields, is currently a matter of debate, once the soil was exhausted, residents picked up their belongings, moved to new lands, and constructed new villages. However, Middle Yangshao settlements such as Jiangzhi contain raised-floor buildings that may have used for the storage of surplus grains. Grinding stones for making flour were also found, the Yangshao people kept pigs and dogs. Sheep, goats, and cattle are found more rarely. Much of their meat came from hunting and fishing and their stone tools were polished and highly specialized. They may also have practiced a form of silkworm cultivation. Yangshao artisans created fine white, red, and black painted pottery with human facial, animal, unlike the later Longshan culture, the Yangshao culture did not use pottery wheels in pottery-making. Excavations found that children were buried in painted pottery jars, the Yangshao culture produced silk to a small degree and wove hemp. Men wore loin cloths and tied their hair in a top knot, women wrapped a length of cloth around themselves and tied their hair in a bun. Houses were built by digging a rectangular pit a few feet deep. Then they were rammed, and a lattice of wattle was woven over it, then it was plastered with mud. The floor was also rammed down, next, a few short wattle poles would be placed around the top of the pit, and more wattle would be woven to it. It was plastered with mud, and a framework of poles would be placed to make a shape for the roof. Poles would be added to support the roof and it was then thatched with millet stalks. There was little furniture, a fireplace in the middle with a stool, a bench along the wall
29.
Taosi
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Taosi is an archaeological site in Xiangfen County, Shanxi, China. Taosi is considered to be part of the phase of the Longshan culture in southern Shanxi. Taosi was surrounded by a gigantic rammed-clay enclosure and this was discovered from 1999 to 2001 by the archaeologists from the Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, they attributed this wall to the Middle Taosi period. Rectangular in form with an area of 280 ha. An internal rammed-earth wall separated the residential and ceremonial areas of the elite from the inhabited by commoners. The Huaxia settlement outgrew the perimeter of the wall, the settlement is the largest Longshan site discovered in the Linfen basin, Yellow River basin area, possibly a regional center. The settlement represents the most political system on the Central Plains at the time, the polites in the Taosi site are considered an advanced chiefdom, but may not have not developed into a higher political organization. It was not the Taosi polites but, the socially complex Central Plains Longshan sites. Taosi also contained an astronomical observatory, the oldest in East Asia, archaeologists unearthed a Middle Taosi period semi-round foundation just beside southern wall of the Middle Taosi enclosure, which could be used for astronomical observations. The structure consists of an outer semi-ring-shaped path, and a semi-round rammed-earth platform with a diameter of about 60 m, the platform is 42m in diameter and over 1000 sq m in area. It can be reconstructed as a three-level altar, standing in the center of the altar and watching through the slots, one can find that most of slots respectively orientate to a given point of the Chongfen Mountain to the east. The cemetery of Taosi covered an area of 30,000 square meters at its height, the cemetery contained over 1,500 burials. The burials at Taosi were highly stratified, with burial wealth concentrated in the graves of a few males, a single bronze bell was also found at a Taosi grave. Some Chinese archaeologists believe that Taosi was the site of a state Youtang conquered by Emperor Yao, the observatory found at Taosi just coincides with these records. On the other hand, Western scholars tend to believe that emperor Yao is a mythical figure and it is believed that the city collapsed with a rebellion against the ruling class. The Archaeology of Ancient China, ISBN 0-300-03784-8 He, Nu and Wu, astronomical date of the observatory at Taosi site Higham, Charles, The Bronze Age of Southeast Asia, ISBN 0-521-56505-7 Liu, Li. The Chinese Neolithic, Trajectories to Early States, ISBN 0-521-81184-8
30.
Erlitou culture
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The Erlitou culture was an early Bronze Age urban society and archaeological culture that existed in the Yellow River valley from approximately 1750 to 1530 BC. The culture was named after the site discovered at Erlitou in Yanshi, the culture was widely spread throughout Henan and Shanxi and later appeared in Shaanxi and Hubei. Chinese archaeologists generally identify the Erlitou culture as the site of the Xia dynasty, the Erlitou culture may have evolved from the matrix of Longshan culture. Originally centered around Henan and Shanxi Province, the spread to Shaanxi. After the rise of the Erligang culture, the site at Erlitou diminished in size, discovered in 1959 by Xu Xusheng, Erlitou is the largest site associated with the culture, with palace buildings and bronze smelting workshops. Erlitou monopolized the production of bronze vessels, including the earliest recovered dings. The city is on the Yi River, a tributary of the Luo River, the city was 2.4 km by 1.9 km, however, because of flood damage only 3 km2 are left. The site is divided into four phases, each of roughly 50 years, during Phase I, covering 100 ha, Erlitou was a rapidly growing regional center with estimated population of several thousand, but not yet an urban civilization or capital. Urbanization began in Phase II, expanding to 300 ha with a population around 11,000, a palace area of 12 ha was demarcated by four roads. It contained the 150x50 m Palace 3, composed of three courtyards along a 150-meter axis, and Palace 5, a bronze foundry was established to the south of the palatial complex that was controlled by the elite who lived in palaces. The city reached its peak in Phase III, and may have had a population of around 24,000, the palatial complex was surrounded by a 2-meter thick rammed earth wall and Palaces 1,7,8,9 were built. The earthwork volume of rammed earth for the base of largest Palace 1 is 20,000 m³ at least, Palaces 3 and 5 were abandoned and replaced by 4200 m2 Palace 2 and Palace 4. In Phase IV the population decreased to around 20,000, Palace 6 was built as an extension of Palace 2, and Palaces 10 and 11 were built. Phase IV overlaps with the Lower phase of the Erligang culture, around 1600 to 1560 BC, about 6 km northeast of Erlitou, Eligang cultural walled city was built at Yanshi, which coincide with an increase in production of arrowheads at Erlitou. This situation might indicate that the Yanshi City was competing for power, production of bronzes and other elite goods ceased at the end of Phase IV, at the same time as the Erligang city of Zhengzhou was established 85 km to the east. There is no evidence of destruction by fire or war, but during the Upper Erligang phase all the palaces were abandoned, and Erlitou was reduced to a village of 30 ha. A major goal of archaeology in China has been the search for the capitals of the Xia and Shang dynasties described in traditional accounts as inhabiting the Yellow River valley. The discovery of writing in the form of bones at Yinxu in Anyang definitively established the site as the last capital of the Shang
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Zhou dynasty
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The Zhou dynasty was a Chinese dynasty that followed the Shang dynasty and preceded the Qin dynasty. This period of Chinese history produced what many consider the zenith of Chinese bronze-ware making, the dynasty also spans the period in which the written script evolved into its almost-modern form with the use of an archaic clerical script that emerged during the late Warring States period. He even received sacrifice as a harvest god, the term Hòujì was probably an hereditary title attached to a lineage. Jus son Liu, however, led his people to prosperity by restoring agriculture and settling them at a place called Bin, tai later led the clan from Bin to Zhou, an area in the Wei River valley of modern-day Qishan County. Taibo and Zhongyong had supposedly fled to the Yangtze delta. Jilis son Wen bribed his way out of imprisonment and moved the Zhou capital to Feng, the Zhou enfeoffed a member of the defeated Shang royal family as the Duke of Song, which was held by descendants of the Shang royal family until its end. This practice was referred to as Two Kings, Three Reverences, according to Nicholas Bodman, the Zhou appear to have spoken a language not basically different in vocabulary and syntax from that of the Shang. A recent study by David McCraw, using lexical statistics, reached the same conclusion, the Zhou emulated extensively Shang cultural practices, perhaps to legitimize their own rule, and became the successors to Shang culture. At the same time, the Zhou may also have connected to the Xirong, a broadly defined cultural group to the west of the Shang. According to the historian Li Feng, the term Rong during the Western Zhou period was used to designate political and military adversaries rather than cultural. The proto-Zhou were first located in the Shaanxi-Shanxi highland, where they absorbed elements from the Guangshe culture, King Liu moved his people to the lower Fen Valley and to the western bank of the Yellow River, where they resumed agriculture. His son Qing Jie, led the Zhou to the valley of the Jing River. They stayed there until Dan Fu moved again to the Wei Valley in order to avoid incursion by the Rongdi nomads. During this period, the Zhou mingled with the Qiang people, in all these stages, the advanced Shang bronze culture constantly imparted its influence on the Zhou. The Qi area was the region in all these influences would come to fruition. The contact among the proto-Zhou, the native Shaanxi Longshan, the Qiang, King Wu maintained the old capital for ceremonial purposes but constructed a new one for his palace and administration nearby at Hao. Although Wus early death left a young and inexperienced heir, the Duke of Zhou assisted his nephew King Cheng in consolidating royal power. Wary of the Duke of Zhous increasing power, the Three Guards, Zhou princes stationed on the eastern plain, to maintain Zhou authority over its greatly expanded territory and prevent other revolts, he set up the fengjian system
32.
Klang Bell
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The Klang Bell is an ancient bronze bell found in the city of Klang, Selangor state, western Malaysia. Estimated to date from the iron age, the bell is a rare object of its genre. Found with a number of tools in the city of Klang. Dated by archaeologists to the 2nd Century BC, it is probably a ceremonial object related to the bronze drums known from parts of Southeast Asia. It was acquired by the British Museum in 1949, the Klang Bell has a high, narrow body crowned by a cup-like lid. The entire bell is decorated with bands of rectangles composed of double spirals with central eye motifs. In the lower part of the bell, three irregularly fashioned rows lie above a plain band, J. Rawson, Chinese bronzes, art and ritual L. von Falkenhausen, Suspended Music, Chime-Bells in the Culture of Bronze Age China Harris, Mark. National Museum, Kuala Lumpur, History and culture of Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, Syarikat S. Abdul Majeed, Pub
33.
Solenoid
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A solenoid is a coil wound into a tightly packed helix. The term was invented by French physicist André-Marie Ampère to designate a helical coil, a solenoid is a type of electromagnet when the purpose is to generate a controlled magnetic field. If the purpose of the solenoid is instead to changes in the electric current. Not all electromagnets and inductors are solenoids, for example, the first electromagnet, in engineering, the term may also refer to a variety of transducer devices that convert energy into linear motion. Solenoid bolts, a type of locking mechanism, also exist. An infinite solenoid is a solenoid with infinite length but finite diameter, in short, the magnetic field inside an infinitely long solenoid is homogeneous and its strength neither depends on the distance from the axis, nor on the solenoids cross-sectional area. This is a derivation of the flux density around a solenoid that is long enough so that fringe effects can be ignored. In Figure 1, we know that the flux density vector points in the positive z direction inside the solenoid. We confirm this by applying the right hand rule for the field around a wire. If we wrap our right hand around a wire with the thumb pointing in the direction of the current, since we are dealing with a long solenoid, all of the components of the magnetic field not pointing upwards cancel out by symmetry. Outside, a similar cancellation occurs, and the field is pointing downwards. Now consider the imaginary loop c that is located inside the solenoid, by Ampères law, we know that the line integral of B around this loop is zero, since it encloses no electrical currents. We have shown above that the field is pointing upwards inside the solenoid, thus the integral of the up side 1 is equal to the integral of the down side 2. Note, though, that prohibits it from varying longitudinally. A similar argument can be applied to the loop a to conclude that the field outside the solenoid is radially uniform or constant, an intuitive argument can also be used to show that the flux density outside the solenoid is actually zero. Magnetic field lines only exist as loops, they diverge from or converge to a point like electric field lines can. The magnetic field lines follow the path of the solenoid inside. However, the volume outside the solenoid is much greater than the volume inside, now recall that the field outside is constant
34.
Western world
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The Western world or the West is a term usually referring to different nations, depending on the context, most often including at least part of Europe. There are many accepted definitions about what they all have in common, the Western world is also known as the Occident. The concept of the Western part of the earth has its roots in Greco-Roman civilization in Europe, before the Cold War era, the traditional Western viewpoint identified Western Civilization with the Western Christian countries and culture. Its political usage was changed by the antagonism during the Cold War in the mid-to-late 20th Century. The term originally had a literal geographic meaning, Western culture was influenced by many older great civilizations of the ancient Near East, such as Phoenicia, Minoan Crete, Sumer, Babylonia, and also Ancient Egypt. It originated in the Mediterranean basin and its vicinity, Greece, over time, their associated empires grew first to the east and west to include the rest of Mediterranean and Black Sea coastal areas, conquering and absorbing. Later, they expanded to the north of the Mediterranean Sea to include Western, Central, numerous times, this expansion was accompanied by Christian missionaries, who attempted to proselytize Christianity. There is debate among some as to whether Latin America is in a category of its own, specifically, Western culture may imply, a Biblical Christian cultural influence in spiritual thinking, customs and either ethic or moral traditions, around the Post-Classical Era and after. European cultural influences concerning artistic, musical, folkloric, ethic and oral traditions, the concept of Western culture is generally linked to the classical definition of the Western world. In this definition, Western culture is the set of literary, scientific, political, artistic, much of this set of traditions and knowledge is collected in the Western canon. The term has come to apply to countries whose history is marked by European immigration or settlement, such as the Americas, and Oceania. The geopolitical divisions in Europe that created a concept of East and West originated in the Roman Empire, Roman Catholic Western and Central Europe, as such, maintained a distinct identity particularly as it began to redevelop during the Renaissance. Even following the Protestant Reformation, Protestant Europe continued to see itself as more tied to Roman Catholic Europe than other parts of the civilized world. Use of the term West as a cultural and geopolitical term developed over the course of the Age of Exploration as Europe spread its culture to other parts of the world. Additionally, closer contacts between the West and Asia and other parts of the world in recent times have continued to cloud the use, herodotus considered the Persian Wars of the early 5th century BC a conflict of Europa versus Asia. The terms West and East were not used by any Greek author to describe that conflict, the Great Schism and the Fourth Crusade confirmed this deviation. The Renaissance in the West emerged partly from currents within the Roman Empire, Ancient Rome was a civilization that grew from a city-state founded on the Italian Peninsula about the 9th century BC to a massive empire straddling the Mediterranean Sea. In its 12-century existence, Roman civilization shifted from a monarchy, to a republic, nonetheless, despite its great legacy, a number of factors led to the eventual decline of the Roman Empire
35.
Church bell
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A church bell in the Christian tradition is a bell which is rung in a church for a variety of church purposes, and can be heard outside the building. Traditionally they were used to call worshippers to the church for a communal service and they are also rung on special occasions such as a wedding, or a funeral service. In some religious traditions they are used within the liturgy of the service to signify to people that a particular part of the service has been reached. The ringing of bells, in the Christian tradition, is also believed to drive out demons. It is hung within a steeple or belltower of a church or religious building, such bells are either fixed in position or hung from a pivoted beam so they can swing to and fro. A rope hangs from a lever or wheel attached to the headstock, and when the bell ringer pulls on the rope the bell back and forth. Bells that are hung dead are normally sounded by hitting the bow with a hammer or occasionally by a rope which pulls the internal clapper against the bell. A church may have a bell, or a collection of bells which are tuned to a common scale. They may be stationary and chimed, rung randomly by swinging through a small arc, before modern communications, church bells were a common way to call the community together for all purposes, both sacred and secular. The injunction to pray the Lords prayer thrice daily was given in Didache 8,2 f, as such, the Catechism of the Catholic Church states that the Early Church prayed the Lords Prayer thrice a day, supplanting the former Amidah predominant in the Hebrew tradition. The Christian tradition of the ringing of bells from a belltower is analogous to the Islamic tradition of the adhan from a minaret. Most Christian denominations ring church bells to call the faithful to worship, in the United Kingdom predominantly in the Anglican church, there is a strong tradition of change ringing on full-circle tower bells for about half an hour before a service. This originated from the early 17th century when bell ringers found that swinging a bell through a large arc gave more control over the time between successive strikes of the clapper. This culminated in ringing bells through a circle, which let ringers easily produce different striking sequences. In Christianity, the ringing of bells is traditionally believed to drive out demons. The ringing of a bell to announce a death is called a death knell. A more modern tradition where there are full-circle bells is to use half-muffles when sounding one bell as a tolled bell, or all the bells in change-ringing. This means a leather muffle is placed on the clapper of each bell so that there is a loud open strike followed by a muffled strike, which has a very sonorous and mournful effect
36.
Full circle ringing
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Full circle ringing is a method of ringing a bell such that it swings in a complete circle from mouth upwards around to mouth upwards and then back again repetitively. By ringing in a circle, it was found historically that the speed of the bell could be altered. A set of bells rung in this manner can be made to strike in different accurate, normally there is one ringer per bell, due to the bell weights involved. The sets of range from a few hundredweight up to a few tons and are most commonly associated with churches as a means of calling the congregation to worship. There are a few sets in secular buildings, however, smaller sets of bells, usually known as mini-rings have come recently into existence for training, demonstration or leisure purposes, with bells weighing just a few kilogrammes. The bell is attached to a headstock, historically made of wood and this has to withstand the dynamic force of the bell as it swings, up to three times its static weight. At each end of the headstock are protruding trunnions or bearing pins which are located in bearings attached to the frame, the frame itself is rigidly attached to the fabric of the tower. Within the bell is a clapper which consists of a shaft, a clapper ball. The size of the flight determines the rate at which the clapper swings, bells are normally left mouth down Before ringing, the bells are swung in increasing arcs until the bell is mouth uppermost. When the ringer desires to make a stroke, the bell is swung around a full circle, in English full-circle ringing there is no counter-balancing, so the bell accelerates rapidly to its maximum velocity when mouth downwards, and slows down as it rises to mouth upwards. In Veronese full-circle ringing there is an amount of counter-balancing, so there is little net gravitation pull. The small out-of-balance weight makes it easier than English bells to stop the bells mouth upwards. However, English full-circle ringing is capable of better control of bell speed. The Bolognese style of bell hanging does not have any counter-balancing, in English full circle ringing Mini-rings are used to demonstrate how full-circle ringing on large bells works. These rings can be assembled quickly, but the bells are light, however, they demonstrate a difficult concept visually, as both the actions of the ringers and the bells can be seen simultaneously. The sound made by a bell rung full-circle has two unique features, rapid strike decay and the doppler effect. This enables rapid successive strikes of multiple bells, such as in change ringing, without excessive overlap, in addition, the movement of the bell imparts a doppler effect to the sound, as the strike occurs whilst the bell is still moving. Both these effects give full circle ringing of bells in a sequence an distinctive sound which cannot be simulated by stationary chimed bells
37.
Funeral of Diana, Princess of Wales
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The public funeral of Diana, Princess of Wales started on 6 September 1997 at 9,08 am in London, when the tenor bell sounded to signal the departure of the cortege from Kensington Palace. The coffin was carried from the palace on a gun carriage, along Hyde Park to St. Jamess Palace, the Union Flag on top of the palace was lowered to half mast. The official ceremony was held at Westminster Abbey in London and finished at the place in Althorp. Two thousand people attended the ceremony in Westminster Abbey while the British television audience peaked at 32.10 million, two billion people traced the event worldwide, making it one of the most watched events in history. After being taken to a private mortuary it was put at the Chapel Royal, the event was not a state funeral, but a royal ceremonial funeral including royal pageantry and Anglican funeral liturgy. A large display of flowers was installed at the gates of Kensington Palace, eight members of The Queens Welsh Guards accompanied Dianas coffin, draped in the royal standard with an ermine border, on the one-hour-forty-seven-minute ride through London streets. On top of the coffin were three wreaths of flowers from her brother, the Earl Spencer, and her sons, Prince William. At St. Jamess Palace, the Duke of Edinburgh, the Prince of Wales, her sons, the coffin passed Buckingham Palace where members of the Royal Family were waiting outside. Queen Elizabeth II bowed her head as it went by, more than one million people lined the streets of London, and flowers rained down onto the cortege from bystanders. The ceremony at Westminster Abbey opened at 11,00 BST and lasted one hour, the guests included Sir Cliff Richard, Hillary Clinton, Henry Kissinger, William J. The Prime Minister Tony Blair read an excerpt from the First Epistle to the Corinthians, And now abideth faith, hope, love, these three, but the greatest of these is love. Among other invitees were the King of Spain, Princess Margriet of the Netherlands, the King of the Hellenes, the Crown Prince and Crown Princess of Japan, the Archbishop of Canterbury George Carey and the Dean of Westminster Wesley Carr were also present in the abbey. The Anglican service opened with the singing of God Save the Queen. The pieces from Johann Sebastian Bach, Antonín Dvořák, Camille Saint-Saëns, Gustav Holst, during the service, Elton John sang Candle in the Wind which had been re-written in tribute to Diana. He had contacted his writing partner Bernie Taupin, asking him to revise the lyrics of his 1973 song Candle in the Wind to honour Diana, only a month before Dianas death she had been photographed comforting John at the funeral of their mutual friend Gianni Versace. On Sunday,7 September, a service for Diana was performed at Westminster Abbey in response to demand of people. The burial occurred privately later the same day, Dianas former husband, sons, mother, siblings, a close friend, and a clergyman were present. Dianas body was clothed in a black long-sleeved dress designed by Catherine Walker, a set of rosary beads was placed in her hands, a gift she had received from Mother Teresa, who died the same week as Diana
38.
Eastern world
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The term originally had a literal geographic meaning. It contrasted Asia with the cultures and civilizations of Western Europe, traditionally, This includes Central Asia, the Far East, the Middle East or Western Asia, Siberia, and the Indian subcontinent. Most of the people of Asia prefer to identify with their individual nations rather than with their continent, region, or each other and these attitudes can be found throughout the continent. The division between East and West is a product of European cultural history, and of the distinction between European Christendom and the cultures beyond it to the East, with the European colonization of the Americas the East/West distinction became global. The concept of an Eastern, Indian or Oriental sphere was emphasized by ideas of racial as well as religious, such distinctions were articulated by Westerners in the scholarly tradition known as Orientalism and Indology. An intriguing fact to be noted is that Orientalism has been the only Western concept that was about a unified Eastern world and not about any specific region, but rather all of Asia together. People from the Eastern world are known by certain regions in the West as Oriental, while in others, the concept is often another term for the Far East – a region that bears considerable cultural and religious commonality. Eastern philosophy, art, literature, and other traditions, are found throughout the region in places of high importance, such as popular culture, architecture. The spread of Buddhism and Hindu Yoga is partly responsible for this, Eastern culture has developed many themes and traditions. Islam — the majority of the world Muslim population have lived in Asia. Judaism — an ethnic culture and religion originating with the Ancient Israelites/Hebrews in the Fertile Crescent, or what is now Israel, Palestine, Jordan, Syria and they eventually evolved into the Ashkenazi, Sephardic, and Mizrahi Jews of the diaspora. Zoroastrianism — the monotheistic religion of Sassanid Persia. Hinduism Jainism Sikhism — a religion that developed in the plains of Punjab in an atmosphere of ideological clash between Islam and Hinduism. Its followers retain spiritual as well as martial qualities, vol.1, Coexisting contemporary civilizations, Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western
39.
Lutheranism
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Lutheranism is a major branch of Protestant Christianity which identifies with the theology of Martin Luther, a German friar, ecclesiastical reformer and theologian. Luthers efforts to reform the theology and practice of the Catholic Church launched the Protestant Reformation in the German-speaking territories of the Holy Roman Empire. Lutheranism advocates a doctrine of justification by grace alone through faith alone on the basis of Scripture alone and this is in contrast to the belief of the Catholic Church, defined at the Council of Trent, concerning authority coming from both the Scriptures and Tradition. In addition, Lutheranism accepts the teachings of the first seven ecumenical councils of the undivided Christian Church, unlike Calvinism, Lutherans retain many of the liturgical practices and sacramental teachings of the pre-Reformation Church, with a particular emphasis on the Eucharist, or Lords Supper. Lutheran theology differs from Reformed theology in Christology, the purpose of Gods Law, the grace, the concept of perseverance of the saints. Today, Lutheranism is one of the largest denominations of Protestantism, with approximately 80 million adherents, it constitutes the third most common Protestant denomination after historically Pentecostal denominations and Anglicanism. The Lutheran World Federation, the largest communion of Lutheran churches, Other Lutheran organizations include the International Lutheran Council and the Confessional Evangelical Lutheran Conference, as well as independent churches. The name Lutheran originated as a term used against Luther by German Scholastic theologian Dr. Johann Maier von Eck during the Leipzig Debate in July 1519. Eck and other Catholics followed the practice of naming a heresy after its leader. Martin Luther always disliked the term Lutheran, preferring the term Evangelical, which was derived from euangelion, the followers of John Calvin, Huldrych Zwingli, and other theologians linked to the Reformed tradition also began to use that term. To distinguish the two groups, others began to refer to the two groups as Evangelical Lutheran and Evangelical Reformed. As time passed by, the word Evangelical was dropped, Lutherans themselves began to use the term Lutheran in the middle of the 16th century, in order to distinguish themselves from other groups such as the Philippists and Calvinists. In 1597, theologians in Wittenberg defined the title Lutheran as referring to the true church, Lutheranism has its roots in the work of Martin Luther, who sought to reform the Western Church to what he considered a more biblical foundation. Lutheranism spread through all of Scandinavia during the 16th century, as the monarch of Denmark–Norway, through Baltic-German and Swedish rule, Lutheranism also spread into Estonia and Latvia. Since 1520, regular Lutheran services have been held in Copenhagen, under the reign of Frederick I, Denmark-Norway remained officially Catholic. Although Frederick initially pledged to persecute Lutherans, he adopted a policy of protecting Lutheran preachers and reformers. During Fredericks reign, Lutheranism made significant inroads in Denmark, at an open meeting in Copenhagen attended by the king in 1536, the people shouted, We will stand by the holy Gospel, and do not want such bishops anymore. Fredericks son Christian was openly Lutheran, which prevented his election to the throne upon his fathers death, however, following his victory in the civil war that followed, in 1537 he became Christian III and advanced the Reformation in Denmark-Norway
40.
Anglicanism
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Anglicanism is a tradition within Christianity comprising the Church of England and churches which are historically tied to it or hold similar beliefs, worship practices and church structures. The word Anglican originates in ecclesia anglicana, a medieval Latin phrase dating to the Magna Carta and before, adherents of Anglicanism are called Anglicans. As the name suggests, the churches of the Anglican Communion are linked by bonds of tradition, affection and they are in full communion with the See of Canterbury, and thus the Archbishop of Canterbury, in his person, is a unique focus of Anglican unity. He calls the once-a-decade Lambeth Conference, chairs the meeting of primates, Anglicans base their Christian faith on the Bible, traditions of the apostolic Church, apostolic succession, and writings of the Church Fathers. Anglicanism forms one of the branches of Western Christianity, having declared its independence from the Holy See at the time of the Elizabethan Religious Settlement. Many of the new Anglican formularies of the mid-16th century corresponded closely to those of contemporary Protestantism, the word Anglican originates in ecclesia anglicana, a medieval Latin phrase dating to at least 1246 that means the English Church. Adherents of Anglicanism are called Anglicans, as an adjective, Anglican is used to describe the people, institutions and churches, as well as the liturgical traditions and theological concepts developed by the Church of England. As a noun, an Anglican is a member of a church in the Anglican Communion, the word is also used by followers of separated groups which have left the communion or have been founded separately from it, although this is sometimes considered as a misuse. The word Anglicanism came into being in the 19th century, although the term Anglican is found referring to the Church of England as far back as the 16th century, its use did not become general until the latter half of the 19th century. Elsewhere, however, the term Anglican Church came to be preferred as it distinguished these churches from others that maintain an episcopal polity, as such, it is often referred to as being a via media between these traditions. Anglicans understand the Old and New Testaments as containing all necessary for salvation and as being the rule. Reason and Tradition are seen as means to interpret Scripture. Anglicans understand the Apostles Creed as the symbol and the Nicene Creed as the sufficient statement of the Christian faith. Anglicans celebrate the sacraments, with special emphasis being given to the Eucharist, also called Holy Communion. Unique to Anglicanism is the Book of Common Prayer, the collection of services that worshippers in most Anglican churches used for centuries and it was called common prayer originally because it was intended for use in all Church of England churches which had previously followed differing local liturgies. The term was kept when the church became international because all Anglicans used to share in its use around the world, in 1549, the first Book of Common Prayer was compiled by Thomas Cranmer, who was then Archbishop of Canterbury. The founding of Christianity in Britain is commonly attributed to Joseph of Arimathea, according to Anglican legend, Saint Alban, who was executed in 209 AD, is the first Christian martyr in the British Isles. A new culture emerged around the Irish Sea among the Celtic peoples with Celtic Christianity at its core, what resulted was a form of Christianity distinct from Rome in many traditions and practices
41.
Sanctus
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The Sanctus is a hymn from Chalcedonian Christian liturgy. It may also be called the epinikios hymnos when referring to the Greek rendition, in Western Christianity, the Sanctus forms part of the Ordinary and is sung as the final words of the Preface of the Eucharistic Prayer, the prayer of consecration of the bread and wine. In Byzantine Rite and general Eastern Orthodox Christianity, the Sanctus is offered as a response by the choir during the Holy Anaphora, tersanctus is another, rarer name for the Sanctus. The same name is used for the Trisagion. Ἅγιος, ἅγιος, ἅγιος Κύριος Σαβαώθ· πλήρης ὁ οὐρανὸς καὶ ἡ γῆ τῆς δόξης σου, Εὐλογημένος ὁ ἐρχόμενος ἐν ὀνόματι Κυρίου. In the Divine Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom and the Liturgy of St. Basil, there exist two fundamental types of Sanctus, the Alexandrian and the Antiochene. The Sanctus has been given an interpretation and a trinitarian interpretation. The text of the Sanctus passed from Jewish use to Christian use at an early time, since it cited in the Apocalypse of John. This early state can be seen in the testimonies of Eusebius of Caesarea, the Mystagogical Catecheses of Cyril of Jerusalem, and, above all, the Ritual used in the Church of Theodore of Mopsuestia. In the latter, too, that is, in the stage of the Syrian liturgy, the Benedictus was unknown. The first part of the Sanctus, the adaptation from Isaiah 6,3, describes the prophet Isaiahs vision of the throne of God surrounded by six-winged, a similar representation is found in Revelation 4,8. In its present liturgical context it points to the presence of the Lord in the eucharistic gifts. The Sanctus appears in the Sacramentary of Serapion of Thmuis, the article is not found in Matthew 21,9. The form of the hymn without the article is used in the Greek Liturgy of Saint James. The Liturgy of Saint Basil of the Eastern Orthodox Church has the form of the Sanctus as the Liturgy of Saint John Chrysostom. In current use, the Liturgy of Saint James may use the nominative rather than the case of Κύριος. Ὡσαννὰ ἐν τοῖς ὑψίστοις· εὐλογημένος ὁ ἐλθὼν καὶ ἐρχόμενος ἐν ὀνόματι Κυρίου· ὡσαννὰ ἐν τοῖς ὑψίστοις. e, Ὡσαννὰ ἐν τοῖς ὑψίστοις· εὐλογημένος ὁ ἐλθὼν καὶ ἐρχόμενος ἐν ὀνόματι Κυρίου· ὡσαννὰ ἐν τοῖς ὑψίστοις. Chrysostom frequently refers to this, sometimes as τὸ μυστικὸν μέλος, sometimes as ὁ πανάγιος ὕμνος, the knowledge of it as a whole was confined to the faithful
42.
Altar bell
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In the Latin Rite of the Catholic Church, in Lutheranism, in Methodism, and in the Anglican Communion, an altar or sanctus bell is typically a small hand-held bell or set of bells. The primary reason for the use of bell is to create a joyful noise to the Lord as a way to give thanks for the miracle taking place atop the Altar of Sacrifice. An ancillary function of the bell is to focus the attention of those attending the Mass that an event is taking place on the altar. A little before the Consecration, when appropriate, a server rings a bell as a signal to the faithful, according to local custom, the server also rings the bell as the priest shows the host and then the chalice. They also prescribed a triple ringing of the bell at each showing of the consecrated elements, on 10 September 1898, the Congregation of Sacred Rites declared inappropriate the use of a gong instead of the altar bell. The ringing of an altar bell began probably in the thirteenth century and it is not mentioned in the original 1570 Roman Missal of Pope Pius V and was not introduced into papal Masses until the time of Pope John Paul II. Like all church bells, the bell is not rung from the end of the Gloria in excelsis at the Mass of the Lords Supper until the beginning of the Gloria in excelsis at the Easter Vigil. During this interval a clapper is sometimes used in place of the altar bell, in branches of Lutheranism, altar bells are rung at the two appropriate times during the Words of Institution to signify the real presence. Anglican parishes use the bell, which is rung to signify the Real Presence of Christ in the sacred Elements. During the Eucharist, it is rung three times - once before the Words of Institution, and once at each elevation of the Host. It may also be rung to indicate the time that the faithful may come forward to receive Communion, the bells are also rung when the monstrance or ciborium is exposed or processed, for example when moving the reserved Sacrament from a side altar to the high altar. Custom differs concerning its use at Low Mass, or during Lent, in some Methodist churches, particularly the United Methodist Church of the United States, altar bells are used two different times during common services held on Sundays. The Chimes of the Trinity are rung by an acolyte before the prelude of the service, the Chimes of the Trinity is the ringing of the bell three times to represent the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Herbermann, Charles
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Elevation (liturgy)
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In Christian liturgy the elevation is a ritual raising of the consecrated elements of bread and wine during the celebration of the Eucharist. The term is applied especially to that by which, in the Roman Rite of Mass, the Host, the term may also refer to a piece of music played on the organ or sung at that point in the liturgy. In the Byzantine Rite, this takes place as the last ekphonesis by the priest before communion. He raises the Lamb slightly above the diskos and exclaims, Τὰ ἅγια τοῖς ἁγίοις, the holy things for the holy people. In response the people, or rather the choir, acclaim, One is holy, one Lord, the phrase The holy things for the holy people is found in the Apostolic Constitutions, and also in the Mozarabic Rite, but at a different point. In the Roman Rite of Mass, this elevation is accompanied by the words Ecce Agnus Dei, Ecce qui tollit peccata mundi, echoing the words of John the Baptist in John 1,29. A similar adoration of the Holy Mysteries occurs when communion is brought out to the faithful. The priest hands the chalice to the deacon, who raises it on high as he comes out through the Holy Doors and exclaims, In the fear of God and with faith draw near. At this moment, everyone present makes a prostation and the choir sings, Blessed is he that cometh in the name of the Lord, God is the Lord and hath appeared unto us. The only other ceremonial elevation of the chalice after the consecration in the Eastern Churches occurs after the communion of the faithful, the priest lifts the chalice and makes the Sign of the Cross with it over the antimension as he says quietly, Blessed is our God. The choir responds, Let our mouths be filled with Thy praise, O Lord, for Thou hast made us worthy to partake of Thy holy, divine, immortal, and life-giving Mysteries. Establish Thou us in Thy Holiness, that all the day long we may meditate upon Thy righteousness, the Pre-Communion prayers are then said by the chanter while the Bishop, Priest and Deacon receive communion in the sanctuary. Raising above the level of the head is necessary for the priest, without turning around, to show the consecrated element to the people. Accordingly, the Tridentine Roman Missal instructs the priest to raise the Host or Chalice as high as he comfortably can and these elevations are a late medieval introduction into the Roman Rite. The custom began in northern Europe and was accepted in Rome only in the fourteenth century, at first, the only elevation at this point was that of the Host, with none of the Chalice. The first bishop known to have ordered the showing of the Host was Bishop Eudes de Sully of Paris and this custom spread rapidly, but that of showing the Chalice appeared only later and was not universal and has never been adopted by the Carthusians. Genuflections to accompany the elevations appeared still later and became a part of the rite only with Pope Pius Vs Roman Missal of 1570. The purpose of the showing of the Host to the people is that they may adore it, by the twelfth century it was for this purpose raised from the surface of the altar to the level of the priests breast, while he said the words of consecration
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Transubstantiation
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The Catholic Church teaches that the substance, or essence, of the Eucharistic offering is changed into both the body and blood of Christ. All that is accessible to the senses remains unchanged, what remains unaltered is also referred to as the accidents of the bread and wine, but the term accidents is not used in the official definition of the doctrine by the Council of Trent. The manner in which the change occurs, the Catholic Church teaches, is a mystery, The signs of bread and wine become, in a way surpassing understanding, the Body and Blood of Christ. The precise terminology to be used to refer to the nature Eucharist, in the Greek Orthodox Church, the doctrine has been discussed under the term of metousiosis, coined as a direct loan-translation of transsubstantiatio in the 17th century. In Eastern Orthodoxy in general, the Mystery of the Eucharist is more commonly discussed using alternative terms such as trans-elementation, re-ordination, or simply change. The early Christians who use these terms also speak of it as the flesh and blood of Christ, the same flesh and blood which suffered and died on the cross. Matthew 7,6 A letter by Saint Ignatius of Antioch to the Romans, written in AD106 says, I desire the bread of God, which is the flesh of Jesus Christ. In about 200 AD, Tertullian wrote, Taking bread and distributing it to his disciples he made it his own body by saying, This is my body, on the other hand, there would not have been a figure unless there was a true body. The Apostolic Constitutions says, Let the bishop give the oblation, saying, The body of Christ, and let him that receiveth say, Amen. And let the deacon take the cup, and when he gives it, say, The blood of Christ, the cup of life, and let him that drinketh say, Amen. Saint Ambrose of Milan wrote, Perhaps you will say, I see something else, how is it that you assert that I receive the Body of Christ. Let us prove that this is not what nature made, but what the blessing consecrated, for that sacrament which you receive is made what it is by the word of Christ. But if the word of Elijah had such power as to bring fire from heaven. Why do you seek the order of nature in the Body of Christ, seeing that the Lord Jesus Himself was born of a Virgin and it is the true Flesh of Christ which was crucified and buried, this is then truly the Sacrament of His Body. The Lord Jesus Himself proclaims, This Is My Body, before the blessing of the heavenly words another nature is spoken of, after the consecration the Body is signified. He Himself speaks of His Blood, before the consecration it has another name, after it is called Blood. And you say, Amen, that is, It is true, Let the heart within confess what the mouth utters, let the soul feel what the voice speaks. Other fourth-century Christian writers say that in the Eucharist there occurs a change, transelementation, transformation, transposing, by the end of the 12th century the term was in widespread use
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Reformation
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The period is usually considered to have begun with the publication of the Ninety-five Theses by Luther in 1517 to the Thirty Years War and ended with the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. The Protestant position, however, would come to incorporate doctrinal changes such as sola scriptura, the initial movement within Germany diversified, and other reform impulses arose independently of Luther. The spread of Gutenbergs printing press provided the means for the dissemination of religious materials in the vernacular. The largest groups were the Lutherans and Calvinists, Lutheran churches were founded mostly in Germany, the Baltics and Scandinavia, while the Reformed ones were founded in Switzerland, Hungary, France, the Netherlands and Scotland. The new movement influenced the Church of England decisively after 1547 under Edward VI and Elizabeth I, there were also reformation movements throughout continental Europe known as the Radical Reformation, which gave rise to the Anabaptist, Moravian and other Pietistic movements. The Roman Catholic Church responded with a Counter-Reformation initiated by the Council of Trent, much work in battling Protestantism was done by the well-organised new order of the Jesuits. In general, Northern Europe, with the exception of most of Ireland, southern Europe remained Roman Catholic, while Central Europe was a site of a fierce conflict, culminating in the Thirty Years War, which left it devastated. The oldest Protestant churches, such as the Unitas Fratrum and Moravian Church, the later Protestant Churches generally date their doctrinal separation from the Roman Catholic Church to the 16th century. The Reformation began as an attempt to reform the Roman Catholic Church, by priests who opposed what they perceived as false doctrines and ecclesiastic malpractice. They especially objected to the teaching and the sale of indulgences, and the abuses thereof, and to simony, the reformers saw these practices as evidence of the systemic corruption of the Churchs hierarchy, which included the pope. Unrest due to the Great Schism of Western Christianity excited wars between princes, uprisings among the peasants, and widespread concern over corruption in the Church, New perspectives came from John Wycliffe at Oxford University and from Jan Hus at the Charles University in Prague. Hus rejected indulgences and adopted a doctrine of justification by grace through faith alone, the Roman Catholic Church officially concluded this debate at the Council of Constance by condemning Hus, who was executed by burning despite a promise of safe-conduct. Wycliffe was posthumously condemned as a heretic and his corpse exhumed and burned in 1428, the Council of Constance confirmed and strengthened the traditional medieval conception of church and empire. The council did not address the national tensions or the theological tensions stirred up during the century and could not prevent schism. Pope Sixtus IV established the practice of selling indulgences to be applied to the dead, Pope Alexander VI was one of the most controversial of the Renaissance popes. He was the father of seven children, including Lucrezia and Cesare Borgia, in response to papal corruption, particularly the sale of indulgences, Luther wrote The Ninety-Five Theses. The Reformation was born of Luthers dual declaration – first, the discovering of Jesus and salvation by faith alone, the Protestant reformers were unanimous in agreement and this understanding of prophecy furnished importance to their deeds. It was the point and the battle cry that made the Reformation nearly unassailable
Play approximation (help·info) The strike tone is middle C, the hum tone an octave below.
listen)), is a bell in Germany's Cologne Cathedral. It weighs 24 tons and was cast in 1922. It is the largest functioning free-swinging bell in the world that swings around the top. (The Gotenba Bell and the World Peace Bell swing around their center of gravity, which is more like turning than swinging. So, depending on the point of view, the St. Petersglocke may be considered up to now the largest free-swinging bell in the world.)
Haweis, H. R. (1878). "Bell". Encyclopædia Britannica. 3 (9th ed.). p. 536.
Haweis, H. R. (1878). "
