1.
Peninsula
–
A peninsula is a piece of land surrounded by water on the majority of its border, while being connected to a mainland from which it extends out. Examples include the upper and lower peninsulas of the state of Michigan, the surrounding water is usually understood to be continuous, though not necessarily named as a single body of water. Peninsulas are not always named as such, one can also be a headland, cape, island promontory, bill, point, a point is generally considered a tapering piece of land projecting into a body of water that is less prominent than a cape. A river which courses through a very tight meander is also said to form a peninsula within the loop of water. In English, the plural of peninsula is peninsulas or, less commonly, peninsulas can be found on coastlines and in smaller bodies of water throughout the world, ranging in scale from square meters to millions of square kilometers. Theres the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe, and in Southern Europe theres the Iberian Peninsula, the Italian Peninsula, south America has the Brunswick Peninsula, and Antarctica has the Antarctic Peninsula. In Africa, theres the Horn of Africa, and in Australia, asia has the 3 largest peninsulas in the world, the Arabian Peninsula, the Indian Peninsula, and the Indochinese Peninsula
2.
Melbourne
–
Melbourne is the capital and most populous city of the Australian state of Victoria, and the second-most populous city in Australia and Oceania. The name Melbourne refers to an urban agglomeration spanning 9,900 km2, the metropolis is located on the large natural bay of Port Phillip and expands into the hinterlands towards the Dandenong and Macedon mountain ranges, Mornington Peninsula and Yarra Valley. It has a population of 4,641,636 as of 2016, and its inhabitants are called Melburnians. Founded by free settlers from the British Crown colony of Van Diemens Land on 30 August 1835, in what was then the colony of New South Wales, it was incorporated as a Crown settlement in 1837. It was named Melbourne by the Governor of New South Wales, Sir Richard Bourke, in honour of the British Prime Minister of the day, William Lamb, 2nd Viscount Melbourne. It was officially declared a city by Queen Victoria, to whom Lord Melbourne was close, in 1847, during the Victorian gold rush of the 1850s, it was transformed into one of the worlds largest and wealthiest cities. After the federation of Australia in 1901, it served as the interim seat of government until 1927. It is a financial centre in the Asia-Pacific region. It is recognised as a UNESCO City of Literature and a centre for street art, music. It was the host city of the 1956 Summer Olympics and the 2006 Commonwealth Games, the main passenger airport serving the metropolis and the state is Melbourne Airport, the second busiest in Australia. The Port of Melbourne is Australias busiest seaport for containerised and general cargo, Melbourne has an extensive transport network. The main metropolitan train terminus is Flinders Street Station, and the regional train. Melbourne is also home to Australias most extensive network and has the worlds largest urban tram network. Before the arrival of settlers, humans had occupied the area for an estimated 31,000 to 40,000 years. At the time of European settlement, it was inhabited by under 2000 hunter-gatherers from three indigenous tribes, the Wurundjeri, Boonwurrung and Wathaurong. The area was an important meeting place for the clans of the Kulin nation alliance and it would be 30 years before another settlement was attempted. Batman selected a site on the bank of the Yarra River. Batman then returned to Launceston in Tasmania, in early August 1835 a different group of settlers, including John Pascoe Fawkner, left Launceston on the ship Enterprize
3.
Victoria (Australia)
–
Victoria is a state in southeast Australia. Victoria is Australias most densely populated state and its second-most populous state overall, most of its population is concentrated in the area surrounding Port Phillip Bay, which includes the metropolitan area of its state capital and largest city, Melbourne, Australias second-largest city. Prior to British European settlement, the area now constituting Victoria was inhabited by a number of Aboriginal peoples. With Great Britain having claimed the entire Australian continent east of the 135th meridian east in 1788, Victoria was included in the wider colony of New South Wales. The first settlement in the area occurred in 1803 at Sullivan Bay, and much of what is now Victoria was included in the Port Phillip District in 1836, Victoria was officially created as a separate colony in 1851, and achieved self-government in 1855. Politically, Victoria has 37 seats in the Australian House of Representatives and 12 seats in the Australian Senate, at state level, the Parliament of Victoria consists of the Legislative Assembly and the Legislative Council. Victoria is currently governed by the Labor Party, with Daniel Andrews the current Premier, the personal representative of the Queen of Australia in the state is the Governor of Victoria, currently Linda Dessau. Local government is concentrated in 79 municipal districts, including 33 cities, although a number of unincorporated areas still exist, Victorias total gross state product is ranked second in Australia, although Victoria is ranked fourth in terms of GSP per capita because of its limited mining activity. Culturally, Melbourne is home to a number of museums, art galleries and theatres and is described as the sporting capital of Australia. The Melbourne Cricket Ground is the largest stadium in Australia, and the host of the 1956 Summer Olympics, Victoria has eight public universities, with the oldest, the University of Melbourne, having been founded in 1853. Victoria, like Queensland, was named after Queen Victoria, who had been on the British throne for 14 years when the colony was established in 1851. The first British settlement in the later known as Victoria was established in October 1803 under Lieutenant-Governor David Collins at Sullivan Bay on Port Phillip. In the year 1826 Colonel Stewart, Captain S. Wright, fly and the brigs Dragon and Amity, took a number of convicts and a small force composed of detachments of the 3rd and 93rd regiments. Victorias next settlement was at Portland, on the south west coast of what is now Victoria, edward Henty settled Portland Bay in 1834. Melbourne was founded in 1835 by John Batman, who set up a base in Indented Head, from settlement the region around Melbourne was known as the Port Phillip District, a separately administered part of New South Wales. Shortly after the now known as Geelong was surveyed by Assistant Surveyor W. H. Smythe. And in 1838 Geelong was officially declared a town, despite earlier white settlements dating back to 1826, days later, still in 1851 gold was discovered near Ballarat, and subsequently at Bendigo. Later discoveries occurred at sites across Victoria
4.
Port Phillip
–
Port Phillip, is a large bay in southern Victoria, Australia, it is the location of Melbourne. Geographically, the bay covers 1,930 square kilometres and the shore stretches roughly 264 km, although it is extremely shallow for its size, most of the bay is navigable. The deepest portion is only 24 metres, and half the region is shallower than 8 m, the volume of the water in the bay is around 25 cubic kilometres. Prior to British settlement the area around Port Phillip was divided between the territories of the Wathaurong, Wurundjeri and Boonwurrung Nations and its waters and coast are home to seals, whales, dolphins, corals, and many kinds of seabirds and migratory waders. The first British to enter the bay were the crews of HMS Lady Nelson, commanded by John Murray and, ten weeks later, HMS Investigator commanded by Matthew Flinders, in 1802. Subsequent expeditions into the bay took place in 1803 to establish the first settlement in Victoria, near Sorrento, but was abandoned in 1804. Thirty years later, settlers from Tasmania returned to establish Melbourne, now the capital city, at the mouth of the Yarra River in 1835. The Yarra and other tributaries flowed down what is now the middle of the bay, formed a lake in the reaches of the bay, dammed by The Heads. The Aboriginal people were in occupation of the area long before the bay was formed, having arrived at least 20,000 years ago and possibly 40,000 years ago. Large piles of semi-fossilised sea-shells known as middens, can still be seen in places around the shoreline and they made a good living from the abundant sea-life, which included penguins and seals. In the cold season they wore possum-skin cloaks and elaborate feathered head-dresses, a dry period combined with sand bar formation, may have dried the bay out as recently as between 800 BCE and 1000 CE. In 1800, Lieutenant James Grant RN was the first known explorer to pass through Bass Strait from west to east in HMS Lady Nelson. He was also the first to see, and crudely chart, Grant gave the name Governor Kings Bay to the body of water between Cape Otway and Wilsons Promontory, but did not venture in and discover Port Phillip. The first Britons to discover and enter Port Phillip, were the crew of the Lady Nelson, commanded by John Murray, Murray called the bay Port King after the Governor of New South Wales, Philip Gidley King. On 4 September 1805, King formally renamed it Port Phillip, about ten weeks after Murray, Matthew Flinders RN in HMS Investigator also found and entered the port, unaware Murray had been there. As a result of Murrays and Flinders reports, King sent Lieutenant Charles Robbins in HMS Cumberland to explore Port Phillip fully. One of his party, Charles Grimes, became the first European to walk round the bay. King decided to place a convict settlement at Port Phillip, mainly to stake a claim to southern Australia ahead of the French, on 10 October 1803 a convoy of two ships HMS Calcutta and Ocean led by Captain David Collins carrying 402 people entered Port Philip Bay
5.
Corio Bay
–
The Corio Bay is one of numerous bays in the southwest corner of Australias Port Phillip, and is the bay on which abuts the City of Geelong. The nearby suburb of Corio takes its name from Corio Bay, the names Corayo and Jillong had since been Anglicised to Corio and Geelong. The Port of Geelong is located on the shores of Corio Bay, before the initial settlement of Geelong, a sandbar across the bay from Point Lillias to Point Henry prevented ships from entering the inner harbour. Ships were required to anchor in the bay, and cargo was brought into Geelong on small barges. At times it was possible to walk across the bay on the sandbar at low tide, the first channel through the sandbar was started in 1853, providing less than 4 metres draught for ships. This channel was straightened out and dredged at a depth of 6 metres in the 1860s, in 1881 a new channel started that took 12 years to complete. It was named the Hopetoun Channel after Lord Hopetoun who opened it on December 20,1893, management of the channels and port was the responsibility of the Geelong Harbour Trust that was formed in December 1905. In 1981, the Port of Geelong Authority took over from the trust, the authority was privatised by the State Government in mid 1996, being sold to TNT Logistics for $49.6 million. It was later re-branded as GeelongPort, the shores of Corio Bay have been a popular playground for Geelong residents. Since the 1930s Eastern Beach has been a swimming location. Boating is also popular, with a number of boat ramps. The bay is also the home of the Royal Geelong Yacht Club that was established in 1859, sometimes, whales and dolphins can be seen in the bay. Eastern Beach Waterfront Geelong Limeburners Bay Timeline of Geelong history Freedom bay cruise, Corio bay
6.
Bass Strait
–
Bass Strait /ˈbæs/ is a sea strait separating Tasmania from the Australian mainland, specifically the state of Victoria. The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of Bass Strait as follows, the eastern limit of the Great Australian Bight. The western limit of the Tasman Sea between Gabo Island and Eddystone Point, some authorities consider the strait to be part of the Pacific Ocean as in the never-approved 2002 IHO Limits of Oceans and Seas draft. In the currently in-force IHO1953 draft, it is listed as part of the Indian Ocean. The Australian Hydrographic Service does not consider it to be part of the Southern Ocean, using the expanded Australian definition, the strait between the Furneaux Islands and Tasmania is Banks Strait, a subdivision of Bass Strait. The strait was named after George Bass, after he and Matthew Flinders passed through it while circumnavigating Van Diemens Land in the Norfolk in 1798–99. At Flinders recommendation, the Governor of New South Wales, John Hunter, later it became known as Bass Strait. The existence of the strait had been suggested in 1797 by the master of Sydney Cove when he reached Sydney after deliberately grounding his foundering ship and being stranded on Preservation Island. He reported that the south westerly swell and the tides and currents suggested that the island was in a channel linking the Pacific. Governor Hunter thus wrote to Joseph Banks in August 1797 that it seemed certain a strait existed, Bass Strait is approximately 250 km wide and 500 km long, with an average depth of 60 m. The widest opening is about 350 km between Cape Portland on the North-Eastern tip of Tasmania and Point Hicks on the Australian mainland. Two plateaus, the Bassian Rise and King Island Rise located on the eastern and western margins of Bass Strait and these features form sills separating Bass Basin from the adjacent ocean basins. Associated with the <50 m deep Bassian Rise is the Furneaux Islands, the surface of the King Island Rise also occurs in water depths of <50 m, and includes the shallow Tail Bank at its northern margin as well as King Island itself. Subaqueous dunes and tidal current ridges and subaqueous dunes cover approximately 6,000 km2 of the seabed in Bass Strait, during Pleistocene low sea level stands the central basin of Bass Strait was enclosed by raised sills forming a large shallow lake. This occurred during the last glacial maximum, when the basin was completely isolated, like the rest of the waters surrounding Tasmania, and particularly because of its limited depth, it is notoriously rough, with many ships lost there during the 19th century. Strong currents between the Antarctic-driven southeast portions of the Indian Ocean and the Tasman Seas Pacific Ocean waters provide a strait of powerful, to illustrate its wild strength, Bass Strait is both twice as wide and twice as rough as the English Channel. The shipwrecks on the Tasmanian and Victorian coastlines number in the hundreds, although stronger metal ships, many vessels, some quite large, have disappeared without trace, or left scant evidence of their passing. Despite the straits difficult waters it provided a safer and less boisterous passage for ships on the route from Europe or India to Sydney in the early 19th century, the strait also saved 1,300 km distance on the voyage
7.
Mornington Peninsula
–
The Mornington Peninsula is a peninsula located south-east of Melbourne, Australia. It is surrounded by Port Phillip to the west, Western Port to the east and Bass Strait to the south, geographically, the peninsula begins its protrusion from the mainland in the area between Pearcedale and Frankston. The area was home to the Mayone-bulluk and Boonwurrung-Balluk clans. Much of the peninsula has been cleared for agriculture and settlements, however, small areas of the native ecology remain in the peninsulas south and west, some of which is protected by the Mornington Peninsula National Park. The peninsula is primarily a local tourist region, with natural attractions such as the variety of beaches both sheltered and open-sea and many scenic sights and views. Other popular attractions include the various wineries, mazes and the array of water sports made available by the diversity of beaches and calm waters of Port Phillip. Most visitors to the peninsula are residents of Melbourne who camp, rent villas, the peninsula was formed by the flooding of Port Phillip Bay after the end of the Ice Age about 10000 BC. It may have extended into Port Phillip at various times, most recently between 800 BC and 1000 AD when Port Phillip Bay may have dried out, indigenous Australians of the Mayone-bulluk and Boonwurrung-Balluk clans lived on the peninsula as part of the Boonwurrung Peoples territory prior to European settlement. The territory hosted six clans who lived along the Victorian coast from the Werribee River across to Western Port Bay, the peninsula may have been home to between 100 –500 people prior to European settlement. The first European settlement on the Mornington Peninsula was also the first settlement in Victoria, the Sullivans Bay settlement was a short-lived penal colony established in 1803,30 years before the establishment of Melbourne, by Lieutenant-Colonel David Collins. At the time of European settlement in 1803 much of the Mornington Peninsula was covered with she-oak forests and these were quickly cleared to provide firewood for the growing city of Melbourne, and much of the peninsula was then covered with fruit orchards. Nevertheless, much natural vegetation still exists, especially in an area of bushland in the known as Greens Bush. Most large areas of bushland are now included within the Mornington Peninsula National Park, as serious farming has declined, hobby farmers with an interest in the aesthetic and the natural environment have taken over much of the peninsula. This has led to an expansion of natural bushland on private property, the local council also has a slight lean towards sustainable practices. On 17 December 1967, Prime Minister Harold Holt went swimming at Cheviot Beach on what is now Point Nepean National Park, at the time this was still a restricted area. Mr. Holt, who was 59 and had had a recent shoulder injury and he disappeared from view and was never seen again. Despite an extensive search his body was never found and he was officially presumed dead on 19 December 1967. The peninsula extends from the mainland between Pearcedale and Frankston in a direction for about 40 km at a width of about 15–20 kilometres
8.
Victorian Aborigines
–
The Indigenous Australians of Victoria, Australia occupied the land for tens of thousands of years prior to European settlement. According to Gary Presland Aboriginal people have lived in Victoria for about 40,000 years living an existence of fishing, hunting and gathering. There is some evidence to show that people were living in the Maribyrnong River valley, near present day Keilor, about 40,000 years ago, according to Gary Presland. At the Keilor Archaeological Site a human hearth excavated in 1971 was radiocarbon-dated to about 31,000 years BP, a cranium found at the site has been dated at between 12,000 and 14,700 years BP. There is evidence of occupation in Gariwerd - the territory of the Jardwadjali people - many thousands of years before the last ice-age, one site in the Victoria Range has been dated from 22,000 years ago. Between 16,000 and 14,000 years BP the rate of sea level rise was most rapid rising about 50 feet in 300 years according to Peter D. Ward. Tasmania and the Bass Strait islands became separated from mainland Australia around 12,000 BP, port Phillip was flooded by post-glacial rising sea levels between 8000 and 6000 years ago. Oral history and creation stories from the Wada wurrung, Woiwurrung, hobsons Bay was once a kangaroo hunting ground. The mine provided a network of trading for economic and social exchange among the different aboriginal nations in Victoria. The Quarry had been in use for more than 1,500 years, in February 2008 the site was placed on the National heritage list for its cultural importance and archeological value. In some areas semi-permanent huts were constructed and a network of water channels were constructed for farming eels. During early Autumn there were large gatherings of up to 1000 people for one to two months hosted at the Mount William swamp or at Lake Bolac for the annual eel migration. Several tribes attended these gatherings including the Girai wurrung, Djargurd wurrung, Dhauwurd wurrung, near Lake Bolac a semi-permanent village extended some 35 kilometres along the river bank during autumn. George Augustus Robinson on 7 July 1841 described some of the infrastructure that had constructed near Mount William. an area of at least 15 acres was thus traced out. These works must have been executed at great cost of labour, there must have been some thousands of yards of this trenching and banking. The whole of the water from the mountain rivulets is made to pass through this trenching ere it reaches the marsh, Clark also identified 19 sub-dialects in seven languages. The Victorian Aboriginal Corporation For Languages is the body for Aboriginal Languages in Victoria. In recent years there has been an upsurge of interest in the Aboriginal languages of the corner of Australia
9.
Wathaurong
–
Wathaurong, also called the Wathaurung and Wadawurrung, are an Indigenous Australian tribe living in the area near Melbourne, Geelong and the Bellarine Peninsula. They are part of the Kulin alliance, the Wathaurung language was spoken by 25 clans south of the Werribee River and the Bellarine Peninsula to Streatham. They were sometimes referred to by Europeans as the Barrabool people and they have inhabited the area for at least the last 25,000 years, with 140 archaeological sites having been found in the region, indicating significant activity over that period. The Wathaurung Aboriginal Corporation, a Registered Aboriginal Party since 21 May 2009, represents the Indigenous people for the Geelong, coastal clans of the Wadawurrung may have had contact with Lieutenant John Murray when he charted Indented Head and named Swan Bay. Matthew Flinders met several Wadawurrung when he camped at Indented Head, buckley lived with that community for 32 years, between 1803 and 1835, before making contact with John Batmans expedition on 6 July 1835. The European settlement of Wadawurrung territory began in earnest from 1835, with an arrival of squatters around the Geelong area. This European settlement was marked by Aboriginal resistance to the invasion, often by driving off or stealing sheep, very few of the reports of the killing of native people were acted upon. At the time Aborigines were denied the right to give evidence in courts of law, the incidents listed below are just those cases that have been reported, it is likely other incidents occurred that were never documented officially. In 1841, Wathaurung man Bonjon was charged with murder for killing Yammowing of the Gulidjan people whose territory bordered that of the Wathaurung, according to police magistrate Foster Fyans, Bonjon was with the Native Police for seven months, tracking runaway horses and generally assisting the other members. The prosecution alleged that on or about 14 July 1841, Bonjon shot Yammowing in the head with a carbine at Geelong, killing him, the prosecution ultimately abandoned the case and Bonjon was eventually discharged. The events of the 1854 Eureka Rebellion took place on Wathaurung land, there are numerous accounts of Aboriginal presence in the Ballarat area during the 1850s. Although not corroborated by any sources, the account has been deemed plausible by Professor Clark. Some further credence, although circumstantial, may be provided to the above information, George Yuille, older brother of William Cross Yuille, was not only liked and trusted by the local Aboriginies but also had formed a relationship with one of their women. Together they had at least one child, also named George Yuille, George Yuille senior died on the 26 March 1854. He was at the time of his death a storekeeper on Specimen Hill, communities consisted of 25 land-owning groups called clans that spoke a related language and were connected through cultural and mutual interests, totems, trading initiatives and marriage ties. Access to land and resources by other clans, was sometimes restricted depending on the state of the resource in question, during this time other resources were utilised for food. This ensured the use of the resources available to them. As with most other Kulin territories, penalties such as spearings were enforced upon trespassers, Wathaurung territory extended from the southern side of the Werribee River to Port Phillip, the Bellarine Peninsula, the Otway forests, and northwest to Mount Emu and Mount Misery
10.
City of Greater Geelong
–
The City of Greater Geelong is a local government area in the Barwon South West region of Victoria, Australia, located in the western part of the state. It covers an area of 1,247 square kilometres and, the City is named after the main urban settlement located in the centre-west of the LGA, that is Geelong, which is also the LGAs most populous urban centre with a population of 143,921. The Inquiry found that the council is riven with conflict, unable to manage Geelongs economic challenges, has dysfunctional leadership and has a culture of bullying. On the recommendation of the Commission, the Victorian Government dismissed the entire Greater Geelong City Council on 16 April 2016, on 25 May 2016, Dr Kathy Alexander, Peter Dorling and Laurinda Gardner were sworn in as administrators, replacing Yehudi Blacher. Likewise, the chairperson of the panel of administrators has the functions, powers. The council will be run by administrators until fresh council elections are held in 2017 and it also provides customer services at its service centres in Belmont, Corio, Drysdale, Geelong West, Ocean Grove, Waurn Ponds and on Brougham St in Geelong
11.
Geelong
–
Geelong is a port city located on Corio Bay and the Barwon River, in the state of Victoria, Australia,75 kilometres south-west of the state capital, Melbourne. It is the second largest Victorian city, with an urban population of 191,440 as at June 2016. Geelong runs from the plains of Lara in the north to the hills of Waurn Ponds to the south, with Corio Bay to the east. Geelong is the centre for the City of Greater Geelong municipality. Geelong was named in 1827, with the derived from the local Wathaurong Aboriginal name for the region, Jillong. The area was first surveyed in 1838, three weeks after Melbourne, the post office was open by June 1840. The first woolstore was erected in this period and it became the port for the industry of the Western District. During the gold rush, Geelong experienced a boom as the main port to the rich goldfields of the Ballarat district. The city then diversified into manufacturing, and during the 1860s, it one of the largest manufacturing centres in Australia with its wool mills, ropeworks. Population increases over the last decade were due to growth in service industries, redevelopment of the inner city has occurred since the 1990s, as well as gentrification of inner suburbs, and currently has a population growth rate higher than the national average. It is known for being home to the Geelong Football Club, today, Geelong stands as an emerging health, education and advanced manufacturing hub. The area of Geelong and the Bellarine Peninsula was originally occupied by the Wathaurong Indigenous Australian tribe, the first nonindigenous person recorded as visiting the region was Lt. John Murray, who commanded the brig HMS Lady Nelson. After anchoring outside Port Phillip Heads, on 1 February 1802, led by John Bowen, they explored the immediate area, returning to the Lady Nelson on 4 February. On reporting favourable findings, the Lady Nelson entered Port Phillip on 14 February, during this time, Murray explored the Geelong area and, whilst on the far side of the bay, claimed the entire area for Britain. He named the bay Port King, after Philip Gidley King, Governor King later renamed the bay Port Phillip after the first governor of New South Wales, Arthur Phillip. Arriving not long after Murray was Matthew Flinders, who entered Port Phillip on 27 April 1802, in October of the same year, the HMS Calcutta led by Lieutenant Colonel David Collins arrived in the bay to establish the Sullivan Bay penal colony. Collins was dissatisfied with the chosen, and sent a small party led by First Lieutenant J. H. Tuckey to investigate alternate sites. The party spent 22 October to 27 October on the shore of Corio Bay
12.
Convict
–
A convict is a person found guilty of a crime and sentenced by a court or a person serving a sentence in prison. Convicts are often known as prisoners or inmates or by the slang term con, while a common label for former convicts. Persons convicted and sentenced to non-custodial sentences tend not to be described as convicts, the legal label of ex-convict usually has lifelong implications, such as social stigma and/or reduced opportunities for employment. The particular use of the convict in the English-speaking world was to describe the huge numbers of criminals. Their crimes would today be regarded as petty misdemeanours, or are no longer in the criminal code, most of the punishments at this time were severe, with the death penalty applied for fairly minor crimes. However, this sentence was often commuted to a lesser one. Thus, in the British context, the convict has come to refer in particular to those criminals transported overseas. Initially many British convicts were sent to the American colonies, such as the Maryland, Virginia, the transportation of convicts from the United Kingdom began around 1615 and became increasingly common in the following years. Initially most people were transported to North America or the West Indies, from 1718 onwards transportation was entirely to North America. The arrangements ceased when the American Revolutionary War meant it was no longer possible for the United Kingdom to send convicts to North America, the British Government then looked to the newly discovered east coast of Australia to use as a penal colony. Convicts were transported to Australia in 1787, arriving in Botany Bay, then Sydney Cove, from the very start of European settlement convicts were used as indentured labourers in five out of the six colonies. Many were used on works, but a significant number were assigned to private individuals as domestic servants, rural workers. Transportation was progressively abolished from 1853, eventually ceasing altogether in 1868, in Australia, convicts have come to be key figures of cultural mythology and historiography. British convicts were sent to Canada, West Africa. France also sent convicts to French Guiana and New Caledonia, russian criminals who were shipped to Siberia can arguably be regarded as convicts. Convicted felon Convict lease Convict assignment Convicts in Australia Older prisoners Penal transportation Convict life - State Library of NSW Convict Transportation Registers database
13.
William Buckley (convict)
–
William Buckley was an English convict who was transported to Australia, escaped, was given up for dead and lived in an Aboriginal community for many years. Buckley was born in Marton, Cheshire, England, to Eliza Buckley, Buckley had two sisters and one brother, around the age of six he was brought up by his mothers father in Macclesfield. In the book The life and adventures of William Buckley, his place of birth is given as Macclesfield. He was apprenticed to a bricklayer, Mr. Robert Wyatt and he was soon transferred to the Kings Own Regiment. In 1799, his regiment went to the Netherlands to fight against Napoleon, later, in London, Buckley was convicted of knowingly receiving a bolt of stolen cloth, he insisted he was carrying it for a woman and did not know it was stolen. He was sentenced to transportation to New South Wales for 14 years, descriptions of the adult Buckley vary. When Buckley appeared at their camp, James Gumm out of curiosity measured him as 67 or 68, Buckley himself records his height at 65. John Fawkner who was also at Sullivan Bay when he was 11 years old states that Buckleys height is 6 4-1/3. According to George Russell who met him near the Yarra River in 1836, Buckley stood 64 tall, according to Russell, Buckley was a tall, ungainly man. This general description was echoed by other reports of the day and his mental condition also often came into disrepute. Buckley left England in April 1803 aboard HMS Calcutta, one of two sent to Port Phillip to form a new settlement under Lieutenant-Colonel David Collins. They arrived in October 1803, and anchored off the side of the bay. The new settlement, called Sullivan Bay, subject to drought and poor soils, soon ran into problems and they started to abandon the site in January 1804, with the remainder leaving in June. After hearing that the settlement was about to move to Tasmania, on 27 December 1803 at 9 pm, Buckley and several other convicts ran away into the bush, where one was shot and severely injured. The others, however, made their way around the bay, and his companions went north-east, hoping to reach Sydney, which they thought was not far, although it was 1000 km away around the coast. Buckley, tired and dehydrated, continued alone around the bay, during the weeks following his escape, Buckley avoided contact with Aboriginal people, travelling around Port Phillip Bay as far as the Bellarine Peninsula. In the well known account collected by John Morgan in 1852, Buckley describes travelling much further, as far as Painkalac Creek, Aireys Inlet and Mount Defiance living alone, off the land. Common to both accounts, however, is his significant first meeting with a group of Wathaurung women, Buckley had taken a spear used to mark a grave for use as a walking stick
14.
Sullivan Bay, Victoria
–
Sullivan Bay lies 60 km due south of Melbourne on Port Phillip, one kilometre east of Sorrento, Victoria. It was established as a convict settlement in 1803 by Lieutenant-Colonel David Collins, who named the bay after the Under-Secretary of State for War. The site was chosen because of its location near the entrance of Port Phillip Bay. In 1802, Lieutenant John Murray discovered Port Phillip Bay and claimed it for the British Crown, the British government was impressed with their positive reports, and were also worried that the French might try to establish colonies there. They decided to get in first and they arrived on 10 October 1803. Shortly after arriving, a party led by James Tuckey was dispatched to explore Port Phillip Bay and they also reported that suitable timber could not be found. The treacherous entrance to the bay made the site unsuitable for whaling and with few marines, Collins asked Governor King for permission to abandon the site, and was eventually given permission to do so. On 30 January 1804, Collins and some of the left in Ocean. They were moved as two parties, the second leaving on 20 May, just over seven months after the settlement was established, records show 30 people died at the settlement. During the brief occupation,21 convicts escaped, one of these was William Buckley who lived in the area around Geelong for 33 years before meeting with John Batmans party in 1835. Little evidence of the settlement remains, four graves on the eastern headland, and parts of barrels, leg irons, bottles and other pieces are all that exist. The Collins Settlement Historic Reserve, comprising about 2 km of coastline, is protected under the Victorian Heritage Register, convicts unbound, the story of the Calcutta convicts and their settlement in Australia South Yarra, Vic. Viking ONeil,1988 Crook, William Pascoe, An Account of the Settlement at Sullivan Bay, Port Phillip 1803, The Colony Press, bonwick, James, Port Phillip Settlement, Samson, Low, Marston, Searle & Rivington Publishing, London. Angell, B, Voyage to Port Phillip 1803, Neapean Historical Society, cotter, Richard No place for a colony, Sullivan Bay, Sorrento & the Collins Settlement. Coutts, J. F. Victorias first official settlement, Sullivan Bay, Victoria Archaeological Survey, Ministry for Conservation
15.
John Batman
–
John Batman was an Australian grazier, entrepreneur and explorer. Batman is a figure due to his dealings with Aboriginal peoples in Van Diemens Land. The artist John Glover, Batmans neighbour in Van Diemens Land, said Batman was a rogue, thief, cheat and liar, a murderer of blacks, Batmans English parents, William and Mary Batman, came to Sydney in 1797 aboard the ship the Ganges. John was born in 1801 at Rosehill, Parramatta, now a suburb of Sydney, in 1821 John and brother Henry journeyed to Van Diemens Land to settle on land in the north-east near Ben Lomond. He acquired Kingston, a property said to be. large in acreage, in December 1825, or early 1826, Batman captured the notorious bushranger called Matthew Brady, resulting in an additional grant of land by the government. Brady had been wounded in the leg in a conflict with the authorities, Batman went out unarmed on his own in search of Brady, and found him quite accidentally. He saw a man limping in the bush near a shallow creek and he induced Brady to surrender and return with him. The outlaw was ill and suffering much pain, and did as he was asked, Brady was duly sentenced to death. He participated in the capture of Tasmanian Aborigines in 1829 and he employed mainland Aboriginal people hired in Sydney, New South Wales, for roving parties hunting Tasmanians. Between 1828 and 1830, Tasmanians in this region were shot or rounded up by bounty hunters like John Batman, as Tasmanian Colonial Governor, George Arthur, observed, Batman. had much slaughter to account for. Closer examination of this quote from Governor Arthur reveals a complex picture of Batmans motives. Waiting until 11pm that night before attacking, he …ordered the men to fire upon them, as their 40-odd dogs raised the alarm and the Aboriginal people ran away into thick scrub, killing an estimated 15 people. The next morning, he left the place for his farm, with two badly wounded Tasmanian men, a woman and her two-year-old boy, all of whom he captured. However, he. found it impossible that the two former could walk, and after trying them by every means in my power, for some time, found I could not get them on I was obliged to shoot them. The captured woman, named Luggenemenener, was sent to Campbell Town gaol and separated from her two-year-old son. Batman reported afterwards to British Colonial Secretary, John Burnett, in a letter of 7 September 1829, Luggenemenener died on 21 March 1837 as an inmate at the Flinders Island settlement. Later, Rolepana, child-survivor of a massacre by a party led by Batman. After Batmans death in 1839, Rolepana would have been 12 years old, boyce notes that Rolepana was employed by colonist George Ware at 12 Pounds a year with Board on Batmans death. but what became of him after this is also unknown
16.
Indented Head, Victoria
–
Indented Head is a small coastal township located on the Bellarine Peninsula, east of Geelong, in the Australian state of Victoria. The town lies on the coast of the Port Phillip bay between the towns of Portarlington and St Leonards, Indented Heads population fluctuates throughout the year, increasing drastically during the summer months, and is very much seasonal. Its beaches attract keen fisherman, boaters and families to the area and it is appreciated by locals and tourists for its quiet and isolated nature. Indented Head was named by the explorer Matthew Flinders in April 1802 when he observed the shape of the Bellarine Peninsula coastline from the summit of Arthurs Seat, for many years the name Indented Head was applied to the whole of the Bellarine Peninsula. He left the base camp in the care of his ex-convict servants William Todd and Gumm. The escaped convict William Buckley made contact with the men at Batmans camp in July 1835, Buckley had been living with the local Wathaurong people for over thirty years since his escape from an early settlement near Sorrento in 1803. A monument marks the place where Batman was believed to have landed, camping grounds were established along the Indented Head foreshore during the 1920s but it was many years before a permanent population was established, the Post Office opening in 1947. The area is still a family holiday destination and facilities include a sailing club, a boat ramp, jetty. The shoreline also hosts a number of historical boat sheds, the retired Port Phillip paddle steamer, Ozone, was sunk at Indented Head in 1925 to form a breakwater. The wreck remains a landmark visible offshore from the main beach. One of the Ozones anchors has also incorporated into a monument located on the cliff-top beside the Taylor Reserve camping ground. The 1970s and 1980s saw an increase in construction of homes. The Harvey estate began construction in 2007, and has been the largest housing development to date within Indented Head, a new Post Office and General Store was constructed, the only business operating in Indented Head, in late 2008 on The Esplanade. The historic Ozone wreck, the Indented Head Yacht Club and the long stretches beaches that line The Esplanade, all attract visitors to the area
17.
Tasmania
–
Tasmania is an island state of the Commonwealth of Australia. It is located 240 km to the south of the Australian mainland, the state encompasses the main island of Tasmania, the 26th-largest island in the world, and the surrounding 334 islands. The state has a population of around 519,100, just over forty percent of which resides in the Greater Hobart precinct, Tasmanias area is 68,401 km2, of which the main island covers 64,519 km2. Though an island state, due to an error the state shares a land border with Victoria at its northernmost terrestrial point, Boundary Islet. The Bishop and Clerk Islets, about 37 km south of Macquarie Island, are the southernmost terrestrial point of the state of Tasmania, the island is believed to have been occupied by Aboriginals for 40,000 years before British colonisation. It is thought Tasmanian Aboriginals were separated from the mainland Aboriginal groups about 10,000 years ago when the sea rose to form Bass Strait. The conflict, which peaked between 1825 and 1831 and led to more than three years of law, cost the lives of almost 1100 Aboriginals and settlers. The near-destruction of Tasmanias Aboriginal population has been described by historians as an act of genocide by the British. The island was part of the Colony of New South Wales. In 1854 the present Constitution of Tasmania was passed and the year the state received permission to change its name to Tasmania. In 1901 it became a state through the process of the Federation of Australia, the state is named after Dutch explorer Abel Tasman, who made the first reported European sighting of the island on 24 November 1642. Tasman named the island Anthony van Diemens Land after his sponsor Anthony van Diemen, the name was later shortened to Van Diemens Land by the British. It was officially renamed Tasmania in honour of its first European discoverer on 1 January 1856, Tasmania was sometimes referred to as Dervon, as mentioned in the Jerilderie Letter written by the notorious Australian bushranger Ned Kelly in 1879. The colloquial expression for the state is Tassie, Tasmania is also colloquially shortened to Tas, especially when used in business names and website addresses. TAS is also the Australia Post abbreviation for the state, the reconstructed Palawa kani language name for Tasmania is Lutriwita. The island was adjoined to the mainland of Australia until the end of the last glacial period about 10,000 years ago, much of the island is composed of Jurassic dolerite intrusions through other rock types, sometimes forming large columnar joints. Tasmania has the worlds largest areas of dolerite, with many distinctive mountains, the central plateau and the southeast portions of the island are mostly dolerite. Mount Wellington above Hobart is an example, showing distinct columns known as the Organ Pipes
18.
Van Diemen's Land
–
Van Diemens Land was the original name used by most Europeans for the island of Tasmania, now part of Australia. The name was changed from Van Diemens Land to Tasmania in 1856, the Dutch explorer Abel Tasman was the first European to land on the shores of Tasmania in 1642. Between 1772 and 1798, only the portion of the island was visited. Tasmania was not known to be an island until Matthew Flinders, after receiving no response from the Spanish government, Peyroux proposed it to the French government, as Mémoire sur les avantages qui résulteraient dune colonie puissante à la terre de Diémen. In 1802 and 1803, the French expedition commanded by Nicolas Baudin explored DEntrecasteaux Channel and Maria Island, the demonym for Van Diemens Land was Van Diemonian, though contemporaries used the spelling Vandemonian. In 1856, the colony was granted responsible self-government with its own parliament. Main articles, Port Arthur, Tasmania, Convicts on the West Coast of Tasmania From the 1800s to the 1853 abolition of penal transportation, following the suspension of transportation to New South Wales, all transported convicts were sent to Van Diemens Land. In total, some 75,000 convicts were transported to Van Diemens Land, male convicts served their sentences as assigned labour to free settlers or in gangs assigned to public works. Only the most difficult convicts were sent to the Tasman Peninsula prison known as Port Arthur, female convicts were assigned as servants in free settler households or sent to a female factory. There were five female factories in Van Diemens Land, Convicts completing their sentences or earning their ticket-of-leave often promptly left Van Diemens Land. Many settled in the new colony of Victoria, to the dismay of the free settlers in towns such as Melbourne. Anthony Trollope used the term Vandemonian, They are united in their declaration that the cessation of the coming of convicts has been their ruin, in 1856, Van Diemens Land was renamed Tasmania, meaning that it technically still exists but under a different name. This removed the unsavoury criminal connotations with the name Van Diemens Land, while honouring Abel Tasman, the last penal settlement in Tasmania at Port Arthur closed in 1877. The film was nominated for a Rose dOr, an Irish Film and Television Award, the feature film Van Diemens Land focuses on the true story of convict Alexander Pearce and his infamous escape from Macquarie Harbour in 1822. Van Diemens Land is the title of the track from the rock band U2s album Rattle. The lyrics were written and sung by The Edge, the song is dedicated to a Fenian poet named John Boyle OReilly, who was deported to Australia because of his poetry. Steeleye Span does a rendition of the folk song on their album They Called Her Babylon The chorus to the English folk song Maggie May says Theyve sent you to Van Diemens cruel shore. Shirley Collins and the Albion Country Band record a version of Van Diemens Land in No Roses Carla Bruni sings the poem If You Were Coming In The Fall, the song includes a reference to Van Diemens land subtracting till my fingers dropped, into Van Diemens Land
19.
John Helder Wedge
–
John Helder Wedge was a surveyor, explorer and politician in Van Diemens Land. Wedge was the son of Charles Wedge of Shudy Camps, of Cambridgeshire. John Wedge learned the basics of surveying from his father, the brothers arrived in Van Diemens Land aboard the Heroine on the morning of 15 April 1824. Wedge led several expeditions through heavily timbered and mountainous country in the north-east, on one of these journeys Wedge found a camp of the bushrangers led by Matthew Brady. For Wedges efforts in their capture he was rewarded with a grant in 1826. Wedge was sent to the far north-west in 1828 to examine the lands of the Van Diemens Land Company, Wedge reported much rich soil in the heavily timbered area but the Company wanted pasture land immediately available and disputed the accuracy of Wedges map. Part of Wedges work included investigating grants surveyed earlier by George Evans, Wedge proved that the accusations were well founded. A large expedition was organized by the surveyor-general, George Frankland, Wedge, as leader of one of the parties, proved a resourceful and intelligent bushman, covering much difficult territory. Wedge won Franklands praise for his efforts in the Survey Department whose staff was overworked, Wedge was keen for promotion and came to believe that his hopes were being frustrated by nepotism at the Colonial Office. In his survey work Wedge had often visited John Batman at Kingston, Wedge arrived the site of Melbourne on 2 September 1835, where he discovered members of a party organized by John Pascoe Fawkner. Wedge was against the removal of Fawkners party by its rivals. Wedge named the Yarra River on 13 September 1835, Wedge was one of the first to bring over sheep from Tasmania, to his station at Werribee. He had earlier adopted an Aboriginal boy, May Day, rescued from the surf near Circular Head and his Narrative of an excursion amongst the natives of Port Phillip and a Description of the country around Port Phillip were among the expedition papers published as a Tasmanian parliamentary paper. The Journal of the Royal Geographical Society printed Wedges paper On the country around Port Phillip, the diaries of his explorations and survey work were sent to his father in England, the Royal Society of Tasmania published them in 1962. From 1838-43 Wedge visited England, on the death of his father he returned to Tasmania to find his finances reduced by economic depression. In 1843 Wedge married Maria Medland Wills, who had been governess to Bishop Francis Russell Nixons children, Wedge was then appointed by Nixon from 1846-51 to manage the farms which formed the endowment of Christs College at Bishopsbourne. In 1855 Wedge was elected to the district of Morven in Tasmanian Legislative Council, Wedge held office in the short-lived ministry of Thomas Gregson in 1857, as member for North Esk, and initiated the inquiry into the convict department under its comptroller, Stephen Hampton. Wedge died on 22 November 1872 at his home Medlands which he had built on the Forth River in 1865
20.
Sir George Arthur, 1st Baronet
–
Lieutenant-General Sir George Arthur, 1st Baronet KCH PC was Lieutenant Governor of British Honduras, Van Diemens Land and Upper Canada. He also served as Governor of Bombay, George Arthur was born in Plymouth, England. He was the youngest son of John Arthur, from a Cornish family and he entered the army in 1804 as an Ensign and was promoted Lieutenant in June 1805. He served during the Napoleonic Wars including Sir James Craigs expedition to Italy in 1806, in 1807 he went to Egypt, and was severely wounded in the attack upon Rosetta. He recuperated and was promoted to Captain under Sir James Kempt in Sicily in 1808, major George Arthur married Eliza Orde Ussher, daughter of Lieut. -Gen. Sir John Sigismund Smith, K. C. B. in May,1814, lady Arthur lived in Toronto, Ontario 1838–41 with three of the couples sons and their five daughters. She died in London, England,14 January 1855 and their daughter Catherine married Sir Henry Bartle Frere after he had been her fathers personal secretary for two years in Bombay, and gave birth to the poet Mary Frere. Their son John married Aileen Spring Rice, the granddaughter of Lord Monteagle of Brandon, in 1814 he was appointed lieutenant governor of British Honduras, holding at the same time the rank of colonel on the staff, thus exercising the military command as well as the civil government. In 1823 he was appointed lieutenant governor of Van Diemens Land, at the time Van Diemens Land was the main British penal colony and it was separated from New South Wales in 1825. It was during Arthurs time in office that Van Diemens Land gained much of its notorious reputation as a penal colony. He selected Port Arthur as the location for a prison settlement, on a peninsula connected by a narrow, easily guarded isthmus. Arthurs predecessors had executed no one in Tasmania, he executed 260 in his term of office He is also associated with the repression and persecution of the Aboriginal population. During the 1820s, with relations between the colonists and Aborigines worsening, Arthur declared a state of law, and the conflict became known as the Black War. After Aboriginal attacks on colonist settlers, Arthur organised the Black Line fiasco, by this time he was one of the wealthiest men in the colony. He returned to England in March 1837, from the very start of his administration, he had to deal with the aftermath of the Upper Canada Rebellion and was instrumental in the execution of Peter Matthews and Samuel Lount. In the same year, Upper Canada was invaded by a band of American sympathizers and he failed to address the issues of fixing colonial administration from the influence of Family Compact, and was replaced by Lord Durham while the 13th Parliament of Upper Canada sat betimes. The two colonies were united in 1841, the Lord Sydenham, the first governor-general, asked Sir George Arthur to administer Upper Canada as deputy governor. Arthur agreed, on condition that the service was unpaid, later in 1841 he returned to England and was created a hereditary baronet in recognition of his services in Canada
21.
Interpreting
–
Interpretation or interpreting is oral translation of speech or sign from a language into another. Translation studies is the study of the theory, description and application of interpretation and translation. The terms interpretation and translation are used interchangeably but are not synonymous. Interpretation describes immediate conversion of source orally, whereas translation is the conversion of source to text, the primary practical distinction is that, in translation, the translator has more time to consider the output and may access resources in that process. g. A spoken Chinese dialect written using characters or spoken English represented in a signed form of English, Signed Exact English. In a legal context, such as interpretation, where ramifications of misinterpretation may be dire. Teams of two or more interpreters, with one actively interpreting and the monitoring for greater accuracy. Translators have time to consider and revise each word and sentence before delivering their product to the client, while live interpretations goal is to achieve total accuracy at all times, details of the original speech can be missed and interpreters can ask for clarification from the speaker. In any language, including languages, when a word is used for which there is no exact match. The most common form is extempore SI, where the interpreter does not know the message until he or she hears it. In the ideal setting for language, the interpreter sits in a sound-proof booth and speaks into a microphone. The simultaneous interpretation is rendered to the target-language listeners via their earphones, the technology arose in the 1920s and 1930s when American businessman Edward Filene and British engineer Alan Gordon Finlay developed simultaneous interpretation equipment with IBM. In consecutive interpreting, the speaker is required to pause to allow interpretation — accuracy is greatly enhanced, traditionally, the interpreter will sit or stand near the speaker. Consecutive interpretation can be conducted in a pattern of short or long according to the interpreters preference. In short CI, the interpreter relies mostly on memory whereas, in long CI, Consecutive interpreting of whole thoughts, rather than in small pieces, is desirable so that the interpreter has the whole meaning before rendering it in the target language. This affords a truer, more accurate, and more accessible interpretation than where short CI or simultaneous interpretation is used, on occasion, document sight translation is required of the interpreter during consecutive interpretation work. Sight translation combines interpretation and translation, the interpreter must render the source-language document to the target-language as if it was written in the target language, sight translation occurs usually, but not exclusively, in judicial and medical work. This is also known as double-interpretation
22.
Granary
–
A granary is a storehouse or room in a barn for threshed grain or animal feed. Ancient or primitive granaries are most often out of pottery. Granaries are often built above the ground to keep the food away from mice. From ancient times grain has been stored in bulk, the oldest granaries yet found date back to 9500 BC and are located in the Pre-Pottery Neolithic A settlements in the Jordan Valley. The first were located in places between other buildings, however beginning around 8500 BC, they were moved inside houses, and by 7500 BC storage occurred in special rooms. The first granaries measured 3 x 3 m on the outside and had suspended floors that protected the grain from rodents and insects and these granaries are followed by those in Mehrgarh in the Indus Valley from 6000 BC. The ancient Egyptians made a practice of preserving grain in years of plenty against years of scarcity, the climate of Egypt being very dry, grain could be stored in pits for a long time without discernible loss of quality. The silo pit, as it has termed, has been a favorite way of storing grain from time immemorial in all oriental lands. In Turkey and Persia, usurers used to buy up wheat or barley when comparatively cheap, in Malta a relatively large stock of wheat was preserved in some hundreds of pits cut in the rock. A single silo stored from 60 to 80 tons of wheat, in the archaeological vernacular of Northeast Asia, these features are lumped with those that may have also functioned as residences and together are called raised floor buildings. In vernacular architecture of Indonesian archipelago granaries are made of wood and bamboo materials, examples of Indonesian granary is Sundanese leuit and Minang rangkiang. In Great Britain small granaries were built on mushroom shaped stumps called staddle stones and they were built of timber frame construction and often had slate roofs. Larger ones were similar to linhays, but with the upper floor enclosed, access to the first floor was usually via stone staircase on the outside wall. Towards the close of the 19th century, warehouses specially intended for holding grain began to multiply in Great Britain, there are climatic difficulties in the way of storing grain in Great Britain on a large scale, but these difficulties have been largely overcome. Modern grain farming operations often use manufactured steel granaries to store grain on-site until it can be trucked to major storage facilities in anticipation of shipping, the large mechanized facilities, particularly seen in Russia and North America are known as grain elevators. Grain must be away from moisture for as long as possible to preserve it in good condition. Newly harvested grain brought into a granary tends to contain excess moisture, fermentation generally spoils grain and may cause chemical changes that create poisonous mycotoxins. One traditional remedy is to spread the grain in thin layers on a floor, once the grain is sufficiently dry it can be transferred to a granary for storage
23.
Paddle steamer
–
A paddle steamer is a steamship or riverboat powered by a steam engine that drives paddle wheels to propel the craft through the water. In antiquity, paddle wheelers followed the development of poles, oars and sails, modern paddle wheelers may be powered by diesel engines. The paddle wheel is a steel framework wheel. The outer edge of the wheel is fitted with numerous, regularly-spaced paddle blades, the bottom quarter or so of the wheel travels underwater. An engine rotates the wheel in the water to produce thrust. More advanced paddle wheel designs feature feathering methods that keep each paddle blade closer to vertical while in the water to increase efficiency, the upper part of a paddle wheel is normally enclosed in a paddlebox to minimise splashing. There are two ways to mount paddle wheels on a ship, either a single wheel on the rear, known as a sternwheeler, or a paddle wheel on each side. Both sternwheelers and sidewheelers were used as riverboats in the United States, some still operate for tourists, for example on the Mississippi River. Sidewheelers are used as riverboats and as coastal craft and this extra maneuverability makes sidewheelers popular on the narrower, winding rivers of the Murray-Darling system in Australia, where a number still operate. European sidewheelers, such as the PS Waverley, connect the wheels with solid drive shafts that limit maneuverability, some were built with paddle clutches that disengage one or both paddles so they can turn independently. However, wisdom gained from experience with sidewheelers deemed that they be operated with clutches out. Crews noticed that as ships approached the dock, passengers moved to the side of the ready to disembark. The shift in weight, added to independent movements of the paddles, could lead to imbalance, in a simple paddle wheel, where the paddles are fixed around the periphery, power is lost due to churning of the water as the paddles enter and leave the water surface. Ideally, the paddles should remain vertical while under water and this ideal can be approximated by use of levers and linkages connected to a fixed eccentric. The eccentric is fixed slightly forward of the wheel centre. It is coupled to each paddle via a rod and lever, the geometry is designed such that the paddles are kept almost vertical for the short duration that they are in the water. One of the drawings of the Anonymous Author of the Hussite Wars shows a boat with a pair of paddle-wheels at each end turned by men operating compound cranks. In 1704, the French physicist Denis Papin constructed the first ship powered by his steam engine and this made him the first to construct a steam-powered boat
24.
Seachange (demography)
–
The term was popularised by the popular ABC TV television series SeaChange, which triggered the phenomenon of many city-dwellers mimicking the dramas protagonists escape from urban life. The result of this phenomenon is a boom in tourism and real estate development in coastal Australia. A similar term, treechange, describes the movement of urbanites to the countryside, in the television series SeaChange, the main character Laura Gibson fulfils her escapist desire by leaving the city for a small seaside town after her career and family life in Melbourne falls apart. The series, which ran from 1998-2000, became one of the most popular programmes in Australia and this experience was replicated in coastal towns across Australia. The rate of growth in coastal areas is 60% higher than the national average. Almost six million people reside in coastal areas outside the mainland capitals. In addition to seeking a better lifestyle, the seachange phenomenon is driven by retiring baby boomers. It typically involves either the purchase of a home in, or a complete shift to. The seachange effect is having both positive and adverse effects on local communities, as at 2008 there are 68 member councils from around Australia collectively representing more than four million residents. Seeking Authenticity in Place, Culture, and the Self, The Great Urban Escape Boomtown 2050, national Sea Change Taskforce The Effect of Living the Sea Change Dream
25.
Sustainability
–
In ecology, sustainability is the property of biological systems to remain diverse and productive indefinitely. Long-lived and healthy wetlands and forests are examples of biological systems. In more general terms, sustainability is the endurance of systems, the organizing principle for sustainability is sustainable development, which includes the four interconnected domains, ecology, economics, politics and culture. Sustainability science is the study of development and environmental science. Sustainability can also be defined as a process characterized by the pursuit of a common ideal. An ideal is by definition unattainable in a time and space. However, by persistently and dynamically approaching it, the results in a sustainable system. Healthy ecosystems and environments are necessary to the survival of humans, ways of reducing negative human impact are environmentally-friendly chemical engineering, environmental resources management and environmental protection. Information is gained from green chemistry, earth science, environmental science, Ecological economics studies the fields of academic research that aim to address human economies and natural ecosystems. Moving towards sustainability is also a challenge that entails international and national law, urban planning and transport, local and individual lifestyles. The name sustainability is derived from the Latin sustinere, sustain can mean “maintain, support, or endure”. ”The 2005 World Summit on Social Development identified sustainable development goals, such as economic development, social development and environmental protection. This view has been expressed as an illustration using three overlapping ellipses indicating that the three pillars of sustainability are not mutually exclusive and can be mutually reinforcing, in fact, the three pillars are interdependent, and in the long run none can exist without the others. The three pillars have served as a ground for numerous sustainability standards and certification systems in recent years. Standards which today explicitly refer to the bottom line include Rainforest Alliance, Fairtrade. Some sustainability experts and practitioners have illustrated four pillars of sustainability, one such pillar is future generations, which emphasizes the long-term thinking associated with sustainability. There is also an opinion that considers resource use and financial sustainability as two pillars of sustainability. Sustainable development consists of balancing local and global efforts to meet human needs without destroying or degrading the natural environment. The question then becomes how to represent the relationship between those needs and the environment, a study from 2005 pointed out that environmental justice is as important as sustainable development
26.
Ocean Grove, Victoria
–
Ocean Grove is a seaside town in Victoria, Australia, located on the Bellarine Peninsula. At the 2011 census, Ocean Grove had a population of 12,555, in 1869, American Methodists established a permanent religious camp community on the coast at Ocean Grove, New Jersey, in the United States of America. It was so successful that they decided to spread their camps overseas, following a collaboration with the Victorian Methodists, an initial camp was set up near Point Lonsdale. By 1882 they needed to acquire an area, so they could establish their Australian Ocean Grove community. The site chosen was on the side of the mouth of the Barwon River. In 1927 the town was linked by the Barwon Heads Bridge to Barwon Heads on the side of the river. Many streets are named after important people in the old Methodist community, now the largest town on the Bellarine Peninsula, Ocean Grove has the largest shopping centre on the peninsula. Only a few blocks from the beach, it is popular with tourists, in 2005 a new shopping centre was built in the Collendina area, allowing the locals to shop at both Coles and Safeway supermarkets. The area offers surf beaches, fishing, kayaking, canoeing, bushwalking, the Ocean Grove Nature Reserve preserves some remnant native woodland and contains walking tracks. A Target Country Store was opened in October 2009 as part of a mini-mall, upgrades to the Grubbers Football clubrooms are scheduled for 2009. The local newspaper is the Ocean Grove Voice, the town has an Australian Rules football team competing in the Bellarine Football League. The Surfside Waves Soccer Club competes in the Geelong Regional Football Association, golfers play at the course of the Ocean Grove Golf Club on Guthridge Street. Ocean Grove was featured in the 2006 film Kenny, while the bridge between Ocean Grove and Barwon Heads featured in the popular ABC television show SeaChange, the town is also the home town of fishing personality Ross Gould. Bellarine Historical Society, History of Ocean Grove Great Ocean Rd info Ocean Grove Voice newspaper Ocean Grove Business Association
27.
Torquay, Victoria
–
Torquay is a seaside resort in Victoria, Australia, which faces Bass Strait,21 km south of Geelong and is the gateway to the Great Ocean Road. It is bordered on the west by Spring Creek and its features include Point Danger. At the 2011 Census, Torquay had a population of 10,142, wathaurong Aborigines lived in the area before white settlement. James Follett, who settled there in 1871, came from Torquay, the town in Devon, England. The Post Office opened on 20 August 1894, on 3 April 1908 the Spring Creek bridge was built, connecting the town to Anglesea. In 1891 the Joseph H. Scammell sailing ship struck the reef near Point Danger in Torquay and subsequently became wedged on the reef and as a result the ship broke up in the heavy seas. The cargo of the Scammell was washed onto the beach of Torquay and was looted, the anchors of the Scammell are still on display at the Torquay front beach and the Torquay boat ramp. In 1900 a primary school was opened in the newly built Presbyterian church, moving to the hall in 1901. A bowling green, tennis courts and a course were opened by the 1920s. The town once had 145 bathing boxes on the main beach, in 1946 the Torquay Surf Life Saving Club was formed, opening their current clubrooms in 1971 after the previous one burnt down. Today it is the oldest and largest club in Victoria, recent years have seen increased development of the area. In 2001, The Sands golf club and residential development commenced construction to the north west of the town on the site of the former Torquay Tip, which closed in the early 1990s. The Torquay area is famous for its beaches, with Jan Juc. Other popular beaches are Point Impossible Beach and Southside Beach and it was home to the popular Offshore Festival in the late 1990s. Torquays local schools are Torquay Primary School, St. Therese Catholic Primary, Torquay Primary School was once located in the old town, being moved to beside St. Therese in October 2001. The secondary years split from Torquay College in 2012 to form Surf Coast Secondary College which moved to a campus in Torquay North at the start of 2014. In October 2007, The new Torquay Police Station opened at the corner of the Surfcoast highway, the new Police station was built at a cost of $7.8 million and is considered to be a state-of-the-art facility. Frog Hollow is in the north west of Torquay, the estate has been developed on the site of a water catchment which has been drained
28.
The Rip
–
The Rip, also known as The Heads, is a dangerous stretch of water in Victoria, Australia, connecting Port Phillip and Bass Strait. It is the entrance for shipping into Port Phillip and hence into Melbourne. Because of large tidal flows through the narrow channel from the bay to the ocean. Geographically, it is the triangular area of water between the land points of Point Nepean, Shortlands Bluff and Point Lonsdale, these 3 form The Heads. The Rip is generally considered to be located in the area of water between the land points of Point Nepean, Shortlands Bluff and Point Lonsdale. The entrance between Point Lonsdale and Point Nepean is 3.5 km wide but the reefs projecting from these points reduce the width to about 1 km. Within 800m outside the Heads, there is a rocky flat known as the Rip Bank. The water deepens outside this flat to 30m and inside the Heads to as much as 90 m and this inequality of depth combined with tidal streams running up to 6 knots, causes the world-renowned dangerous conditions. The variation in depth within the rip itself can be anywhere from 100m to less than 5m amongst the rocky reefs. The area of The Rip is a hazard for recreational and small commercial vessels, due to strong tidal movements, unpredictable waves. Vessels are also prohibited from landing at Point Nepean on the central border of The Rip. Control of shipping movements through the heads is managed by the Point Lonsdale Signal Station, large ships may only enter Port Phillip with a qualified pilot aboard to help them navigate through the heads. The heads are narrow, having a width of approximately two kilometres. When entering, large ships have to follow a precise S-shaped course through the heads, douglas Mew was the first person to swim across the Rip, on 13 June 1971. He completed the swim without a cage, in a time of 61 minutes and this achievement is commemorated by a plaque on the Point Lonsdale side of the Rip
29.
Swan Bay
–
The Swan Bay is a shallow, 30-square-kilometre marine embayment at the eastern end of the Bellarine Peninsula in Port Phillip, Victoria, Australia. The township of Queenscliff lies at its end, and St Leonards at its northern. It is partly separated from Port Phillip by Swan Island, Duck Island, matthew Flinders named the bay Swan Ponds after its black swans, up to 2,700 of which can be seen in summer and early autumn. Swan Bay contains a variety of ecosystems that make it important for waterbirds. These include salt marsh, intertidal mudflats and vast seagrass beds on which, although much of the surrounding land is farmland, some remnant woodland survives in the adjoining Edwards Point Nature Reserve and Swan Bay itself. The bay has been recognised as having international importance and the Port Phillip Heads Marine National Park almost entirely occupies the bay, nearly 200 species of birds have been recorded in Swan bay. It also supports over 1% of the Australian population of four species, Grey plover, Pacific golden plover, double-banded plover. Some of these travel from as far away as Arctic Siberia and Alaska where they breed. Swan Bay lies at the end of the Bellarine Peninsula in Port Phillip. It is partly separated from Port Phillip by Swan Island, Duck Island, islands located within the bay include Mangrove Island, Rabbit Island, Sand Island, Stingaree Island and Tip Island. Recreation in the bay mainly revolves around sightseeing activities such as sea kayaking, scuba diving, bird watching and various wildlife tours. Boating is limited in Swan Bay, particularly around Swan Island and in Stingaree Bight, there is a 5 knot speed limit, there is supposedly a treasure hidden in a cave on the southern shoreline of Swan Bay. The myth revolves around the pirate Benito Bloody Sword Bonito, who raided the west coast of the Americas and his career began around 1818 but from there on sources differ. He was subsequently given a trial and hanged, Swan Bay Environment Association Swan Bay - Port Phillip Heads National Park Swan Bay
30.
Swan Island (Victoria)
–
Swan Island is a 1.4 km2 sand barrier island which, with Duck Island and the Edwards Point spit, separate Swan Bay from Port Phillip in Victoria, Australia. It lies close to and north of the town of Queenscliff at the end of the Bellarine Peninsula. It also serves as the access point for the Queenscliff Cruising Yacht Club on Sand Island. It can be reached by a vehicular bridge and causeway from Queenscliff via the small saltmarsh-covered Rabbit Island. Access to both Swan and Sand Islands is restricted to members of the golf and yacht clubs, Defence Department personnel, or by permit, the bay between the western and eastern lobes of the island is Stingaree Bight. Swan Island now adjoins Sand Island, formed by the cutting of a channel between Port Phillip and Swan Bay to make the entrance to Queenscliff Harbour, Swan Islands natural vegetation includes areas of coastal scrub, relict patches of coastal woodland and extensive areas of saltmarsh. It is ornithologically notable for the critically endangered orange-bellied parrot, for which the saltmarsh serves as one of its few regular wintering sites, the island was named by Acting Lieutenant John Murray when he entered Port Phillip in the ship Lady Nelson in February 1802. Swan Island has a history of military use, being part of the fortifications built to protect the entrance to Port Phillip Bay from a feared Russian invasion during the Crimean war in the 1850s. The fortifications of Swan Island were controlled by the command at Fort Queenscliff. During First World War, the Navy used it as a depot for sea mines, the island was linked to the Queenscliff railway station by a 3-foot gauge tramway for transport of goods for military purposes between 1886 and 1958. The wooden cargo brig Mountain Maid sank off Swan Island in 1856 following a collision with another vessel and it is a well known dive wreck. The J-class submarine HMAS J3 was scuttled off the north-east point of Swan Island in 1924 once its services were no longer required, Swan Island was a Commonwealth facility with portions controlled by both the Department of Navy and Department of Army. In 1961, when the Department of Navy vacated their portion, the Department of Army stated that their portion was leased to civil interests, the Army Reserve 1st Commando Regiment administers the Swan Island Army Detachment with its training activities classified. A former SIAD instructor reportedly said It is more like a school or a centre of learning for the non-gun stuff. On 9 April 2007, three Special Air Service Regiment soldiers from Perth completing a course on the SIAD were involved in a car accident after returning from a Queenscliff hotel and died. In 2006, the Minister of Defence responded to a question in parliament regarding the Swan Island Training Area that Swan Island is a Military Exercise Area. It provides a venue for training in the use of radar flares, facilities for Army Reserve training. The program became public on 30 November 1983 following an exercise at the Sheraton Hotel in Melbourne, a Royal Commission recommendation implemented abolished the Ministerial Directive permitting ASIS to undertake covert action
31.
Barwon River (Victoria)
–
The Barwon River is a perennial river of the Corangamite catchment, located in The Otways and the Bellarine Peninsula regions of the Australian state of Victoria. The river flows adjacent to the settlement of Winchelsea and the city of Greater Geelong, from its highest point including its source confluence, the river descends 295 metres over its 160-kilometre course. The river is crossed by a number of bridges in Geelong, of particular note is the unusual one lane truss bridge in Newtown, Geelong. The Breakwater in East Geelong was constructed by Foster Fyans to supply drinking water, water from the river feeds agriculture and industry. The river is a recreation spot for Geelong, with parklands such as Balyang Sanctuary along the banks. The rivers name is derived from the Aboriginal word Barwon, meaning magpie or great wide, in the Australian Aboriginal Wathawurrung language the names for the river are Worragong, with no clearly defined meaning, Nellemengobeet, meaning lagoon at mouth, and also Barrwang, meaning magpie. The dam is now the water supply for Geelong. Buckleys Falls Buckleys Falls is located between Highton and Fyansford, a weir and water race was built above the falls in 1876 to provide power for the Fyansford Paper Mill. The falls were named by John Helder Wedge after escaped convict William Buckley who lived in the area with Aborigines for 32 years from 1803, the Breakwater The Breakwater is located in the current Geelong suburb of the same name. Originally built to prevent salt water moving upstream, it now keeps the level through Geelong constant and is an important crossing point. Construction on the weir started in late 1838 under Captain Foster Fyans and was completed by May 1840, built by convicts, the weir failed in flood in 1844, not being fully rebuilt until 1849. Little changed to the breakwater until it was rebuilt by the Country Roads Board for modern traffic in the mid 1960s, barrage A second weir was built over the Barwon River further downstream. Located near where the river enters Lake Connewarre, the barrage again keeps water levels constant upstream for waterskiiers, and prevents saltwater moving upstream into Reedy Lake. Ordered upstream to downstream Barwon River Bridge The Barwon River Bridge at Winchelsea was erected in 1867 for the Council of the Shire of Winchelsea, replacing an earlier timber structure of 1849. The three span arch structure was built of bluestone by James Sinclair at a cost of £4,602 and officially opened by Prince Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh, on 3 December 1867. The Barwon River Bridge is the structure erected at this historic crossing place and has since 1867 provided an important link with Geelong. The Barwon River Bridge, which is still in use, has recently been rehabilitated. A new reinforced concrete structure, located beside the bluestone bridge, Geelong Ring Road The Geelong Ring Road bridge carries four lanes of freeway over the river
32.
Barwon Heads, Victoria
–
Barwon Heads is a coastal township on the Bellarine Peninsula, near Geelong, Victoria, Australia. It is situated on the west bank of the mouth of the Barwon River below Lake Connewarre, while it is bounded to the west by farmland, golf courses, at the 2011 census, Barwon Heads had a population of 3,536. The township of Barwon Heads was surveyed in 1827 but remained sparsely populated for years, fishing was the mainstay of the town in its early years. In the 1920s and 1930s the town became a holiday resort. The summer period today still sees an influx of holidaymakers to the town. In 1959 the closing scenes of the film On the Beach based on a Nevil Shute novel about the end of the world was filmed in the town. The Barwon Heads Golf Club Clubhouse, located on Golf Links Road, the former Barwon Heads Bridge is also listed on the Register, however, it was demolished in 2009. The Barwon Heads Bridge was opened in 1912, crossing the Barwon River between Barwon Heads and Ocean Grove, prior to this there was a rowboat service across the river. The bridge was used in filming the ABC television series SeaChange, in July 2006, the Government of Victoria shelved plans to replace the heritage-listed bridge with a new one. A proposal was made to align a new bridge with Geelong Road, permitting traffic flows to bypass the main shopping precinct and primary school, an independent panel was appointed by the then Minister for Planning, Rob Hulls to decide on a location. Evidence was presented, for and against Geelong Road, and the existing site, on 16 March 2007 it was announced that the current bridge would be improved and there were no plans to build a second bridge upstream. The new road bridge and a pedestrian bridge were constructed in 2010. During the late 1990s, Barwon Heads was the location of filming for the popular Australian television series. In the past decade Barwon Heads has become subject to what is known in some parts of Australia as the seachange effect. Since the SeaChange television series first aired in 1998 there has been a significant increase in tourism and real estate sales and this has resulted in a very substantial increase in property and land values, making the town an ideal location for property developers. Since then, the area has experienced a boom in tourist numbers during the summer months, nearby Thirteenth Beach is a popular surfing location, the beach is named for its proximity to the 13th hole of the golf course. The town was subject to flooding, including a flood that lasted some weeks in 1952, the artist Jan Mitchell erected her first bollard sculptures in Barwon Heads. She then went on to more than 100 bollards at the Waterfront Geelong
33.
Basalt
–
Basalt is a common extrusive igneous rock formed from the rapid cooling of basaltic lava exposed at or very near the surface of a planet or moon. Flood basalt describes the formation in a series of basalt flows. By definition, basalt is an igneous rock with generally 45-55% silica and less than 10% feldspathoid by volume. Basalt commonly features a very fine-grained or glassy matrix interspersed with visible mineral grains, the average density is 3.0 gm/cm3. Basalt is defined by its content and texture, and physical descriptions without mineralogical context may be unreliable in some circumstances. Basalt is usually grey to black in colour, but rapidly weathers to brown or rust-red due to oxidation of its mafic minerals into hematite, although usually characterized as dark, basaltic rocks exhibit a wide range of shading due to regional geochemical processes. Due to weathering or high concentrations of plagioclase, some basalts can be quite light-coloured and these phenocrysts usually are of olivine or a calcium-rich plagioclase, which have the highest melting temperatures of the typical minerals that can crystallize from the melt. Basalt with a texture is called vesicular basalt, when the bulk of the rock is mostly solid. Gabbro is often marketed commercially as black granite and these ultramafic volcanic rocks, with silica contents below 45% are usually classified as komatiites. Agricola applied basalt to the black rock of the Schloßberg at Stolpen. Tholeiitic basalt is relatively rich in silica and poor in sodium, included in this category are most basalts of the ocean floor, most large oceanic islands, and continental flood basalts such as the Columbia River Plateau. Basalt rocks are in some cases classified after their content in High-Ti and Low-Ti varieties. High-Ti and Low-Ti basalts have been distinguished in the Paraná and Etendeka traps and it has greater than 17% alumina and is intermediate in composition between tholeiite and alkali basalt, the relatively alumina-rich composition is based on rocks without phenocrysts of plagioclase. Alkali basalt is relatively poor in silica and rich in sodium and it is silica-undersaturated and may contain feldspathoids, alkali feldspar and phlogopite. Boninite is a form of basalt that is erupted generally in back-arc basins. Ocean island basalt Lunar basalt On Earth, most basalt magmas have formed by melting of the mantle. Basalt commonly erupts on Io, the third largest moon of Jupiter, and has formed on the Moon, Mars, Venus. The crustal portions of oceanic tectonic plates are composed predominantly of basalt, produced from upwelling mantle below, the mineralogy of basalt is characterized by a preponderance of calcic plagioclase feldspar and pyroxene
34.
Palaeogene
–
The Paleogene is a geologic period and system that spans 43 million years from the end of the Cretaceous Period 66 million years ago to the beginning of the Neogene Period 23.03 Mya. It is the beginning of the Cenozoic Era of the present Phanerozoic Eon and this period consists of the Paleocene, Eocene and Oligocene epochs. The terms Paleogene System and lower Tertiary System are applied to the rocks deposited during the Paleogene Period. By dividing the Tertiary Period into two periods instead of directly into five epochs, the periods are more comparable to the duration of periods of the preceding Mesozoic and Paleozoic Eras. The trend was caused by the formation of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current. During the Paleogene, the continued to drift closer to their current positions. India was in the process of colliding with Asia, subsequently forming the Himalayas, the Atlantic Ocean continued to widen by a few centimeters each year. Africa was moving north to meet with Europe and form the Mediterranean, inland seas retreated from North America early in the period. Australia had also separated from Antarctica and was drifting towards Southeast Asia, mammals began a rapid diversification during this period. Some of these mammals would evolve into forms that would dominate the land, while others would become capable of living in marine, specialized terrestrial. Those that took to the oceans became modern cetaceans, while those that took to the trees became primates, the group to which humans belong. Birds, which were well established by the end of the Cretaceous. In comparison to birds and mammals, most other branches of life remained unchanged during this period. As the Earth cooled, tropical plants became less numerous and were now restricted to equatorial regions, deciduous plants, which could survive through the seasonal climates the world was now experiencing, became more common. The Paleogene is notable in the context of offshore oil drilling, and especially in Gulf of Mexico oil exploration and these rock formations represent the current cutting edge of deep-water oil discovery. Lower Tertiary explorations to date include, Kaskida Oil Field Tiber Oil Field Jack 2 Paleogene Microfossils, 180+ images of Foraminifera
35.
Plateau
–
Plateaus can be formed by a number of processes, including upwelling of volcanic magma, extrusion of lava, and erosion by water and glaciers. Magma rises from the mantle, causing the ground to swell upward, in way, large, flat areas of rock are uplifted. Plateaus can also be built up by lava spreading outward from cracks, plateaus can also be formed by the erosional processes of glaciers on mountain ranges, leaving them sitting between the mountain ranges. Water can also erode mountains and other landforms down into plateaus, volcanic plateaus are produced by volcanic activity. The Columbia Plateau in the northwestern United States is an example, dissected plateaus are highly eroded plateaus cut by rivers and broken by deep narrow valleys. Plateaus are classified according to their surrounding environment, intermontane plateaus are the highest in the world, bordered by mountains. The Tibetan Plateau is one such plateau, Piedmont plateaus are bordered on one side by mountains and on the other by a plain or a sea. The Piedmont Plateau of the Eastern United States between the Appalachian Mountains and the Atlantic Coastal Plain is an example, continental plateaus are bordered on all sides by plains or oceans, forming away from the mountains. The Tibetan plateau covers approximately 2,500,000 km2, the plateau is sufficiently high enough to reverse the Hadley cell convection cycles and to drive the monsoons of India towards the south. The second-highest plateau is the Deosai Plateau of the Deosai National Park at an elevation of 4,114 m. It is located in the Astore and Skardu districts of Gilgit-Baltistan, Deosai means the land of giants. The park protects an area of 3,000 km2 and it is known for its rich flora and fauna of the Karakoram-West Tibetan Plateau alpine steppe ecoregion. In spring it is covered by sweeps of wildflowers and a variety of butterflies. The highest point in Deosai is Deosai Lake, or Sheosar Lake from the Shina language meaning Blind lake near the Chilim Valley. The lake lies at an elevation of 4,142 m, one of the highest lakes in the world, and is 2.3 km long,1.8 km wide, and 40 m deep on average. Some other major plateaus in Asia are, Armenian Highlands, Iranian plateau, Anatolian Plateau, Mongolian Plateau, and the Deccan Plateau. This polar ice cap is so massive that the echolocation sound measurements of ice thickness have shown that parts of the Antarctic dry land surface have been pressed below sea level. Thus, if that same ice cap were removed, the large areas of the frozen white continent would be flooded by the surrounding Antarctic Ocean or Southern Ocean
36.
Cretaceous
–
The Cretaceous is a geologic period and system that spans 79 million years from the end of the Jurassic Period 145 million years ago to the beginning of the Paleogene Period 66 Mya. It is the last period of the Mesozoic Era, the Cretaceous Period is usually abbreviated K, for its German translation Kreide. The Cretaceous was a period with a warm climate, resulting in high eustatic sea levels that created numerous shallow inland seas. These oceans and seas were populated with now-extinct marine reptiles, ammonites and rudists, during this time, new groups of mammals and birds, as well as flowering plants, appeared. The Cretaceous ended with a mass extinction, the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, in which many groups, including non-avian dinosaurs, pterosaurs. The end of the Cretaceous is defined by the abrupt Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary, the name Cretaceous was derived from Latin creta, meaning chalk. The Cretaceous is divided into Early and Late Cretaceous epochs, or Lower and Upper Cretaceous series, in older literature the Cretaceous is sometimes divided into three series, Neocomian, Gallic and Senonian. A subdivision in eleven stages, all originating from European stratigraphy, is now used worldwide, in many parts of the world, alternative local subdivisions are still in use. As with other geologic periods, the rock beds of the Cretaceous are well identified. No great extinction or burst of diversity separates the Cretaceous from the Jurassic and this layer has been dated at 66.043 Ma. A140 Ma age for the Jurassic-Cretaceous boundary instead of the usually accepted 145 Ma was proposed in 2014 based on a study of Vaca Muerta Formation in Neuquén Basin. Víctor Ramos, one of the authors of the study proposing the 140 Ma boundary age sees the study as a first step toward formally changing the age in the International Union of Geological Sciences, due to the high sea level there was extensive space for such sedimentation. Because of the young age and great thickness of the system. Chalk is a type characteristic for the Cretaceous. It consists of coccoliths, microscopically small calcite skeletons of coccolithophores, the group is found in England, northern France, the low countries, northern Germany, Denmark and in the subsurface of the southern part of the North Sea. Chalk is not easily consolidated and the Chalk Group still consists of sediments in many places. The group also has other limestones and arenites, among the fossils it contains are sea urchins, belemnites, ammonites and sea reptiles such as Mosasaurus. In southern Europe, the Cretaceous is usually a marine system consisting of competent limestone beds or incompetent marls
37.
Neogene
–
The Neogene is a geologic period and system that spans 20.45 million years from the end of the Paleogene Period 23.03 million years ago to the beginning of the present Quaternary Period 2.58 Mya. The Neogene is sub-divided into two epochs, the earlier Miocene and the later Pliocene, some geologists assert that the Neogene cannot be clearly delineated from the modern geological period, the Quaternary. During this period, mammals and birds continued to evolve into modern forms. Early hominids, the ancestors of humans, appeared in Africa near the end of the period, some continental movement took place, the most significant event being the connection of North and South America at the Isthmus of Panama, late in the Pliocene. This cut off the ocean currents from the Pacific to the Atlantic ocean. The global climate cooled considerably over the course of the Neogene, the terms Neogene System and upper Tertiary System describe the rocks deposited during the Neogene Period. The continents in the Neogene were very close to their current positions, the Isthmus of Panama formed, connecting North and South America. The Indian subcontinent continued to collide with Asia, forming the Himalayas, sea levels fell, creating land bridges between Africa and Eurasia and between Eurasia and North America. The global climate became seasonal and continued an overall drying and cooling trend which began at the start of the Paleogene. The ice caps on both poles began to grow and thicken, and by the end of the period the first of a series of glaciations of the current Ice Age began, marine and continental flora and fauna have a modern appearance. The reptile group Choristodera became extinct in the part of the period. Mammals and birds continued to be the dominant terrestrial vertebrates, the first hominids, the ancestors of humans, appeared in Africa and spread into Eurasia. In response to the cooler, seasonal climate, tropical plant species gave way to deciduous ones, grasses therefore greatly diversified, and herbivorous mammals evolved alongside it, creating the many grazing animals of today such as horses, antelope, and bison. The Neogene traditionally ended at the end of the Pliocene Epoch, just before the definition of the beginning of the Quaternary Period. However, there was a movement amongst geologists to also include ongoing geological time in the Neogene, by dividing the Cenozoic Era into three periods instead of seven epochs, the periods are more closely comparable to the duration of periods in the Mesozoic and Paleozoic eras. The International Commission on Stratigraphy once proposed that the Quaternary be considered a sub-era of the Neogene, with a date of 2.58 Ma. In the 2004 proposal of the ICS, the Neogene would have consisted of the Miocene and Pliocene epochs, thus the Neogene Period ends bounding the succeeding Quaternary Period at 2.58 Mya. Digital Atlas of Neogene Life for the Southeastern United States — by San Jose State University via Web Archive
38.
Ocean Grove Nature Reserve
–
The Ocean Grove Nature Reserve is a rectangular,1.43 km2 nature reserve next to the town of Ocean Grove and 25 km south-east of the city of Geelong, on the Bellarine Peninsula, Victoria, Australia. It contains the only significant remnant of native woodland on the Bellarine Peninsula as it was prior to European settlement and it is surrounded by agricultural land and a housing estate and is managed by Parks Victoria. Records of its birdlife illustrate the changes occurring in an isolated woodland remnant, the origins of the reserve go back to the formation of a committee in 1962, at the instigation of the Geelong Field Naturalists Club and its President, Jack Wheeler. The aim was to launch an appeal for funds to acquire a block of privately owned bushland to protect it from development. The reserve was opened to the public in 1971, in 1973 an adjacent 62 ha of partly cleared land, now the eastern section of the reserve, was purchased. Since the reserve was established, management actions have included the construction of a wetland and walking tracks, as well as bird hides. There has been damage both from deliberately lit fires and from the construction of breaks for fire control, a period of drought in 2000-2003 killed many eucalypts, following which flowering has been less prolific and large concentrations of honeyeaters have decreased. In a plant list of 178 species, some 22 kinds of orchid have been recorded, terrestrial mammals recorded from the reserve include red-necked wallabies, swamp wallabies and short-beaked echidnas. Common ringtail and brushtail possumss, as well as a variety of bats, are active at night, reptiles present are lowland copperheads and several lizards, including blue-tongued skinks and jacky dragons. A notable invertebrate formerly present was the endangered lycaenid butterfly, the small ant-blue, marine mammals, cetaceans and pinnipeds, occur off the nearby coastline. The reserve has been popular with birdwatchers since its inception, an article in the Geelong Bird Report for 2004 analysed records of birds in the reserve from 1970 to 2005. It contains an annotated list of 167 species, with 57 of them confirmed as having bred there, birds that used to occur in the reserve but have become extinct, not only there but throughout the Bellarine Peninsula, are the bush stone-curlew and grey-crowned babbler. The authors of the comment, The woodland in the reserve has been isolated for many decades. Bird numbers can clearly fall insidiously, reaching a point many years after the most obvious alterations in the landscape from clearing. The final crashes may seem abrupt, but their foundations could have been long ago. Birds in woodlands isolated by clearing are particularly susceptible to prolonged dry periods, in very isolated woodland remnants, populations lost to extinction are unlikely to be replenished from outside. Other birds that pass through the reserve, or visit it seasonally, are rufous fantails, flame robins, yellow-faced and white-naped honeyeaters, the authors of the report conclude. Since its proclamation, it has played a valuable role in fostering community awareness
39.
Wetland
–
A wetland is a land area that is saturated with water, either permanently or seasonally, such that it takes on the characteristics of a distinct ecosystem. The primary factor that distinguishes wetlands from other forms or water bodies is the characteristic vegetation of aquatic plants. Wetlands play a number of roles in the environment, principally water purification, flood control, carbon sink, Wetlands are also considered the most biologically diverse of all ecosystems, serving as home to a wide range of plant and animal life. Wetlands occur naturally on every continent except Antarctica, the largest including the Amazon River basin, the West Siberian Plain, the water found in wetlands can be freshwater, brackish, or saltwater. The main wetland types include swamps, marshes, bogs, and fens, and sub-types include mangrove, carr, pocosin, the UN Millennium Ecosystem Assessment determined that environmental degradation is more prominent within wetland systems than any other ecosystem on Earth. International conservation efforts are being used in conjunction with the development of rapid assessment tools to people about wetland issues. Constructed wetlands can be used to treat municipal and industrial wastewater as well as stormwater runoff and they may also play a role in water-sensitive urban design. A patch of land that develops pools of water after a storm would not be considered a wetland. Wetlands have unique characteristics, they are distinguished from other water bodies or landforms based on their water level. Specifically, wetlands are characterized as having a table that stands at or near the land surface for a long enough period each year to support aquatic plants. A more concise definition is a community composed of hydric soil, Wetlands have also been described as ecotones, providing a transition between dry land and water bodies. In environmental decision-making, there are subsets of definitions that are agreed upon to make regulatory and policy decisions. A wetland is an ecosystem that arises when inundation by water produces soils dominated by anaerobic processes, There are four main kinds of wetlands – marsh, swamp, bog and fen. Some experts also recognize wet meadows and aquatic ecosystems as additional wetland types, the largest wetlands in the world include the swamp forests of the Amazon and the peatlands of Siberia. Under the Ramsar international wetland conservation treaty, wetlands are defined as follows, Article 2.1, may incorporate riparian and coastal zones adjacent to the wetlands, and islands or bodies of marine water deeper than six metres at low tide lying within the wetlands. Although the general definition given above applies around the world, each county, Wetlands generally include swamps, marshes, bogs and similar areas. This definition has been used in the enforcement of the Clean Water Act, some US states, such as Massachusetts and New York, have separate definitions that may differ from the federal governments. It is not uncommon for a wetland to be dry for long portions of the growing season, the most important factor producing wetlands is flooding
40.
Water bird
–
The term water bird, waterbird or aquatic bird is used to refer to birds that live on or around water. Some definitions apply the term especially to birds in freshwater habitats, in addition, some water birds are more terrestrial or aquatic than others, and their adaptations will vary depending on their environment. These adaptations include webbed feet, bills and legs adapted to feed in water, the term aquatic bird is sometimes also used in this context. A related term that has a meaning is waterfowl. Some birds of prey, such as ospreys and sea eagles, the term waterbird is also used in the context of conservation to refer to any birds that inhabit or depend on bodies of water or wetland areas. Examples of this use include the Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds and the Wallnau Waterbird Reserve
41.
Orange-bellied parrot
–
The orange-bellied parrot is a small broad-tailed parrot endemic to southern Australia, and one of only three species of parrot that migrate. It was described by Latham in 1790, a small parrot around 20 cm long, it exhibits sexual dimorphism. The adult male is distinguished by its bright grass-green upperparts, yellow underparts, the adult female and juvenile are duller green in colour. All birds have a frontal band and blue outer wing feathers. The orange-bellied parrot breeds in Tasmania and winters near the coast, foraging on saltmarsh species, beach or dune plants, the diet consists of seeds and berries of small coastal grasses and shrubs. With a wild population of 14 birds as of early February 2017, the captive population consists of around 300 birds, with a target of 350 birds by 2016–17. Taken as a whole, the population, an example of ex situ conservation, is termed an insurance population against extinction. The specific name was derived from the Ancient Greek words chrysos golden, john Gould described it in 1841 as Euphema aurantia, from an adult male specimen collected in southeast Tasmania that became the lectotype. The species name was the Latin adjective for orange, T. J. Ewing named it Nanodes gouldii, in honour of Gould, who he believed had discovered it. Italian ornithologist Tommaso Salvadori erected the new genus Neophema in 1891, placing the orange-bellied parrot within it, other names include yellow-bellied parrot, orange-bellied grass-parakeet, and trumped-up corella. It has a prominent, two-toned blue frontal band, with a blue border both above and below the horizontal dark blue band. The under wing-coverts and flight feathers are blue, with paler blue median wing-coverts. Its iris and beak is brown while the feet are a greyish colour. The adult female is a green with a paler blue frontal band. The juvenile is a green colour. The orange-bellied parrot utters soft tinkling notes, as well as a rapidly repeated chittering alarm call unlike that of other members of the genus. The alarm call is a quickly repeated tzeet, the blue-winged and elegant parrots can be mistaken for the orange-bellied parrot, however their tinkling alarm calls and lighter olive-green upperparts distinguish them. Their blue frontal bands have only light blue border on one side, one of three migratory parrot species, the orange-bellied parrots breeds solely in South West Tasmania, it nests in eucalypts bordering on button grass moors
42.
BirdLife International
–
It is the worlds largest partnership of conservation organisations, with over 120 partner organisations. BirdLife International was founded as in 1922 the International Council for Bird Preservation by American ornithologists T. Gilbert Pearson and it changed its name in 1993 to BirdLife International. In addition to the programmes, there are global programmes. Together these programmes help the partnership to focus and work on common priorities and they provide the framework for planning, implementing, monitoring and evaluating conservation work. BirdLife International publishes a magazine, World Birdwatch, which contains recent news and authoritative articles about birds, their habitats. BirdLife International is the official Red List authority for birds, for the International Union for Conservation of Nature, in the 2012 assessment,1,313 species of birds are considered threatened with extinction. This represents 13% of the 10,064 extant bird species in the world
43.
Bellarine Wetlands Important Bird Area
–
The Bellarine Wetlands Important Bird Area comprises a group of wetland sites, with a collective area of 46 km2, at the western end of the Bellarine Peninsula in Victoria, south-eastern Australia. The site is important for waterbirds and orange-bellied parrots, the wetlands include the Moolap saltworks, with the adjacent intertidal mudflats of Point Henry and Corio Bay, and the extensive wetlands of Reedy Lake, Hospital Swamp and Lake Connewarre. Reedy Lake is contiguous with Hospital Swamp, Lake Connewarre, Salt Swamp, Murtnaghurt Lagoon, Moolap is a commercial saltworks and much of Point Henry is occupied by an aluminum smelter, the other wetlands are state game reserves. Reedy Lake is freshwater, Moolap, Hospital Swamp and Connewarre are saline, the Reedy Lake - Lake Connewarre system is part of the Port Phillip and Bellarine Peninsula Ramsar site
