1.
Bell AH-1 SuperCobra
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The Bell AH-1 SuperCobra is a twin-engine attack helicopter based on the United States Armys single-engine AH-1 Cobra. The twin Cobra family, itself part of the larger Huey family, includes the AH-1J SeaCobra, the AH-1T Improved SeaCobra, the AH-1W has been the backbone of the United States Marine Corpss attack helicopter fleet, but is being replaced by the Bell AH-1Z Viper. The AH-1 Cobra was developed in the mid-1960s as a gunship for the U. S. Army for use during the Vietnam War. The Cobra shared the proven transmission, rotor system, and the T53 turboshaft engine of the UH-1 Huey, by June 1967, the first AH-1G HueyCobras had been delivered. Bell built 1,116 AH-1Gs for the U. S. Army between 1967 and 1973, and the Cobras chalked up over a million hours in Vietnam. The U. S. Marine Corps was very interested in the AH-1G Cobra, but it preferred a twin-engine version for improved safety in over-water operations, however, the Marines won out and awarded Bell a contract for 49 twin-engine AH-1J SeaCobras in May 1968. As an interim measure, the U. S. Army passed on 38 AH-1Gs to the Marines in 1969, the AH-1J also received a more powerful gun turret. It featured a three barrel 20 mm XM197 cannon that was based on the six barrel M61 Vulcan cannon, the Marine Corps requested greater load carrying capability in high temperatures for the Cobra in the 1970s. Bell used systems from its Model 309 to develop the AH-1T and this version had a lengthened tailboom and fuselage with an upgraded transmission and engines from the 309. Bell designed the AH-1T to be reliable and easier to maintain in the field. The version was given full TOW missile capability with targeting system, in the early 1980s, the U. S. Marine Corps sought a new navalized helicopter, but it was denied funding to buy the AH-64 Apache by Congress in 1981. The Marines in turn pursued a more powerful version of the AH-1T, other changes included modified fire control systems to carry and fire AIM-9 Sidewinder and AGM-114 Hellfire missiles. The new version was funded by Congress and received the AH-1W designation, deliveries of AH-1W SuperCobras totaled 179 new-built helicopters plus 43 upgrades of AH-1Ts. The AH-1T+ demonstrator and AH-1W prototype were later tested with a new experimental composite four-blade main rotor system, the new system offered better performance, reduced noise and improved battle damage tolerance. Lacking a USMC contract, Bell developed this new design into the AH-1Z with its own funds, by 1996, the Marines were again not allowed to order the AH-64. Developing a marine version of the Apache would have been expensive and they instead signed a contract for upgrading AH-1Ws into AH-1Zs. The Bell AH-1Z Viper features several design changes, the AH-1Zs two redesigned wing stubs are longer with each adding a wingtip station for a missile such as the AIM-9 Sidewinder. Each wing has two stations for 70 mm Hydra rocket pods, or AGM-114 Hellfire quad missile launcher
2.
Attack helicopter
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An attack helicopter is an armed helicopter with the primary role of an attack aircraft, with the capability of engaging targets on the ground, such as enemy infantry and armored fighting vehicles. Due to their heavy armament they are sometimes called helicopter gunships, weapons used on attack helicopters can include autocannons, machine guns, rockets, and guided anti-tank missiles such as the Hellfire. Many attack helicopters are capable of carrying air-to-air missiles, though mostly for purposes of self-defense. Todays attack helicopter has two roles, first, to provide direct and accurate close air support for ground troops. Attack helicopters are used to supplement lighter helicopters in the armed scout role. In combat, a helicopter is projected to destroy around 17 times its own production cost before it is destroyed. S. Army artillery spotter units over France, these aircraft were field-outfitted with either two or four bazooka rocket launchers attached to the struts, against German armored fighting vehicles. During the summer of 1944, U. S. Army Major Charles Carpenter managed to take on an anti-armor role with his rocket-armed Piper L-4. The only American helicopter in use during the war years, the Sikorsky R-4, was only being used for rescue and were very much experimental in nature. In the early 1950s, various countries around the world started to make increased use of helicopters in their operations in transport and liaison roles. Later on it was realised that these helicopters, successors to the World War II-era Sikorsky R-4, early examples include armed Sikorsky H-34s in service with the US Air Force and armed Mil Mi-4 in service with the Soviet Air Forces. This trend continued into the 1960s with the deployment of armed Bell UH-1s and Mil Mi-8s during the Vietnam War, by the 1990s, the missile-armed attack helicopter evolved into a primary anti-tank weapon. Able to quickly move about the battlefield and launch fleeting pop-up attacks, the helicopter gunship became a major tool against tank warfare, and most attack helicopters became more and more optimized for the antitank mission. Based on this realization, and with the involvement in Vietnam, the U. S. Army developed the requirements for a dedicated attack helicopter. The aircraft design selected for this program in 1965, was Lockheeds AH-56 Cheyenne, as the Army began its acquisition of a dedicated attack helicopter, it sought options to improve performance over the continued use of improvised interim aircraft. The three highest-ranked aircraft, the Sikorsky S-61, Kaman H-2 Tomahawk, and the Bell AH-1 Cobra, were selected to compete in trials conducted by the Armys Aviation Test Activity. Upon completion of the evaluations, the Test Activity recommended Bells Huey Cobra to be an interim armed helicopter until the Cheyenne was fielded. On 13 April 1966, the U. S. Army awarded Bell Helicopter Company a production contract for 110 AH-1G Cobras, the Cobra had a tandem cockpit seating arrangement to make the aircraft a smaller frontal target, increased armor protection, and greater speed
3.
Bell Helicopter
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Bell Helicopter is an American aerospace manufacturer headquartered in Fort Worth, Texas. A division of Textron, Bell manufactures military rotorcraft in and around Fort Worth, as well as in Amarillo, Texas, Bell provides training and support services worldwide. The company was founded on July 10,1935 as Bell Aircraft Corporation by Lawrence Dale Bell in Buffalo, the company focused on the designing and building of fighter aircraft. Their first fighters were the XFM-1 Airacuda, a fighter for attacking bombers. The P-59 Airacomet, the first American jet fighter, the P-63 Kingcobra, the successor to the P-39, in 1941, Bell hired Arthur M. Young, a talented inventor, to provide expertise for helicopter research and development. It was the foundation for what Bell hoped would be an economic base for his company that was not dependent on government contracts. The Bell 30 was their first full-size helicopter and the Bell 47 became the first helicopter in the world rated by a civil authority, becoming a civilian. Textron purchased Bell Aerospace in 1960, Bell Aerospace was composed of three divisions of Bell Aircraft Corporation, including its helicopter division, which had become its only division still producing complete aircraft. The helicopter division was renamed Bell Helicopter Company and in a few years, with the success of the UH-1 during the Vietnam War, in January 1976, Textron changed the name of the company again to Bell Helicopter Textron. Bell Helicopter has an association with AgustaWestland. The partnership dates back to manufacturing and technology agreements with Agusta. When the two European firms merged, the partnerships were retained, with the exception of the AB139, as of 2014, Bell and AW cooperate on the AW609 tiltrotor. Bell intends to reduce employment by 760 in 2014 as fewer V-22s are made, a rapid prototyping center called XworX assists Bells other divisions in improving development speed
4.
United States Army
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The United States Armed Forces are the federal armed forces of the United States. They consist of the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, from the time of its inception, the military played a decisive role in the history of the United States. A sense of unity and identity was forged as a result of victory in the First Barbary War. Even so, the Founders were suspicious of a permanent military force and it played an important role in the American Civil War, where leading generals on both sides were picked from members of the United States military. Not until the outbreak of World War II did a standing army become officially established. The National Security Act of 1947, adopted following World War II and during the Cold Wars onset, the U. S. military is one of the largest militaries in terms of number of personnel. It draws its personnel from a pool of paid volunteers. As of 2016, the United States spends about $580.3 billion annually to fund its military forces, put together, the United States constitutes roughly 40 percent of the worlds military expenditures. For the period 2010–14, the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute found that the United States was the worlds largest exporter of major arms, the United States was also the worlds eighth largest importer of major weapons for the same period. The history of the U. S. military dates to 1775 and these forces demobilized in 1784 after the Treaty of Paris ended the War for Independence. All three services trace their origins to the founding of the Continental Army, the Continental Navy, the United States President is the U. S. militarys commander-in-chief. Rising tensions at various times with Britain and France and the ensuing Quasi-War and War of 1812 quickened the development of the U. S. Navy, the reserve branches formed a military strategic reserve during the Cold War, to be called into service in case of war. Time magazines Mark Thompson has suggested that with the War on Terror, Command over the armed forces is established in the United States Constitution. The sole power of command is vested in the President by Article II as Commander-in-Chief, the Constitution also allows for the creation of executive Departments headed principal officers whose opinion the President can require. This allowance in the Constitution formed the basis for creation of the Department of Defense in 1947 by the National Security Act, the Defense Department is headed by the Secretary of Defense, who is a civilian and member of the Cabinet. The Defense Secretary is second in the chain of command, just below the President. Together, the President and the Secretary of Defense comprise the National Command Authority, to coordinate military strategy with political affairs, the President has a National Security Council headed by the National Security Advisor. The collective body has only power to the President
5.
Japan Ground Self-Defense Force
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The Japan Ground Self-Defense Force, or JGSDF, is the main branch of the Japan Self-Defense Forces, responsible for land-based military operations, and is the de facto army of Japan. Created on July 1,1954, it is the largest of the three services of the Japan Self-Defense Forces, the JGSDF is chiefly tasked with maintaining internal security in Japan. The Force operates under the command of the chief of the staff, based in the city of Ichigaya, Shinjuku. The present chief of staff is General Kiyofumi Iwata, the JGSDF numbered around 150,000 soldiers in 2008. As of 2010, the remained the same at approximately 150,000 personnel. Japan accepted the Potsdam Declaration in 1945, and, in compliance with Article 9, both were replaced by the United States Armed Forces occupation force, which assumed responsibility for the external defense of Japan. On the outbreak of the Korean War, many U. S. units were transferred to Korea, accordingly, in mid-1952, the National Police Reserve was expanded to 110,000 men and named the National Safety Forces. Japan continued to improve its defensive capabilities, the enabling legislation for this was the 1954 Self-Defense Forces Act. For a long period, the Japan Ground Self-Defense Force possessed an ability to hold off a Soviet invasion of Hokkaido. Zbigniew Brzezinski observed in 1972 that it seemed optimized to fight ‘a Soviet invasion conducted on American patterns of a quarter of a century ago, in 1989, basic training for lower-secondary and upper-secondary academy graduates began in the training brigade and lasted approximately three months. Specialized enlisted and non-commissioned officer candidate courses were available in branch schools, advanced technical, flight, medical and command and staff officer courses were also run by the JGSDF. Like the maritime and air forces, the JGSDF ran a youth cadet program offering technical training to school graduates below military age in return for a promise of enlistment. Because of population density and urbanization on the Japanese islands, only limited areas are available for large-scale training, the JGSDF has two reserve components, the rapid-reaction reserve component and the main reserve component. Members of the rapid-reaction component train 30 days a year, members of the main reserve train five days a year. As of December 2007, there were 8,425 members of the reserve component and 22,404 members of the main reserve component. JGSDF divisions and brigades are combined arms units with infantry, armored and they are regionally independent and permanent entities. The divisions strength varies from 6,000 to 9,000 personnel
6.
Republic of Korea Army
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The Republic of Korea Army, also known as the ROK Army, is the army of South Korea, responsible for ground-based warfare. It is the largest of the branches of the South Korean armed forces with 495,000 members as of 2014. This size is maintained through conscription, South Korean men must complete 21 months of service between the age of 18 and 35. The army will take the brunt of the personnel reduction planned as part of the Defense Reform 307, the modern South Korean army traces its lineage back to the Gwangmu Reform, when the Beolgyegoon was established by Emperor Gojong in 1881. The 1st of every October is celebrated in South Korea as Armed Forces Day and it commemorates the day during the Korean War when units of the ROK Army first crossed the 38th Parallel, thus leading the UN Coalition north into North Korean territory for the first time. The ROK Army was formerly organized into 3 armies, the First Army, Third Army, each with its own headquarters, corps, and divisions. The Third Army was responsible for the defense of the capital as well as the section of the DMZ. The First Army was responsible for the defense of the section of the DMZ whereas the 2nd OC formed the rearguard. The army consists of 495,000 troops, approximately 2, 400-2,500 tanks,2,700 armored fighting vehicles,5,800 artillery pieces,60 guided missile systems, and 600 helicopters as of 2014. The future replacement for the K1 and K1A1 MBTs has been named the K2 Black Panther, the ROK Army is planning to field approximately 390 Black Panthers. A variation of the K200, the KAFVs can be retrofitted to bear a 90 mm cannon,40 mm grenade turret, M230-1 Chain gun Turret, or MK-30 Chaingun Turret. A replacement for K200 series IFVs are currently being tested, designated as K21 KNIFV, the initial production is set for 2008, with the ROKA planning to field approximately 1,000 units until 2015. The K21 KNIFVs chassis will be constructed out of fiberglass, reducing the vehicles load and enabling it to travel at higher speeds without bulky. When constructed, the NIFV will be lighter than other IFVs, including the American Bradley series and Russian BMP series, other notable foreign equipment in service with the ROK Army includes the Mistral MANPADS. A new infantry rifle, the Daewoo K11 entered service in 2010, the overall concept of this weapon is similar to the American OICW. So equals small, Jung equals medium, Dae equals large, jun equals equivalent, used for Warrant Officer and 1 star general to ensure that they are regarded as officer/general, although these ranks are lower than the same grade with So rank. Won equals principal, only used for Won-Su, General of the Army, each of these is coupled with wi equals company grade, ryung equals field grade, and jang equals general. NCO rank is same as officer, ha equals lower, Jung equals medium, Sang equals high, Won equals principal, because this title is named after Won-Su, to ensure that this rank is higher than Sang-sa
7.
Royal Jordanian Air Force
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The Royal Jordanian Air Force is the air force branch of the Jordanian Armed Forces. Jordan gained independence in 1946, but its first air bases had been set up in 1931 by the Royal Air Force, by 1950, Jordan began to develop a small air arm which came to be known as the Arab Legion Air Force. The Royal Air Force assisted in training this small air arm, the ALAFs primary fighter was the de Havilland Vampire and a Vickers VC.1 Viking was operated as a VIP aircraft for use by the King of Jordan. By 1955 King Hussein realized the need for Jordan to have a more modern Air force, by 1958 the Royal Air Force had left Jordan and the RJAF had taken control of the airfields in the country. In 1967, in the Six-Day War, Israel destroyed Jordans Air Force of 21 Hawker Hunters, in the 1970s the RJAF was modernised. Lockheed F-104 Starfighters were acquired from the United States following heavy losses in the Six-Day War, the RJAF also acquired Northrop F-5 Tigers via Iran during the reign of the Shah who procured them from the United States. Cessna T-37 Tweets were also acquired for the training role, in 1975, the RJAF gave its fleet of 31 Hawker Hunters to the Sultan of Omans Air Force, having failed in their efforts to sell them to Rhodesia or Honduras. The Hunters were delivered to SOAF Thumrait between May and June 1975, following peace between Egypt and Israel in 1979, the RJAF began to modernize its fleet once again. The first part of program was the procurement of the Dassault Mirage F1 which became the RJAFs frontline fighter supported by generous aid from wealthy oil-rich Arab states. The Mirage F1 was selected over the General Dynamics F-16/79 while also acquiring the Northrop F-5 to complement the Mirage F1CJ/EJ in the process and it remains unknown whether RJAF pilots took part in combat with Iran, although this seems unlikely. During the 1991 Desert Storm conflict, Jordan declared political support for the Iraqi regime, the RJAF provided instruction for Iraqi pilots who also operated the similar Mirage F1. Some six Lockheed C-130H Hercules entered RJAF service and remain critical in supporting Jordans peacekeeping efforts, in 1987 the RJAF received CASA C-101s to replace the T-37 in the training role. The fallout meant that the RJAF was impacted upon but contrary to some reports, despite this, the RJAF had to rationalise its existing resources due to a temporary downfall in spare parts and supplies. However, economic difficulties forced the RJAF to seek upgrades rather than the purchase of new equipment originally planned, despite this, the F-5s lack a BVR combat capability. U. S. military assistance has been directed toward upgrading Jordan’s air force, as recent purchases include upgrades to U. S. -made F-16 fighters, air-to-air missiles. Following the 1994 Israel–Jordan peace treaty and the lending of Jordanian support to the United States during the Persian Gulf War, in July/Aug 2011 RJAF received another 9 ex-Belgian F-16AM/BM MLU standard, thus boosting the RJAFs own multi-role capabilities. RJAF pilots have participated in Bright Star in Egypt against regional F-16 Fighting Falcons and have improved their skills considerably, especially in defining critical areas of upgrading, the AIM-120 AMRAAM has been procured by the RJAF and will improve combat capabilities of the basic F-16. Some 17 Block 15 F-16s were sent to Turkish Aerospace Industries where they were upgraded to MLU standard and it remains unclear what will eventually complement the F-16s as the F-5s and F-1s dwindle in numbers due to economic, stress and fatigue reasons
8.
Bell UH-1 Iroquois
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The Bell UH-1 Iroquois is a utility military helicopter powered by a single turboshaft engine, with two-blade main and tail rotors. The UH-1 was the first turbine-powered helicopter to enter production in 1960 for the United States military, the Iroquois was originally designated HU-1, hence the Huey nickname, which has remained in common use, despite the official redesignation to UH-1 in 1962. The UH-1 first saw service in operations during the Vietnam War. The Bell 204 and 205 are Iroquois versions developed for the civil market, in 1952, the U. S. Army identified a requirement for a new helicopter to serve as medical evacuation, instrument trainer, and general utility aircraft. The Army determined that current helicopters were too large, underpowered, in November 1953, revised military requirements were submitted to the Department of the Army. Twenty companies submitted designs in their bid for the contract, including Bell Helicopter with the Model 204, on 23 February 1955, the Army announced its decision, selecting Bell to build three copies of the Model 204 for evaluation with the designatation XH-40. Powered by a prototype Lycoming YT53-L-1 engine producing 700 shp, the XH-40 first flew on 20 October 1956 at Fort Worth, Texas, with Bells chief test pilot, Floyd Carlson, at the controls. Two more prototypes were built in 1957, and the Army had previously ordered six YH-40 service test aircraft, in March 1960, the Army awarded Bell a production contract for 100 aircraft, which was designated as the HU-1A and officially named Iroquois after the Native American nations. The helicopter quickly developed a nickname derived from its designation of HU-1, the reference became so popular that Bell began casting the name on the helicopters anti-torque pedals. The official U. S. Army name was almost never used in practice, after September 1962, the designation for all models was changed to UH-1 under a unified Department of Defense designation system, but the nickname remained. The Army indicated the need for improved follow-on models even as the first UH-1As were being delivered, Army testing of the UH-1B started in November 1960, with the first production aircraft delivered in March 1961. Bell commenced development of the UH-1C in 1960 in order to correct deficiencies of the armed UH-1B. Bell fitted the UH-1C with a 1,100 shp T53-L-11 engine to provide the power needed to all weapons systems in use or under development. The Army would eventually refit all UH-1B aircraft with the same engine, a new rotor system was developed for the UH-1C to allow higher air speeds and reduce the incidence of retreating blade stall during diving engagements. The improved rotor resulted in better maneuverability and a speed increase. The increased power and a larger diameter rotor required Bells engineers to design a new boom for the UH-1C. The longer tail boom incorporated a wider chord fin on the tail rotor pylon. Bell also introduced a hydraulic control system for redundancy as well as an improved inlet filter system for the dusty conditions found in southeast Asia
9.
Bell 309 KingCobra
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The Bell Model 309 KingCobra was an experimental attack helicopter developed by Bell Helicopter, based on the Bell AH-1 Cobra. The AH-1 Cobra was developed in the mid-1960s as a gunship for the U. S. Army for use in Vietnam. The Cobra shared the proven transmission, rotor system, and the T53 turboshaft engine of the UH-1 Huey, by June 1967, the first AH-1G HueyCobras had been delivered. Originally designated as UH-1H, the A for attack designation was adopted and when the improved UH-1D became the UH-1H. Bell built 1,116 AH-1Gs for the US Army between 1967 and 1973, and the Cobras chalked up over a million hours in Vietnam. The Sikorsky offering was the S-67 Blackhawk, a sleek gunship, the Bell offering was a refined HueyCobra, the Model 309 KingCobra. Bell announced the KingCobra program in January 1971, the twin-engine KingCobra first flew on 10 September 1971. It looked much like an AH-1J, except for a longer and distinctive buzzard beak nose, however, there were significant changes that were less noticeable, The airframe was strengthened and the tailboom was lengthened, making the KingCobra 3 feet 7 inches longer than the AH-1G. A new rotor was fitted, with forward swept tips and a diameter of 48 feet, the new rotor blades improved lift and reduced noise. A larger 20 millimeter ammunition drum, derived from the General Dynamics F-111, was fitted, a sensor system for night and bad weather fighting was fitted beneath the extended nose. This Stabilized Multisensor Sight was derived from technology developed for the AH-56 Cheyenne, and included a FLIR, an LLTV, a rangefinder. The SMS could display imagery on either the gunners sight or the pilots head-up display, the pilot had his own LLTV, mounted in the front of the rotor fairing, to allow him to fly while the gunner hunted for targets. The primary weapon of the KingCobra was to be the new wire-guided BGM-71 TOW anti-tank missile and this weapon could be carried in a pack of four missiles, with one pack under each stub wing for a total of eight missiles. On launch, the TOW trailed out wires to communicate command guidance updates, the missile had two infrared flares on its tail to allow the SMS to track it. All the gunner had to do was keep the target in his sight, both the gunner and the pilot had Sperry Univac helmet-mounted sights to allow them to acquire targets for the KingCobras missiles and gun. A long-span big wing,13 feet wide, was designed for the KingCobra, the big wing was to provide additional fuel and stores carriage capability at the wingtips. The single-engine KingCobra first flew in January 1972, other than engine fit, it was almost identical to the twin-engine KingCobra. As it turned out, the prototype was wrecked in an accident in April
10.
Transmission (mechanics)
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A transmission is a machine in a power transmission system, which provides controlled application of the power. Often the term refers simply to the gearbox that uses gears and gear trains to provide speed. In British English, the term refers to the whole drivetrain, including clutch, gearbox, prop shaft, differential. In American English, however, the term more specifically to the gearbox alone. The most common use is in vehicles, where the transmission adapts the output of the internal combustion engine to the drive wheels. Such engines need to operate at a high rotational speed, which is inappropriate for starting, stopping. The transmission reduces the engine speed to the slower wheel speed. Transmissions are also used on bicycles, fixed machines. Often, a transmission has multiple gear ratios with the ability to switch between them as speed varies and this switching may be done manually or automatically. Directional control may also be provided, single-ratio transmissions also exist, which simply change the speed and torque of motor output. The output of the transmission is transmitted via the driveshaft to one or more differentials, while a differential may also provide gear reduction, its primary purpose is to permit the wheels at either end of an axle to rotate at different speeds as it changes the direction of rotation. Conventional gear/belt transmissions are not the mechanism for speed/torque adaptation. Alternative mechanisms include torque converters and power transformation, automatic transmissions use a valve body to shift gears using fluid pressures in conjunction with an ecm. Early transmissions included the right-angle drives and other gearing in windmills, horse-powered devices, and steam engines, in support of pumping, milling, most modern gearboxes are used to increase torque while reducing the speed of a prime mover output shaft. This means that the shaft of a gearbox rotates at a slower rate than the input shaft. A gearbox can be set up to do the opposite and provide an increase in speed with a reduction of torque. Some of the simplest gearboxes merely change the rotational direction of power transmission. Many typical automobile transmissions include the ability to select one of several gear ratios, in this case, most of the gear ratios are used to slow down the output speed of the engine and increase torque
11.
Helicopter rotor
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The blade pitch is typically controlled by a swashplate connected to the helicopter flight controls. Helicopters are one example of rotary-wing aircraft, the name is derived from the Greek words helix, helik-, meaning spiral, and pteron meaning wing. The use of a rotor for vertical flight has existed since 400 BC in the form of the bamboo-copter, the bamboo-copter is spun by rolling a stick attached to a rotor. The spinning creates lift, and the toy flies when released, leonardo da Vinci designed a machine known as an aerial screw with a rotor based on a water screw. The Russian polymath Mikhail Lomonosov developed a rotor based on the Chinese toy, the French naturalist Christian de Launoy constructed his rotor out of turkey feathers. Sir George Cayley, inspired by the Chinese toy in his childhood, alphonse Pénaud would later develop the coaxial rotor model helicopter toys in 1870, powered by rubber bands. One of these toys, given as a gift by their father, before development of powered helicopters in the mid 20th century, autogyro pioneer Juan de la Cierva researched and developed many of the fundamentals of the rotor. De la Cierva is credited with development of multi-bladed, fully articulated rotor systems. This system, in its various modified forms, is the basis of most multi-bladed helicopter rotor systems and their TsAGI 1-EA helicopter was able to fly in low altitude testing in 1931-32, with Cheremukhin flying it as high as 605 meters by mid-August 1932. In the 1930s, Arthur Young improved the stability of two-bladed rotor systems with the introduction of a stabilizer bar and this system was used in several Bell and Hiller helicopter models. In the late 1940s, the making of helicopter blades was a job that inspired John T. Parsons to be a pioneer of numerical control. NC and CNC turned out to be an important new technology that affected all machining industries. The helicopter rotor is powered by the engine, through the transmission, the mast is a cylindrical metal shaft that extends upward from—and is driven by—the transmission. At the top of the mast is the attachment point for the rotor blades called the hub, the rotor blades are then attached to the hub, and the hub can have 10-20 times the drag of the blade. Main rotor systems are classified according to how the rotor blades are attached. There are three classifications, hingeless, teetering, and fully articulated, although some modern rotor systems use a combination of these classifications. A rotor is a finely tuned rotating mass, and different subtle adjustments reduce vibrations at different airspeeds, the rotors are designed to operate at a fixed RPM, but a few experimental aircraft used variable speed rotors. Unlike the small diameter fans used in jet engines, the main rotor on a helicopter has a large diameter that lets it accelerate a large volume of air
12.
Bell Huey family
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The Bell Huey family of helicopters includes a wide range of civil and military aircraft produced since 1956 by Bell Helicopter. XH-40 The initial Bell 204 prototype, yH-40 Six aircraft for evaluation, as XH-40 with 12-inch cabin stretch and other modifications. Bell 533 One YH-40BF rebuilt as a flight test bed with turbofan engines, HU-1A Initial Bell 204 production model, redesignated as the UH-1A in 1962. The HU-1 designation gave rise to the popular but unofficial nickname Huey, tH-1A UH-1A with dual controls and blind-flying instruments,14 conversions. XH-1A A single UH-1A was redesignated for grenade launcher testing in 1960, hU-1B Upgraded HU-1A, various external and rotor improvements. YUH-1B UH-1B prototypes NUH-1B A single test aircraft, serial number 64-18261, UH-1C UH-1B with improved engine, modified blades and rotor-head for better performance in the gunship role. YUH-1D Seven pre-production prototypes of the UH-1D, UH-1D Initial Bell 205 production model. Also built under license in Germany by Dornier, hH-1D Rescue/fire fighting variant of UH-1D. AH-1E98 production Cobra gunships with the Enhanced Cobra Armament System featuring the M97A1 armament subsystem with a three-barreled M19720 mm cannon, the AH-1E is also referred to as the Upgunned AH-1S, or AH-1S prior to 1988. UH-1E UH-1B/C for USMC with different avionics and equipment, tH-1E UH-1C configured for Marine Corps training. AH-1F Modernized AH-1S, with upgraded avionics and defensive systems, UH-1F UH-1B/C for the USAF, with General Electric T-58-GE-3 engine of 1,325 shp. TH-1F Instrument and Rescue Trainer based on the UH-1F for the USAF, uH-1G Designation given locally to UH-1D/H gunships operating with the Cambodia armed forces. AH-1G Initial 1966 production model of the Cobra gunship for the US Army, jAH-1G One Cobra helicopter modified for armament testing, including Hellfire missiles and multi-barrel cannon. UH-1H Improved UH-1D with a Lycoming T-53-L-13 engine of 1,400 shp,5,435 built, also built under license in Taiwan by AIDC. CUH-1H Canadian Forces designation for the UH-1H utility transport helicopter, eH-1H Twenty-two aircraft converted by installation of AN/ARQ-33 radio intercept and jamming equipment for Project Quick Fix. HH-1H SAR variant for the USAF with rescue hoist, jUH-1 Five UH-1Hs converted to SOTAS battlefield surveillance configuration with belly-mounted airborne radar. TH-1H Modified UH-1Hs for use as basic helicopter flight trainers by the USAF, HH-1K Purpose built SAR variant of the Model 204 for the US Navy with USN avionics and equipment. TH-1L Helicopter flight trainer based on the HH-1K for the USN. UH-1L Utility variant of the TH-1L, uH-1M Gunship specific UH-1C upgrade with Lycoming T-53-L-13 engine of 1,400 shp
13.
Boeing AH-64 Apache
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The Boeing AH-64 Apache is an American four-blade, twin-turboshaft attack helicopter with a tailwheel-type landing gear arrangement and a tandem cockpit for a two-man crew. It features a nose-mounted sensor suite for target acquisition and night vision systems and it is armed with a 30 mm M230 chain gun carried between the main landing gear, under the aircrafts forward fuselage. It has four hardpoints mounted on stub-wing pylons, typically carrying a mixture of AGM-114 Hellfire missiles, the AH-64 has a large amount of systems redundancy to improve combat survivability. The Apache originally started as the Model 77 developed by Hughes Helicopters for the United States Armys Advanced Attack Helicopter program to replace the AH-1 Cobra, the prototype YAH-64 was first flown on 30 September 1975. The U. S. Army selected the YAH-64 over the Bell YAH-63 in 1976, after purchasing Hughes Helicopters in 1984, McDonnell Douglas continued AH-64 production and development. The helicopter was introduced to U. S. Army service in April 1986, the first production AH-64D Apache Longbow, an upgraded Apache variant, was delivered to the Army in March 1997. Production has been continued by Boeing Defense, Space & Security, American AH-64s have served in conflicts in Panama, the Persian Gulf, Kosovo, Afghanistan, and Iraq. Israel used the Apache in its conflicts in Lebanon and the Gaza Strip, British and Dutch Apaches have seen deployments in wars in Afghanistan. Following the cancellation of the AH-56 Cheyenne in 1972, in favor of projects like the U. S, the Army wanted an aircraft better than the AH-1 Cobra in firepower, performance and range. It would have the maneuverability for terrain following nap-of-the-earth flying, to this end, the U. S. Army issued a Request For Proposals for an Advanced Attack Helicopter on 15 November 1972. As a sign of the importance of project, in September 1973 the Army designated its five most important projects as the Big Five. Proposals were submitted by Bell, Boeing Vertol/Grumman team, Hughes, Lockheed, in July 1973, the U. S. Department of Defense selected finalists Bell and Hughes Aircrafts Toolco Aircraft Division. This began the phase 1 of the competition, each company built prototype helicopters and went through a flight test program. Hughes Model 77/YAH-64A prototype first flew on 30 September 1975, while Bells Model 409/YAH-63A prototype first flew on 1 October 1975, after evaluating the test results, the Army selected Hughes YAH-64A over Bells YAH-63A in 1976. Reasons for selecting the YAH-64A included its more damage tolerant four-blade main rotor, weapons and sensor systems were integrated and tested during this time, including the laser-guided AGM-114 Hellfire missile. In 1981, three pre-production AH-64As were handed over to the U. S. Army for Operational Test II, the Army testing was successful, but afterward it was decided to upgrade to the more powerful T700-GE-701 version of engine, rated at 1,690 shp. The AH-64 was named the Apache in late 1981, keeping with the Armys traditional use of American Indian tribal names for its helicopters, in 1983, the first production helicopter was rolled out at Hughes Helicopters facility at Mesa, Arizona. Hughes Helicopters was purchased by McDonnell Douglas for $470 million in 1984, the helicopter unit later became part of The Boeing Company with the merger of Boeing and McDonnell Douglas in August 1997
14.
United States Marine Corps
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The U. S. Marine Corps is one of the four armed service branches in the U. S. Department of Defense and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The current Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, the military officer in the U. S. Armed Forces, is a Marine Corps general, the Marine Corps has been a component of the U. S. Department of the Navy since 30 June 1834, working closely with naval forces for training, transportation, and logistics. The USMC operates posts on land and aboard sea-going amphibious warfare ships around the world, two battalions of Continental Marines were formed on 10 November 1775 in Philadelphia as a service branch of infantry troops capable of fighting for independence both at sea and on shore. The role of the Corps has since grown and evolved, expanding to aerial warfare and earning popular titles such as, Americas third air force, and, second land army. By the mid-20th century, the U. S. Marine Corps had become a major theorist of and its ability to rapidly respond on short notice to expeditionary crises gives it a strong role in the implementation and execution of American foreign policy. As of 2016, the USMC has around 182,000 active duty members and it is the smallest of the U. S. The USMC serves as an expeditionary force-in-readiness and this last clause, while seemingly redundant given the Presidents position as Commander-in-chief, is a codification of the expeditionary responsibilities of the Marine Corps. It derives from similar language in the Congressional acts For the Better Organization of the Marine Corps of 1834, in 1951, the House of Representatives Armed Services Committee called the clause one of the most important statutory – and traditional – functions of the Marine Corps. In addition to its duties, the Marine Corps conducts Visit, Board, Search, and Seizure operations, as well as missions in direct support of the White House. The Marine Band, dubbed the Presidents Own by Thomas Jefferson, Marines from Ceremonial Companies A & B, quartered in Marine Barracks, Washington, D. C. The Executive Flight Detachment also provides transport to Cabinet members. The relationship between the Department of State and the U. S. Marine Corps is nearly as old as the corps itself, for over 200 years, Marines have served at the request of various Secretaries of State. After World War II, an alert, disciplined force was needed to protect American embassies, consulates, in 1947, a proposal was made that the Department of War furnish Marine Corps personnel for Foreign Service guard duty under the provisions of the Foreign Service Act of 1946. A formal Memorandum of Agreement was signed between the Department of State and the Secretary of the Navy on December 15,1948, during the first year of the MSG program,36 detachments were deployed worldwide. Continental Marines manned raiding parties, both at sea and ashore, the Advanced Base Doctrine of the early 20th century codified their combat duties ashore, outlining the use of Marines in the seizure of bases and other duties on land to support naval campaigns. Throughout the late 19th and 20th centuries, Marine detachments served aboard Navy cruisers, battleships, Marine detachments served in their traditional duties as a ships landing force, manning the ships weapons and providing shipboard security. Marines would develop tactics and techniques of amphibious assault on defended coastlines in time for use in World War II, during World War II, Marines continued to serve on capital ships
15.
Vietnam War
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It was the second of the Indochina Wars and was officially fought between North Vietnam and the government of South Vietnam. The war is considered a Cold War-era proxy war. As the war continued, the actions of the Viet Cong decreased as the role. U. S. and South Vietnamese forces relied on air superiority and overwhelming firepower to conduct search and destroy operations, involving ground forces, artillery, in the course of the war, the U. S. conducted a large-scale strategic bombing campaign against North Vietnam. The North Vietnamese government and the Viet Cong were fighting to reunify Vietnam and they viewed the conflict as a colonial war and a continuation of the First Indochina War against forces from France and later on the United States. The U. S. government viewed its involvement in the war as a way to prevent a communist takeover of South Vietnam and this was part the domino theory of a wider containment policy, with the stated aim of stopping the spread of communism. Beginning in 1950, American military advisors arrived in what was then French Indochina, U. S. involvement escalated in the early 1960s, with troop levels tripling in 1961 and again in 1962. Regular U. S. combat units were deployed beginning in 1965, despite the Paris Peace Accord, which was signed by all parties in January 1973, the fighting continued. In the U. S. and the Western world, a large anti-Vietnam War movement developed as part of a larger counterculture, the war changed the dynamics between the Eastern and Western Blocs, and altered North–South relations. Direct U. S. military involvement ended on 15 August 1973, the capture of Saigon by the North Vietnamese Army in April 1975 marked the end of the war, and North and South Vietnam were reunified the following year. The war exacted a huge human cost in terms of fatalities, estimates of the number of Vietnamese soldiers and civilians killed vary from 966,000 to 3.8 million. Some 240, 000–300,000 Cambodians,20, 000–62,000 Laotians, and 58,220 U. S. service members died in the conflict. Various names have applied to the conflict. Vietnam War is the most commonly used name in English and it has also been called the Second Indochina War and the Vietnam Conflict. As there have been several conflicts in Indochina, this conflict is known by the names of its primary protagonists to distinguish it from others. In Vietnamese, the war is known as Kháng chiến chống Mỹ. It is also called Chiến tranh Việt Nam, France began its conquest of Indochina in the late 1850s, and completed pacification by 1893. The 1884 Treaty of Huế formed the basis for French colonial rule in Vietnam for the seven decades
16.
Cavalry tactics
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For much of history, humans have used some form of cavalry for war and, as a result, cavalry tactics have evolved over time. Tactically, the advantages of cavalry over infantry troops were greater mobility, a larger impact. Before the invention of saddle and stirrups, which riders to reasonably maneuver on horseback. The chariots advantage of speed was outdone by the agility of riding on horseback, the ability of horsemen to pass more difficult terrain was also crucial to this change. In Celtic warfare, light chariots persisted among mounted troops, for their ability to heavily armoured warriors. At first it was not considered effective to use weapons on horseback, mounted infantry would ride to battle, and then dismount to fight. For a long time, riders and charioteers worked alongside each other in the cavalry, the first recorded instance of mounted warriors are the mounted archers of the Iranian tribes appearing in Assyrian records from the 9th century BC. Mongolian troops had a Buryat bow, for showering the enemy with arrows from a safe distance. The aim on horseback was better than in a jiggling chariot, nevertheless, an archer in a chariot could shoot potentially stronger infantry bows. Javelins were employed as a ranged weapon by many cavalries. They were easy to handle on horseback, two to ten javelins would be carried, depending on their weight. Thrown javelins have less range than composite bows, but often prevailed in use nevertheless, due to the mass of the weapon, there was a greater armour-piercing ability, and they thus caused fatal wounds more frequently. Usage is reported for both light and heavy cavalry, for example, by Numidia and the Mongols light cavalry and the heavy cataphracts, Celtic cavalry, the Celtic horsemens training was copied by the Roman equites. A significant element learned from the Celts was turning on horseback to throw javelins backwards, modern historical reenactors have shown that neither the stirrup nor the saddle are strictly necessary for the effective use of the couched lance, refuting a previously widely held belief. Free movement of the rider on horseback were highly esteemed for light cavalry to shoot and fight in all directions, andalusian light cavalry refused to employ them until the 12th century, nor were they used by the Baltic turcopoles of the Teutonic Order in the battle of Legnica. An example of combined arms and the efficiency of cavalry forces were the Medieval Mongols, important for their horse archery was the use of stirrups for the archer to stand while shooting. This new position enabled them to use larger and stronger cavalry bows than the enemy, armies of horse archers could cover enemy troops with arrows from a distance and never had to engage in close combat. Slower enemies without effective long range weapons often had no chance against them and it was in this manner that the cavalry of the Parthian Empire destroyed the troops of Crassus in the Battle of Carrhae
17.
Battle
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A battle is a combat in warfare between two or more armed forces, or combatants. A war sometimes consists of many battles, Battles generally are well defined in duration, area, and force commitment. Wars and military campaigns are guided by strategy, whereas battles take place on a level of planning, German strategist Carl von Clausewitz stated that the employment of battles. To achieve the object of war was the essence of strategy, where the duration of the battle is longer than a week, it is often for reasons of staff operational planning called an operation. Battles can be planned, encountered, or forced by one force on the other when the latter is unable to withdraw from combat, a battle always has as its purpose the reaching of a mission goal by use of military force. However, a battle may end in a Pyrrhic victory, which favors the defeated party. If no resolution is reached in a battle, it can result in a stalemate, a conflict in which one side is unwilling to reach a decision by a direct battle using conventional warfare often becomes an insurgency. Until the 19th century the majority of battles were of short duration and this was mainly due to the difficulty of supplying armies in the field, or conducting night operations. The means of prolonging a battle was typically by employment of siege warfare, improvements in transportation and the sudden evolving of trench warfare, with its siege-like nature during World War I in the 20th century, lengthened the duration of battles to days and weeks. This created the requirement for unit rotation to prevent combat fatigue, trench warfare had become largely obsolete in conflicts between advanced armies by the start of the Second World War. The space a battle depends on the range of the weapons of the combatants. A battle in this sense may be of long duration and take place over a large area. Until the advent of artillery and aircraft, battles were fought with the two sides within sight, if not reach, of each other. Conversely, some of the Allied infantry who had just dealt a defeat to the French at the Battle of Waterloo fully expected to have to fight again the next day. Battlespace is a strategy to integrate and combine armed forces for the military theatre of operations, including air, information, land, sea. It includes the environment, factors and conditions that must be understood to successfully apply combat power, protect the force and this includes enemy and friendly armed forces, facilities, weather, terrain, and the electromagnetic spectrum within the operational areas and areas of interest. Battles are decided by various factors, the number and quality of combatants and equipment, the skill of the commanders of each army, and the terrain advantages are among the most prominent factors. A unit may charge with high morale but less discipline and still emerge victorious and this tactic was effectively used by the early French Revolutionary Armies
18.
Viet Cong
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It had both guerrilla and regular army units, as well as a network of cadres who organized peasants in the territory it controlled. Many soldiers were recruited in South Vietnam, but others were attached to the Peoples Army of Vietnam, although the terminology distinguishes northerners from the southerners, communist forces were under a single command structure set up in 1958. North Vietnam established the National Liberation Front on December 20,1960, many of the Việt Cộngs core members were volunteer regroupees, southern Viet Minh who had resettled in the North after the Geneva Accord. Hanoi gave the military training and sent them back to the South along the Ho Chi Minh trail in the early 1960s. The NLF called for southern Vietnamese to overthrow the colonial regime of the American imperialists. The offensive riveted the attention of the media for weeks. Later communist offensives were conducted predominantly by the North Vietnamese, the organisation was dissolved in 1976 when North and South Vietnam were officially unified under a communist government. The term Việt cộng appeared in Saigon newspapers beginning in 1956 and it is a contraction of Việt Nam Cộng-sản, or alternatively Việt gian cộng sản. The earliest citation for Việt Cộng in English is from 1957, American soldiers referred to the Viet Cong as Victor Charlie or V-C. Victor and Charlie are both letters in the NATO phonetic alphabet, Charlie referred to communist forces in general, both Việt Cộng and North Vietnamese. The official Vietnamese history gives the name as the Liberation Army of South Vietnam or the National Liberation Front for South Vietnam. Many writers shorten this to National Liberation Front, in 1969, the Viet Cong created the Provisional Revolutionary Government of the Republic of South Vietnam, abbreviated PRG. Although the NLF was not officially abolished until 1977, the Viet Cong no longer used the name after PRG was created, members generally referred to the Viet Cong as the Front. Todays Vietnamese media most frequently refers to the group as the Peoples Liberation Armed Forces of South Vietnam, by the terms of the Geneva Accord, which ended the Indochina War, France and the Viet Minh agreed to a truce and to a separation of forces. The Viet Minh had become the government of Democratic Republic of Vietnam since the Vietnamese 1946 general election, military forces of non-communists regrouped in South Vietnam, which became a separate state. The political forces was not compulsory to regroup, elections on reunification were scheduled for July 1956. A divided Vietnam angered Vietnamese nationalists, but it made the country less of a threat to China, Democratic Republic of Vietnam in the past and Vietnam in the present do not recognise that Vietnam was divided into two countries. Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai negotiated the terms of the ceasefire with France, about 90,000 Viet Minh were evacuated to the North while 5,000 to 10,000 cadre remained in the South, most of them with orders to refocus on political activity and agitation
19.
People's Army of Vietnam
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The Peoples Army of Vietnam, also known as the Vietnamese Peoples Army, is the military force of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam. The PAVN is a part of Vietnam Peoples Armed Forces and includes, Ground Force, Navy, Air Force, Border Defence Force, however, Vietnam does not have a specific separate Ground Force or Army branch. The military flag of the PAVN is the flag of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, during the French Indochina War, the PAVN was often referred to as the Việt Minh. In the context of the Vietnam War, the army was referred to as the North Vietnamese Army and this allowed writers, the US military, and the general public, to distinguish northern communists from the southern communists, or Viet Cong. However, both groups ultimately worked under the command structure. According to Hanois official history, the Viet Cong was a branch of the VPA, in 2010 the PAVN undertook the role of leading the 1, 000th Anniversary Parade in Hanoi by performing their biggest parade in history. Under the guidelines of Hồ Chí Minh, Võ Nguyên Giáp was given the task of establishing the brigades, the first formation was made up of thirty one men and three women, armed with two revolvers, seventeen rifles, one light machine gun, and fourteen breech-loading flintlocks. The group was renamed the Vietnam Liberation Army in May 1945, in September, the army was again renamed the Vietnam National Defence Army. At this point, it had about 1,000 soldiers, in 1950, it officially became the Peoples Army of Vietnam. On 7 January 1947, its first regiment, the 102nd Capital Regiment, was created for operations around Hanoi. Over the next two years, the first division, the 308th Division, later known as the Pioneer Division formed by the 88th Tu Vu Regiment. By late 1950 the 308th Division had a full three infantry regiments, when it was supplemented by the 36th Regiment, at that time, the 308th Division was also backed by the 11th Battalion that later became the main force of the 312th Division. The first six divisions became known as the original PAVN Steel, in 1954 four of these divisions defeated the French Union forces at the Battle of Dien Bien Phu, ending 83 years of French rule in Indochina. At about the time, Group 579 was created as its maritime counterpart to transport supplies into the South by sea. Most of the infiltrators were members of the 338th Division. Those PAVN formations were seen as extremely brave forces by the US forces and we had to change our plan and make it different from when we fought the Saigon regime, because we now had to fight two adversaries — the United States and South Vietnam. We understood that the U. S. Army was superior to our own logistically, in weapons, so strategically we did not hope to defeat the U. S. Army completely. Our intentions were to fight a time and cause heavy casualties to the United States, so the United States would see that the war was unwinnable
20.
Bell 207 Sioux Scout
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After several years development Bell displayed the mockup of its D-255 Iroquois Warrior to Army officials in June 1962, hoping to solicit funding for further development.10 anti-tank missiles. The Sioux Scout included all the key features of a helicopter gunship – a tandem cockpit, stub wings for weapons. The tandem cockpit placed the gunner in the front seat with the pilot in the rear. The gunners position featured a gunsight and turret controls located in the centre, the gunner controlled a chin-mounted gun turret with twin 7.62 mm M60 machine guns. The stub wings held external fuel tanks, first flown in July 1963, the Bell 207 demonstrated improved manoeuvrability over the Bell 47/OH-13, derived from the stub wings. A variety of different wings, cowlings and tail surfaces were tested on the 207 before it was turned over to the Army pilots at Fort Benning, Georgia for further testing at the end of 1963. After evaluating the Sioux Scout in early 1964, the Army was impressed, but also felt the Sioux Scout was undersized, underpowered, later in 1964, the Army requested proposals for its Advanced Aerial Fire Support System. In response, Bell proposed the D-262, a version of the D-255. However, the Bell D-262 was not selected as a finalist in the competition, despite losing the AAFSS competition the Model 209 achieved great success as the Bell AH-1 Cobra. Data from General characteristics Crew, two in tandem cockpits Powerplant,1 × Lycoming TVO-435-A1A 6-cyl, air-cooled horizontally-opposed piston engine,260 hp PerformanceArmament Guns, *two 7
21.
SS.10
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In American service the missile was called the MGM-21A. The missile entered service in 1955 with the French army and it was used briefly by the US army in the early 1960s. The missile ceased production in January 1962 after approximately 30,000 missiles had been built, development began in France in 1948, when the Arsenal de lAéronautique in Châtillon sous Bagneux began looking at the possibility of developing the German X-7 missile further. The missile was designed to be cheap, In 1955 the missile cost 340 Francs, the first rounds were test fired in 1952. Development was completed in 1955 and the missile entered service with the French Army under the designation SS.10. After development of the missile was completed, the US successfully re-evaluated the missile in mid-1958, in late 1955 Israel ordered 36 SS.10 launchers. They were received a later, too late for the IDF to use them in the 1956 Suez Crisis. Subsequently a self-propelled variant was developed, with four launchers carried by Dodge truck, in early 1960s SS.10 missiles were retired from the IDF service, replaced by SS.11. The US army was interested in the missile from an early stage, however, after the SSM-A-23 was cancelled in 1958, they began to consider procuring the SS.10 and SS.11 missiles. In February 1959, they decided to buy the SS.10 as a stopgap, the missile was delivered in January 1960 and was phased out in 1963 in favour of the MGM-32 Entac. The missile received the designation MGM-21A, since the missile spins in flight, a gyroscope is needed to determine which spoilers are currently up/down or left/right. Guiding the missile to the target is very demanding and requires a level of operator skill. SS.10 / MGM-21A France Israel United States Nord SS. 10/MGM-21 at Designation-Systems. Net Oleg Granovskiy, First Generation ATGMs in the IDF at Waronline. org
22.
Bell 47
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The Bell 47 is a two-bladed, single engine, light helicopter manufactured by Bell Helicopter. Based on the third Model 30 prototype, Bells first helicopter designed by Arthur M. Young, the Bell 47 became the first helicopter certified for civilian use on 8 March 1946. More than 5,600 Bell 47 aircraft were produced, including those produced under license by Agusta in Italy, Kawasaki Heavy Industries in Japan, the Bell 47J Ranger is a modified version with a fully enclosed cabin and fuselage. Early models varied in appearance, with open cockpits or sheet metal cabins, fabric covered or open structures, later model D and Korean War H-13D and E types settled on a more utilitarian style. The most common model, the 47G introduced in 1953, can be recognized by the soap bubble canopy, exposed welded-tube tail boom, saddle fuel tanks. The later three-seat 47H had a cabin with full cowling. It was an attempt to market a version of the basic 47G. Engines were Franklin or Lycoming vertically mounted piston engines of 200 to 305 HP, seating varied from two to four. In April 2011 there were 1068 registered with the Federal Aviation Administration in the United States and 15 in the United Kingdom. Bell 47s were produced in Japan by a Bell and Kawasaki venture, this led to the Kawasaki KH-4 variant and it differed from the J in having a standard uncovered tail boom and fuel tanks like the G series. It was sold throughout Asia, and some were used in Australia, in February 2010, the Bell 47 type certificates were transferred to Scotts Helicopter Services. The Bell 47 helicopter entered U. S. military service in late 1946, in a variety of versions and designations for three decades. In the Korean War, it was designated the H-13 Sioux by the U. S. Army, where it served a variety of roles including reconnaissance and scouting, search and rescue, and medevac. It has also served as the helicopter of choice for basic flight instruction in many countries. After Silva fixed the problem overnight, the Telecopter made the worlds first successful television news flight on July 4,1958, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration had a number of Bell 47s during the Apollo program, used by astronauts as trainers for the lunar lander. Apollo 17 commander Eugene Cernan had a disastrous crash into the Indian River in Florida in 1972. 13 May 1949, a Bell 47 set a record of 18,550 feet. 21 September 1950, first helicopter to fly over the Alps,17 September 1952, Bell pilot Elton J. Smith set a world distance record for piston helicopters of 1,217 miles by flying nonstop from Hurst, Texas, to Buffalo, New York
23.
Cockpit
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A cockpit or flight deck is the area, usually near the front of an aircraft or spacecraft, from which a pilot controls the aircraft. Most modern cockpits are enclosed, except on small aircraft. The cockpit of an aircraft flight instruments on an instrument panel. In most airliners, a separates the cockpit from the aircraft cabin. After the September 11,2001 attacks, all major airlines fortified their cockpits against access by hijackers, the word cockpit was originally a sailing term for the coxswains station in a Royal Navy ship, and later the location of the ships rudder controls. Cockpit first appeared in the English language in the 1580s, a pit for fighting cocks, used in nautical sense for midshipmens compartment below decks, transferred to airplanes and to cars. From about 1935, cockpit came to be used informally to refer to the seat of a car, especially a high performance one. In the US and many countries, however, the term cockpit is also used for airliners. Military biplanes and the first single-engined fighters and attack aircraft also had open cockpits, the largest impediment to having closed cabins was the material the windows were to be made of. Prior to Perspex becoming available in 1933, windows were either safety glass, which was heavy, or cellulose nitrate, in the mid-1920s many aircraft manufacturers began using enclosed cockpits for the first time. Open-cockpit airplanes were almost extinct by the mid-1950s, with the exception of training planes, crop-dusters, Cockpit windows may be equipped with a sun shield. Most cockpits have windows that can be opened when the aircraft is on the ground, nearly all glass windows in large aircraft have an anti-reflective coating, and an internal heating element to melt ice. Smaller aircraft may be equipped with a transparent aircraft canopy, in most cockpits the pilots control column or joystick is located centrally, although in some military fast jets the side-stick is located on the right hand side. In some commercial airliners both pilots use a side-stick located on the side, so Captains side-stick on the left. Except for some helicopters, the seat in the cockpit of an aircraft is the seat used by the co-pilot. The captain or pilot in command sits in the seat, so that he can operate the throttles. The tradition has maintained to this day, with the co-pilot on the right hand side. The layout of the cockpit, especially in the military fast jet, has undergone standardisation, One of the most important developments was the Basic Six pattern, later the Basic T, developed from 1937 onwards by the Royal Air Force, designed to optimise pilot instrument scanning
24.
Gun turret
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A gun turret is a location from which weapons can be fired that affords protection, visibility, and some cone of fire. Rotating gun turrets have the protection, the weapon, and its crew rotate, when this meaning of the word turret started being used at the beginning of the 1860s, turrets were normally cylindrical. Barbettes were an alternative to turrets, with a barbette the protection was fixed, in the 1890s, armoured hoods were added to barbettes, these rotated with the platform. By the early 20th Century, these hoods were known as turrets, modern warships have gun-mountings described as turrets, though the protection on them is limited to protection from the weather. They may be manned or remotely controlled and are most often protected to some degree, the protection provided by the turret may be against battle damage, the weather conditions, general environment in which the weapon or its crew will be operating. A small turret, or sub-turret set on top of a one, is called a cupola. The term cupola is used for a rotating turret that carries a sighting device rather than weaponry. Before the development of large-calibre, long-range guns in the mid-19th century, firepower was provided by a large number of guns, each of which could traverse only in a limited arc. Additionally casemate mounts had to be recessed into the side of a vessel to afford a wide arc of fire, designs for a rotating gun turret date back to the late 18th century. The Lady Nancy proved a success and Coles patenting his rotating turret design after the war. Coless aim was to create a ship with the greatest possible all round arc of fire, the Admiralty accepted the principle of the turret gun as a useful innovation, and incorporated it into other new designs. Coles submitted a design for a ship having ten domed turrets each housing two large guns, the design was rejected as impractical, although the Admiralty remained interested in turret ships and instructed its own designers to create better designs. Coles enlisted the support of Prince Albert, who wrote to the first Lord of the Admiralty, in January 1862, the Admiralty agreed to construct a ship, the HMS Prince Albert which had four turrets and a low freeboard, intended only for coastal defence. While Coles designed the turrets the ship was the responsibility of the chief Constructor Isaac Watts, another ship using Coles turret designs, HMS Royal Sovereign, was completed in August 1864. Its existing broadside guns were replaced with four turrets on a flat deck, early ships like the Royal Sovereign had little sea-keeping qualities being limited to coastal waters. Sir Edward James Reed, went on to design and build HMS Monarch, laid down in 1866 and completed in June 1869, it carried two turrets, although the inclusion of a forecastle and poop prevented the turret guns firing fore and aft. The gun turret was independently invented by the Swedish inventor John Ericsson in America, Ericsson designed the USS Monitor in 1861, its most prominent feature being a large cylindrical gun turret mounted amidships above the low-freeboard upper hull, also called the raft. This extended well past the sides of the lower, more traditionally shaped hull, a small armoured pilot house was fitted on the upper deck towards the bow, however, its position prevented Monitor from firing her guns straight forward
25.
Lockheed AH-56 Cheyenne
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The Lockheed AH-56 Cheyenne was an attack helicopter developed by Lockheed for the United States Army. It rose from the Armys Advanced Aerial Fire Support System program to field the services first dedicated attack helicopter, the Cheyenne was to have a high-speed dash capability to provide armed escort for the Armys transport helicopters, such as the Bell UH-1 Iroquois. In 1966, the Army awarded Lockheed a contract for ten AH-56 prototypes, the AH-56s maiden flight took place on 21 September 1967. In January 1968, the Army awarded Lockheed a production contract, a fatal crash and technical problems affecting performance put Cheyenne development behind schedule, resulting in the cancellation of the production contract on 19 May 1969. Development of the Cheyenne continued in the hope that the helicopter would eventually enter service, but as American involvement in Vietnam was winding down, the Army canceled the Cheyenne program on 9 August 1972. By this time, the AH-1 Cobra was widely deployed by the Army during the Vietnam War, the Army announced a new program for an Advanced Attack Helicopter on 17 August 1972, which led to the development of the AH-64 Apache. Prior to the development of the AH-56, all armed helicopters had been modifications to existing aircraft designed for unarmed uses, in 1962, then U. S. Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara convened the Howze Board to review Army aviation requirements. The board recommended a division supported by 90 armed helicopters. In June 1962, Bell Helicopter presented a new design to Army officials. In December 1962, Combat Development Command drafted a Qualitative Material Requirement for an interim, commercial aircraft, with a 140-knot cruise speed. However, the Secretary of the Army disapproved the interim approach, the speed requirements were derived from the speed of aircraft the helicopter would escort. The Director of Defense Research and Engineering conditionally approved the changes to the development objectives and he also directed the Army to determine whether or not any other helicopter could offer an improvement in performance over the UH-1B in the meantime. As a result, the Army Material Command conducted a study to determine if the development objectives were feasible, AMC recommended to narrow the competition to compound helicopters, as they were considered the only helicopter configuration at the time capable of being developed to meet the objectives. On 26 March 1964, the Army Chief of Staff redesignated the FAS program as the Advanced Aerial Fire Support System, Bell submitted the D-262, a modification of the D-255, but still a conventional helicopter design. Sikorsky submitted the S-66, which featured a Rotorprop that would serve as a tail rotor, Lockheed submitted the CL-840 design, a rigid-rotor compound helicopter with both a pushing propeller and a conventional tail rotor mounted at the end of the tail. The Army announced Lockheed and Sikorsky as winners of Project Definition Phase contracts on 19 February 1965, an evaluation board studied each companys proposal and then submitted its recommendation to a selection authority council on 6 October 1965. On 3 November 1965, the Army announced Lockheed as the winner of the AAFSS program, the Army perceived Lockheeds design as less expensive, able to be delivered sooner, and a lower technical risk than Sikorskys Rotorprop. On 17 December 1965, the Army released the final requirements document, the document added fourteen requirements that were not previously addressed by Lockheeds proposal, including the addition of an aerial rocket armament subsystem
26.
Boeing Rotorcraft Systems
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Boeing Rotorcraft Systems is the former name of a US aircraft manufacturer, now known as the Mobility Division of Boeing Military Aircraft, a division of Boeing Defense, Space & Security. The headquarters and main factory is in Ridley Park, Pennsylvania. Production of Apache attack helicopters in Mesa, Arizona, formerly part of Rotorcraft Systems, is now under the Global Strike Division of Boeing Military Aircraft. Other names by which the division sometimes referred to itself in correspondence over the years were Boeing Aircraft Company, Vertol Division, the company was responsible for the design and production of the CH-46 Sea Knight and the CH-47 Chinook. The name became Boeing Helicopters in 1987, and the current name was adopted in 2002, when Boeing merged with McDonnell Douglas, the former Hughes Helicopters operations in Mesa, Arizona were placed under Boeing Helicopters. A year and a half later Boeing sold the line of helicopters to MD Helicopter Holdings Inc. an indirect subsidiary of the Dutch company. By December 2006 Columbia Helicopters of Aurora, Oregon had purchased the Type certificate of the Boeing Vertol 107-II, the Columbia Helicopters is seeking FAA issuance of a Production Certificate to produce parts with eventual issuance of a PC to produce aircraft. For much of the 1970s, Boeing Vertol entered the rolling stock market in an attempt to keep government-funded contracts in the wake of the Vietnam War. This cost Boeing and the vehicles two buyers, Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority and San Francisco Municipal Railway millions and led to retirement of the vehicles. Boeing Military Aircrafts Mobility division, headquartered at Ridley Park, PA
27.
Boeing CH-47 Chinook
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The Boeing CH-47 Chinook is an American twin-engine, tandem rotor heavy-lift helicopter. Its primary roles are troop movement, artillery placement and battlefield resupply and it has a wide loading ramp at the rear of the fuselage and three external ventral cargo hooks. With a top speed of 170 knots the helicopter was faster than contemporary 1960s utility helicopters and attack helicopters, the CH-47 is among the heaviest lifting Western helicopters. Its name is from the Native American Chinook people, the Chinook was designed and initially produced by Boeing Vertol in the early 1960s, it is now produced by Boeing Rotorcraft Systems. It is one of the few aircraft of that era – along with the fixed-wing Lockheed C-130 Hercules cargo aircraft – that remain in production and frontline service, with over 1,200 built to date. The helicopter has been sold to 16 nations with the U. S. Army, in late 1956, the United States Department of the Army announced plans to replace the Sikorsky CH-37 Mojave, which was powered by piston engines, with a new, gas turbine-powered helicopter. Turbine engines were also a key feature of the smaller UH-1 Huey utility helicopter. Following a design competition, in September 1958, a joint Army–Air Force source selection board recommended that the Army procure the Vertol medium transport helicopter, however, funding for full-scale development was not then available, and the Army vacillated on its design requirements. Vertol began work on a new tandem-rotor helicopter designated Vertol Model 107 or V-107 in 1957, in June 1958, the U. S. Army awarded a contract to Vertol for the aircraft under the YHC-1A designation. The YHC-1A had a capacity for 20 troops, three were tested by the Army for deriving engineering and operational data. However, the YHC-1A was considered by most of the Army users to be too heavy for the assault role, the decision was made to procure a heavier transport helicopter and at the same time upgrade the UH-1 Huey as a tactical troop transport. The YHC-1A would be improved and adopted by the Marines as the CH-46 Sea Knight in 1962, the Army then ordered the larger Model 114 under the designation HC-1B. The pre-production Boeing Vertol YCH-1B made its initial hovering flight on 21 September 1961, in 1962 the HC-1B was redesignated the CH-47A under the 1962 United States Tri-Service aircraft designation system. It was named Chinook for the Chinook people of the Pacific Northwest, the CH-47 is powered by two Lycoming T55 turboshaft engines, mounted on each side of the helicopters rear pylon and connected to the rotors by driveshafts. Initial models were fitted with engines rated at 2,200 horsepower each, the counter-rotating rotors eliminate the need for an anti-torque vertical rotor, allowing all power to be used for lift and thrust. The ability to adjust lift in either rotor makes it sensitive to changes in the center of gravity. If one engine fails, the other can drive both rotors, the sizing of the Chinook was directly related to the growth of the Huey and the Armys tacticians insistence that initial air assaults be built around the squad. The Army pushed for both the Huey and the Chinook, and this focus was responsible for the acceleration of its air mobility effort, improved and more powerful versions of the CH-47 have been developed since the helicopter entered service
28.
Kaman Aircraft
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Kaman Aerospace /kəˈmɑːn/ is an American aerospace company, with headquarters in Bloomfield, Connecticut. It was founded in 1945 by Charles Kaman, during the first ten years the company operated exclusively as a designer and manufacturer of several helicopters that set world records and achieved many aviation firsts. In 1956, Kaman began to diversify as a subcontractor of McDonnell Douglas, Grumman. Kaman Music was an independent distributor of musical instruments and accessories, Charles Kaman founded the company in December 1945 with $2,000 of capital and his invention of the servo-flap controlled rotor. January 15,1947 K-125 - Kamans first helicopter, Kaman selected an intermeshed contrarotating twin rotor design. July 1949 K-225 - An improved version of the K-125, the U. S. Navy bought two and the U. S. Coast Guard one for $25,000 each, later, they received the H-22 designation. December 1951 A modified K-225 equipped with a Boeing 502 turboshaft engine becomes the worlds first gas turbine powered helicopter and this aircraft is now at the Smithsonian Institutions National Air and Space Museum. 1953 Kaman produced the first electrically powered drone April 1953 Ordered for the U. S, the HU2K-1, selected by the U. S. Navy as a general purpose naval helicopter, makes its first flight on July 2,1959. It enters service as the UH-2A Seasprite in 1962, march 1960 Kaman develops and flies the first all-composite main rotor blade. In October 1961 the H-43 Huskie set a record of 10,000 m. 1962 UH-2A / B production begins January 1964 First flight of Kamans experimental Convertiplane equipped with a GE J-85 turbojet engine, the aircraft achieves speeds of over 320 km/h 1965 Tomahawk — A Seasprite modified with stub wings and a pair of twin guns side-by-side under the nose. Kamans proposal for the U. S. Army s interim gunship helicopter between the AAFSS and AAH competitions, lost to the Bell 209 Due to the limited power of its single engine, the Seasprites are modified for the U. S. Navy into twin turbine helicopters. Navy service July 1976 Kaman designs and begins manufacturing the K-747 blade, January 1991 Magic Lantern, a new laser-based mine countermeasures system, is deployed in the Persian Gulf during Operation Desert Storm. It is highly successful in locating mines, august 1999 New Zealand approves purchase of SH-2G. January 2000 Australian SH-2G begins initial flight testing, January 2001 U. S. federal government purchases 5 K-MAX for Peru. October 2002 The 5 Peruvian K-MAX are transferred to the Colombian Army where they are still in service as of 2008, June 2008 All Royal Australian Navy SH-2G Seasprite helicopters are withdrawn from service and returned to supplier as budget blew-out and contract specifications unable to be met. January 31,2011 Charles Kaman, founder of Kaman Aircraft died in Bloomfield, in June 2008 Kaman acquired Brookhouse Holdings Limited, a world leading composite development company based in the United Kingdom, and renames it Kaman Composites UK Ltd. In November 2015, Kaman announced that it was acquiring GRW Bearing GmbH for $142.9 million, GRW designs and manufactures precision ball bearings, and has production facilities in Europe
29.
Kaman SH-2 Seasprite
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The Kaman SH-2 Seasprite is a ship-based helicopter originally developed in the late 1950s as a fast utility helicopter for the United States Navy. In the 1970s, anti-submarine, anti-surface threat capabilities were added to the design and it served with the U. S. Navy from the 1960s until the last SH-2G helicopters were retired in 2001. In 1956, the U. S. Navy launched a competition to meet its requirement for a compact, kamans K-20 model was selected as the winner. Kaman was awarded a contract for four prototype and 12 production HU2K-1 helicopters in late 1957, kamans design was for a conventional helicopter powered by a single General Electric T58-8F turboshaft engine, driving a 44-foot four-bladed main rotor and a four-bladed tail rotor.5 million. Abruptly, Kaman raised the price to $23 million, and there was concern that the manufacturers weight. The Naval Board decided to wait until after the US Navy had conducted sea trials before approving the purchase and these trials revealed the HU2K to be overweight and underpowered, and thus incapable of meeting Canadian requirements. Hence, in late 1961, the Sikorsky Sea King was selected, upon enactment of the 1962 United States Tri-Service aircraft designation system, the HU2K-1 was redesignated UH-2A and the HU2K-1U was redesignated UH-2B. In service, the UH-2 Seasprite would see several modifications and improvements, beginning in 1968, the Navys remaining UH-2s were extensively remanufactured, their single engines being replaced by a twin-engine arrangement. The UH-2 was selected to be the airframe for the interim Light Airborne Multi-Purpose System helicopter in October 1970, LAMPS evolved in the late 1960s from an urgent requirement to develop a manned helicopter that would support a non-aviation ship and serve as its tactical Anti-Submarine Warfare arm. H-2s reconfigured for the LAMPS mission were redesignated SH-2D, on 16 March 1971, the first SH-2D LAMPS prototype first flew. The full LAMPS I system was equipped on the SH-2F, the SH-2F was delivered to the Navy beginning in 1973. This variant had upgraded engines, longer life rotor, and higher take-off weight, in 1981, the Navy ordered 60 production SH-2Fs. Beginning in 1987,16 SH-2Fs were upgraded with chin mounted Forward Looking Infrared Sensors, Chaff /Flares, dual rear mounted IR scramblers, eventually all but two H-2s then in Navy inventory were remanufactured into SH-2Fs. The final production procurement of the SH-2F was in Fiscal Year 1986, the last six orders for production SH-2Fs were switched to the SH-2G Super Seasprite variant. The UH-2 began entering service in 1962. The Navy would operate a fleet of nearly 200 Seasprites for various duties, such as anti-submarine warfare, search and rescue. Typically, several UH-2s would be deployed upon a carrier to perform plane guard. In October 1966 alone, out of 269 downed pilots, helicopter-based SAR teams were able to recover 103 men
30.
Piasecki Aircraft
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The companys origins dated back to 1936 with the formation of the P-V Engineering Forum in 1940 and it was renamed the Piasecki Helicopter Corporation in 1946. After a falling out with other owners, Frank Piasecki and some of his team left to form Piasecki Aircraft Corporation in 1955. Piasecki Helicopter Corporation eventually became Vertol Aircraft Corporation, the Piasecki Aircraft Corporation is based in Essington, Pa and is run by Frank Piaseckis sons, Frederick Weyerhaeuser Piasecki is chairman and John Weyerhaeuser Piasecki is president and CEO. In 2005, the company was selected as the contractor for two United States Army FCS UAV systems. The FCS Class III UAV system contract was awarded to the company in late 2006 following a competitive downselect of four competing technologies, as part of that effort, the company flew the worlds first autonomous autogyro. The company has been developing and flight-testing the X-49 experimental compound helicopter since the mid-2000s, high Frontier, A History of Aeronautics in Pennsylvania. Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, University of Pittsburgh Press,1982, PiAC Web Site Worlds First Autonomous Autogyro PiAC FCS Entries
31.
Sikorsky S-61
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The Sikorsky S-61L and S-61N are civil variants of the successful SH-3 Sea King helicopter. They are two of the most widely used airliner and oil rig support helicopters built, in September 1957, Sikorsky won a United States Navy development contract for an amphibious anti-submarine warfare helicopter capable of detecting and attacking submarines. The XHSS-2 Sea King prototype flew on 11 March 1959, production deliveries of the HSS-2 began in September 1961, with the initial production aircraft being powered by two 930 kW General Electric T58-GE-8B turboshafts. Sikorsky was quick to develop a model of the Sea King. The S-61L first flew on 2 November 1961, and was 4 ft 3 in longer than the HSS-2 in order to carry a payload of freight or passengers. Initial production S-61Ls were powered by two 1350shp GE CT58-140 turboshafts, the version of the T58. The S-61L features a modified landing gear without float stabilisers, Los Angeles Airways was the first civil operator of the S-61, introducing them on 11 March 1962, for a purchased price of $650,000 each. On 7 August 1962, the S-61N made its first flight, otherwise identical to the S-61L, this version is optimized for overwater operations, particularly oil rig support, by retaining the SH-3s floats. The Payloader, a stripped down version optimised for aerial work, was the third civil model of the S-61. The Payloader features the fixed undercarriage of the S-61L, but with an empty weight almost 2,000 lb less than the standard S-61N, Carson Helicopters was the first company to shorten a commercial S-61. The fuselage is shortened by 50 in to increase single-engine performance, a unique version is the S-61 Shortsky conversion of S-61Ls and S-61Ns by Helipro International. VIH Logging was the customer for the HeliPro Shortsky conversion which first flew in February 1996. One modification for the S-61 is the Carson Composite Main Rotor blade and these blades replace the original Sikorsky metal blades which are prone to fatigue. The Carson Composite Main Rotor blades permit a modified aircraft to carry an additional 2,000 lb load, fly 15 kn faster, the latest version is the modernized S-61T helicopter. The US State Department has signed an agreement for up to 110 modernized S-61T aircraft for passenger. The first two modernized S-61 aircraft will support missions for the U. S. Embassy in Afghanistan and it can seat up to 30 passengers S-61L Mk II Improved version of the S-61L helicopter, equipped with cargo bins. S-61N Mk II Improved version of the S-61N helicopter, s-61NM An L model in an N configuration. On 22 May 1968, Los Angeles Airways Flight 841 crashed near Paramount, California, the accident aircraft, N303Y, serial number 61060, was a Sikorsky S-61L en route to Los Angeles International Airport from the Disneyland Heliport in Anaheim, California
32.
Fort Knox
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Fort Knox is a United States Army post in Kentucky south of Louisville and north of Elizabethtown. The 109,000 acre base covers parts of Bullitt, Hardin and it currently holds the Army Human Resources Center of Excellence to include the Army Human Resources Command, United States Army Cadet Command and the United States Army Accessions Command. For 60 years, Fort Knox was the home of the U. S. Army Armor Center and the U. S. Army Armor School, and was used by both the Army and the Marine Corps to train crews on the M1 Abrams main battle tank. The history of the U. S. Armys Cavalry and Armored forces, the fort is best known as the site of the United States Bullion Depository, which is used to house a large portion of the United States official gold reserves. The United States Department of the Treasury has maintained the Bullion Depository on the post since 1937 and this facility is operated solely by the Treasury Department. Parts of the base in Hardin and Meade counties form a census-designated place, the George S. Patton Museum and Center of Leadership at Fort Knox includes an exhibit highlighting leadership issues that arose from the attacks of September 11,2001, which includes two firetrucks. One of them, designated Foam 161, was partially charred and melted in the attack upon the Pentagon. S. military to die in the attacks of September 11,2001. In 2012, the U. S. Army Armor School was relocated to The Maneuver Center of Excellence at FT Benning, fortifications were constructed near the site in 1861, during the Civil War when Fort Duffield was constructed. Fort Duffield was located on what was known as Muldraugh Hill on a point overlooking the confluence of the Salt and Ohio Rivers. The area was contested by both Union and Confederate forces, bands of organized guerrillas frequently raided the area during the war. John Hunt Morgan the 2nd Kentucky Cavalry for the Confederate Army raided the area before staging his famous raid on Indiana, after the war, the area now occupied by the Army was home to various small communities. In October 1903, military maneuvers for the Regular Army and the National Guards of several states were held at West Point, Kentucky, in April 1918, field artillery units from Camp Zachary Taylor arrived at West Point for training. 20,000 acres near the village of Stithton were leased to the government, the new camp was named after Henry Knox, the Continental Armys chief of artillery during the Revolutionary War and the countrys first Secretary of War. The camp was extended by the purchase of a further 40,000 acres in June 1918, the building program was reduced following the end of the war and reduced further following cuts to the army in 1921 after the National Defense Act of 1920. The camp was greatly reduced and became a semi-permanent training center for the 5th Corps Area for Reserve Officer training, the National Guard, for a short while, from 1925 to 1928, the area was designated as Camp Henry Knox National Forest. It was used by the Kentucky Air National Guard for several years after the war until they relocated to Standiford Field in Louisville, the airfield is still in use by the United States Army Aviation Branch. Hatfield ordered its release after the D-Day Landings on September 19,1944, in 1931 a small force of the mechanized cavalry was assigned to Camp Knox to use it as a training site. The camp was turned into a permanent garrison in January 1932, the 1st Cavalry Regiment arrived later in the month to become the 1st Cavalry Regiment
33.
BGM-71 TOW
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The BGM-71 TOW is an American anti-tank missile. TOW replaced much smaller missiles like the SS, first produced in 1970, the TOW is one of the most widely used anti-tank guided missiles. It can be found in a variety of manually carried and vehicle mounted forms. Originally designed by Hughes Aircraft in the 1960s, the weapon is produced by Raytheon. Initially developed by Hughes Aircraft between 1963 and 1968, the XBGM-71A was designed for ground and heli-borne applications. In 1997, Raytheon Co. purchased Hughes Electronics from General Motors Corporation, so development, the weapon is used in anti-armor, anti-bunker, anti-fortification and anti-amphibious landing roles. The TOW is in service with over 45 militaries and is integrated on over 15,000 ground, vehicle, in its basic infantry form, the system comprises a missile in a sealed tube which is clipped to a launch tube prior to use. When required, the tube is attached to the rear of the launch tube, the target sighted. The 1983 TOW2 featured a larger 5.9 kg warhead with a 21.25 in extensible probe, improved guidance and this was followed by the TOW 2A/B which appeared in 1987. Hughes developed a TOW missile with a data link in 1989, referred to as TOW-2N. Raytheon continued to develop improvements to the TOW line, but its FOTT program was canceled in 1998, although this missile has been in production since 2004, no U. S. Army designation has yet been assigned. Also, a version of the TOW-2B Aero was developed that uses stealth one way radio link. The TOW missile in its current variations is not a fire-and-forget weapon and this means that the guidance system is directly linked to the platform, and requires that the target be kept in the shooters line of sight until the missile impacts. This has been the impetus to develop either a fire-and-forget version of the system or to develop a successor with this ability. In October 2012, Raytheon received a contract to produce 6,676 TOW missiles for the U. S. military, Missiles that will be produced include the BGM-71E TOW 2A, the BGM-71F TOW 2B, the TOW 2B Aero, and the BGM-71H TOW Bunker Buster. By 2013, the U. S. Marine Corps had retired the air-launched TOW missile, the TOW is designated as a BGM by the U. S. military, a multiple launch environment surface attack guided missile. The B launch environment prefix is used only when the system can be used essentially unmodified when launched from a variety of launch platforms. The M151 and M220 launchers are used by infantry, but can also be mounted on a number of vehicles, including the M151 jeep, the M113 Gavin APC, the M966 HMMWV and these launchers are theoretically man-portable, but are quite bulky
34.
Tet Offensive
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It was a campaign of surprise attacks against military and civilian command and control centers throughout South Vietnam. The name of the offensive comes from the Tết holiday, the Vietnamese New Year, the North Vietnamese launched a wave of attacks in the late night hours of 30 January in the I and II Corps Tactical Zones of South Vietnam. This early attack did not lead to defensive measures. The offensive was the largest military operation conducted by either side up to point in the war. During the Battle of Huế, intense fighting lasted for a month, during their occupation, the North Vietnamese executed thousands of people in the Massacre at Huế. Around the US combat base at Khe Sanh fighting continued for two more months. S, public support for the war declined and the U. S. sought negotiations to end the war. The term Tet offensive usually refers to the January–February 1968 offensive, there was a discrepancy, however, between MACV and the Central Intelligence Agencys order of battle estimates concerning the strength of Viet Cong guerrilla forces within South Vietnam. The MACV Combined Intelligence Center, on the hand, maintained that the number could be no more than 300,000. The agency responded that such a notion was ridiculous, since the militias were responsible for half of the casualties inflicted on U. S. forces. With the groups deadlocked, George Carver, CIA deputy director for Vietnamese affairs, was asked to mediate the dispute, George Allen, Carvers deputy, laid responsibility for the agencys capitulation at the feet of Richard Helms, the director of the CIA. He believed that it was a political problem, contravening the policy interest of the administration. During the second half of 1967 the administration had become alarmed by criticism and this trend was fueled not by a belief that the struggle was not worthwhile, but by mounting casualty figures, rising taxes, and the feeling that there was no end to the war in sight. A poll taken in November indicated that 55 percent wanted a war policy. But now that were there, lets win – or get out, under the leadership of National Security Advisor Walt W. Rostow, the news media then was inundated by a wave of effusive optimism. Every statistical indicator of progress, from kill ratios and body counts to village pacification, was fed to the press and we are beginning to win this struggle asserted Vice President Hubert H. Humphrey on NBCs Today show in mid-November. Upon their arrival, the two men bolstered the administrations claims of success, General Bruce Palmer, Jr. one of Westmorelands three Field Force commanders, claimed that the Viet Cong has been defeated and that He cant get food and he cant recruit. He has been forced to change his strategy from trying to control the people on the coast to trying to survive in the mountains, Westmoreland was even more emphatic in his assertions. At an address at the National Press Club on 21 November he reported that, as of the end of 1967, the communists were unable to mount a major offensive
35.
Hughes OH-6 Cayuse
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The Hughes OH-6 Cayuse is a single-engine light helicopter with a four-bladed main rotor used for personnel transport, escort and attack missions, and observation. Hughes Helicopters also developed the Model 369 as a helicopter. Twelve companies took part in the competition and Hughes Tool Companys Aircraft Division submitted the Model 369. Two designs, those submitted by Fairchild-Hiller and Bell, were selected as finalists by the Army-Navy design competition board, the first Model 369 prototype flew on 27 February 1963. During the course of the competition, the Bell submission, the YOH-4, was eliminated as being underpowered, the bidding for the LOH contract came down to Fairchild-Hiller and Hughes. Hughes won the competition, and the Army awarded a contract for production in May 1965, hughess price was $19,700 per airframe, less engine, while Hillers price was $27,000 per airframe, less engine. The Hiller design had a control system, while the Hughes design did not. This would account for some of the price difference, Hughes is reported to have told Jack Real that he lost over $100 million in building 1,370 airframes. S. Army deal, with the anticipation that a production cycle would eventually prove financially viable. In 1968 Hughes submitted a bid to build a further 2,700 airframes, stanley Hiller complained to the U. S. Army that Hughes had used unethical procedures, therefore, the Army opened the contract for rebidding by all parties. Hiller did not participate in the rebidding, but Bell did, after a competitive fly-off, the Army asked for sealed bids. Hughes bid $56,550 per airframe, while Bell bid $54,200, reportedly, Hughes had consulted at the last moment with his confidant Jack Real, who recommended a bid of $53,550. Hughes, without telling him, added $3,000 to the bid, beginning in 2001, the JGSDF OH-6s were being replaced by the Kawasaki OH-1 observation helicopter. The U. S. Armys fixed-wing airplane, the O-1 Bird Dog, the aircraft entered service in 1966, arriving in the Vietnam War thereafter. The pilots dubbed the new helicopter Loach, a word created by pronunciation of the acronym of the program spawned the aircraft. Shortly after production began, the OH-6 began to demonstrate what kind of an impact it would have on the world of helicopters, the OH-6 set 23 world records for helicopters in 1966 for speed, endurance and time to climb. On 26 March 1966, Jack Schwiebold set the closed circuit record in a YOH-6A at Edwards Air Force Base. He flew without landing for 1,739.96 mi, subsequently, on 6 April 1966, Robert Ferry set the long distance world record for helicopters
36.
Ronald Fogleman
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A1963 graduate from the United States Air Force Academy, he holds a masters degree in military history and political science from Duke University. A command pilot and a parachutist, he amassed more than 6,800 flying hours in fighter, transport, tanker and he flew 315 combat missions and logged 806 hours of combat flying in fighter aircraft. 80 of his missions were as a Misty FAC in the F-100F Super Sabre at Phù Cát Air Base between 25 December 1968 and 23 April 1969, Fogleman was shot down in Vietnam in 1968, while piloting a F-100. He was rescued by clinging to an AH-1 Cobra helicopter that landed at the crash site and he commanded an Air Force wing, an air division, a numbered air force, a major command and a unified command. Fogleman was the first graduate of the United States Air Force Academy to advance to Chief of Staff of the Air Force, during his tenure, he introduced a simplified code of conduct for Airmen, which remains in use today. Called the Air Force Core Values, the code demands Integrity First, Service Before Self, general Fogleman retired on September 1,1997. During the Bosnian War NATO Forces were establishing a no-fly-zone, on 2 June two patrolling US F-16 aircraft of that operation came under attack by a Serbian SA-6 surface-to-air missile launch system. One plane was hit and the pilot, Scott OGrady ejected. Minutes after the landing, Serbian forces were closing in on his position and these radio calls were picked up by US Forces. General Ronald Fogleman, at the time Air Force Chief of Staff told press reporters during a ceremony that intermittent transmissions were picked up. An enraged NATO official described this with I was dumbfounded he said that and I mean, why not just announce to the bad guys, We think hes alive and kicking, according to information published in the TIME magazine. However this leak did not thwart a US Marine rescue operation involving several aircraft, although the rescue forces came under small arms fire and missiles were fired by shoulder-held surface-to-air launchers on the way back, OGrady was successfully extracted. He currently has a seat on the Boards of Directors of Alliant Techsystems, AAR Corporation, Mesa Air Group, Inc. As a Boeing consultant, Fogleman said that the Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II will not be a proven aircraft until it receives the Block 3F software in the early 2020s
37.
North American F-100 Super Sabre
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The North American F-100 Super Sabre was an American supersonic jet fighter aircraft that served with the United States Air Force from 1954 to 1971 and with the Air National Guard until 1979. The first of the Century Series of USAF jet fighters, it was the first USAF fighter capable of speed in level flight. The F-100 was designed by North American Aviation as a higher performance follow-on to the F-86 Sabre air superiority fighter, adapted as a fighter bomber, the F-100 was supplanted by the Mach two class F-105 Thunderchief for strike missions over North Vietnam. The F-100 flew extensively over South Vietnam as the air forces primary close air support jet until being replaced by the more efficient subsonic LTV A-7 Corsair II, the F-100 also served in other NATO air forces and with other U. S. allies. In its later life, it was referred to as the Hun. In January 1951, North American Aviation delivered an unsolicited proposal for a day fighter to the United States Air Force. Named Sabre 45 because of its 45° wing sweep, it represented an evolution of the F-86 Sabre, the mockup was inspected on 7 July 1951, and after over a hundred modifications, the new aircraft was accepted as the F-100 on 30 November 1951. Extensive use of titanium throughout the aircraft was notable, on 3 January 1952, the USAF ordered two prototypes followed by 23 F-100As in February and an additional 250 F-100As in August. The YF-100A first flew on 25 May 1953, seven ahead of schedule. It reached Mach 1.04 in spite of being fitted with a de-rated XJ57-P-7 engine, the second prototype flew on 14 October 1953, followed by the first production F-100A on 9 October 1953. These findings were confirmed during Project Hot Rod operational suitability tests. Particularly troubling was the yaw instability in certain regimes of flight which produced inertia coupling, the aircraft could develop a sudden yaw and roll which would happen too fast for the pilot to correct and would quickly over-stress the aircraft structure to disintegration. It was under conditions that North Americans chief test pilot. Another control problem stemmed from handling characteristics of the wing at high angles of attack. As the aircraft approached stall speeds, loss of lift on the tips of the caused an violent pitch-up. This particular phenomenon became known as the Sabre dance, nevertheless, delays in the Republic F-84F Thunderstreak program pushed the Tactical Air Command to order the raw F-100A into service. Tactical Air Command also requested that future F-100s be fighter-bombers, with the capability of delivering nuclear bombs, the North American F-107 was a follow-on Mach 2 development of the F-100 with the air intake moved above and behind the cockpit. It was not produced in quantity in favor of the Republic F-105 Thunderchief, the F-100A officially entered USAF service on 27 September 1954, with the 479th Fighter Wing at George AFB, California
38.
Invasion of Grenada
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Codenamed Operation Urgent Fury, it was triggered by a hard-line Stalinist coup that resulted in the execution of the previous left-wing revolutionary leader. The invasion resulted in the appointment of a government, followed by democratic elections in 1984. The country has remained a democratic nation since then, Grenada gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1974. The leftist New Jewel Movement seized power in a coup in 1979 under Maurice Bishop, suspending the constitution and detaining a number of political prisoners. From the U. S. perspective, the decision to intervene was in part motivated by concerns over the 600 U. S. medical students on the island, the U. S. invasion began six days after Bishops death, on the morning of 25 October 1983. The U. S. Armys Rapid Deployment Force, U. S. Marines, U. S. Army Delta Force, the military government of Hudson Austin was deposed and replaced by a government appointed by Governor-General Paul Scoon until elections were held in 1984. The invasion was criticized by several countries including Canada, Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher privately disapproved of the mission and the lack of notice she received, but publicly supported the intervention. The United Nations General Assembly, on 2 November 1983 with a vote of 108 to 9, the U. S. awarded more than 5,000 medals for merit and valor. The date of the invasion is now a holiday in Grenada. The commemoration was due to political prisoners that were freed after the invasion. Sir Eric Gairy had led Grenada to independence from the United Kingdom in 1974 and his term in office coincided with civil strife in Grenada. The civil strife took the form of violence between Gairys private army, the Mongoose Gang, and gangs organized by the New Jewel Movement. In the late 1970s the NJM began planning to overthrow the government, Party members began to receive military training outside of Grenada. On 13 March 1979, while Gairy was out of the country, the Bishop government began constructing the Point Salines International Airport with the help of Britain, Cuba, Libya, Algeria, and other nations. The airport had been first proposed by the British government in 1954 and it had been designed by Canadians, underwritten by the British government, and partly built by a London firm. In 1983, then-member of the United States House of Representatives Ron Dellums, traveled to Grenada on a fact-finding mission, Dellums described his findings before Congress. It is my thought that it is absurd, patronizing, on 16 October 1983, a party faction led by Deputy Prime Minister Bernard Coard seized power. Bishop was placed under house arrest, mass protests against the action led to Bishops escaping detention and reasserting his authority as the head of the government
39.
United States invasion of Panama
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The United States Invasion of Panama, code named Operation Just Cause, was an invasion of Panama by the United States between mid-December 1989 and late January 1990. During the invasion, de facto Panamanian leader, general, and dictator Manuel Noriega was deposed, president-elect Guillermo Endara sworn into office, and the Panamanian Defense Force dissolved. Although the canal was destined for Panamanian administration, the bases remained. Noriega received upwards of $100,000 per year from the 1960s until the 1980s, in the mid-1980s, relations between Noriega and the United States began to deteriorate. Later negotiations involved dropping the drug-trafficking indictments, in March 1988, Noriegas forces resisted an attempted coup against the government of Panama. As relations continued to deteriorate, Noriega appeared to shift his Cold War allegiance towards the Soviet bloc, soliciting and receiving aid from Cuba, Nicaragua. American military planners began preparing plans to invade Panama. Their tally showed their candidate, Guillermo Endara, defeating Carlos Duque, candidate of a pro-Noriega coalition, Endara was beaten up by Noriega supporters the next day in his motorcade. Noriega declared the election null and maintained power by force, making him unpopular among Panamanians, Noriegas government insisted that it had won the presidential election and that irregularities had been on the part of U. S. -backed candidates from opposition parties. Bush called on Noriega to honor the will of the Panamanian people, the United States reinforced its Canal Zone garrison, and increased the tempo of training and other activities intended to put pressure on Noriega. In October 1989, Noriega foiled a coup attempt by members of the Panamanian Defense Forces. Pressure mounted on Bush as the media labeled him a wimp for failing to aid Panama, on 15 December, the Panamanian general assembly passed a resolution declaring that the actions of the United States had caused a state of war to exist between Panama and the United States. The next day, four U. S. military personnel were stopped at a roadblock around 9,00 PM outside PDF headquarters in the El Chorrillo neighborhood of Panama City, the PDF asserted later that the Americans were armed and on a reconnaissance mission. The PDF opened fire and Lieutenant Paz was fatally wounded by a round that entered the rear of the vehicle, captain Hadded, the driver of the vehicle, was also wounded in the foot. Paz was rushed to Gorgas Army Hospital but died of his wounds and he received the Purple Heart posthumously. According to U. S. military sources, a U. S. Naval officer, while in police custody, they were assaulted by the PDF. The U. S. Naval officer spent two weeks in hospital recovering from the beating, PDF soldiers sexually threatened his wife. The next day, President Bush ordered the execution of the Panama invasion plan, the military set H-Hour as 0100 on 20 December
40.
Gulf War
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The Iraqi Armys occupation of Kuwait that began 2 August 1990 was met with international condemnation, and brought immediate economic sanctions against Iraq by members of the UN Security Council. US President George H. W. Bush deployed US forces into Saudi Arabia, an array of nations joined the coalition, the largest military alliance since World War II. The great majority of the military forces were from the US, with Saudi Arabia, the United Kingdom. Kuwait and Saudi Arabia paid around US$32 billion of the US$60 billion cost, the war was marked by the introduction of live news broadcasts from the front lines of the battle, principally by the US network CNN. The war has also earned the nickname Video Game War after the daily broadcast of images from cameras on board US bombers during Operation Desert Storm. The initial conflict to expel Iraqi troops from Kuwait began with an aerial and naval bombardment on 17 January 1991 and this was followed by a ground assault on 24 February. This was a victory for the coalition forces, who liberated Kuwait. The coalition ceased its advance, and declared a ceasefire 100 hours after the campaign started. Aerial and ground combat was confined to Iraq, Kuwait, Iraq launched Scud missiles against coalition military targets in Saudi Arabia and against Israel. The following names have been used to describe the conflict itself, Gulf War, a problem with these terms is that the usage is ambiguous, having now been applied to at least three conflicts, see Gulf War. The use of the term Persian Gulf is also disputed, see Persian Gulf naming dispute, with no consensus of naming, various publications have attempted to refine the name. Other language terms include French, la Guerre du Golfe and German, Golfkrieg, German, Zweiter Golfkrieg, French, most of the coalition states used various names for their operations and the wars operational phases. Operation Desert Storm was the US name of the conflict from 17 January 1991. Operation Desert Sabre was the US name for the offensive against the Iraqi Army in the Kuwaiti Theater of Operations from 24–28 February 1991, in itself. Operation Desert Farewell was the given to the return of US units and equipment to the US in 1991 after Kuwaits liberation. Operation Granby was the British name for British military activities during the operations, Opération Daguet was the French name for French military activities in the conflict. Operation Friction was the name of the Canadian operations Operazione Locusta was the Italian name for the operations, in addition, various phases of each operation may have a unique operational name. The US divided the conflict into three campaigns, Defense of Saudi Arabian country for the period 2 August 1990, through 16 January 1991
41.
Unified Task Force
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The Unified Task Force was a US-led, United Nations-sanctioned multinational force, which operated in Somalia between 5 December 1992 –4 May 1993. However, the intransigence of the local faction leaders operating in Somalia. The mission never reached its mandated strength, over the final quarter of 1992, the situation in Somalia continued to worsen. Factions were splintering into smaller factions, and then splintered again, agreements for food distribution with one party were worthless when the stores had to be shipped through the territory of another. Some elements were actively opposing the UNOSOM intervention, troops were shot at, aid ships attacked and prevented from docking, cargo aircraft were fired upon and aid agencies, public and private, were subject to threats, looting and extortion. In the face of mounting pressure and frustration, UN Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali presented several options to the Security Council. Diplomatic avenues having proved largely fruitless, he recommended that a significant show of force was required to bring the groups to heel. Chapter VII of the Charter of the United Nations allows for action by air, sea or land forces as may be necessary to maintain or restore international peace, Boutros-Ghali believed the time had come for employing this clause and moving on from peacekeeping. However, Boutros-Ghali felt that action would be difficult to apply under the mandate for UNOSOM. Moreover, he realised that solving Somalia’s problems would require such a deployment that the UN Secretariat did not have the skills to command. Accordingly, he recommended that an intervention force be constituted under the command of member states. The goal of deployment was to prepare the way for a return to peacekeeping. The Security Council urged the Secretary-General and member states to make arrangements for the unified command, UNITAF has been considered part of a larger state building initiative in Somalia, serving as the military arm to secure the distribution of humanitarian aid. However, UNITAF cannot be considered a building initiative due to its ‘specific, limited and palliative aims. The primary objective of UNITAF was security rather than larger institution building initiatives, prior to Resolution 794, the United States had approached the UN and offered a significant troop contribution to Somalia, with the caveat that these personnel would not be commanded by the UN. CIA Paramilitary Officer Larry Freedman from their Special Activities Division became the first US casualty of the conflict in Somalia when his vehicle struck an anti-tank mine. Freedman was a former Army Delta Force operator and Special Forces soldier and had served in every conflict that the US was involved in both officially and unofficially since Vietnam, Freedman was awarded the Intelligence Star for extraordinary heroism. The first Marines of UNITAF landed on the beaches of Somalia on 9 December 1992 amid a media circus, the press seemed to know the exact time and place of the Marines arrival and waited on the airport runway and beaches to capture the moment
42.
Operation Uphold Democracy
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Operation Uphold Democracy was a war designed to remove the military regime installed by the 1991 Haitian coup détat that overthrew the elected President Jean-Bertrand Aristide. The operation was authorized by the 31 July 1994 United Nations Security Council Resolution 940. The war began with the alert of United States and its allies for an entry into the island nation of Haiti. U. S. Navy, U. S. Coast Guard, some of these elements were staged out of Hunter Army Airfield and Guantanamo Bay Naval Base. The 1st Brigade of the 10th Mountain Division deployed to Haiti aboard the U. S. S, the operation was directed by Commander, Joint Task Force 120, provided by Commander, Carrier Group Two. S. Senator Sam Nunn and retired Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff General Colin Powell persuaded the leaders of Haiti to step down, the main leader holding power was General Joseph Raoul Cédras and was the key focus of the delegation. As a final effort to force the dictator to step down without violence, while allowing Cédras to process the panic-inducing sight, he was informed that while he assumed he was watching a live-feed, he was in fact viewing a video captured more than 2 hours before. As such, they explained unnecessarily, the elements of the 15,000 paratrooper strong airborne assault force had already launched from Fort Bragg. The delegation had issued an ultimatum to the dictator. S. Would forcibly wrest control of his country and see justice done, within minutes General Cédras capitulated under the most favorable terms available to him at that time. With his capitulation, the 100+ aircraft carrying the 82nd Airborne Division were either turned around in mid-air or unloaded before they had a chance to take off. The military mission changed from an operation to a peace-keeping and nation-building operation with the deployment of the U. S. -led multinational force in Haiti. Polk LA and Marine Forces Caribbean, teams were deployed throughout the country to establish order and humanitarian services. This included the 46th Support Group, the Joint Material Management Center, JMMC, additionally, the 28th CASH provided medical care for service members and Haitians alike. In August 1994, the Battalion departed for the Caribbean and Haitian waters for Operation Support Democracy, 2nd Battalion, 2nd Marines once again landed in Cap Haitian, Haiti on September 20,1994. Participation in Operation Uphold Democracy lasted until October 1994, a squad from Echo Company Engaged in a fire fight with the Haitian police/ military coup. Fourteen Marines led by Lt Polumbo were engaged and prevailed despite superior numbers, one Navy interpreter was wounded and several Haitians lost their lives. The 10th Mountain Division was relieved in place by units of the 25th Infantry Division under command of Major General George Fisher
43.
United States Forest Service
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The United States Forest Service is an agency of the U. S. Department of Agriculture that administers the nations 154 national forests and 20 national grasslands, which encompass 193 million acres. Major divisions of the include the National Forest System, State and Private Forestry, Business Operations. Managing approximately 25% of federal lands, it is the major national land agency that is outside the U. S. Department of the Interior. The concept of the National Forests was born from Theodore Roosevelt’s conservation group, Boone and Crockett Club, in 1876, Congress created the office of Special Agent in the Department of Agriculture to assess the quality and conditions of forests in the United States. Hough was appointed the head of the office, in 1881, the office was expanded into the newly formed Division of Forestry. The Forest Reserve Act of 1891 authorized withdrawing land from the domain as forest reserves. In 1901, the Division of Forestry was renamed the Bureau of Forestry, gifford Pinchot was the first United States Chief Forester in the Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt. As of 2009, the Forest Service has a budget authority of $5.5 billion. The Forest Service employs 34,250 employees in 750 locations, including 10,050 firefighters,737 law enforcement personnel, and 500 scientists. The mission of the Forest Service is To sustain the health, diversity and its motto is Caring for the land and serving people. As the lead agency in natural resource conservation, the US Forest Service provides leadership in the protection, management, and use of the nations forest, rangeland. The agencys ecosystem approach to management integrates ecological, economic, and social factors to maintain and enhance the quality of the environment to meet current, the everyday work of the Forest Service balances resource extraction, resource protection, and providing recreation.5 billion trees per year. Further, the Forest Service fought fires on 2,996,000 acres of land in 2007, the Forest Service organization includes ranger districts, national forests, regions, research stations and research work units and the Northeastern Area Office for State and Private Forestry. Each level has responsibility for a variety of functions, the Chief of the Forest Service is a career federal employee who oversees the entire agency. The Chief reports to the Under Secretary for Natural Resources and Environment in the U. S. Department of Agriculture, there are five deputy chiefs for the following areas, National Forest System, State and Private Forestry, Research and Development, Business Operations, and Finance. The Forest Service Research and Development deputy area includes five stations, the Forest Products Laboratory. Station directors, like regional foresters, report to the Chief, Research stations include Northern, Pacific Northwest, Pacific Southwest, Rocky Mountain, and Southern. There are 92 research work units located at 67 sites throughout the United States, there are 80 Experimental Forests and Ranges that have been established progressively since 1908, many sites are more than 50 years old
44.
Bell AH-1Z Viper
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The Bell AH-1Z Viper is an American twin-engine attack helicopter, based on the AH-1W SuperCobra, that was developed for the United States Marine Corps as part of the H-1 upgrade program. The AH-1Z features a four-blade, bearingless, composite rotor system, uprated transmission. The AH-1Z, one of the latest members of the prolific Huey family, is also called Zulu Cobra, aspects of the AH-1Z date back to the Bell 249 in 1979, which was basically an AH-1S equipped with the four-blade main rotor system from the Bell 412. This helicopter demonstrated Bells Cobra II design at the Farnborough Airshow in 1980, the Cobra II was to be equipped with Hellfire missiles, a new targeting system and improved engines. Later came the Cobra 2000 proposal which included General Electric T700 engines and this design drew interest from the US Marine Corps, but funding was not available. In 1993, Bell proposed an AH-1W-based version for the UKs new attack helicopter program, the derivative design, named CobraVenom, featured a modern digital cockpit and could carry TOWs, Hellfire or Brimstone missiles. The CobraVenom design was altered in 1995 by changing to a rotor system. The design lost to the AH-64D later that year however, in 1996, the USMC launched the H-1 upgrade program by signing a contract with Bell Helicopter for upgrading 180 AH-1Ws into AH-1Zs and upgrading 100 UH-1Ns into UH-1Ys. The H-1 program created completely modernized attack and utility helicopters with considerable design commonality to reduce operating costs, the AH-1Z and UH-1Y share a common tailboom, engines, rotor system, drivetrain, avionics architecture, software, controls and displays for over 84% identical components. Bell participated in a joint Bell-Government integrated test team during the engineering manufacturing development phase of the H-1 program, the AH-1Z program progressed slowly from 1996 to 2003 largely as a research and development operation. The existing two-blade semi-rigid, teetering rotor system is being replaced with a four-blade, the four-blade configuration provides improvements in flight characteristics including increased flight envelope, maximum speed, vertical rate of climb, payload and reduced rotor vibration level. The AH-1Z first flew on 8 December 2000, Bell delivered three prototype aircraft to the United States Navys Naval Air Systems Command at Naval Air Station Patuxent River in July 2002, for the flight test phase of the program. Low-rate initial production began in October 2003, with deliveries to run through 2018, in late 2006 NAVAIR awarded a contract to Meggitt Defense Systems to develop a new linkless 20 mm ammunition handling system to improve on the gun feed reliability of the existing linked feed system. These systems are now being retrofitted into the AH-1W and AH-1Z fleets with good results during combat in Afghanistan, in February 2008, the U. S. Navy adjusted the contract so the last 40 AH-1Zs are built as new airframes instead of the previously planned rebuild of AH-1Ws. In September 2008, the Navy requested an additional 46 airframes for the Marine Corps, in 2010, the Marine Corps planned to order 189 AH-1Zs with 58 of them being new airframes, with deliveries to continue until 2019. On 10 December 2010, the Department of the Navy approved the AH-1Z for full-rate production, the AH-1Z incorporates new rotor technology with upgraded military avionics, weapons systems, and electro-optical sensors in an integrated weapons platform. It has improved survivability and can find targets at longer ranges, the AH-1Zs new bearingless, hingeless rotor system has 75% fewer parts than that of four-bladed articulated systems. The blades are made of composites, which have an increased ballistic survivability and its two redesigned wing stubs are longer, with each adding a wingtip station for a missile such as the AIM-9 Sidewinder
45.
Israeli Air Force
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The Israeli Air Force operates as the aerial warfare branch of the Israel Defense Forces. It was founded on May 28,1948, shortly after the Israeli Declaration of Independence, as of May 2012 Aluf Amir Eshel serves as the Air Force Commander. The Israeli Air Force formed on May 28,1948, using commandeered or donated civilian aircraft and obsolete, eventually, more aircraft were procured, including Boeing B-17s, Bristol Beaufighters, de Havilland Mosquitoes and P-51D Mustangs. The Israeli Air Force played an important part in Operation Kadesh, on June 5,1967, the first day of the Six-Day War, the Israeli Air Force executed Operation Focus, crippling the opposing Arab air forces and attaining air supremacy for the remainder of the war. Shortly after the end of the Six-Day War, Egypt initiated the War of Attrition, on October 7,1973, the IAF conducted Operation Tagar against Egyptian air bases of the Egyptian Air Defence Force. Although initially successful, with 10 bases hit, the urgency of the fighting on the Golan heights forced the operations suspension, since that war most of Israels military aircraft have been obtained from the United States. Among these are the F-4 Phantom II, A-4 Skyhawk, F-15 Eagle, the Israeli Air Force has also operated a number of domestically produced types such as the IAI Nesher, and later, the more advanced IAI Kfir. On June 7,1981, eight IAF F-16A fighters covered by six F-15A jets carried out Operation Opera to destroy the Iraqi nuclear facilities at Osiraq, on June 9,1982, the Israeli Air Force carried out Operation Mole Cricket 19, crippling the Syrian air defence array. The IAF continued to mount attacks on Hezbollah and PLO positions in south Lebanon, on October 1,1985, In response to a PLO terrorist attack which murdered three Israeli civilians in Cyprus, the Israeli air force carried out Operation Wooden Leg. The strike involved the bombing of PLO Headquarters in Tunis, by F-15 Eagles, in 1991, the IAF carried out Operation Solomon which brought Ethiopian Jews to Israel. In 1993 and 1996, the IAF participated in Operation Accountability and Operation Grapes of Wrath and it took part in many missions since, including during the 2006 Lebanon War, Operation Cast Lead, Operation Pillar of Cloud and Operation Protective Edge. On September 6,2007, the Israeli Air Force successfully bombed an alleged Syrian nuclear reactor in Operation Orchard, squadron markings usually go on the tail fin. Forerunners of the Israeli Air Force were the Palestine Flying Service established by the Irgun in 1937, and Sherut Avir, the Israeli Air Force formed on May 28,1948, shortly after Israel declared statehood and found itself under attack. The force consisted of a hodge-podge of commandeered or donated civilian aircraft converted to military use, a variety of obsolete and surplus ex-World War II combat-aircraft were quickly sourced by various means to supplement this fleet. Creativity and resourcefulness were the foundations of early Israeli military success in the air, Israels new fighter-arm first went into action on May 29,1948, assisting efforts to halt the Egyptian advance from Gaza northwards. Four newly arrived Avia S-199s, flown by Lou Lenart, Modi Alon, Ezer Weizman and Eddie Cohen, although damage to the enemy was minimal, two aircraft were lost and Cohen killed, nevertheless the attack achieved its goal and stopped the Egyptians. After un-assembled planes were strafed on the ground on May 30th at Ekron airfield the fighters were moved to makeshift strip located around the current Herzliya Airport. The Israeli Air Force scored its first aerial victories on June 3 when Modi Alon, flying Avia D.112, the first dogfight against enemy fighters took place a few days later, on June 8, when Gideon Lichtaman shot down an Egyptian Spitfire
46.
Hebrew language
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Hebrew is a language native to Israel, spoken by over 9 million people worldwide, of whom over 5 million are in Israel. Historically, it is regarded as the language of the Israelites and their ancestors, the earliest examples of written Paleo-Hebrew date from the 10th century BCE. Hebrew belongs to the West Semitic branch of the Afroasiatic language family, Hebrew is the only living Canaanite language left, and the only truly successful example of a revived dead language. Hebrew had ceased to be a spoken language somewhere between 200 and 400 CE, declining since the aftermath of the Bar Kokhba revolt. Aramaic and to a lesser extent Greek were already in use as international languages, especially among elites and it survived into the medieval period as the language of Jewish liturgy, rabbinic literature, intra-Jewish commerce, and poetry. Then, in the 19th century, it was revived as a spoken and literary language, and, according to Ethnologue, had become, as of 1998, the language of 5 million people worldwide. After Israel, the United States has the second largest Hebrew-speaking population, with 220,000 fluent speakers, Modern Hebrew is one of the two official languages of the State of Israel, while premodern Hebrew is used for prayer or study in Jewish communities around the world today. Ancient Hebrew is also the tongue of the Samaritans, while modern Hebrew or Arabic is their vernacular. For this reason, Hebrew has been referred to by Jews as Leshon Hakodesh, the modern word Hebrew is derived from the word Ivri, one of several names for the Israelite people. It is traditionally understood to be a based on the name of Abrahams ancestor, Eber. This name is based upon the root ʕ-b-r meaning to cross over. Interpretations of the term ʕibrim link it to this verb, cross over, in the Bible, the Hebrew language is called Yәhudit because Judah was the surviving kingdom at the time of the quotation. In Isaiah 19,18 it is called the Language of Canaan, Hebrew belongs to the Canaanite group of languages. In turn, the Canaanite languages are a branch of the Northwest Semitic family of languages, according to Avraham ben-Yosef, Hebrew flourished as a spoken language in the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah during about 1200 to 586 BCE. Scholars debate the degree to which Hebrew was a vernacular in ancient times following the Babylonian exile. In July 2008 Israeli archaeologist Yossi Garfinkel discovered a ceramic shard at Khirbet Qeiyafa which he claimed may be the earliest Hebrew writing yet discovered, dating around 3000 years ago. The Gezer calendar also dates back to the 10th century BCE at the beginning of the Monarchic Period, classified as Archaic Biblical Hebrew, the calendar presents a list of seasons and related agricultural activities. The Gezer calendar is written in an old Semitic script, akin to the Phoenician one that through the Greeks, the Gezer calendar is written without any vowels, and it does not use consonants to imply vowels even in the places where later Hebrew spelling requires it
47.
Viperidae
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All have relatively long, hinged fangs that permit deep penetration and injection of venom. They are also known as viperids, the name viper is derived from the Latin word, vipera, -ae, which means viper. All viperids have a pair of relatively long solenoglyphous fangs that are used to inject venom from glands located towards the rear of the upper jaws, each of the two fangs is at the front of the mouth on a short maxillary bone that can rotate back and forth. When not in use, the fangs fold back against the roof of the mouth and are enclosed in a membranous sheath, the left and right fangs can be rotated together or independently. During a strike, the mouth can open nearly 180° and the maxilla rotates forward, erecting the fangs as late as possible so that the fangs do not become damaged, as they are brittle. The jaws close upon impact and the muscular sheaths encapsulating the venom glands contract and this action is very fast, in defensive strikes, it will be more a stab than a bite. Viperids use this mechanism primarily for immobilization and digestion of prey, secondarily, it is used for self-defence, though in cases with nonprey, such as humans, they may give a dry bite. A dry bite allows the snake to conserve their precious reserve of venom, because once it has been depleted, it takes time to replenish, leaving the snake vulnerable. Almost all vipers have keeled scales, a build with a short tail, and due to the location of the venom glands. The great majority have vertically elliptical, or slit-shaped, pupils that can open wide to cover most of the eye or close almost completely, typically, vipers are nocturnal and ambush their prey. Compared to many other snakes, vipers often appear rather sluggish, most are ovoviviparous, giving birth to live young, but a few lay eggs. Viperid snakes are found in the Americas, Africa, and Eurasia, in the Americas, they are native from southern Canada, through the United States, Mexico, Central America, and into South America. The adder branch of the Viperidae family contains the venomous snake found in Great Britain. Wild viperids are not found in Australia, death is usually caused by collapse in blood pressure. This is in contrast to elapid venoms that generally contain neurotoxins that disable muscle contraction, death from elapid bites usually results from asphyxiation because the diaphragm can no longer contract. However, this rule does not always apply, some elapid bites include proteolytic symptoms typical of viperid bites and this is an important adaptation, as many vipers have inefficient digestive systems. Due to the nature of proteolytic venom, a bite is often a very painful experience and should always be taken seriously. Even with prompt and proper treatment, a bite can still result in a permanent scar, and in the worst cases, viper bite victims may also be allergic to the venom and/or the antivenom
48.
1982 Lebanon War
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The military operation was launched after gunmen from Abu Nidals organization attempted to assassinate Shlomo Argov, Israels ambassador to the United Kingdom. Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin blamed Abu Nidals enemy, the PLO, for the incident, the PLO, under the chairmanship of Yasser Arafat, had relocated its headquarters to Tripoli in June 1982. Following the assassination of Gemayel in September 1982, Israels position in Beirut became untenable and the signing of a peace treaty became increasingly unlikely. After Israeli forces withdrew from most of Lebanon, the War of the Camps broke out between Lebanese factions, the remains of the PLO and Syria, in which Syria fought its former Palestinian allies. At the same time, Shia militant groups began consolidating and waging a low-intensity guerrilla war over the Israeli occupation of southern Lebanon, the Lebanese Civil War would continue until 1990, at which point Syria had established complete dominance over Lebanon. After the 1948 Arab-Israeli war, Lebanon became home to more than 110,000 Palestinian refugees, after their settlements in Palestine and Israel had been depopulated as a result of the war. After its founding in 1964 and the radicalization among Palestinians, which followed the Six Day War, continual violence near the Lebanese border occurred between Israel and the PLO starting from 1968, this peaked, following the relocation of PLO bases to Lebanon after the civil war in Jordan. The violence between Israel and the PLO peaked during Operation Litani in 1978, provoked by the Coastal Road Massacre which was carried out by Palestinian militants, as early as 1976, Israel had been assisting Lebanese Christian militias in their sporadic battles against the PLO. But Israels main partner was to be the Maronite Phalange party, whose paramilitary was led by Bashir Gemayel, gemayels strategy during the early stages of the Lebanese Civil War was to provoke the Syrians into retaliatory attacks on Christians, such that Israel could not ignore. In 1978, Menachem Begin declared that Israel would not allow a genocide of Lebanese Christians, hundreds of Lebanese militiamen began to train in Israel, at the IDF Staff and Command College. During the period June to December 1980 the United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon recorded an increase in activities along the border zone, during the same period Israel protested numerous attacks by Palestinian forces, unrelated to the Lebanese border zone. In contrast the IDF had launched attacks on Lebanese territory often in support of the Lebanese Christian militia. In doing so Israel had violated UN Security Council resolution 425 on hundreds of occasions, in the subsequent period 16 June to 10 December 1981, a relative quiet was reported continuing from 29 May 1981 until 10 July. This was broken when Israeli aircraft resumed strikes against targets in southern Lebanon north of the UNIFIL area, led to exchanges of heavy firing between armed elements, on the one hand, and IDF and the de facto forces on the other. On 13 and 14 July, widespread Israeli air-strikes continued, armed elements fired into the enclave and northern Israel. Israeli-initiated attacks had led to rocket and artillery fire on northern Israel and this pattern continued in the coming days. Israel renewed its air strikes in an attempt to trigger a war that would allow it to out the PLO. On 17 July, the Israel Air Force launched an attack on PLO buildings in downtown Beirut
