1.
Victoria (Australia)
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Victoria is a state in southeast Australia. Victoria is Australias most densely populated state and its second-most populous state overall, most of its population is concentrated in the area surrounding Port Phillip Bay, which includes the metropolitan area of its state capital and largest city, Melbourne, Australias second-largest city. Prior to British European settlement, the area now constituting Victoria was inhabited by a number of Aboriginal peoples. With Great Britain having claimed the entire Australian continent east of the 135th meridian east in 1788, Victoria was included in the wider colony of New South Wales. The first settlement in the area occurred in 1803 at Sullivan Bay, and much of what is now Victoria was included in the Port Phillip District in 1836, Victoria was officially created as a separate colony in 1851, and achieved self-government in 1855. Politically, Victoria has 37 seats in the Australian House of Representatives and 12 seats in the Australian Senate, at state level, the Parliament of Victoria consists of the Legislative Assembly and the Legislative Council. Victoria is currently governed by the Labor Party, with Daniel Andrews the current Premier, the personal representative of the Queen of Australia in the state is the Governor of Victoria, currently Linda Dessau. Local government is concentrated in 79 municipal districts, including 33 cities, although a number of unincorporated areas still exist, Victorias total gross state product is ranked second in Australia, although Victoria is ranked fourth in terms of GSP per capita because of its limited mining activity. Culturally, Melbourne is home to a number of museums, art galleries and theatres and is described as the sporting capital of Australia. The Melbourne Cricket Ground is the largest stadium in Australia, and the host of the 1956 Summer Olympics, Victoria has eight public universities, with the oldest, the University of Melbourne, having been founded in 1853. Victoria, like Queensland, was named after Queen Victoria, who had been on the British throne for 14 years when the colony was established in 1851. The first British settlement in the later known as Victoria was established in October 1803 under Lieutenant-Governor David Collins at Sullivan Bay on Port Phillip. In the year 1826 Colonel Stewart, Captain S. Wright, fly and the brigs Dragon and Amity, took a number of convicts and a small force composed of detachments of the 3rd and 93rd regiments. Victorias next settlement was at Portland, on the south west coast of what is now Victoria, edward Henty settled Portland Bay in 1834. Melbourne was founded in 1835 by John Batman, who set up a base in Indented Head, from settlement the region around Melbourne was known as the Port Phillip District, a separately administered part of New South Wales. Shortly after the now known as Geelong was surveyed by Assistant Surveyor W. H. Smythe. And in 1838 Geelong was officially declared a town, despite earlier white settlements dating back to 1826, days later, still in 1851 gold was discovered near Ballarat, and subsequently at Bendigo. Later discoveries occurred at sites across Victoria
2.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
3.
Postcodes in Australia
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Postcodes are used in Australia to more efficiently sort and route mail within the postal system. All postcodes in Australia have four digits and are placed at the end of the Australian address, Australian postcodes are managed by Australia Post. Postcodes are published in booklets available from post offices or online from the Australia Post website, Australian envelopes and postcards often have four square boxes printed in orange at the bottom right for the postcode. These are used when addressing mail by hand, use of the Australian postcode system commenced in 1967, implemented by the Postmaster-Generals Department, now called Australia Post. It replaced earlier postal sorting systems, such as Melbournes letter and number codes, if addressing a letter from outside Australia, the postcode is recorded before Australia. They are often linked with one area, due to post code rationalization, But are now sometimes they can be quite complex, especially in country areas. The south-western Victoria 3221 postcode of the Geelong Mail Centre also includes twenty places around Geelong with very few people and this means that mail for these places is not fully sorted until it gets to Geelong. Some postcodes cover large populations, while other postcodes have much smaller populations, Australian postcodes range from 0200 for the Australian National University to 9944 for Cannonvale, Queensland. Some towns and suburbs have two postcodes — one for deliveries and one for post office boxes. g. The Royal Brisbane and Womens Hospital has the postcode 4029, the Australian National University had the postcode 0200, more postcode ranges were made available for LVRs in the 1990s. Australia Post has been progressively discontinuing the LVR programme since 2006, Australian National Universitys postcode 0200 was the last LVR to be closed in September 2014. For example, postcode 2620 covers both a locality in NSW as well as a locality in the ACT, and postcode 0872 covers a number of localities across WA, SA, NT and QLD. Jervis Bay Territory, once an exclave of the ACT but now a territory, is geographically located on the coast of NSW. It is just south of the towns of Vincentia and Huskisson, Mail to the Jervis Bay Territory is still addressed to the ACT. The numbers used to show the state on each radio callsign in Australia are the number as the first number for postcodes in that state, e. g. 2xx in New South Wales, 3xx in Victoria. Radio callsigns pre-date postcodes in Australia by more than forty years, australias external territories are also included in Australia Posts postcode system. Capital city postcodes were the lowest postcodes in their state or territory range, before new ranges for LVRs, however, postcodes with the same second number are not always next to each other. As an example, postcodes in the range 2200–2299 are split between the suburbs of Sydney and the Central Coast of New South Wales
4.
Time in Australia
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Australia uses three main time zones, Australian Western Standard Time, Australian Central Standard Time, and Australian Eastern Standard Time. Time is regulated by the state governments, some of which observe daylight saving time. Australias external territories observe different time zones, Standard time was introduced in the 1890s when all of the Dominions adopted it. Before the switch to standard time zones, each city or town was free to determine its local time. Daylight saving time is used in South Australia, New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania, and it is not currently used in Western Australia, Queensland or the Northern Territory. The standardization of time in Australia began in 1892, when surveyors from the six Dominions in Australia met in Melbourne for the Intercolonial Conference of Surveyors, the delegates accepted the recommendation of the 1884 International Meridian Conference to adopt Greenwich Mean Time as the basis for standard time. The Dominions enacted time zone legislation, which took effect in February 1895. The clocks were set ahead of GMT by eight hours in Western Australia, by nine hours in South Australia, and by 10 hours in Queensland, New South Wales, the three time zones became known as Eastern Standard Time, Central Standard Time, and Western Standard Time. Broken Hill in the far west of New South Wales also adopted Central Standard Time due to it being connected by rail to Adelaide but not Sydney at the time. In May 1899, South Australia advanced Central Standard Time by thirty minutes, in doing so, South Australia also adopted a time meridian located outside its boundaries – another departure from international convention. Attempts to correct these oddities in 1986 and 1994 were rejected, when the Northern Territory was separated from South Australia and placed under the jurisdiction of the Federal Government, that Territory kept Central Standard Time. Likewise, when the ACT was broken off from New South Wales, Australia has kept a version of the UTC atomic time scale since the 1990s, but Greenwich Mean Time remained the formal basis for the standard times of all of the states through 2005. All states have adopted the UTC standard, starting on 1 September 2005, such instruments may be valid for only the current year, and so this section generally only refers to the legislation. In New South Wales and Western Australia, the starting and ending dates, however, during World War I and World War II all states and territories used daylight saving time. In 1968 Tasmania became the first state in peacetime to use DST, followed in 1971 by New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, South Australia, Western Australia and the Northern Territory did not adopt it. Queensland and Western Australia have occasionally used DST during the past 40 years during trial periods. The main DST zones are the following, Central Daylight Saving Time – UTC+10,30, in South Australia Eastern Daylight Saving Time – UTC+11, in New South Wales, the ACT, Victoria, and Tasmania. During the usual periods of DST, the three time zones in Australia become five zones
5.
Daylight saving time
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Daylight saving time is the practice of advancing clocks during summer months by one hour so that evening daylight lasts an hour longer, while sacrificing normal sunrise times. Typically, regions that use Daylight Savings Time adjust clocks forward one hour close to the start of spring, American inventor and politician Benjamin Franklin proposed a form of daylight time in 1784. New Zealander George Hudson proposed the idea of saving in 1895. The German Empire and Austria-Hungary organized the first nationwide implementation, starting on April 30,1916, many countries have used it at various times since then, particularly since the energy crisis of the 1970s. The practice has both advocates and critics, DST clock shifts sometimes complicate timekeeping and can disrupt travel, billing, record keeping, medical devices, heavy equipment, and sleep patterns. Computer software often adjusts clocks automatically, but policy changes by various jurisdictions of DST dates, industrialized societies generally follow a clock-based schedule for daily activities that do not change throughout the course of the year. The time of day that individuals begin and end work or school, North and south of the tropics daylight lasts longer in summer and shorter in winter, with the effect becoming greater as one moves away from the tropics. However, they will have one hour of daylight at the start of each day. Supporters have also argued that DST decreases energy consumption by reducing the need for lighting and heating, DST is also of little use for locations near the equator, because these regions see only a small variation in daylight in the course of the year. After ancient times, equal-length civil hours eventually supplanted unequal, so civil time no longer varies by season, unequal hours are still used in a few traditional settings, such as some monasteries of Mount Athos and all Jewish ceremonies. This 1784 satire proposed taxing window shutters, rationing candles, and waking the public by ringing church bells, despite common misconception, Franklin did not actually propose DST, 18th-century Europe did not even keep precise schedules. However, this changed as rail transport and communication networks came to require a standardization of time unknown in Franklins day. Modern DST was first proposed by the New Zealand entomologist George Hudson, whose shift work job gave him time to collect insects. An avid golfer, he also disliked cutting short his round at dusk and his solution was to advance the clock during the summer months, a proposal he published two years later. The proposal was taken up by the Liberal Member of Parliament Robert Pearce, a select committee was set up to examine the issue, but Pearces bill did not become law, and several other bills failed in the following years. Willett lobbied for the proposal in the UK until his death in 1915, william Sword Frost, mayor of Orillia, Ontario, introduced daylight saving time in the municipality during his tenure from 1911 to 1912. Starting on April 30,1916, the German Empire and its World War I ally Austria-Hungary were the first to use DST as a way to conserve coal during wartime, Britain, most of its allies, and many European neutrals soon followed suit. Russia and a few other countries waited until the year
6.
Melbourne
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Melbourne is the capital and most populous city of the Australian state of Victoria, and the second-most populous city in Australia and Oceania. The name Melbourne refers to an urban agglomeration spanning 9,900 km2, the metropolis is located on the large natural bay of Port Phillip and expands into the hinterlands towards the Dandenong and Macedon mountain ranges, Mornington Peninsula and Yarra Valley. It has a population of 4,641,636 as of 2016, and its inhabitants are called Melburnians. Founded by free settlers from the British Crown colony of Van Diemens Land on 30 August 1835, in what was then the colony of New South Wales, it was incorporated as a Crown settlement in 1837. It was named Melbourne by the Governor of New South Wales, Sir Richard Bourke, in honour of the British Prime Minister of the day, William Lamb, 2nd Viscount Melbourne. It was officially declared a city by Queen Victoria, to whom Lord Melbourne was close, in 1847, during the Victorian gold rush of the 1850s, it was transformed into one of the worlds largest and wealthiest cities. After the federation of Australia in 1901, it served as the interim seat of government until 1927. It is a financial centre in the Asia-Pacific region. It is recognised as a UNESCO City of Literature and a centre for street art, music. It was the host city of the 1956 Summer Olympics and the 2006 Commonwealth Games, the main passenger airport serving the metropolis and the state is Melbourne Airport, the second busiest in Australia. The Port of Melbourne is Australias busiest seaport for containerised and general cargo, Melbourne has an extensive transport network. The main metropolitan train terminus is Flinders Street Station, and the regional train. Melbourne is also home to Australias most extensive network and has the worlds largest urban tram network. Before the arrival of settlers, humans had occupied the area for an estimated 31,000 to 40,000 years. At the time of European settlement, it was inhabited by under 2000 hunter-gatherers from three indigenous tribes, the Wurundjeri, Boonwurrung and Wathaurong. The area was an important meeting place for the clans of the Kulin nation alliance and it would be 30 years before another settlement was attempted. Batman selected a site on the bank of the Yarra River. Batman then returned to Launceston in Tasmania, in early August 1835 a different group of settlers, including John Pascoe Fawkner, left Launceston on the ship Enterprize
7.
Mildura
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Mildura is a regional city in north-west Victoria, Australia. Located on the Victorian side of the Murray River, Mildura had a population of just over 31,000 in 2011, when nearby Wentworth is included, the area had an estimated urban population of 50,011 at June 2015. It is the largest settlement in the Sunraysia region, Mildura is a major horticultural centre notable for its grape production, supplying 80% of Victorias grapes. Many wineries also source grapes from Mildura, other key crops produced in the district include citrus, almonds and dried fruit. The citys central district is located just a short distance from the banks of the Murray. Langtree Avenue is the shopping and dining precinct in Mildura. The other major retail precinct is along Fifteenth Street in the Mildura South area, the citys name was taken from the Mildura homestead, an early sheep station which covered most of the area. Mildura has a history of orange and grape farming. There are several theories as to the origin of the name Mildura, while it was the name of the sheep station, without precedent in the English language, most historians believe it to have originated from Indigenous Australian words. However, the etymology of Mildura is not entirely certain as in several of the local dialects the words have different meanings, the word dura is generally thought to mean earth, sand or rock, at least in Latje Latje language. However, usage of the mill can vary in dialect and is used to mean red or water. Many Aboriginal people lived around the site of Mildura because of the abundant food, Local tribes included the Latje Latje and Yerre Yerre. The first Europeans in the area arrived in 1857 and brought sheep to graze the rich pastures, there he met George and William Chaffey. After much political wrangling, the settlement of Mildura was established in 1887, the Post Office opened on 23 January 1888. The nearby towns of Wentworth, Gol Gol, Curlwaa and Yelta sprang up in the mid-to-late 19th century, in the 1890s came the scourge of the rabbit. This devastated the farmers, especially south of the Murray. There was also a financial recession at this time, combined, these factors restricted growth of the new settlement. After this period, the new settlement grew and grew and it was soon the main town of the district
8.
Swan Hill
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Swan Hill is a city in the northwest of Victoria, Australia on the Murray Valley Highway and on the south bank of the Murray River, downstream from the junction of the Loddon River. At the 2011 census, Swan Hill had a population of 9,894, in the Dreamtime, Totyerguil ran out of spears while chasing Otchtout the cod. This chase is part of the mythology of the creation of the Murray River, based on evidence from Coobool Creek and Kow Swamp, it appears that Aboriginal people have lived in the area for the last 13, 000–9,000 years. The area is inhabited by the Wemba-Wemba and Wati-Wati people, Swan Hill was called Matakupaat or place of the Platypus by the Wemba Wemba people. The area was given its current name by explorer Thomas Mitchell, I therefore named this somewhat remarkable and isolated feature Swan Hill, a point which may probably be found to mark the junction of two fine streams. The European community grew up around a punt river crossing, which was established as early as 1846 and this crossing serviced the growing agricultural area, and was the only river crossing for 100 km. The Post Office opened here on 1 February 1849, in 1853 Francis Cadell navigated the Murray river from its mouth in South Australia to Swan Hill in his paddle steamer, Lady Augusta. He arrived on 17 September 1853, narrowly beating William Randell of Mannum and this demonstrated the feasibility of river traffic, which flourished until the introduction of the railway. There is a built of brick, belonging to the Church of England. The hospital, for Swan-hill can also boast of a hospital, is situated at the junction of the Little Murray with the main stream. The district around the town is principally pastoral, about 10 or 12 miles distant there is a salt lake, from which a coarse salt is obtained and exported to Riverina and the Upper Murray. There is a three times a week, and the township is already connected with the metropolis by telegraph. In 1883 the first of several red brick water towers were built to supply the town with water. Water was pumped out of the river and into the top of the tower by a steam engine. Many of these towers can still be seen around town, the railway from Bendigo was extended from Kerang to Swan Hill station in May 1890, being extended to Piangil in 1915. The punt river crossing was replaced by a truss, steel lift span bridge in 1896. The first six telephones were connected in Swan Hill on 2 October 1911, the National Bank was phone number 1. In 1914, Isaburo Takasuka produced the first commercial crop in Australia
9.
Local government in Victoria
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Local government in the Australian state of Victoria describes the 79 municipal districts often referred to as local government areas. They are constituted as cities, shires, rural cities and, in one case, in addition to the LGAs, there are also 10 coastal islands and ski resorts which are unincorporated areas and administered either by the state or management boards. At present, the councils not controlled by administrators have a total of 611 councillors, after the elections in October 2016, this number will increase due to changes in electoral structure and administrators leaving some councils. Up till 1994 there had been 210 LGAs, when Jeff Kennett, the councils of Benalla and Mansfield split subsequent to this to arrive at the current number. Both bodies continued after the creation of Victoria as a separate colony, Road districts were established pursuant to legislation passed in 1853. From 1862 many road districts became shires pursuant to the District Councils Bill 1862, to become a shire, the road district had to be over 100 square miles in size and have annual rate revenue of over £1000. There were 96 road districts or shires created by 1865, promotion to town or city status was dependent on the gross revenue of the council. Such promotion was not automatic, but it was granted often, the clauses have been amended many times by parliament, but since 2006 the Constitution Act has required a referendum to further alter them. Five shires became rural cities but were dissolved with the 1994 restructure, in 1992 there were 65 cities in Victoria, more than there were in England at the time despite a significantly lower population. In 1994, the Jeff Kennett government restructured local government in Victoria and his reforms dissolved 210 councils and sacked 1600 elected councillors, and created 78 new councils through amalgamations. In suburban Melbourne 53 municipalities were reduced to 26, the new local government areas were headed by commissioners appointed by the State Government, democratically elected councils did not return until 1996. The current total of 79 LGAs arose when the Shire of Delatite was split in 2002 into the Rural City of Benalla and the Shire of Mansfield. A new City of Sunbury was proposed to be created from part of the City of Hume after the 2016 council elections, all local government areas are governed in a similar fashion, with an elected council, one of whom is the mayor. The City of Melbourne and the City of Greater Geelong have a elected mayor. The average area of a district within the Melbourne metropolitan area is 285 square kilometres. In practice, this is understood as referring to the distribution between urban centres and rural areas. The term borough, used of the Borough of Queenscliffe, is not defined by the act but has retained for the single borough which survived the reforms of the 1990s. Under the repealed Local Government Act 1958, boroughs, towns and cities were defined on the basis of area, population, in practice, boroughs were and are small towns
10.
City of Greater Bendigo
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The City of Greater Bendigo is a local government area in Victoria, Australia, located in the central part of the state. It covers an area of 3,048 square kilometres and and it includes the city of Bendigo and the towns of Axedale, Elmore, Heathcote, Marong, Raywood and Strathfieldsaye. The city is named after the urban settlement lying in the centre-west of the LGA, that is Bendigo. The council is composed of three wards and nine councillors, with three councillors per ward elected to represent each ward, the most recent election was held in October 2012. The Bendigo Town Hall was built in stages starting in 1859, list of localities Greater Bendigo City Council official website Bendigo information and community site Metlink local public transport profile Link to Land Victoria interactive maps
11.
Lands administrative divisions of Australia
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Many property titles in Australia are listed as being in the parish and county. Parts of South Australia and Western Australia were similarly divided into counties, however South Australia has subdivisions of hundreds instead of parishes, along with the Northern Territory, which was part of South Australia when the hundreds were proclaimed. There were also formerly hundreds in Tasmania, Counties in Australia have no administrative or political function, unlike those in England, the United States or Canada. Australia instead uses local government areas, including shires, districts, councils and municipalities according to the state, below these are groups of land parcels known as deposited plans, registered plans or title plans. Queensland has registered plans, New South Wales and Western Australia have deposited plans, within these are individual land parcels such as lots, in total there are estimated to be about 10.2 million of these in Australia. Counties were used since the earliest British settlement in Australia, with the County of Cumberland proclaimed by Captain Phillip on 4 June 1788, in 1804 Governor King divided Van Diemens Land into two counties, Buckingham in the south and Cornwall in the north. The parishes date to the surveys conducted after 1825, with the given to Governor Brisbane on 23 Jun 1825 to divide the colony into counties, hundreds. At this time there were five counties already proclaimed in New South Wales, Cumberland, Westmoreland, Camden, Argyle, Counties were established soon after the foundation of other Australian colonies. Many of the counties have English names, often the names of counties in England, such as Devon, Dorset, Cornwall, less frequently, some have Aboriginal names such as the County of Yungnulgra in New South Wales, and County of Croajingolong in Victoria. Legal cases referenced counties, and many records for Australia in the 19th century list the county and parish for location of birth, deaths. Counties and parishes are still referenced in property law, and in industrial relations instruments, for example in a New South Wales award. Similar award examples exist in the states and territories that have been subdivided into counties. The County of Yancowinna is also the part of New South Wales which is in a different time zone to the rest of the state. Counties are also used on paperwork for mortgage securities in banks, Parishes and counties are also mentioned in definitions of electoral districts. Counties have since gone out of use in Australia, and are used or even known by most of the population today. The counties which contain the cities have millions of people, while those in remote areas have a very small population. The County of Adelaide, for instance, has a population than all the other counties in South Australia combined. Wangaratta, for instance, is located at the junction of the Ovens and King rivers, some of the county names live on by being the same name of present-day local government areas, general region names, towns or establishments in the area
12.
Electoral district of Bendigo East
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Bendigo East is an electoral district of the Legislative Assembly in the Australian state of Victoria. It covers an area of 2,711 square kilometres covering the part of the city of Bendigo east of the Yungera railway line and surrounding areas to the north, east. It also includes parts of the localities of Eaglehawk, Elmore, Golden Square and Ravenswood, and it lies within the Northern Victoria Region of the upper house, the Legislative Council. The electorate was first created in 1904 in what was then a relatively strong Labor area and it continuously returned Labor candidates from 1907 until its abolition in 1927, when it was merged with Bendigo West to create a single Bendigo electorate. It was recreated in 1985 as a seat and was won by Liberal candidate Michael John. He was narrowly defeated by Labor candidate Jacinta Allan at the 1999 general election, Allan was re-elected at the 2002,2006,2010 and 2014 elections. Electorate profile, Bendigo East District, Victorian Electoral Commission
13.
Electoral district of Bendigo West
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Bendigo West is an electoral district of the Legislative Assembly in the Australian state of Victoria. It is a 1,524 square kilometres electorate centred on the city of Bendigo west of the Yungera railway line and it encompasses the localities of Bendigo City, California Gully, Castlemaine, Harcourt, Long Gully, Maldon, Marong, Newstead and West Bendigo. It also includes parts of the Bendigo suburbs of Eaglehawk, Golden Square and it lies within the Northern Victoria Region of the upper house, the Legislative Council. Bendigo West has generally been a seat for the Labor parties throughout its history. It was created in 1904, when it was won by Labor candidate David Smith by 18 votes, Smith was re-elected several times, but was expelled from the party in 1911 over his support for introducing scripture lessons into state schools. He sat as an independent until the Labor Party split of 1917, when he joined Billy Hughes rival National Labor Party, Smith did not contest the 1924 election, and the seat returned to the Labor fold, being won by Arthur Cook. The seat was merged with Bendigo East in 1927, with Cook going on to serve as the member for Bendigo, the electorate was recreated as a separate district in 1985, when it was won by former federal MP David Kennedy. Kennedy was defeated by Liberal Max Turner amidst the Liberal landslide win at the 1992 state election, Cameron was comfortably re-elected in 1999,2002, and 2006, and left a margin of more than 10% for Maree Edwards to defend at the 2010 election. He served as Minister for Emergency Services in the Brumby government, electorate profile, Bendigo West District, Victorian Electoral Commission
14.
Division of Bendigo
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The Division of Bendigo is an Australian Electoral Division in the state of Victoria. The division was created in 1900 and was one of the original 75 divisions contested at the first federal election and it is named for the city of Bendigo. The division is situated on the foothills of the Great Dividing Range in North Central Victoria. It covers an area of approximately 6,255 square kilometres and provides the southern gateway to the Murray Darling Basin, in addition to the city of Bendigo, other large population centres in the division include Castlemaine, Heathcote, Kyneton and Woodend. The current Member for the Division of Bendigo, since the 2013 federal election, is Lisa Chesters, a member of the Australian Labor Party. In the early years of federation the seat consisted of more than Bendigo itself. Bendigo has been a seat, changing hands regularly between the Labor Party and the conservative parties, typically mirroring voting patterns in state elections. However, it has remained a Labor seat since the 1998 federal election, Bendigo has had 16 members, the highest number of any federal electorate, equal to Denison, Bass and Swan. John Brumby, who held the seat from 1983 to 1990, reid has a minor claim to fame through being the third candidate in the contest for Liberal leadership between John Hewson and John Howard after the partys 1993 election defeat. Reid attracted one vote, presumably his own, Division of Bendigo - Australian Electoral Commission
15.
Australia
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Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands. It is the worlds sixth-largest country by total area, the neighbouring countries are Papua New Guinea, Indonesia and East Timor to the north, the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu to the north-east, and New Zealand to the south-east. Australias capital is Canberra, and its largest urban area is Sydney, for about 50,000 years before the first British settlement in the late 18th century, Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians, who spoke languages classifiable into roughly 250 groups. The population grew steadily in subsequent decades, and by the 1850s most of the continent had been explored, on 1 January 1901, the six colonies federated, forming the Commonwealth of Australia. Australia has since maintained a liberal democratic political system that functions as a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy comprising six states. The population of 24 million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated on the eastern seaboard, Australia has the worlds 13th-largest economy and ninth-highest per capita income. With the second-highest human development index globally, the country highly in quality of life, health, education, economic freedom. The name Australia is derived from the Latin Terra Australis a name used for putative lands in the southern hemisphere since ancient times, the Dutch adjectival form Australische was used in a Dutch book in Batavia in 1638, to refer to the newly discovered lands to the south. On 12 December 1817, Macquarie recommended to the Colonial Office that it be formally adopted, in 1824, the Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as Australia. The first official published use of the term Australia came with the 1830 publication of The Australia Directory and these first inhabitants may have been ancestors of modern Indigenous Australians. The Torres Strait Islanders, ethnically Melanesian, were originally horticulturists, the northern coasts and waters of Australia were visited sporadically by fishermen from Maritime Southeast Asia. The first recorded European sighting of the Australian mainland, and the first recorded European landfall on the Australian continent, are attributed to the Dutch. The first ship and crew to chart the Australian coast and meet with Aboriginal people was the Duyfken captained by Dutch navigator, Willem Janszoon. He sighted the coast of Cape York Peninsula in early 1606, the Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines and named the island continent New Holland during the 17th century, but made no attempt at settlement. William Dampier, an English explorer and privateer, landed on the north-west coast of New Holland in 1688, in 1770, James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast, which he named New South Wales and claimed for Great Britain. The first settlement led to the foundation of Sydney, and the exploration, a British settlement was established in Van Diemens Land, now known as Tasmania, in 1803, and it became a separate colony in 1825. The United Kingdom formally claimed the part of Western Australia in 1828. Separate colonies were carved from parts of New South Wales, South Australia in 1836, Victoria in 1851, the Northern Territory was founded in 1911 when it was excised from South Australia
16.
Victorian era
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The Victorian era was the period of Queen Victorias reign, from 20 June 1837 until her death on 22 January 1901. It was a period of peace, prosperity, refined sensibilities. Some scholars date the beginning of the period in terms of sensibilities, the era followed the Georgian period and preceded the Edwardian period. The later half of the Victorian age roughly coincided with the first part of the Belle Époque era of continental Europe, culturally there was a transition away from the rationalism of the Georgian period and toward romanticism and mysticism with regard to religion, social values, and arts. The end of the saw the Boer War. Domestically, the agenda was increasingly liberal with a number of shifts in the direction of political reform, industrial reform. Two especially important figures in period of British history are the prime ministers Benjamin Disraeli and William Gladstone. Disraeli, favoured by the queen, was a gregarious Conservative and his rival Gladstone, a Liberal distrusted by the Queen, served more terms and oversaw much of the overall legislative development of the era. The population of England and Wales almost doubled from 16.8 million in 1851 to 30.5 million in 1901, Scotlands population also rose rapidly, from 2.8 million in 1851 to 4.4 million in 1901. However, Irelands population decreased sharply, from 8.2 million in 1841 to less than 4.5 million in 1901, mostly due to the Great Famine. Between 1837 and 1901 about 15 million emigrants departed the UK permanently, in search of a life in the United States, Canada, South Africa, New Zealand, Australia. During the early part of the era, politics in the House of Commons involved battles between the two parties, the Whigs/Liberals and the Conservatives. These parties were led by such prominent statesmen as Lord Melbourne, Sir Robert Peel, Lord Derby, Lord Palmerston, Gladstone, Disraeli, Victoria became queen in 1837 at age 18. Her long reign until 1901 was mainly a time of peace, Britain reached the zenith of its economic, political, diplomatic and cultural power. The era saw the expansion of the second British Empire, Historians have characterised the mid-Victorian era as Britains Golden Years. There was prosperity, as the income per person grew by half. There was peace abroad, and social peace at home, opposition to the new order melted away, says Porter. The Chartist movement peaked as a movement among the working class in 1848, its leaders moved to other pursuits, such as trade unions
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Boomtown
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A boomtown is a community that undergoes sudden and rapid population and economic growth, or that is started from scratch. Early boomtowns, such as Leeds, Liverpool, and Manchester, experienced a surge in population. In pre-industrial England these towns had been relative backwaters, compared to the important market towns of Bristol, Norwich, and York. In the mid-19th century, boomtowns based on natural resources began to proliferate as companies, the biggest boomtown in the early 21st century is in North Dakota, where oil fields are being exploited. Often, boomtowns are the site of economic prosperity and social disruption, as the local culture and infrastructure, if any. Sometimes, all or nearly the population can desert the town. This can also place on a planned basis. Joseph, Florida San Francisco, California, US settlement after winning Mexican War San Luis, Arizona Seattle, Washington, became a prosperous port city during the Klondike Gold Rush in 1897
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Victorian gold rush
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The Victorian gold rush was a period in the history of Victoria, Australia approximately between 1851 and the late 1860s. For a number of years the output from Victoria was greater than in any other country in the world with the exception of the more extensive fields of California. Victorias greatest yield for one year was in 1856, when 3,053,744 troy ounces of gold were won from the diggings, from 1851 to 1896 the Victorian Mines Department reported that a total of 61,034,682 oz of gold was mined in Victoria. Gold was first discovered in Australia on 15 February 1823, by assistant surveyor James McBrien, at Fish River, the find was considered unimportant at the time, and was not pursued for policy reasons. Gold discoveries in Beechworth, Ballarat and Bendigo sparked gold rushes similar to the California Gold Rush, at its peak some two tonnes of gold per week flowed into the Treasury Building in Melbourne. The gold exported to Britain in the 1850s paid all her foreign debts, Melbourne was a major boomtown during the gold rush. The city became the centre of the colony with rail networks radiating to the regional towns, politically, Victorias goldminers introduced male franchise and secret ballots, based on Chartist principles. As gold dwindled, pressures for reform, protectionism and political reform grew. A Land Convention in Melbourne during 1857 demanded land reform, Melbourne became one of the great cities of the British Empire and the world. Following the huge gold rushes were the Chinese in 1854, in short, the gold rush was a revolutionary event and reshaped Victoria, its society and politics. There were rumours abroad about the presence of gold in Australia, however the Colonial Secretary, Edward Deas Thomson, saw a great future for the country when Edward Hargraves proved his theory that Australia was a vast storehouse of gold. Hargraves had been in the California gold rush and knew gold country, the news spread like wildfire, and soon the race was on from coast to gold fields. Flocks were left untended, drovers deserted their teams, merchants and lawyers rushed from their desks and entire ships crews, captains included, marched off to seek their fortunes. In March 1850, Mr. W. Campbell of Strath Loddon found on the station of Mr. Donald Cameron and this was concealed at the time but on 10 January 1851, Campbell disclosed it. Others had found indications of gold, dr. George H. Bruhn, a German physician, whose services as an analyst were in great demand, had been shown specimens of gold from what afterwards became the Clunes diggings. A party formed by Mr. Louis John Michel, consisting of himself, Mr. William Haberlin, James Furnival, James Melville, James Headon, and B. The third discovery was by Mr. Thomas Hiscock, a resident at Buninyong, clarke, and by the discovery of Brentanis nugget in the Pyrenees district two years before, he had kept a constant lookout for gold in his neighbourhood. Dr. George H. Bruhn, a German physician, in the month of January,1851, dr. Bruhn forwarded specimens, which were received by the Gold Discovery Committee on 30 June 1851
19.
Station (Australian agriculture)
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In Australia, a station is a large landholding used for producing livestock, predominantly cattle or sheep, that need an extensive range of grazing land. It corresponds to American ranches that operate under the Taylor Grazing Act of 1934 on public lands, the owner of a station is called a pastoralist or a grazier. Originally station referred to the homestead – the owners house and associated outbuildings of a pastoral property, stations in Australia are on Crown land pastoral leases, and are known colloquially as sheep stations or cattle stations as most are stock specific, dependent upon the country and rainfall. The operators or owners are known as pastoralists. Sheep and cattle stations can be thousands of kilometres in area. Anna Creek Station in South Australia is the worlds largest working cattle station, because of the extended distances, there is a School of the Air so that children can attend classes from their homes, originally using pedal powered radios to communicate with the teachers. The larger stations have their own school and teacher to educate the children on the station until at least they commence high school, large isolated stations have their own stores to supply workers with their needs. A station hand is an employee, who is involved in duties on a station. Some stations are in areas that are not easy to access. Accommodation for couples and families may be limited, consequently, many station employees are young and temporary. An important example is the jackaroo or jillaroo, a person who works on a station for several years in a form of apprenticeship. Aborigines have played a big part in the cattle industry where they were competent stockmen on the cattle stations. Nowadays staff on these stations may work in the homestead and in stock camps, stockmen, especially ringers, may be seasonal employees. Others include boremen, managers, mechanics, machinery operators, station and camp cooks, veterinary surgeons also fly to some of the more distant cattle and sheep stations. The long-running television drama McLeods Daughters is set on an Australian cattle station, the film Australia was set on a fictional station Faraway Downs, but parts were filmed on Home Valley Station. Jeannie Gunn arrived at Elsey Station in 1902, leaving after her husband died, Elsey also featured in the 1946 film The Overlanders, the crew set up camp on the property for a month. The river crossing sequence was shot at the Roper River, pastoral lease List of ranches and stations § Australia List of the largest stations in Australia Outstation Station Media related to Sheep and cattle stations in Australia at Wikimedia Commons
20.
Victorian architecture
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Victorian architecture is a series of architectural revival styles in the mid-to-late 19th century. Victorian refers to the reign of Queen Victoria, called the Victorian era, however, many elements of what is typically termed Victorian architecture did not become popular until later in Victorias reign. The styles often included interpretations and eclectic revivals of historic styles mixed with the introduction of middle east, the name represents the British and French custom of naming architectural styles for a reigning monarch. Within this naming and classification scheme, it follows Georgian architecture and later Regency architecture, during the early 19th century, the romantic medieval Gothic revival style was developed as a reaction to the symmetry of Palladianism, and such buildings as Fonthill Abbey were built. Paxton also continued to build houses as Mentmore Towers, in the still popular English Renaissance styles. In this era of prosperity new methods of construction were developed, other notable Scottish architects of this period are Archibald Simpson and Alexander Marshall Mackenzie whose stylistically varied work can be seen in the architecture of Aberdeen. Victorian architecture usually has many intricate window frames inspired by the famous architect Elliot Rae, some chose the United States, and others went to Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. Normally, they applied architectural styles that were fashionable when they left England, thus, the influence of English architecture spread across the world. Several prominent architects produced English-derived designs around the world, including William Butterfield, the Victorian period flourished in Australia and is generally recognised as being from 1840 to 1890, which saw a gold rush and population boom during the 1880s in the state of Victoria. There were fifteen styles that predominated, The Arts and Crafts style and Queen Anne style are considered to be part of the Federation Period, during the British colonial period of British Ceylon, Sri Lanka Law College, Sri Lanka College of Technology and the Galle Face Hotel. In the United States, Victorian architecture generally describes styles that were most popular between 1860 and 1900, a list of these styles most commonly includes Second Empire, Stick-Eastlake, Folk Victorian, Queen Anne, Richardsonian Romanesque, and Shingle. As in the United Kingdom, examples of Gothic Revival and Italianate continued to be constructed during this period, some historians classify the later years of Gothic Revival as a distinctive Victorian style named High Victorian Gothic. Stick-Eastlake, a manner of geometric, machine-cut decorating derived from Stick, on the other hand, terms such as Painted Ladies or gingerbread may be used to describe certain Victorian buildings, but do not constitute a specific style. The names of architectural styles varied between countries, many homes combined the elements of several different styles and are not easily distinguishable as one particular style or another. San Francisco is well known for its extensive Victorian architecture, particularly in the Haight-Ashbury, Lower Haight, Alamo Square, Noe Valley, Castro, Nob Hill, the extent to which any one is the largest surviving example is debated, with numerous qualifications. The Distillery District in Toronto, Ontario contains the largest and best preserved collection of Victorian-era industrial architecture in North America, cabbagetown is the largest and most continuous Victorian residential area in North America. Other Toronto Victorian neighbourhoods include The Annex, Parkdale, and Rosedale, in the USA, the South End of Boston is recognized by the National Register of Historic Places as the oldest and largest Victorian neighborhood in the country. Old Louisville in Louisville, Kentucky also claims to be the nations largest Victorian neighborhood, richmond, Virginia is home to several large Victorian neighborhoods, the most prominent being The Fan
21.
Bendigo and Adelaide Bank
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Bendigo and Adelaide Bank is an Australian financial institution, operating primarily in retail banking. The company was formed by the merger of Bendigo Bank and Adelaide Bank in November 2007, the banks branches are primarily in Victoria and Queensland. The merged bank now has over 400 branches, including 25 that came with the merger of Adelaide Bank, Bendigo Bank national headquarters remain in the city of Bendigo, with a major office in Adelaide, South Australia and regional offices in Docklands, Melbourne and Ipswich, Queensland. The company started in 1858 as a building society to improve conditions in the Bendigo goldfields during the Victorian gold rush. At seven years old, in 1865, the restructured, taking the name Bendigo Mutual Permanent Land and Building Society. It continued to expand its holdings when, in 1978, it merged with Bendigo and Eaglehawk Star, in 1982 BBS became the first financial institution in Australia to introduce successfully both Visa credit and debit cards. 1993 saw BBS receive a stockmarket listing and its growth continued throughout the 90s when it acquired National Mortgage Market Corporation Limited in 1995, a mortgage-manager company focussed on loan introducers and brokers. In that year BBS converted to a bank with the name Bendigo Bank and, further, acquired Monte Paschi Australia, the late 1990s saw a further development when Bendigo Bank and Elders Australia formed Elders Rural Bank, a joint venture company focused on agribusiness and rural Australia. Bendigo Bank was also the first financial institution to introduce a mortgage offset account, in 1999 the bank formed an alliance involving mutual shareholding with IOOF. The bank received its licence in 2000 and absorbed the First Australian Building Society in Queensland. That same year saw a A$75 million head office expansion in Bendigo, in 2002 Bendigo Bank introduced the first Green Loans in Australia and formed Community Sector Banking, a banking joint venture with the not-for-profit sector. Three years later, Bendigo Bank built a headquarters on Harbour Esplanade in Melbourne. In 2007 Bendigo Bank rejected Bank of Queenslands merger/takeover proposal, the A$4 billion takeover was completed on 30 November. Subsequently, shareholders voted to change the name to Bendigo and Adelaide Bank Limited. On 11 December 2008, Bendigo Banks new headquarters in Bendigo was completed, the 26th Prime Minister of Australia, Kevin Rudd, was present at the opening. On 16 December 2011, Bendigo Bank announced that it has reached agreement with the Bank of Cyprus Group to acquire its 100 per cent owned Australian subsidiary, the purchase will be for an estimated total consideration of A$130 million. It has been renamed Delphi Bank, in April 2013, Bendigo Banks subsidiary Oxford Funding rebranded as Bendigo Debtor Finance, offering independent credit assessments and cash-flow solutions to businesses on a national level. In June 2014, the became the first in Australia to adopt an investment policy which shunned fossil fuel investments
22.
Djadjawurrung
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They were part of the Kulin alliance of tribes. There were 16 clans, which adhered to a patrilineal system, like the other Kulin peoples there were two moieties, Bunjil the eagle and Waa the crow. The Dja Dja Wurrung were bound to their land by their belief system deriving from the Dreaming, when mythic beings had created the world. They were part of established trade networks which allowed goods and information to flow over substantial distances, the Tachylite deposits near Spring Hill and the Coliban River may have been important trade goods as stone artefacts from this material have been found around Victoria. There is evidence that smallpox swept through the Dja Dja Wurrung in 1789 and 1825, the epidemics were incorporated into aboriginal mythology as a giant snake, the Mindye, sent by Bunjil, to blow magic dust over people to punish them for being bad. The trade networks would have carried news of the white men settling on the Eora land in the early 1790s. Thomas Mitchell was probably the first white man to be seen in Dja Dja Wurrung country when he explored and surveyed central Victoria in 1836, the settlement of the Goulburn and Loddon Districts began the following year by squatters eager to carve out a station and run. On 7 February 1841 Munangabum was shot and wounded by settlers while his companion Gondiurmin died at Far Creek Station, three settlers were later apprehended and tried on 18 May 1841 but were acquitted for want of evidence as aborigines could not give evidence in courts of law. He was murdered in 1846 by a rival clan-head from the south, an important source of frontier conflict was sexual relations between European settlers and aboriginal women. Abduction and rape of women was also relatively common, often leading to violent interactions. Parker expressed in 1842 the firm conviction and that nine out of ten outrages committed by the blacks derived either directly or indirectly from sexual relations. The Dja Dja wurrung peoples experienced two waves of settlement and dispossession, from the south from 1837 and from the north from 1845, very few of these reports were acted upon to bring the settlers to court. On the few occasions when this did happen, the cases were dismissed as aborigines were denied the right to give evidence in courts of law. The incidents listed below are just the cases that have been reported and he arrived in Melbourne in January 1839 with Robinson appointing Parker to the northwest or Loddon District in March. He did not start his protectorate until September 1839, the Protectors duties included to safeguard aborigines from encroachments on their property, and from acts of cruelty, of oppression or injustice and a longer term goal of civilising the natives. Parker initially established his base at Jacksons Creek near Sunbury, which was not close enough to the nations of his protectorate. The Governor of NSW, Sir George Gipps, agreed and stations or reserves for each protector were approved in 1840. Parkers original choice for a reserve in September 1840 was a site, known as Neereman by the Dja Dja Wurrung, on Bet Bet Creek a tributary of the Loddon River
23.
William Thompson (boxer)
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William Abednego Thompson was an English bare-knuckle boxer. He was the last of 21 children born in the slums between Long Row and Parliament Street, from an early age, Thompson developed well and was noted as having an ability with sports. When he was 15 his father died and William was sent to the Nottingham Workhouse with his mother, after leaving the Workhouse, Thompson sold oysters in and around the streets of Nottingham before obtaining a job as an iron turner. By the age of 18, he was fighting for money to provide for his family. He defeated his first eight opponents — including the champion of the town of Bingham. At age 21 he was a prize fighter. Thompson was a boxer who compensated for his lack of height with an incredible ability to punch hard and fast. He was also agile, earning the name Bendy because of his constant bobbing and weaving around the ring, his nickname evolved. Though it was his speed and agility that won him his fights, it was Thompsons personality and he would make up rhymes about his opponents during the fights, and distract them with insults and tall tales of their wives and mothers while pulling funny faces at them. It wasnt long before Thompson was drawing crowds of over 10,000 people to his illicit fights, Thompsons career is mostly remembered for his fierce rivalry with the Hucknall-born boxer Ben Caunt. In 1835 the two met for the first time for a purse of £25 and this fight lasted 22 rounds, which at the time did not last a set amount of time, but was called whenever a fighter was knocked down. Bendigo, who was 19 kg lighter and 15 cm shorter, got into difficulties during the fight and this, along with his constant manic laughter and free flowing insults, frustrated Caunt, who finally struck Thompson while he was kneeling and so lost the match on a foul. A writer at the fight described Caunt as full of trickery and treachery — he has no ethics and Thompson as deadly and as poisonous as a rattlesnake with about the same ethics. A few months later, Thompson responded to a letter in a newspaper from Liverpudlian William Looney, challenging. any man in the world for £200 stake, the two met on 13 June 1837, on a hill at Chapel-en-le-Frith the halfway point between their hometowns. Thompson took control of the shortly after and started somersaulting in the ring, endearing him to the crowds. However, even through the constant barrage of punches Looney fought bravely on, eventually Thompsons athleticism shone through and he was declared the winner after dominating over an hour of fighting. On 3 April 1838 Caunt finally obtained his rematch, worth £300 in prize money, consequently, he easily outfoxed and outmanoeuvred Caunt. The fight lasted for 75 rounds of furious combat, in the fifth round, Caunt had Thompson on the ropes and nearly strangled him but Thompson fought back, peppering his opponent with body shots and more insults
24.
Trams in Bendigo
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Trams have operated in the city of Bendigo, Victoria, Australia since 1890, and continue to operate today as a tourist attraction. Limited trials have also made in 2009 with operating commuter service. The first trams in Bendigo were battery operated, but only lasted three months before being due to their unreliability. A steam tram system commenced operation in 1892 operated by the Bendigo Tramways Company Limited, the Electric Supply Company of Victoria was taken over by the State Government State Electricity Commission of Victoria in 1934 as part of the centralisation of the supply of electricity in Victoria. The SECV was in the generation business, and did not want to operate the loss making provincial tramways of Bendigo, Ballarat. In 1957-58 tram passengers were paying a fare of 3 cents while the service cost 8.75 cents to provide. Between 1961 and 1969 patronage fell 46 percent, and the SECV was refused Legislative Council permission in 1968 to abandon the service, services remained operated by the SECV until April 1972 when the Bendigo tramways were closed. In September 1972 a two-year trial of tourist tramways commenced by The Bendigo Trust trading as Bendigo Tramways, the service operates from North Bendigo though the city centre to the Central Deborah Gold Mine. Between 1996 and 1998, a tourist restaurant and cafe trams was introduced to Bendigo, the idea proved very popular and the Bendigo fleet has since increased in size. In 2008, notable environmental scientist Peter Newman called for modernisation of the Bendigo tram network to operate as a form of public transport, fares were set at A$2 a ride. The trials attracted good publicity and support from the Bendigo +25 Transport Action Group and this would mean a doubling in the capacity of the workshop, which also restores parts for heritage trams around the world. Rail transport in Victoria Spider Bendigo Tramways locomotive moved to Tasmania Transportation in Australia Tram controls Trams in Australia Bendigo Tramways Tram fleet listing
25.
Bendigo Box-Ironbark Region
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The site lies between the Maryborough-Dunolly Box-Ironbark Region and Rushworth Box-Ironbark Region Important Bird Area. It includes much of the Greater Bendigo National Park, several nature reserves and state forests and it excludes other areas of woodland that are less suitable for the parrots. The region was identified as an IBA because, when flowering conditions are suitable it supports up to 1100 non-breeding swift parrots and it is also home to small populations of diamond firetails and non-breeding flame robins
26.
BirdLife International
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It is the worlds largest partnership of conservation organisations, with over 120 partner organisations. BirdLife International was founded as in 1922 the International Council for Bird Preservation by American ornithologists T. Gilbert Pearson and it changed its name in 1993 to BirdLife International. In addition to the programmes, there are global programmes. Together these programmes help the partnership to focus and work on common priorities and they provide the framework for planning, implementing, monitoring and evaluating conservation work. BirdLife International publishes a magazine, World Birdwatch, which contains recent news and authoritative articles about birds, their habitats. BirdLife International is the official Red List authority for birds, for the International Union for Conservation of Nature, in the 2012 assessment,1,313 species of birds are considered threatened with extinction. This represents 13% of the 10,064 extant bird species in the world
27.
Swift parrot
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The swift parrot breeds in Tasmania and migrates north to south eastern Australia from Griffith-Warialda in New South Wales and west to Adelaide in the winter. It is related to the rosellas, with the habits of a lorikeet. It is the member in the genus Lathamus. There was estimated to be fewer than 2000 mature individuals remaining in the wild as of 2011, the surgeon John White described the swift parrot in 1790 as the red-shouldered paroquet. It was placed in the genus Lathamus by René Primevère Lesson in 1830, the swift parrot is about 25 cm long and has long pointed wings and long tapering tail feathers. It is mainly green with bluish crown and red on the face above, the adult female is slightly duller, and the juvenile has a dark brown iris and a pale orange bill. The forehead to throat is crimson and there is also crimson patch at the top, the female parrots are slightly duller than the males and with a creamy underwing bar. They are noisy, always active and showy, and are very fast with their direct flight and this parrots/species is also known as the Red-faced or Red-shouldered Parrot. The species breeds in Tasmania from September to December and it nests in tree hollows about 6–20 metres from ground level and usually with other breeding pairs. Eggs are white with 3–5 per clutch, voice is of high pitched tinking chattering, piping pee-pit, pee-pit. They only breed from September to March, the swift parrot migrates across Bass Strait between Tasmania and the mainland of Australia. They arrive in Tasmania during September and return to south-eastern Australia during March and they can be found as far north as south-eastern Queensland and as far west as Adelaide in South Australia, although recent sightings have been restricted to the south-eastern part of the state. Seeds and grains, green vegetation, fruit, nectar and pollen, insects, grubs and it is thought that only 1000 pairs remain in the wild. Habitat destruction and loss of old trees with nesting hollows are critical factors in its decline, sugar gliders are the major predator of nesting parrots in mainland Tasmania, accounting for 85% of kills, but are absent from Bruny and Maria Islands. Swift parrots are listed as endangered on the Australian Environment Protection, the swift parrot is listed as threatened on the Victorian Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act. Under this Act, an Action Statement for the recovery and future management of species has been prepared. On the 2007 advisory list of threatened vertebrate fauna in Victoria, field guide to the birds of Australia Graham Pizzey and Frank Knight, Angus & Robertson 1997, 3rd edition 2000. ISBN 0-207-19714-8 Forshaw, Joseph M. Parrots of the World, an Identification Guide
28.
Woodland
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Woodland /ˈwʊdlənd/ is a low-density forest forming open habitats with plenty of sunlight and limited shade. Woodlands may support an understory of shrubs and herbaceous plants including grasses, woodland may form a transition to shrubland under drier conditions or during early stages of primary or secondary succession. Higher density areas of trees with a closed canopy that provides extensive. Conservationists have worked hard to preserve woodlands, because people are destroying animals habitats when building homes, for example, the woodlands in Northwest Indiana have been preserved as part of the Indiana Dunes. The term ancient woodland is used in British nature conservation to refer to any wooded land that has existed since 1600, woodlot is a closely related American term, which refers to a stand of trees generally used for firewood. While woodlots often technically have closed canopies, they are so small that light penetration from the edge makes them ecologically closer to woodland than forest, in Australia, a woodland is defined as an area with sparse cover of trees, and an open woodland has very sparse cover. Woodlands are also subdivided into tall woodlands, or low woodlands and this contrasts with forests, which have greater than 30% cover by trees
29.
Temperate climate
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In geography, temperate or tepid latitudes of Earth lie between the tropics and the polar regions. The temperatures in these regions are relatively moderate, rather than extremely hot or cold. The north temperate zone extends from the Tropic of Cancer to the Arctic Circle, the south temperate zone extends from the Tropic of Capricorn to the Antarctic Circle. In some climate classifications, the zone is often divided into several smaller climate zones. These include Humid subtropical climate, Mediterranean climate, oceanic, subtropical climates are located between 23. 5° and 35. 0° north or south latitude on the eastern or leeward sides of landmasses. This climate has long, generally hot, summers and short, mild winters and these climates may occur in southern Asia, the southeastern United States, parts of eastern Australia, and in eastern coastal South America. Mediterranean climates, occur between 30° and 42° north and south latitude, on the sides of landmasses. This climate has hot summers and short mild winters, however, seasonal rainfall is the opposite of that of the subtropical humid type. These climates occur near the rimlands of the Mediterranean Sea, in western Australia, in California, the oceanic climates occur in the higher middle latitudes, between 45° and 60° north and south latitude. They are created by the flow from the cool high latitude oceans to their west. This causes the climate to have cool summers and cool winters, annual rainfall is spread throughout the entire year. Regions with this climate include Western Europe, northwestern North America, the Continental climates occur in middle latitudes, between 35° or 40° to 55°. These climates are normally inland or on sides of landmasses. They feature warm to hot summers and cold winters, with a large temperature variation. Regions with this climate include northern temperate Asia, the northern United States, southern Canada, the vast majority of the worlds human population resides in temperate zones, especially in the northern hemisphere, due to its greater mass of land. The richest temperate flora in the world is found in southern Africa, geographical zone Habitat Köppen climate classification Middle latitudes Polar circle Subtropics
30.
Humid subtropical climate
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A humid subtropical climate is a zone of climate characterised by hot, usually humid summers and mild to cool winters. It normally lies on the southeast side of all continents, generally between latitudes 25° and 40° and it tends to be located at coastal or near coastal locations. However, in cases it extends inland, most notably in China. Under the Köppen climate classification, subtropical climates are found in the warmest parts of his Warm Temperate climates or Cfa and this climate features mean temperatures in the coldest month between 0 °C and 18 °C and mean temperatures in the warmest month 22 °C or higher. However, while some climatologists have opted to describe this type as a humid subtropical climate Köppen himself never used this term. The humid subtropical climate classification was created under the Trewartha Climate classification. The Trewartha system was a 1966 update of the Köppen climate classification and this was seen to effectively separate temperate climates like London or New York City from true subtropical locations like Brisbane or Savannah for example. Rainfall often shows a peak, especially where monsoons are well developed, as in Southeast Asia. Most summer rainfall occurs during thunderstorms that build up due to the surface heating and strong subtropical sun angle. Weak tropical lows that move in from adjacent warm tropical oceans, winter rainfall is often associated with large storms in the westerlies that have fronts that reach down into subtropical latitudes. However, many subtropical climates such as southeast Asia or Florida have very dry winters, with frequent brush fires, in Africa, the humid subtropical climates are found in two separate areas on the southern hemisphere of the continent. The Cwa climate is found over a portion of the interior of the Middle. Some lower portions of the Ethiopian Highlands also have this climate, the climate is also found in the narrow coastal sections of southern and eastern South Africa, primarily in KwaZulu-Natal and the Eastern Cape provinces. South Africas version of this climate features heavy oceanic influences resulting in milder temperatures. This is particularly evident in its winters when temperatures do not drop as low as in other regions within the humid subtropical category. Locations in Asia with a subtropical climate differ from those in other continents in that they often have marked seasonal differences in precipitation. Cities near the boundary of this zone include Hong Kong, Hanoi. At Hainan Island and in Taiwan, the transitions from subtropical into fully tropical
31.
Oceanic climate
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Oceanic climates are defined as having a monthly mean temperature below 22 °C in the warmest month, and above 0 °C in the coldest month. It typically lacks a dry season, as precipitation is evenly dispersed throughout the year. Oceanic climates generally have cool summers and mild to cool winters, Oceanic climates are most dominant in Europe, where they spread much farther inland than in other continents. Oceanic climates can have much storm activity as they are located in the belt of the stormy westerlies, many oceanic climates have frequent cloudy or overcast conditions due to the near constant storms and lows tracking over or near them. Precipitation is both adequate and reliable throughout the year in oceanic climates, extended months of rain and cloudy conditions are common in oceanic climates. Seattle is an example of this, between October and May, Seattle experiences high rainfall and is mostly or partly cloudy six out of every seven days. In most areas with a climate, precipitation comes in the form of rain for the majority of the year. However, some areas with this climate see some snowfall annually during winter, outside of Australia and parts of New Zealand, most areas with an oceanic climate experience at least one snowstorm per year. In the poleward locations of the climate zone, snowfall is more frequent. Overall temperature characteristics of the oceanic climates feature cool temperatures and infrequent extremes of temperature, summers are cool, with the warmest month having a mean temperature below 22 °C. Poleward of the latter is a zone of the subpolar oceanic climate, with long and cold winters and cool. Examples of this climate include parts of coastal Iceland in the Northern Hemisphere and extreme southern Chile, Oceanic climates are not necessarily always found in coastal locations on the aforementioned parallels, however, in most cases oceanic climates parallel higher middle latitude oceans. The polar jet stream, which moves in a west to east direction across the middle latitudes, advancing low pressure systems, storms, in coastal areas of the higher middle latitudes, the prevailing onshore flow creates the basic structure of most oceanic climates. Oceanic climates are a product and reflection of the adjacent to them. In summer, high pressure pushes the prevailing westerlies north of many oceanic climates. As a result of the Gulf Stream, west-coast areas located in high latitudes like Ireland, the UK, Oceanic climates in Europe occur mostly in Northwest Europe, from Ireland and Great Britain eastward to central Europe. Most of France, Germany, Norway, the north coast of Spain, examples of oceanic climates are found in London, Bergen, Dublin, Berlin, Bilbao, Donostia-San Sebastian, Biarritz, Bayonne, Zürich, Copenhagen and Paris. With decreasing distance to the Mediterranean Sea, the climate of Northwest Europe gradually changes to the subtropical dry-summer or Mediterranean climate of southern Europe
32.
Southern Ocean
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As such, it is regarded as the fourth-largest of the five principal oceanic divisions, smaller than the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Oceans but larger than the Arctic Ocean. This ocean zone is cold, northward flowing waters from the Antarctic mix with warmer subantarctic waters. By way of his voyages in the 1770s, Captain James Cook proved that waters encompassed the southern latitudes of the globe. Since then, geographers have disagreed on the Southern Oceans northern boundary or even existence, considering the part of the Pacific, Atlantic. Others regard the seasonally-fluctuating Antarctic Convergence as the natural boundary, Borders and names for oceans and seas were internationally agreed when the International Hydrographic Bureau, the precusor to the IHO, convened the First International Conference on 24 July 1919. The IHO then published these in its Limits of Oceans and Seas, Australian authorities regard the Southern Ocean as lying immediately south of Australia. Map publishers using the term Southern Ocean on their maps include Hema Maps, Southern Ocean is an obsolete name for the Pacific Ocean or South Pacific, coined by Vasco Núñez de Balboa, the first European to discover it, who approached it from the north. The South Seas is an archaic synonym. A1745 British Act of Parliament established a prize for discovering a Northwest Passage to the Western and Southern Ocean of America, authors using Southern Ocean to name the waters encircling the unknown southern polar regions used varying limits. James Cooks account of his second voyage implies New Caledonia borders it, peacocks 1795 Geographical Dictionary said it lay to the southward of America and Africa, John Payne in 1796 used 40 degrees as the northern limit, the 1827 Edinburgh Gazetteer used 50 degrees. The United Kingdoms South Australia Act 1834 described the waters forming the southern limit of the new colony of South Australia as the Southern Ocean. The Colony of Victorias Legislative Council Act of 1881 delimited part of the division of Bairnsdale as along the New South Wales boundary to the Southern ocean. The limit then followed the west coast of Tasmania southwards to the South East Cape and then went eastwards to Broughton Island, New Zealand, the northern limits of the Southern Ocean were moved southwards in the IHOs 1937 second edition of the Limits of Oceans and Seas. From this edition, much of the northern limit ceased to abut land masses. As is discussed in detail below, prior to the 2002 edition the limits of oceans explicitly excluded the seas lying within each of them. The Great Australian Bight was unnamed in the 1928 edition, and it therefore encompassed former Southern Ocean waters but was technically not inside any of the three adjacent oceans by 1937. To perform direct comparisons of current and former limits of oceans it is necessary to consider, or at least be aware of, the limits of the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans have therefore been extended South to the Antarctic Continent. The IHO readdressed the question of the Southern Ocean in a survey in 2000, of its 68 member nations,28 responded, and all responding members except Argentina agreed to redefine the ocean, reflecting the importance placed by oceanographers on ocean currents
33.
Early 2009 southeastern Australia heat wave
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The early 2009 southeastern Australia heat wave was a heat wave that commenced in late January and led to record-breaking prolonged high temperatures in the region. The heat wave is considered one of the, if not the, during the heat wave, fifty separate locations set various records for consecutive, highest daytime and overnight temperatures. The highest temperature recorded during the wave was 48.8 °C in Hopetoun, Victoria. Both cities broke records for the most consecutive days over 40 °C, while Mildura, the heat began in South Australia on 25 January but became more widespread over southeast Australia by 27 January. A weak cool change moved over the coastal areas bringing some relief on 30 January, including Melbourne. Ten months after this heat wave, a second struck the region in November 2009. The heat wave was caused by a high pressure system that settled over the Tasman Sea. Coupled by a tropical low and a monsoon trough over Northern Australia. The CSIRO stated that warm lower tropospheric anticyclone is the key synoptic weather system responsible for the heat-waves. During the heat wave, several records were broken, Tasmania recorded its temperature,42.2 °C in Scamander. 0.8 °C hotter than previous record, temperatures recorded in other parts of the city and other towns throughout South Australia were even higher. 8th -42.7 °C On 31 January 2009 Wagga Wagga broke the all-time January record for the most days above 40.0 °C with six days recorded. The January record set in 1979 was equalled for number of days above 35.0 °C or more which is 19 days, on 8 February 2009 the record for the consecutive days over 37.8 °C was to be broken with thirteen consecutive days recorded. Wagga Wagga also recorded fourteen consecutive days of over 35.0 °C, 31st –38.2 °C After a slow start to the 2008–09 Australian bushfire season, the high temperatures and wind precipitated several bushfires across Victoria and South Australia. The conditions were similar to the heat wave experienced in early January 1939. Fires were also started in the Australian Alps by lightning strikes from dry thunderstorms in north-east Victoria and south-east New South Wales. The tail end of the wave also precipitated the Black Saturday bushfires. Several locations around the state recorded their highest temperatures since records began in 1859, during the heat wave, however, many of these regions experienced temperatures over 40 °C for twice as long or more, on average, than is normal for that time of year
34.
Precipitation
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In meteorology, precipitation is any product of the condensation of atmospheric water vapor that falls under gravity. The main forms of precipitation include drizzle, rain, sleet, snow, graupel, Precipitation occurs when a portion of the atmosphere becomes saturated with water vapor, so that the water condenses and precipitates. Thus, fog and mist are not precipitation but suspensions, because the vapor does not condense sufficiently to precipitate. Two processes, possibly acting together, can lead to air becoming saturated, Precipitation forms as smaller droplets coalesce via collision with other rain drops or ice crystals within a cloud. Short, intense periods of rain in scattered locations are called showers, moisture that is lifted or otherwise forced to rise over a layer of sub-freezing air at the surface may be condensed into clouds and rain. This process is active when freezing rain is occurring. A stationary front is often present near the area of freezing rain, provided necessary and sufficient atmospheric moisture content, the moisture within the rising air will condense into clouds, namely stratus and cumulonimbus. Eventually, the droplets will grow large enough to form raindrops. Lake-effect snowfall can be locally heavy, thundersnow is possible within a cyclones comma head and within lake effect precipitation bands. In mountainous areas, heavy precipitation is possible where upslope flow is maximized within windward sides of the terrain at elevation, on the leeward side of mountains, desert climates can exist due to the dry air caused by compressional heating. The movement of the trough, or intertropical convergence zone. Precipitation is a component of the water cycle, and is responsible for depositing the fresh water on the planet. Approximately 505,000 cubic kilometres of water falls as precipitation each year,398,000 cubic kilometres of it over the oceans and 107,000 cubic kilometres over land. Given the Earths surface area, that means the globally averaged annual precipitation is 990 millimetres, Climate classification systems such as the Köppen climate classification system use average annual rainfall to help differentiate between differing climate regimes. Precipitation may occur on celestial bodies, e. g. when it gets cold, Mars has precipitation which most likely takes the form of frost. Precipitation is a component of the water cycle, and is responsible for depositing most of the fresh water on the planet. Approximately 505,000 km3 of water falls as precipitation each year,398,000 km3 of it over the oceans, given the Earths surface area, that means the globally averaged annual precipitation is 990 millimetres. Mechanisms of producing precipitation include convective, stratiform, and orographic rainfall, Precipitation can be divided into three categories, based on whether it falls as liquid water, liquid water that freezes on contact with the surface, or ice
35.
Relative humidity
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Relative humidity is the ratio of the partial pressure of water vapor to the equilibrium vapor pressure of water at a given temperature. Relative humidity depends on temperature and the pressure of the system of interest and it requires less water vapor to attain high relative humidity at low temperatures, more water vapour is required to attain high relative humidity in warm or hot air. Humans are sensitive to high humidity because the body uses evaporative cooling, enabled by perspiration. Perspiration evaporates from the more slowly under humid conditions than under arid. For example, if the air temperature is 24 °C and the humidity is zero percent. If the relative humidity is 100 percent at the air temperature. In other words, if the air is 24 °C and contains saturated water vapor, then the human body cools itself at the rate as it would if it were 27 °C. The heat index and the humidex are indices that reflect the effect of temperature. In cold climates, the temperature causes lower capacity for water vapour to flow about. Dry cracked skin can result from dry air, low humidity causes tissue lining nasal passages to dry, crack and become more susceptible to penetration of Rhinovirus cold viruses. Low humidity is a cause of nosebleeds. The use of a humidifier in homes, especially bedrooms, can help with these symptoms, indoor relative humidities should be kept above 30% to reduce the likelihood of the occupants nasal passages drying out. Humans can be comfortable within a range of humidities depending on the temperature—from thirty to seventy percent—but ideally between 50% and 60%. Very low humidity can create discomfort, respiratory problems, and aggravate allergies in some individuals, in the winter, it is advisable to maintain relative humidity at 30 percent or above. Extremely low relative humidities may also cause eye irritation, wooden furniture can shrink, causing the paint that covers these surfaces to fracture. When the temperature is low and the humidity is high. When relative humidity approaches 100 percent, condensation can occur on surfaces, leading to problems with mold, corrosion, decay, condensation can pose a safety risk as it can promote the growth of mold and wood rot as well as possibly freezing emergency exits shut. The basic principles for buildings, above, also apply to vehicles, in addition, there may be safety considerations
36.
2003 Bendigo tornado
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The 2003 Bendigo tornado was a Fujita scale category F2 tornado which hit the city of Bendigo, Victoria, Australia about 6.30 pm on 18 May 2003. Wind speeds ranged from 130 km/h to 150 km/h at the core of the storm, the city of Bendigo is located in Victoria, a southeastern state in Australia. The tornado traveled seven kilometers with a 500 meter wide path in less than ten minutes, the main areas hit were the citys northern suburbs of Eaglehawk and California Gully which had severe damage and power outages. Overall, no one was injured, but the tornado left eight homes destroyed,44 homes with serious damages, trees torn up, also, the tornado disrupted society as a whole with traffic disruption on the Loddon Valley Highway and suspension of certain V/Line train lines. The damages were estimated to cost up to millions of dollars, there was flash flooding and minor damage across other suburbs of the city and other parts of central Victoria experienced power outages. Emergency efforts quickly started to get the safe and electricity back into homes. The State Emergency Service, a organization that provides help after declared disasters. The state government gave grants of up to $22800 which includes an emergency funding of $900 per household for people to purchase short-term accommodations, the Insurance Council of Australia covered wind and storm damages for the insured
37.
Eaglehawk, Victoria
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Eaglehawk is a former gold-mining town in Victoria, Australia and a suburb within the City of Greater Bendigo. The town is situated to the north-west of Bendigo on the Loddon Valley Highway, the highway is known locally as High Street until the intersection with Sailors Gully Road and as Peg Leg Road to the west. Located on this intersection is Brassey Square which is the location of the town hall, next to the town hall is the former post office and the Mechanics Institute. To the north of the intersection on Napier Street is Canterbury Park and Lake Neangar while the Swan Hill railway line, the original inhabitants of the area were the Neangar people. Following the discovery of gold at Sandhurst in October 1851, Joseph Crook discovered a gold nugget while searching for stray horses and this event sparked a gold rush in the area leading to the establishment of the township in 1852, the population quickly building up to 40,000. The Post Office opened on 1 August 1857, in 1862, the Borough of Eaglehawk was established, which included the nearby township of California Gully. After the alluvial gold was exhausted in 1893, reef mines were established, most of the mines had closed by the 1890s and by 1947 the population had decreased substantially to 4,090. In 1994 the Borough of Eaglehawk was amalgamated by the Victorian Government with four other councils to become the city of Greater Bendigo, the town has two government primary schools one at Eaglehawk and another at Eaglehawk North, a Catholic primary school and a government secondary college. Canterbury Park has an oval as well as bowling and croquet facilities, the Eaglehawk Croquet Club Inc. was founded in 1909, in premises vacated by the Eaglehawk Bowling Club. Golf Croquet was introduced in 1975 and subscriptions for this style of croquet is rising, association, Golf Croquet and Golf Croquet Pennant games are played. The club hosts the Victorian Teachers Games and will host the Special Olympics, Eaglehawk Croquet Club also runs regular Come & Try days. Canterbury Park is also home to the Bendigo Leisure Centre, operated by the Bendigo Regional YMCA and this facility includes a 50-metre indoor swimming pool, a health club, mini golf and squash courts. The Albert Roy Reserve has a field, a badminton. A soccer field is located at the nearby Truscott Reserve, the town has two golf courses, the Eaglehawk Golf Course and the Neangar Park Golf Course. The suburb has an Australian Rules football team competing in the Bendigo Football League, a community and day hospital, a 66-bed aged-care facility is operated by Benetas. A police station and a station are also located in the town. Eaglehawk is also home to the Star Cinema, a non-profit community-owned cinema located in the old Eaglehawk Town Hall, the annual Dahlia and Arts Festival is held in March. The author Thomas Alexander Browne, better known by his pseudonym Rolf Boldrewood, wrote the novel The Sphinx of Eaglehawk in 1895, based on his experiences as a station owner in the area
