1.
Motorcycle
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A motorcycle is a two- or three-wheeled motor vehicle. Motorcycle design varies greatly to suit a range of different purposes, long travel, commuting, cruising, sport including racing. Motorcycling is riding a motorcycle and related social activity such as joining a motorcycle club, in 1894, Hildebrand & Wolfmüller became the first series production motorcycle, and the first to be called a motorcycle. In 2014, the three top motorcycle producers globally by volume were Honda, Yamaha, and Hero MotoCorp, in developing countries, motorcycles are overwhelmingly utilitarian due to lower prices and greater fuel economy. Of all the motorcycles in the world, 58% are in the Asia-Pacific and Southern and Eastern Asia regions, according to the United States Department of Transportation the number of fatalities per vehicle mile traveled was 37 times higher for motorcycles than for cars. The term motorcycle has different legal definitions depending on jurisdiction, there are three major types of motorcycle, street, off-road, and dual purpose. Within these types, there are many sub-types of motorcycles for different purposes, there is often a racing counterpart to each type, such as road racing and street bikes, or motocross and dirt bikes. Street bikes include cruisers, sportbikes, scooters and mopeds, off-road motorcycles include many types designed for dirt-oriented racing classes such as motocross and are not street legal in most areas. Dual purpose machines like the style are made to go off-road but include features to make them legal. Each configuration offers either specialised advantage or broad capability, and each design creates a different riding posture, the first internal combustion, petroleum fueled motorcycle was the Daimler Reitwagen. It was designed and built by the German inventors Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach in Bad Cannstatt, instead, it relied on two outrigger wheels to remain upright while turning. The inventors called their invention the Reitwagen and it was designed as an expedient testbed for their new engine, rather than a true prototype vehicle. The first commercial design for a cycle was a three-wheel design called the Butler Petrol Cycle. He exhibited his plans for the vehicle at the Stanley Cycle Show in London in 1884, the vehicle was built by the Merryweather Fire Engine company in Greenwich, in 1888. The engine was liquid-cooled, with a radiator over the driving wheel. Speed was controlled by means of a valve lever. No braking system was fitted, the vehicle was stopped by raising and lowering the rear driving wheel using a foot-operated lever, the driver was seated between the front wheels. It wasnt, however, a success, as Butler failed to find sufficient financial backing, many authorities have excluded steam powered, electric motorcycles or diesel-powered two-wheelers from the definition of a motorcycle, and credit the Daimler Reitwagen as the worlds first motorcycle
2.
Pesaro
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Pesaro is a town and comune in the Italian region of the Marche, capital of the Pesaro e Urbino province, on the Adriatic. According to the 2011 census, its population was 95,011, making it the second most populous city in the Marche, Pesaro is known as City of Bicycle, thanks to its big net of bicycle paths. The city received this award by Legambiente, the most important ecologist society in Italy, in 2015 and it is also known as City of Music thanks to the bond with Gioacchino Rossini, the famous composer born in Pesaro. For this reason, in 2015, the Italian Government officially candidate Pesaro as Creative City in the group of World Heritage Sites of UNESCO, fishery, furniture industry and tourism are the main strengths of the local economy. The city was founded as Pisaurum by the Romans in 184 BC as colony in the territory of the Picentes, a settlement of the Picentes tribe has been found at Novilara. The northern Picentes were invaded in the 4th century BC by the Gallic Senones, earlier by the Etruscans, within it the Gauls at least were still distinct, as the Romans separated them out and expelled them from the country. Under the Roman administration Pesaro, a hub across the Via Flaminia, became an important center of trading, after the fall of the Western Empire, Pesaro was occupied by the Ostrogoths, and destroyed by Vitigis in the course of the Gothic War. Hastily rebuilt five years later after the Byzantine reconquest, it formed the so-called Pentapolis, after the Lombard and Frankish conquests of that city, Pesaro became part of the Papal States. During the Renaissance it was ruled successively by the houses of Malatesta, Sforza, in 1475, a legendary wedding took place in Pesaro, when Costanzo Sforza and Camilla DAragona married. On 11 September 1860 Piedmontese troops entered the city, and Pesaro was subsequently annexed to the new Kingdom of Italy, rocca Costanza - Massive castle built by Costanzo I Sforza, it has a square plan with four cylindrical corner towers and a wide dry moat. Its sunken court is the precedent for the more famous one at the Roman Villa Giulia. Rooms are frescoed by prominent Mannerist painters Bronzino, Francesco Menzocchi, Girolamo Genga, mura Roveresche - Della Rovere Walls, demolished in the early 20th century), only two gates, Porta del Ponte and Porta Rimini, and a short section remain. Birthplace of Gioacchino Rossini- Now a museum dedicated to the composer and it has a museum with manifestoes, prints, portraits and his spinet. Among the masterpieces is the Pesaro Altarpiece by Giovanni Bellini, oliveriani Museum and Library- Archaeological Collection and Manuscript Library, founded in 1756 by Annibale degli Abati Olivieri. Cathedral of Pesaro Romanesque-Gothic Basilica built over remains of a late Roman edifice, the façade, in Romanesque-Gothic style, is unfinished, it has a simple ogival portal surmounted by a band of small arches. A recent restoration has brought to light floor mosaics, the Baroque Sanctuary of Beata Vergine del Carmelo. Rossini Opera Festival has taken place every summer since 1980 in Pesaro, Pesaro hosts the home games of Victoria Libertas basketball team, better known across Europe as Scavolini Pesaro. Adriatic Arena, third biggest Italian indoor arena behind Mediolanum Forum in Milan, among the town industries is the motocross and enduro brand of TM Racing, a small manufacturer of race-ready motorbikes based in the coastal town since 1978
3.
Italy
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Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino, Italy covers an area of 301,338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate and Mediterranean climate. Due to its shape, it is referred to in Italy as lo Stivale. With 61 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous EU member state, the Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually became a republic that conquered and assimilated other nearby civilisations. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli. The weakened sovereigns soon fell victim to conquest by European powers such as France, Spain and Austria. Despite being one of the victors in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil. The subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in defeat, economic destruction. Today, Italy has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and it has a very high level of human development and is ranked sixth in the world for life expectancy. The country plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural and diplomatic affairs, as a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites, the most in the world, and is the fifth most visited country. The assumptions on the etymology of the name Italia are very numerous, according to one of the more common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú, meaning land of young cattle. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy – according to Antiochus of Syracuse, but by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name Italia to a larger region, excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Palaeolithic period, some 200,000 years ago, modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago. Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni. Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily, the Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world
4.
Shotgun
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Shotguns come in a wide variety of sizes, ranging from 5. A shotgun is generally a smoothbore firearm, which means that the inside of the barrel is not rifled, preceding smoothbore firearms, such as the musket, were widely used by armies in the 18th century. The direct ancestor to the shotgun, the blunderbuss, was used in a similar variety of roles from self-defense to riot control. It was often used by cavalry troops because of its shorter length and ease of use. In the 19th century, however, these weapons were replaced on the battlefield with breechloading rifled firearms. The military value of shotguns was rediscovered in the First World War, since then, it has been used in a variety of roles in civilian, law enforcement, and military applications. The shot pellets from a spread upon leaving the barrel, and the power of the burning charge is divided among the pellets. In a hunting context, this makes shotguns useful primarily for hunting birds, however, in a military or law enforcement context, the large number of projectiles makes the shotgun useful as a close quarters combat weapon or a defensive weapon. Militants or insurgents may use shotguns in asymmetric engagements, as shotguns are commonly owned civilian weapons in many countries, shotguns are also used for target shooting sports such as skeet, trap, and sporting clays. These involve shooting clay disks, known as clay pigeons, thrown in various ways, shotguns come in a wide variety of forms, from very small up to massive punt guns, and in nearly every type of firearm operating mechanism. The common characteristics that make a unique center around the requirements of firing shot. These features are the typical of a shotgun shell, namely a relatively short, wide cartridge, with straight walls. Ammunition for shotguns is referred to in the USA as shotgun shells, shotshells, the term cartridges is standard usage in the United Kingdom. The shot is fired from a smoothbore barrel, another configuration is the rifled slug barrel. The typical use of a shotgun is against small and fast moving targets, the spreading of the shot allows the user to point the shotgun close to the target, rather than having to aim precisely as in the case of a single projectile. The disadvantages of shot are limited range and limited penetration of the shot, which is why shotguns are used at short ranges, and typically against smaller targets. Larger shot sizes, up to the case of the single projectile slug load, result in increased penetration. Aside from the most common use against small, fast moving targets, First, it has enormous stopping power at short range, more than nearly all handguns and many rifles
5.
Benelli Armi SpA
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Benelli Armi SpA is an Italian firearm manufacturer founded in 1967, located in Urbino, Italy, best known for shotguns used by military, law enforcement and civilians all over the world. Particularly famous is the Benelli M312 gauge, used extensively by American SWAT teams, Benelli Armi was founded in 1967 as an offshoot of the Benelli motorcycle factory that sold motorcycles through Montgomery Ward. Benelli and Benelli USA have been owned by Pietro Beretta SpA since 2000, in 1911 Teresa Benelli invested in her 6 sons to begin an auto service company. Eventually their services expanded to include servicing motorcycles and even building their own, in 1967 they acted on their love of hunting as well as their belief in the semi-auto shotgun by developing firearms. They did this by teaming up with Bruno Civolani the developer of a new action. Many Benelli shotguns utilize a unique inertia operating system developed by Bruno Civolani, in 1999 Benelli introduced the Benelli M4 Super 90, an unusual gas operated semi-automatic shotgun intended for military and law enforcement use
6.
Moto Guzzi
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Moto Guzzi is an Italian motorcycle manufacturer and the oldest European manufacturer in continuous motorcycle production. Since 2004, Moto Guzzi has been a unico azionista, an owned subsidiary. SpA, Europes largest motorcycle manufacturer and the fourth largest motorcycle manufacturer by unit sales. Moto Guzzi was conceived by two pilots and their mechanic serving in the Corpo Aeronautico Militare during World War I, Carlo Guzzi, Giovanni Ravelli. Assigned to the same Miraglia Squadron based outside Venice, the three became close, despite coming from different socio-economic backgrounds, the trio envisioned creating a motorcycle company after the war. Guzzi would engineer the motor bikes, Parodi would finance the venture, Guzzi and Parodi formed Moto Guzzi in 1921. Ravelli, ironically, had died just days after the end in an aircraft crash and is commemorated by the eagles wings that form the Moto Guzzi logo. Although with the condition that the sum, under no circumstances, likewise, I reserve the right to supervise your progress before giving my agreement to this project. The company was based in Genoa, Italy, with its headquarters in Mandello. The very earliest motorcycles bore the name G. P. though the marque quickly changed to Moto Guzzi, as the only actual shareholders, the Parodis wanted to shield their shipping fortunes by avoiding confusion of name G. P. with Giorgio Parodis initials. Carlo Guzzi initially received royalties for each motorcycle produced, holding no ownership in the company that bore his name, in 1946 Moto Guzzi formally incorporated as Moto Guzzi S. p. A. with Giorgio Parodi as chairman. Carlo Guzzis first engine design was a single that dominated the first 45 years of the companys history in various configurations. Through 1934, each bore the signature of the mechanic who built it. As originally envisioned, the company used racing to promote the brand, in the 1935 Isle of Man TT, Moto Guzzi factory rider Stanley Woods performed an impressive double victory with wins in the Lightweight TT as well as the Senior TT. Also unusual was the adoption of only one hairspring to close the exhaust valve and these were the highest performance engines Moto Guzzi sold to the general public. By contrast, the company supplied the official racing team and private racers with higher performance racing machines with varying overhead cam, multi-valve configurations, in the 1950s, Moto Guzzi, along with the Italian factories of Gilera and Mondial, led the world of Grand Prix motorcycle racing. With durable and lightweight 250 cc and 350 cc bikes designed by Giulio Carcano, the factory won five consecutive 350 cc world championships between 1953 and 1957. In realizing that low weight alone might not continue to win races for the company, despite the bikes having led many races and frequently posted the fastest lap time, it often failed to complete races because of mechanical problems
7.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
8.
Two-stroke engine
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A two-stroke, or two-cycle, engine is a type of internal combustion engine which completes a power cycle with two strokes of the piston during only one crankshaft revolution. This is in contrast to an engine, which requires four strokes of the piston to complete a power cycle. In a two-stroke engine, the end of the combustion stroke, two-stroke engines often have a high power-to-weight ratio, power being available in a narrow range of rotational speeds called the power band. Compared to four-stroke engines, two-stroke engines have a reduced number of moving parts. The first commercial two-stroke engine involving in-cylinder compression is attributed to Scottish engineer Dugald Clerk, however, unlike most later two-stroke engines, his had a separate charging cylinder. The crankcase-scavenged engine, employing the area below the piston as a pump, is generally credited to Englishman Joseph Day. The first truly practical two-stroke engine is attributed to Yorkshireman Alfred Angas Scott, gasoline versions are particularly useful in lightweight or portable applications such as chainsaws and motorcycles. In a two-stroke engine, the transfer from the engine to the cooling system is less than in a four-stroke. Two-stroke petrol engines are preferred when mechanical simplicity, light weight, the Japanese manufacturer Suzuki did the same in the 1970s. Production of two-stroke cars ended in the 1980s in the West, eastern Bloc countries continued until around 1991, with the Trabant and Wartburg in East Germany. They are also common in power tools used outdoors, such as lawnmowers, chainsaws, with direct fuel injection and a sump-based lubrication system, a two-stroke engine produces air pollution no worse than a four-stroke, and it can achieve higher thermodynamic efficiency. Therefore, the cycle has also been used in large diesel engines, most notably large industrial and marine engines, as well as some trucks. Although the principles remain the same, the details of various two-stroke engines differ depending on the type. The design types vary according to the method of introducing the charge to the cylinder, the method of scavenging the cylinder, piston port is the simplest of the designs and the most common in small two-stroke engines. All functions are controlled solely by the covering and uncovering the ports as it moves up. In the 1970s, Yamaha worked out some principles for this system. They found that, in general, widening an exhaust port increases the power by the amount as raising the port. However, there is a limit to the width of a single exhaust port
9.
Overhead camshaft
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Compared to OHV pushrod systems with the same number of valves, the reciprocating components of the OHC system are fewer and have a lower overall mass. Though the system drives the camshafts may be more complex, most engine manufacturers accept that added complexity as a trade-off for better engine performance. The fundamental reason for the OHC valvetrain is that it offers an increase in the ability to exchange induction. Another performance advantage is gained as a result of the better optimised port configurations made possible with overhead camshaft designs, with no intrusive pushrods, the overhead camshaft cylinder head design can use straighter ports of more advantageous cross-section and length. The OHC design allows for higher speeds than comparable cam-in-block designs. The higher engine speeds thus allowed increases power output for a given torque output, in earlier OHC systems, including inter-war Morrises and Wolseleys, oil leaks in the lubrication systems were also an issue. Single overhead camshaft is a design in which one camshaft is placed within the cylinder head, in the SOHC design, the camshaft operates the valves directly, traditionally via a bucket tappet, or via an intermediary rocker arm. SOHC cylinder heads are less expensive to manufacture than double overhead camshaft cylinder heads. Timing belt replacement can be easier since there are fewer camshaft drive sprockets that need to be aligned during the replacement procedure, SOHC designs offer reduced complexity compared to overhead valve designs — when used for multivalve cylinder heads, in which each cylinder has more than two valves. Exhaust and inlet manifolds were both on the side of the engine block. This did, however, offer excellent access to the spark plugs, in the early 1980s, Toyota and Volkswagen Group also used a directly actuated, SOHC parallel valve configuration with two valves for each cylinder. The Toyota system used hydraulic tappets, the Volkswagen system used bucket tappets with shims for valve clearance adjustment. Honda later used a similar system in their motorcycles, using the term Unicam for the concept. This system uses one camshaft for each bank of cylinder heads, with the cams operating directly onto the valve and indirectly, through a short rocker arm. This allows a compact, light valvetrain to operate valves in a combustion chamber. The Unicam valve train was first used in single cylinder dirt bikes, a dual overhead camshaft valvetrain layout is characterised by two camshafts located within the cylinder head, one operating the intake valves and the other one operating the exhaust valves. This design reduces valvetrain inertia more than is the case with a SOHC engine, a DOHC design permits a wider angle between intake and exhaust valves than do SOHC engines. This can allow for a less restricted airflow at higher engine speeds, DOHC with a multivalve design also allows for the optimum placement of the spark plug which, in turn, improves combustion efficiency
10.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
11.
Supercharger
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A supercharger is an air compressor that increases the pressure or density of air supplied to an internal combustion engine. This gives each intake cycle of the more oxygen, letting it burn more fuel and do more work. Power for the supercharger can be provided mechanically by means of a belt, gear, shaft, when power is provided by a turbine powered by exhaust gas, a supercharger is known as a turbosupercharger – typically referred to simply as a turbocharger or just turbo. Common usage restricts the term supercharger to mechanically driven units, in 1848 or 1849 G. Jones of Birmingham, England brought out a Roots-style compressor. The worlds first functional, actually tested engine supercharger was made by Dugald Clerk, gottlieb Daimler received a German patent for supercharging an internal combustion engine in 1885. Louis Renault patented a centrifugal supercharger in France in 1902, an early supercharged race car was built by Lee Chadwick of Pottstown, Pennsylvania in 1908 which reportedly reached a speed of 100 mph. The worlds first series-produced cars with superchargers were Mercedes 6/25/40 hp, both models were introduced in 1921 and had Roots superchargers. They were distinguished as Kompressor models, the origin of the Mercedes-Benz badging which continues today, on March 24,1878 Heinrich Krigar of Germany obtained patent #4121, patenting the first ever screw-type compressor. Later that same year on August 16 he obtained patent #7116 after modifying and improving his original designs and his designs show a two-lobe rotor assembly with each rotor having the same shape as the other. Although the design resembled the Roots style compressor, the screws were clearly shown with 180 degrees of twist along their length, unfortunately, the technology of the time was not sufficient to produce such a unit, and Heinrich made no further progress with the screw compressor. Nearly half a century later, in 1935, Alf Lysholm and he also patented the method for machining the compressor rotors. There are two types of superchargers defined according to the method of gas transfer, positive displacement. Positive displacement blowers and compressors deliver an almost constant level of pressure increase at all engine speeds, dynamic compressors do not deliver pressure at low speeds, above a threshold speed, pressure increases with engine speed. Positive-displacement pumps deliver a nearly fixed volume of air per revolution at all speeds, Roots superchargers are external compression only. External compression refers to pumps that transfer air at ambient pressure into the engine, if the engine is running under boost conditions, the pressure in the intake manifold is higher than that coming from the supercharger. That causes a backflow from the engine into the supercharger until the two reach equilibrium and it is the backflow that actually compresses the incoming gas. This is an inefficient process and the factor in the lack of efficiency of Roots superchargers when used at high boost levels. The lower the boost level the smaller is this loss, and Roots blowers are very efficient at moving air at low pressure differentials, all the other types have some degree of internal compression
12.
Motobi
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Motobi was an Italian motorcycle manufacturer in production between 1950 and 1977. The brand was revived by Austrian company Michael Leeb Trading GmbH in partnership with Demharter GmbH in 2010, in 2010, as well as selling a range of 50 cc scooters, the brand provides sponsorship for the JiR motorcycle racing team in the Moto2 class. Motobi was established in Pesaro, Italy in 1949, by Giuseppe Benelli and this was shortened to Motobi in the 1950s. After a family disagreement in 1948, Giuseppe Benelli, one of the six brothers and he stayed in Pesaro, but moved to separate premises. Giuseppe launched the Moto B marque selling small two-stroke motorcycles and scooters, in 1953, Motobi introduced a 200cc horizontal two-stroke twin called the B200 Spring Lasting. Its innovative pressed steel frame and horizontal cylinder layout were to become the trademark for many future Motobi bikes, the B200 motor was a clean, streamlined, very modern appearing unit, which was soon nicknamed the egg for its distinctive shape. Giuseppe and his sons Luigi and Marco continued to work on improving Motobi products, in late 1955, the two-stroke twin cylinder B200 was abandoned entirely, and two different new models, both called Catria were introduced, one at 125cc and the other at 175cc. Both were four-stroke four speed singles, designed by freelance engineer Piero Prampolini and these improved singles became the focus of Motobi production, beating Moto Aermacchis 175cc Chimera to market by a year. Not long afterward, Giuseppe Benelli died, leaving the company in the hands of his two heirs, once in charge of the company, they hired a young former racer and tuner named Primo Zanzani to develop the new Catria machine into a factory racing machine. Italian semi-professional road racing and road hill climbing races were popular, and the tough little motorbike was soon earning a reputation among the Italian riders, bright decals lauding Motobis racing championships started appearing on the little bikes gas tanks, each version more colorful than the last. In America, where the Eisenhower-era economy was good, sales of motorcycles, the Benelli company saw opportunity in the New World, and also right next door, under the roof of their little cousin, Motobi. Many of these machines were exported to the United States badged as Benelli models, List of Italian companies List of motorcycle manufacturers Official website Motobi history website OfficineBenelli-Mototeca Storica Marchigiana, Storia della MotoBi
13.
Four-stroke
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A four-stroke engine is an internal combustion engine in which the piston completes four separate strokes while turning a crankshaft. A stroke refers to the travel of the piston along the cylinder. The four separate strokes are termed, Intake, also known as induction or suction This stroke of the piston begins at top dead center and ends at bottom dead center. In this stroke the valve must be in the open position while the piston pulls an air-fuel mixture into the cylinder by producing vacuum pressure into the cylinder through its downward motion. Compression, This stroke begins at B. D. C, or just at the end of the suction stroke, in this stroke the piston compresses the air-fuel mixture in preparation for ignition during the power stroke. Both the intake and exhaust valves are closed during this stage, combustion, also known as power or ignition This is the start of the second revolution of the four stroke cycle. At this point the crankshaft has completed a full 360 degree revolution, while the piston is at T. D. C. The compressed air-fuel mixture is ignited by a plug or by heat generated by high compression. This stroke produces mechanical work from the engine to turn the crankshaft, during the exhaust stroke, the piston once again returns from B. D. C. to T. D. C. While the exhaust valve is open and this action expels the spent air-fuel mixture through the exhaust valve. Nikolaus August Otto as a man was a traveling salesman for a grocery concern. In his travels he encountered the internal combustion engine built in Paris by Belgian expatriate Jean Joseph Etienne Lenoir, in 1860, Lenoir successfully created a double-acting engine that ran on illuminating gas at 4% efficiency. The 18 litre Lenoir Engine produced only 2 horsepower, the Lenoir engine ran on illuminating gas made from coal, which had been developed in Paris by Philip Lebon. In testing a replica of the Lenoir engine in 1861 Otto became aware of the effects of compression on the fuel charge, in 1862, Otto attempted to produce an engine to improve on the poor efficiency and reliability of the Lenoir engine. He tried to create an engine that would compress the fuel prior to ignition. Many other engineers were trying to solve the problem, with no success, in 1864, Otto and Eugen Langen founded the first internal combustion engine production company, NA Otto and Cie. Otto and Cie succeeded in creating an atmospheric engine that same year. The factory ran out of space and was moved to the town of Deutz, in 1872, Gottlieb Daimler was technical director and Wilhelm Maybach was the head of engine design
14.
Ducati
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Ducati Motor Holding S. p. A. is an Italian company that designs and manufactures motorcycles. Headquartered in Bologna, Italy, Ducati is owned by German automotive manufacturer Audi through its Italian subsidiary Lamborghini, in 1935 they had become successful enough to enable construction of a new factory in the Borgo Panigale area of the city. Production was maintained during World War II, despite the Ducati factory being a target of Allied bombing. Meanwhile, at the small Turinese firm SIATA, Aldo Farinelli began developing a small engine for mounting on bicycles. Barely a month after the liberation of Italy in 1944, SIATA announced its intention to sell this engine. In 1950, after more than 200,000 Cucciolos had been sold, in collaboration with SIATA and this first Ducati motorcycle was a 48 cc bike weighing 98 pounds, with a top speed of 40 mph, and had a 15 mm carburetor giving just under 200 mpg‑US. Ducati soon dropped the Cucciolo name in favor of 55M and 65TL, when the market moved toward larger motorcycles, Ducati management decided to respond, making an impression at an early-1952 Milan show, introducing their 65TS cycle and Cruiser. In 1953, management split the company into two entities, Ducati Meccanica SpA and Ducati Elettronica, in acknowledgment of its diverging motorcycle. Ducati Elettronica became Ducati Energia SpA in the eighties, dr. Giuseppe Montano took over as head of Ducati Meccanica SpA and the Borgo Panigale factory was modernized with government assistance. By 1954, Ducati Meccanica SpA had increased production to 120 bikes a day, in the 1960s, Ducati earned its place in motorcycling history by producing the fastest 250 cc road bike then available, the Mach 1. In the 1970s Ducati began producing large-displacement V-twin motorcycles and in 1973, in 1985, Cagiva bought Ducati and planned to rebadge Ducati motorcycles with the Cagiva name. By the time the purchase was completed, Cagiva kept the Ducati name on its motorcycles, in 1999, TPG issued an initial public offering of Ducati stock and renamed the company Ducati Motor Holding SpA. TPG sold over 65% of its shares in Ducati, leaving TPG the majority shareholder, in December 2005, Ducati returned to Italian ownership with the sale of Texas Pacifics stake to Investindustrial Holdings, the investment fund of Carlo and Andrea Bonomi. In April 2012, Volkswagen Groups Audi subsidiary announced its intention to buy Ducati for €860 million, Volkswagen chairman Ferdinand Piëch, a motorcycle enthusiast, had long coveted Ducati, and had regretted that he passed up an opportunity to buy the company from the Italian government in 1984. Italian luxury car brand Lamborghini was strengthened under VW ownership, AUDI AGs Automobili Lamborghini S. p. A. subsidiary acquired 100 percent of the shares of Ducati Motor Holding S. p. A. on 19 July 2012 for €747 million. Since 1926, Ducati has been owned by a number of groups, AUDI AG acquired 100% of the voting rights of Ducati Motor Holding S. p. A. via Audis Automobili Lamborghini S. p. A. MotoTranss most notable machine was the 250 cc 24 Horas, Ducati is best known for high-performance motorcycles characterized by large-capacity four-stroke, 90° V-twin engines, with a desmodromic valve design. Ducati refers to this configuration as L-twin because one cylinder is vertical while the other is horizontal, modern Ducatis remain among the dominant performance motorcycles available today partly because of the desmodromic valve design, which is nearing its 50th year of use
15.
Laverda
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Laverda was an Italian manufacturer of high performance motorcycles. The motorcycles in their day gained a reputation for being robust, the Laverda brand was absorbed by Piaggio when, in 2004, Piaggio absorbed Aprilia. Piaggio has elected to close all activities related to the Laverda brand and has publicly stated that they would be willing to sell the rights to the brand if an investor should appear. As of 2015, Laverda. com no longer redirects to Aprilias website, currently, laverda. com shows the history of company between 1873 and 2004. – Dottore Francesco Laverda e fratelli, assisted by Luciano Zen, and after hours of running the normal agricultural business, Francesco had started in 1947 to design a small motorcycle. Word has it, that some parts were cast in Francescos kitchen, confirming that at least initially. What most likely started as an evening pastime garage project of two technical enthusiasts was to one of the most successful motorcycles in history. A simple four stroke 75 cc bike with girder forks and an enclosed drive chain. However, the little bike showed promise and so on October 13,1949, over the next several years, Laverda became well known for building small capacity machines of high quality, durability and relative innovation for the time. To prove this, right from the beginning they modified their bikes in order to them in distance and endurance events like the Milan-Taranto, the Giro dItalia. Inspired by these results, and after once again improving their bikes, in this race which covered a distance of 1410 km they took the first five places. The winner was Nino Castellani, L. Marchi came second, in total they had 16 bikes amongst the first 20 of the classification. Laverda motorcycles thus became a favorite among racing clubmen due to their record for reliable performance. Over the next two decades, Laverda would go on to new models of ever increasing capacity and capability. Off-road, trial and motocross machines were developed in conjunction with manufacturers like Zündapp, BMW and Husqvarna. But the real development came in street models, which began to earn a reputation as classy, low maintenance. From that first 75 cc single, they went on to produce different bikes ranging from scooters. By the late 1960s, Francesco and brothers began sketching out a new breed of large motorcycles that would be built around an all new 650 cc parallel twin engine
16.
Vespa
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Vespa is an Italian brand of scooter manufactured by Piaggio. The name means wasp in Italian, the Vespa has evolved from a single model motor scooter manufactured in 1946 by Piaggio & Co. S. p. A. of Pontedera, Italy to a line of scooters. Post World War II Italy, in light of its agreement to cessation of war activities with the Allies, had its aircraft industry severely restricted in capability and capacity. Piaggio emerged from the conflict with its Pontedera fighter plane plant demolished by bombing, italys crippled economy and the disastrous state of the roads did not assist in the re-development of the automobile markets. In 1944, Piaggio engineers Renzo Spolti and Vittorio Casini designed a motorcycle with bodywork fully enclosing the drivetrain, in addition to the bodywork, the design included handlebar-mounted controls, forced air cooling, wheels of small diameter, and a tall central section that had to be straddled. Officially known as the MP5, the prototype was nicknamed Paperino, Piaggio was displeased with the MP5, especially the tall central section. He contracted aeronautical engineer Corradino DAscanio, to redesign the scooter, dAscanios MP6 prototype had its engine mounted beside the rear wheel. The wheel was directly from the transmission, eliminating the drive chain. The prototype had a unit spar frame with stress-bearing steel outer panels and these changes allowed the MP6 to have a step-through design without a centre section like that of the MP5 Paperino. The MP6 design also included a single sided front suspension, interchangeable front and rear mounted on stub axles. Other features of the MP6 were similar to those on the Paperino, including the handlebar-mounted controls, upon seeing the MP6 for the first time, Enrico Piaggio exclaimed, Sembra una vespa. Piaggio effectively named his new scooter on the spot, Vespa is both Latin and Italian for wasp—derived from the vehicles body shape, The thicker rear part connected to the front part by a narrow waist, and the steering rod resembled antennae. On 23 April 1946, at 12 oclock in the office for inventions, models and makes of the Ministry of Industry and Commerce in Florence. S. p. A. took out a patent for a motorcycle of a complexity of organs and elements combined with a frame with mudguards. The basic patented design allowed a series of features to be deployed on the spar-frame that would allow quick development of new models. The original Vespa featured a rear seat for a passenger. The fuel cap was located underneath the seat, which saved the cost of a lock on the fuel cap or need for additional metal work on the smooth skin
17.
Lambretta
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Lambretta is the brand name of a line of motor scooters initially manufactured in Milan, Italy, by Innocenti. The name is derived from the word Lambrate, the suburb of Milan named after the river flows through the area. Lambretta was the name of a mythical water-sprite associated with the river runs adjacent to the former production site. Innocenti S. A. based in Lugano, Switzerland is the owner of the international trademark Lambretta and has licensed the brand throughout the world, in 1922, Ferdinando Innocenti of Pescia built a steel-tubing factory in Rome. In 1931, he took the business to Milan where he built a factory producing seamless steel tubing and employing about 6,000. The factory was bombed and destroyed during World War II. The main stimulus for the style of the Lambretta and Vespa dates back to pre-World War II Cushman scooters made in Nebraska. These olive green scooters were in Italy in large numbers, ordered originally by the United States military as field transport for the paratroops, the United States military had used them to get around German defence tactics of destroying roads and bridges in the Dolomites and the Austrian border areas. It had to be easy to drive for both men and women, be able to carry a passenger and not get its drivers clothes soiled, DAscanio, who hated motorbikes, designed a revolutionary vehicle. It was built on a frame with a handlebar gear change. The front protection shield kept the rider dry and clean in comparison to the front end on motorcycles. The pass-through leg area design was geared towards women, as wearing dresses or skirts made riding conventional motorcycles a challenge, the front fork, like an aircrafts landing gear, allowed for easy wheel changing. The internal mesh transmission eliminated the standard chain, a source of oil. This basic design allowed a series of features to be deployed on the frame which would allow quick development of new models. However, DAscanio fell out with Innocenti, who rather than a spar frame wanted to produce his frame from rolled tubing, allowing him to revive both parts of his pre-war company. DAscanio disassociated himself from Innocenti and took his design to Enrico Piaggio who produced the spar-framed Vespa from 1946 on, the final design of the Lambretta was done by aeronautical engineers Cesare Pallavicino and Pier Luigi Torre. Pallavicino had been Technical Director at the Caproni airplane factory during World War II before working on the Lambretta design, Torre was an engine designer at Italo Balbos Idros, he designed the engine and organized Innocentis factory for mass production. Arriving on the market the year, the 1947 Lambretta featured a rear pillion seat for a passenger or optionally a storage compartment
18.
Montgomery Ward
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Montgomery Ward was the name of two historically distinct American retail enterprises. It can refer either to the mail order and department store retailer. Montgomery Ward was founded by Aaron Montgomery Ward in 1872, Ward had conceived of the idea of a dry goods mail-order business in Chicago, Illinois, after several years of working as a traveling salesman among rural customers. He observed that rural customers often wanted city goods, but their access to them was through rural retailers who had little competition. He and two partners used $1,600 they had raised in capital and issued their first catalog in August 1872 and it consisted of an 8 in ×12 in single-sheet price list, listing 163 items for sale with ordering instructions for which Ward had written the copy. His two partners left the year, but he continued the struggling business and was joined by his future brother-in-law. In the first few years, the business was not well received by rural retailers, considering Ward a threat, they sometimes publicly burned his catalog. Customers were also inspired by the innovative and unprecedented company policy of satisfaction guaranteed or your money back, Ward turned the copy writing over to department heads, but he continued poring over every detail in the catalog for accuracy. In 1883, the catalog, which became popularly known as the Wish Book, had grown to 240 pages and 10,000 items. In 1896, Wards encountered its first serious competition in the mail order business, in 1900, Wards had total sales of $8.7 million, compared to $10 million for Sears, and both companies would struggle for dominance during much of the 20th century. By 1904, the company had expanded as such that it mailed three million catalogs, weighing 4 lb each, to customers, in 1908, the company opened a 1. 25-million-square-foot building stretching along nearly one-quarter mile of the Chicago River, north of downtown Chicago. The building, known as the Montgomery Ward & Co, catalog House, served as the company headquarters until 1974, when the offices moved across the street to a new tower designed by Minoru Yamasaki. The catalog house was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1978, in the decades before 1930, Montgomery Ward built a network of large distributions centers across the country in Baltimore, Fort Worth, Kansas City, St. Paul, Portland, and Oakland. In most cases, these concrete structures were the largest industrial structures in their respective locations. The Baltimore Montgomery Ward Warehouse and Retail Store was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2000, Ward died in 1913, after 41 years running the catalog business. Thorne, died in 1917, and was succeeded by Robert J. Thorne, Robert Thorne retired in 1920 due to ill health. In 1926, the company broke with its mail-order-only tradition when it opened its first retail store in Plymouth. It continued to operate its business while pursuing an aggressive campaign to build retail outlets in the late-1920s
19.
Japan
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Japan is a sovereign island nation in Eastern Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies off the eastern coast of the Asia Mainland and stretches from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea, the kanji that make up Japans name mean sun origin. 日 can be read as ni and means sun while 本 can be read as hon, or pon, Japan is often referred to by the famous epithet Land of the Rising Sun in reference to its Japanese name. Japan is an archipelago consisting of about 6,852 islands. The four largest are Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu and Shikoku, the country is divided into 47 prefectures in eight regions. Hokkaido being the northernmost prefecture and Okinawa being the southernmost one, the population of 127 million is the worlds tenth largest. Japanese people make up 98. 5% of Japans total population, approximately 9.1 million people live in the city of Tokyo, the capital of Japan. Archaeological research indicates that Japan was inhabited as early as the Upper Paleolithic period, the first written mention of Japan is in Chinese history texts from the 1st century AD. Influence from other regions, mainly China, followed by periods of isolation, from the 12th century until 1868, Japan was ruled by successive feudal military shoguns who ruled in the name of the Emperor. Japan entered into a period of isolation in the early 17th century. The Second Sino-Japanese War of 1937 expanded into part of World War II in 1941, which came to an end in 1945 following the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Japan is a member of the UN, the OECD, the G7, the G8, the country has the worlds third-largest economy by nominal GDP and the worlds fourth-largest economy by purchasing power parity. It is also the worlds fourth-largest exporter and fourth-largest importer, although Japan has officially renounced its right to declare war, it maintains a modern military with the worlds eighth-largest military budget, used for self-defense and peacekeeping roles. Japan is a country with a very high standard of living. Its population enjoys the highest life expectancy and the third lowest infant mortality rate in the world, in ancient China, Japan was called Wo 倭. It was mentioned in the third century Chinese historical text Records of the Three Kingdoms in the section for the Wei kingdom, Wa became disliked because it has the connotation of the character 矮, meaning dwarf. The 倭 kanji has been replaced with the homophone Wa, meaning harmony, the Japanese word for Japan is 日本, which is pronounced Nippon or Nihon and literally means the origin of the sun. The earliest record of the name Nihon appears in the Chinese historical records of the Tang dynasty, at the start of the seventh century, a delegation from Japan introduced their country as Nihon
20.
Honda
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Honda Motor Co. Ltd. is a Japanese public multinational conglomerate corporation primarily known as a manufacturer of automobiles, aircraft, motorcycles, and power equipment. Honda became the second-largest Japanese automobile manufacturer in 2001, Honda was the eighth largest automobile manufacturer in the world behind General Motors, Volkswagen Group, Toyota, Hyundai Motor Group, Ford, Nissan, and PSA Peugeot Citroën in 2011. Honda was the first Japanese automobile manufacturer to release a luxury brand, Acura. Aside from their automobile and motorcycle businesses, Honda also manufactures garden equipment, marine engines, personal watercraft and power generators. Since 1986, Honda has been involved with artificial intelligence/robotics research and they have also ventured into aerospace with the establishment of GE Honda Aero Engines in 2004 and the Honda HA-420 HondaJet, which began production in 2012. Honda has three joint-ventures in China, in 2013, Honda invested about 5. 7% of its revenues in research and development. Also in 2013, Honda became the first Japanese automaker to be a net exporter from the United States, exporting 108,705 Honda and Acura models, throughout his life, Hondas founder, Soichiro Honda had an interest in automobiles. He worked as a mechanic at the Art Shokai garage, where he tuned cars, in 1937, with financing from his acquaintance Kato Shichirō, Honda founded Tōkai Seiki to make piston rings working out of the Art Shokai garage. After initial failures, Tōkai Seiki won a contract to supply piston rings to Toyota, Honda also aided the war effort by assisting other companies in automating the production of military aircraft propellers. The relationships Honda cultivated with personnel at Toyota, Nakajima Aircraft Company, with a staff of 12 men working in a 16 m2 shack, they built and sold improvised motorized bicycles, using a supply of 500 two-stroke 50 cc Tohatsu war surplus radio generator engines. When the engines ran out, Honda began building their own copy of the Tohatsu engine and this was the Honda A-Type, nicknamed the Bata Bata for the sound the engine made. In 1949, the Honda Technical Research Institute was liquidated for ¥1,000,000, or about US$5,000 today, at about the same time Honda hired engineer Kihachiro Kawashima, and Takeo Fujisawa who provided indispensable business and marketing expertise to complement Soichiro Hondas technical bent. The close partnership between Soichiro Honda and Fujisawa lasted until they stepped down together in October 1973, the first complete motorcycle, with both the frame and engine made by Honda, was the 1949 D-Type, the first Honda to go by the name Dream. Honda Motor Company grew in a time to become the worlds largest manufacturer of motorcycles by 1964. The first production automobile from Honda was the T360 mini pick-up truck, powered by a small 356-cc straight-4 gasoline engine, it was classified under the cheaper Kei car tax bracket. The first production car from Honda was the S500 sports car and its chain-driven rear wheels pointed to Hondas motorcycle origins. Over the next few decades, Honda worked to expand its line and expanded operations. In 1986, Honda introduced the successful Acura brand to the American market in an attempt to ground in the luxury vehicle market
21.
Starter (engine)
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A starter is a device used to rotate an internal-combustion engine so as to initiate the engines operation under its own power. Starters can be electric, pneumatic, hydraulic, or in case of large engines. Internal-combustion engines are feedback systems, which, once started, rely on the inertia from each cycle to initiate the next cycle. In a four-stroke engine, the third stroke releases energy from the fuel, powering the fourth stroke, to start the first cycle at the beginning of any particular session, the first two strokes must be powered in some other way than from the engine itself. The starter motor is used for purpose and is not required once the engine starts running. The hand-crank method was used to start engines, but it was inconvenient, difficult. The behavior of an engine during starting is not always predictable, the engine can kick back, causing sudden reverse rotation. Many manual starters included a slip or release provision so that once engine rotation began. In the event of a kickback, the rotation of the engine could suddenly engage the starter, causing the crank to unexpectedly and violently jerk. For cord-wound starters, a kickback could pull the operator towards the engine or machine, or swing the starter cord and handle at high speed around the starter pulley. Even though cranks had a mechanism, when the engine started. Although users were advised to cup their fingers and thumb under the crank and pull up, it felt natural for operators to grasp the handle with the fingers on one side, the thumb on the other. Even a simple backfire could result in a thumb, it was possible to end up with a broken wrist. Moreover, increasingly larger engines with higher compression ratios made hand cranking a more physically demanding endeavour, the first electric starter was installed on an Arnold, an adaptation of the Benz Velo, built 1896 in East Peckham, England by electrical engineer H. J. Dowsing. In 1911, Charles F. Kettering, with Henry M. Leland, patent 1,150,523 for the first electric starter in America. At the voltage and current levels required, such a motor would burn out in a few minutes of continuous operation, the starters were first installed by Cadillac on production models in 1912, with the same system being adopted by Lanchester later that year. These starters also worked as generators once the engine was running, the Star and Adler cars had spring motors, which used the energy stored in a spring driving through a reduction gear. If the car failed to start the starter handle could be used to wind up the spring for a further attempt and it was still common for cars to be supplied with starter handles into the 1960s, and this continued much later for some makes
22.
Norton Motorcycle Company
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The Norton Motorcycle Company is a British motorcycle marque, originally from Birmingham, UK. It was founded in 1898 as a manufacturer of fittings and parts for the two-wheel trade, by 1902, the company began manufacturing motorcycles with bought-in engines. In 1908, a Norton-built engine was added to the range and this began a long series of production of single and eventually twin-cylinder motorcycles, and a long history of racing involvement. Production of the military Model 16 H and Big 4 sidevalve motorcycles was Nortons contribution to the WWII war effort, when major shareholders started to leave Norton in 1953, the company declined and Associated Motor Cycles bought the shares. Although motorcycle sales went through a recession in the 1950s, and Norton Motors Ltd was only a small manufacturer, Norton sales flourished. A series of Norton Dominator Twins of 500 cc, then 600 cc, then 650 cc and then the 750 cc Norton Atlas kept sales buoyant, especially with sales to the USA. In 1968, the new 750 cc Norton Commando Model appeared and this kept the vibrations from the rider, giving a smooth comfortable ride. The Commando was a best seller, and voted #1 Motorcycle of the Year a number of times in Britain,850 cc models appeared for 1973, giving more torque. For 1975 an electric start arrived in the 850 Mk3, the largest UK motorcycle manufacturer at the time was BSA-Triumph, comprising Birmingham Small Arms Company in Birmingham, and Triumph Motorcycles in Meriden. BSA-Triumph faced difficulties caused by poor management, outdated union practices, old-fashioned motorcycle designs, the Triumph factory Meriden was the least modern, but workers engaged in a sit-in, forming a workers co-operative. Poore was CEO of Manganese Bronze Holdings, an apparently more concerned with asset stripping than with motorcycle production. Subsequent political manoeuvrings led to the downfall of NVT, as taxpayer-assisted wranglings over amalgamations and sell-offs all, the original company was formed by James Lansdowne Norton at 320, Bradford Street, Birmingham, in 1898. In 1902, Norton began building motorcycles with French and Swiss engines, in 1907, a Norton ridden by Rem Fowler won the twin-cylinder class in the first Isle of Man TT race, beginning a sporting tradition that went on until the 1960s. The first Norton engines were made in 1907, with production models available from 1908 and these were the 3.5 hp and the Big 4, beginning a line of side-valve single-cylinder engines which continued with few changes until the late 1950s. The first Norton logo was a simple, art nouveau design. However, a new logo appeared on the front of the catalogue for 1914 and it became known as the curly N logo, with only the initial letter as a capital, and was used by the company thereafter, first appearing on actual motorcycles in 1915. Ethel Norton also did some testing of her fathers motorcycles, in 1913 the business declined, and R. T. Shelley & Co. the main creditors, intervened and saved it, Norton Motors Ltd was formed shortly afterwards under joint directorship of James Norton and Bob Shelley
23.
Birmingham Small Arms Company
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This article is not about Gamo subsidiary BSA Guns Limited or BSA Company or its successors. At its peak, BSA was the largest motorcycle producer in the world, in the late 1950s and early 1960s poor management and failure to develop new products in the motorcycle division led to a dramatic decline of sales to its major USA market. The management had failed to appreciate the importance of the resurgent Japanese motorcycle industry, the original company, The Birmingham Small Arms Company Limited, remains a subsidiary of Manganese Bronze but its name was changed in 1987. BSA began in June 1861 in the Gun Quarter, Birmingham, England and it was formed by a group of fourteen gunsmith members of the Birmingham Small Arms Trade Association. The War Office provided this new grouping of gunsmiths free access to technical drawings, the newly formed company purchased 25 acres of land at Small Heath, Birmingham, built a factory there and made a road on the site calling it Armoury Road. This machinery brought to Birmingham manifested the principle of the inter-changeability of parts, BSAs resort to the use of machinery was rewarded in 1863 with an order for 20,000 Turkish infantry rifles. F. Swinburn under the chairmanship of John Dent Goodman, the first War Office contract was not agreed until 1868. In 1879, the factory, without work, was shut for a year, the military arms trade was precarious. The next year BSA branched out into bicycle manufacture, the gun factory proved remarkably adaptable to the manufacture of cycle parts. What cycles needed was large quantities of standard parts accurately machined at low prices, bicycle production ceased in 1887 as the company concentrated on producing the Lee–Metford magazine-loading rifle for the War Office which was re-equipping the British Army with it. The order was for 1,200 rifles per week, BSA recommenced manufacturing bicycles on their own behalf from 1908. BSA Cycles Ltd was set up in 1919 for the manufacture of bicycles and motorcycles. BSA sold the business to Raleigh in 1957 after separating the bicycle and motorcycle business in 1953. In 1893, BSA commenced making bicycle hubs and continued to supply the cycle trade with bicycle parts up to 1936, BSA bought The Eadie Manufacturing Company of Redditch in 1907 and so began to manufacture the Eadie two speed hub gear and the Eadie coaster brake hub. BSA also signed an agreement with the Three Speed Gear Syndicate in 1907 to manufacture a 3 speed hub under licence. This was later classified as the Sturmey Archer Type X. BSA introduced a Duo hub in the late 1930s which was capable of one fixed gear, all BSA hub gear production temporarily ceased in 1939, until they recommenced making their 3 speed hub around 1945. The Eadie coaster hub made a return in 1953 on two BSA bicycle models. BSA forever ceased production of their hub gears in 1955, BSA sold its ammunition business in 1897 to Birmingham Metal and Munitions Company Limited part of the Nobel-Dynamite Trust, through Kynoch a forerunner of ICI
24.
Triumph Engineering
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Triumph Engineering Co Ltd was a British motorcycle manufacturing company, based originally in Coventry and then in Solihull at Meriden. A new company, Triumph Motorcycles Ltd based in Hinckley gained the rights after the end of the company in the 1980s and is now one of the worlds major motorcycle manufacturers. The company was started by Siegfried Bettmann, who had emigrated from Nuremberg, part of the German Empire, in 1884, aged 20, Bettmann had founded his own company, the S. Bettmann & Co. Bettmanns original products were bicycles, which the company bought and then sold under its own name, Bettmann also distributed sewing machines imported from Germany. In 1886, Bettmann sought a more specific name, and the became known as the Triumph Cycle Company. A year later, the company was registered as the New Triumph Co, Ltd, now with funding from the Dunlop Pneumatic Tyre Company. During that year, another native of Nuremberg, Moritz Schulte, Schulte encouraged Bettmann to transform Triumph into a manufacturing company, and in 1888 Bettmann purchased a site in Coventry using money lent by his and Schultes families. The company began producing the first Triumph-branded bicycles in 1889, in 1896 Triumph also opened a bicycle factory in Nuremberg. In 1898 Triumph decided to extend production at Coventry to include motorcycles, in 1903, after selling more than 500 motorcycles, Triumph began motorcycle production at the Nuremberg factory. By the end of year, the company had produced more than 250. In 1907, after the company opened a plant, it produced 1,000 machines. Triumph had also initiated a lower-end brand, Gloria, also manufactured in the original plant. Confusion between motorcycles produced by the Coventry and Nuremberg Triumph companies resulted in the products being renamed Orial for certain export markets. However, a company named Orial already existed in France, so the Nuremberg motorcycles were renamed again as TWN, the beginning of the First World War was a boost for the company as production was switched to provide for the Allied war effort. More than 30,000 motorcycles—among them the Model H Roadster also known as the Trusty Triumph, after the war, Bettmann and Schulte disagreed about planning, with Schulte wishing to replace bicycle production with cars. Harry Ricardo produced an engine for their latest motorbike, by the mid-1920s Triumph had become one of Britains main motorcycle and car makers, with a 500,000 square feet plant capable of producing as many as 30,000 motorcycles and cars each year. Triumph also found its bicycles demanded overseas, and export sales became a source of the companys revenues, although for the United States. The companys first automotive success was the Super Seven model, which debuted in 1928, soon after, the Super Eight model was developed
25.
Benelli Sei
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The Benelli Sei is a series of motorcycles that were produced by Italian manufacturer Benelli, and masterminded by automotive designer Alejandro de Tomaso, from 1973 to 1989. Two models were made, with 750 and 900 cc displacement, the 750 was the first production motorcycle with a six-cylinder engine. The Benelli 750 Sei was the first production motorcycle with a 6-cylinder engine and had two model releases, de Tomaso intended it to become Italys premier sporting motorcycle and wanted it badged as a Moto Guzzi. On its launch, it received tremendous publicity overshadowing all other Italian bikes of that year and it started the trend of angular designed motorcycles moving away from traditional round forms. The engine was based on the four-cylinder Honda CB500, but with two extra cylinders, the cylinder head fins of the Sei were squared off to provide a cosmetic individuality, but otherwise the engine is in most respects obviously derived from the Honda. The angular, bold design was by Carrozzeria Ghia and it produced 76 bhp at 9,000 rpm, had a top speed of around 127 mph and was one of the smoothest European tourers. Despite the extra cylinders, the Seis width was kept to a minimum by siting the alternator behind the cylinders, cooling was improved by having air passages between the cylinders, the Sei had three DellOrto VHB24 mm carburetors. The vehicle appeared to reviewers as heavy and cumbersome but handled surprising well, production Frame numbers started at 5000. Production figures were as follows, Series 1, less than 2,000 were made over four model releases. Described at the time as outrageous or a flashbike, flashbikes tended to be rare, expensive, European, quirky, handsome and high performance. It had an original MSRP of $3,995 and it was later released as a sport model with a larger bikini fairing. List of Benelli motorcycles Motorcycle Classics article on Benelli 750 Sei
26.
Benelli Tornado Tre 900
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The Benelli Tornado Tre 900 is a motorcycle made from 2002 to 2014 by Benelli of Pesaro, Italy. The current model is designated as the Tornado Tre 903, in 1973 Benelli and competitor Moto Guzzi were acquired by Argentinian industrialist Alejandro de Tomaso. After a failed attempt to revive the brand under Giancarlo Selci in 1989, the new Benelli company showed a stunning design model at the Milan motorcycle show in 1999, which combined both angular and curved elements. Housing a triple-900 cc engine, the engine was part of the bikes stressed frame. Combined with a fuel injection management mapping system, the bike tended to have a peaky response. Later and continuing in-house development cured much of this quickly, as well as new injectors from the 2004 models onwards, the early models suffered from both high prices, poor fuel injection mapping and poor reliability. Sold as a model, dealers were few and factory support not ideal in the early production time. As a result, sales were slow, and second hand prices fell due to owners reliability concerns. One of the early problems was with the clutch basket which was eventually replaced under warranty. The intermediate gear was strengthened and concentricity improved, however, the problem then moved to the next weakest part, the alternator drive shaft/Z25 gear, which, in extreme cases could break at a lubrication hole. It commonly manifested itself in the 1130 variant of the engine, the root cause of the clutch / alternator drive problem was thermal expansion, which reduced the Z25 / intermediate gear clearances to negative. The solution was to improve the concentricity of both the intermediate and alternator drive shaft gears, and increase their clearance. At the same time, the alternator drive hub fastening method was changed from a washer to a belleville washer to stop the bolt from working loose due to heat cycling. With these changes, the reliability has improved to meet or exceed its peers. Continual development to this day of the fuel injection mapping also improves the rideability, the launch Tornado Tre base model, also called the biposto, was quickly followed by 150 units of the Tornado Novocento LE, to homologate a suitable base model for the Superbike World Championship. Similar to the base bisposto, it additionally featured carbon fibre bodywork and tank, light weight magnesium wheels, in 2004, Benelli stroked the engine to create the new Benelli Tornado Tre 1130, which now developing 161 brake horsepower challenged to the established Italian superbike hierarchy of Ducati. List of Benelli motorcycles Benelli website Bike review @ Motorcycle News
27.
China
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China, officially the Peoples Republic of China, is a unitary sovereign state in East Asia and the worlds most populous country, with a population of over 1.381 billion. The state is governed by the Communist Party of China and its capital is Beijing, the countrys major urban areas include Shanghai, Guangzhou, Beijing, Chongqing, Shenzhen, Tianjin and Hong Kong. China is a power and a major regional power within Asia. Chinas landscape is vast and diverse, ranging from forest steppes, the Himalaya, Karakoram, Pamir and Tian Shan mountain ranges separate China from much of South and Central Asia. The Yangtze and Yellow Rivers, the third and sixth longest in the world, respectively, Chinas coastline along the Pacific Ocean is 14,500 kilometers long and is bounded by the Bohai, Yellow, East China and South China seas. China emerged as one of the worlds earliest civilizations in the basin of the Yellow River in the North China Plain. For millennia, Chinas political system was based on hereditary monarchies known as dynasties, in 1912, the Republic of China replaced the last dynasty and ruled the Chinese mainland until 1949, when it was defeated by the communist Peoples Liberation Army in the Chinese Civil War. The Communist Party established the Peoples Republic of China in Beijing on 1 October 1949, both the ROC and PRC continue to claim to be the legitimate government of all China, though the latter has more recognition in the world and controls more territory. China had the largest economy in the world for much of the last two years, during which it has seen cycles of prosperity and decline. Since the introduction of reforms in 1978, China has become one of the worlds fastest-growing major economies. As of 2016, it is the worlds second-largest economy by nominal GDP, China is also the worlds largest exporter and second-largest importer of goods. China is a nuclear weapons state and has the worlds largest standing army. The PRC is a member of the United Nations, as it replaced the ROC as a permanent member of the U. N. Security Council in 1971. China is also a member of numerous formal and informal multilateral organizations, including the WTO, APEC, BRICS, the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, the BCIM, the English name China is first attested in Richard Edens 1555 translation of the 1516 journal of the Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa. The demonym, that is, the name for the people, Portuguese China is thought to derive from Persian Chīn, and perhaps ultimately from Sanskrit Cīna. Cīna was first used in early Hindu scripture, including the Mahābhārata, there are, however, other suggestions for the derivation of China. The official name of the state is the Peoples Republic of China. The shorter form is China Zhōngguó, from zhōng and guó and it was then applied to the area around Luoyi during the Eastern Zhou and then to Chinas Central Plain before being used as an occasional synonym for the state under the Qing
28.
India
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India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
29.
Pune
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Pune is the second largest city in the Indian state of Maharashtra and the ninth most populous city in the country. In the 18th century, Pune was the centre of the Indian subcontinent. Considered to be the capital of Maharashtra, Pune is known as Oxford of the East due to the presence of several well-known educational institutions in the city. The city has emerged as an educational hub in recent decades. Since the 1950s and 1960s, Pune has had a traditional old-economic base as most of the old industries continue to grow, a few college in the Europe have also actively engaged in Student-exchange programs with several colleges in Pune. Pune is also one of the fastest growing cities in the Asia-Pacific region, the ‘Mercer 2015 Quality of Living rankings’ evaluated local living conditions in more than 440 cities around the world where Pune ranked at 145, second in India after Hyderabad. It also highlights Pune among evolving business centres and emerging nine cities around the world with citation Hosts IT, the oldest reference to the place is found inscribed on a Rashtrakuta Dynasty copper plate dated AD937, which refers to the town as Punya-Vishaya meaning Sacred News. By the 13th century, it had come to be known as Punawadi, copper plates dated 858 AD and 868 AD show that by the 8th century an agricultural settlement known as Punnaka existed where Pune is today. The plates indicate that this region was ruled by the Rashtrakuta dynasty, the Pataleshwar rock-cut temple complex was built during this era. Pune was part of the territory ruled by Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri from the 9th century to 1327, in 1595, Maloji Raje Bhosale was granted the jagirdari of Pune by the Ahmadnagar Sultanate. Pune was ruled by the Ahmadnagar Sultanate until it was annexed by the Mughals in the 17th century, Pune was part of the Jagir granted to Maloji Bhosale in 1599 for his services to the Nizamshahi of Ahmadnagar. His grandson, Shivaji, the founder of Maratha Empire, was born in Shivneri fort not far from Pune, Shivaji was brought up by his mother in Pune. Pune changed hands several times between the Mughals and the Marathas in the period between 1660 and 1705 and he stabilised the revenue collection and administrative systems of areas around Pune and in neighbouring area of the Maval region. In addition, he developed methods to manage disputes and to enforce law. Construction on the Lal Mahal began in 1631 AD, the Lal Mahal was completed in 1640 AD. Jijabai is said to have commissioned the building of the Kasba Ganapati temple, the Ganesha idol consecrated at this temple has been regarded as the presiding deity of the city. Shivaji encouraged the development of dams in the Parvati and Kondhwa regions of Pune for agricultural purposes, Pune and its surrounding villages were the major recruitment areas for Shivajis army between 1645 AD and 1680 AD. Between 1660 AD and 1670 AD the town was captured by Mughal General Shahista Khan, Shivaji often used Pune as his transit base during his major campaigns such as Varhad-Karanja, AhemadaNagar District, Karnataka, and Jalna
30.
Inline-four engine
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The inline-four engine or straight-four engine is a type of inline internal combustion four-cylinder engine with all four cylinders mounted in a straight line, or plane along the crankcase. The single bank of cylinders may be oriented in either a vertical or a plane with all the pistons driving a common crankshaft. Where it is inclined, it is called a slant-four. In a specification chart or when an abbreviation is used, an engine is listed either as I4 or L4. The inline-four layout is in primary balance and confers a degree of mechanical simplicity which makes it popular for economy cars. However, despite its simplicity, it suffers from an imbalance which causes minor vibrations in smaller engines. These vibrations become more powerful as engine size and power increase, the inline-four is the most common engine configuration in modern cars, while the V6 engine is the second most popular. This inline engine configuration is the most common in cars with a displacement up to 3.0 L, in practice, the displacement of inline-four petrol engines in cars rarely exceeds this figure. For example, the largest engine of this form on the U. S. market in model year 2015 is the Toyota 2TR-FE, however, there are some notable exceptions. Early vehicles also tended to have engines with larger displacements to develop horsepower, the Model A Ford was built with a 3.3 L inline-four engine. Inline-four diesel engines, which are lower revving than gasoline engines, Mitsubishi still employs a 3.0 L inline-four diesel. Generally, European and Asian manufacturers of trucks with a vehicle weight rating between 7.5 and 18 tonnes use inline four-cylinder diesel engines with displacements around 5 L. The MAN D0834 engine is a 4.6 L inline-4 with 220 hp and 627 lb·ft, the Isuzu Forward is a medium-duty truck which is available with a 5.2 L inline-four engine that delivers 210 hp and 470 lb·ft. The Hino Ranger is a medium-duty truck which is available with a 5.1 L inline-four engine that delivers 175 hp and 465 lb·ft, the earlier Hino Ranger even had a 5.3 L inline-four engine. The Kubota M135X is a tractor with a 6.1 L inline-four and this turbo-diesel engine has a bore of 118 mm and a relatively long stroke of 140 mm. One of the strongest Powerboat-4-cylinders is the Volvo Penta D4-300 turbodiesel and this is a 3.7 L-inline-4 with 300 hp and 516 lb·ft. Brunswick Marine built a 127 kW3.7 L 4-cylinder gasoline engine for their Mercruiser Inboard/outboard line, the block was formed from one half of a Ford 460 cubic inch V8 engine. This engine was produced in the 1970s and 1980s, One of the largest inline-four engines is the MAN B&W 4K90 marine engine
31.
Islamic Republic of Iran Broadcasting
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IRIB is independent of the Iranian government and its head is appointed directly by the leader, Ayatollah Ali Khamenei. The IRIB provides twelve radio stations for domestic audiences and through the IRIB World Service thirty radio stations are available for foreign, in addition also publishes the Persian-language newspaper Jaam-e Jam. The appointment and dismissal of the head of the Radio and Television of the Islamic Republic of Iran rests with the Leader, the policies and the manner of managing the organization and its supervision will be determined by law. Prior to the 1979 Iranian Revolution, IRIB was known as National Iranian Radio & Television, the first director after 1979 Revolution was Sadeq Qotbzadeh. The current director is Mohammad Sarafraz, the previous directors included Ezzatollah Zarghami, Ali Larijani and Mohammad Hashemi Rafsanjani. Sima Festival is the biggest and most important TV productions contest sponsoring annually by IRIB organization, winners are the best producers, directors, actors and directors in various categories honored by organizations head and receive valuable prizes. IRIB has branches in 20 countries worldwide, including France, India, Belgium, Malaysia, UK, the United States, fifty percent of those 30 provincial channels use the local accent or dialect. The IRIB provides twelve radio stations as well, and an international service. IRIB has 27 world service channels, IRIB also has Arabic, Hindi, English and Spanish channels, beside the native Persian. IRIB produces 5000 hours of TV shows,300 movies and 20,000 minutes of animated movies, total number of employees,13,000 to 50,00045. 5% of Irans youth report trust in news broadcast by the Islamic Republic of Iran Broadcasting. Total budget of IRIB is about $900-1000 million which is maintained by advertisement, Soroush Press, a publisher of some magazines including Soroush Weekly, Soroush Koodakan, Soroush Nojavan, Soroush Javan, Soroush Banovan and publishes books, too. Jamejam Daily is the organ of the IRIB organization. IRIB News Department is an agency affiliated to the IRIB Organization. IRIB has a production company, called Sima Film. IRIB also outsources media production to privately owned domestic media companies. Produce technical equipment such as transmition and switching systems for IRIB IT & ICT Company related to IRIB Which is provide IPTV services and it has 26 branch offices in Iran. Provides CD/DVD of IRIB programs and holds some special short term education in 31 offices all over provinces of Iran. is holding company of 17 related company to IRIB such as Soroush Multimedia Co. & TAKTA CO. provides some courses related to media is responsible for researches in social, known before as Cima Media Intl, is the sole representative of IRIB in distribution of its productions as well as program acquisition for IRIB localTV channels
32.
Tehran
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Tehran is the capital of Iran and Tehran Province. It is ranked 29th in the world by the population of its metropolitan area, in the Classical era, part of the present-day city of Tehran was occupied by a Median city that in the Avesta occurs as Rhaga. It was destroyed by the Mongols in the early 13th century, the capital has been moved several times throughout the history, and Tehran is the 32nd national capital of Iran. The city was the seat of the Qajars and Pahlavis, the two last imperial dynasties of Iran. It is home to historical collections, such as the royal complexes of Golestan, Sadabad. Large scale demolition and rebuilding began in the 1920s, and Tehran has been a destination for the migrations from all over Iran since the 20th century. Tabiat Bridge, which was completed in 2014, is considered the third symbol of the city. There have been plans to relocate Irans capital from Tehran to another area, due mainly to air pollution, to date, no definitive plans have been approved. A2016 survey of 230 cities by consultant Mercer ranked Tehran 203rd for quality of living, according to the Global Destinations Cities Index in 2016, Tehran is among the top ten fastest growing destinations. The origin of the name Tehran is uncertain, the settlement of Tehran dates back over 7,000 years. The present-day city of Tehran was a suburb of an important Median city that was known as Rhaga in Old Persian, in the Avestas Videvdat, Rhaga is mentioned as the twelfth sacred place created by the Ohrmazd. In Old Persian inscriptions, Rhaga appears as a province and it was a major area for the Iranian tribes of Medes and Achaemenids. From Rhaga, Darius the Great sent reinforcements to his father Hystaspes, in some Middle Persian texts, Rhaga is given as the birthplace of Zoroaster, although modern historians generally place the birth of Zoroaster in Khorasan. Derived into Modern Persian as Rey, it now as a city located towards the southern end of the modern-day city of Tehran. Mount Damavand, the highest peak of Iran, which is located near Tehran, is an important location in Ferdowsis Shahname, the long Iranian epic poem that is based on the ancient epics of Iran. It appears in the epics as the birthplace of Manuchehr, the residence of Keyumars, the place where Freydun binds the dragon fiend Aži Dahāka, during the Sassanid era, in 641, Yazdgerd III issued his last appeal to the nation from Rey, before fleeing to Khorasan. Rey was dominated by the Parthian Mihran family, and Siyavakhsh—the son of Mihran the son of Bahram Chobin—who resisted the Muslim Invasion, because of this resistance, when the Arabs captured Rey, they ordered the town to be destroyed and ordered Farrukhzad to rebuild the town anew. In the 9th century, Tehran was a well known village, but less known than the city of Rey, the medieval writer Najm od Din Razi declared the population of Rey about 500,000 before the Mongol Invasion
33.
Isle of Man TT
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The International Isle of Man TT Race is a motorcycle sport event held annually on the Isle of Man in May or June of each year since the inaugural race in 1907. The Isle of Man TT for many years has been the most prestigious race in the world and also seen as the ultimate test for competitors. In 2016, the Vision Nine Group was appointed by the Isle of Man Department of Economic Development in a deal as a race promoter for the 2017 Isle of Man TT onwards. The Isle of Man TT has been run in a time-trial format on public roads closed for racing by the provisions of an Act of Tynwald. The event consists of one week of practice sessions followed by one week of racing, the first Isle of Man TT race was held on Tuesday 28 May 1907 and was called the International Auto-Cycle Tourist Trophy. From 1911 the Isle of Man TT transferred to the much longer Snaefell Mountain Course of 37.40 miles, the race did not take place from 1915 to 1919 due to the First World War. A 250cc Lightweight TT race was added to the Isle of Man TT programme in 1922 followed by a Sidecar TT race in 1923, there was no racing on the Isle of Man between 1940 and 1945 due to the Second World War. It recommenced with the Manx Grand Prix in 1946 then the Isle of Man TT in 1947 with an expanded format that included the new Clubmans TT races. The Isle of Man TT became part of the FIM Motor-cycle Grand Prix World Championship as the British round of the World Motor-Cycling Championship during the period 1949–1976. It is still billed in popular culture as the most dangerous motorsport event in the world, with over 250 fatalities in its history. In 1976, the Isle of Man TT lost its world championship status and was transferred to the United Kingdom by the FIM, the event was redeveloped by the Isle of Man Department of Tourism as the Isle of Man TT Festival from 1989 onwards. Motor racing began on the Isle of Man in 1904 with the Gordon Bennett Eliminating Trial, restricted to touring automobiles. The 1905 Gordon Bennett Trial was held on 30 May 1905 and was won by Clifford Earl driving a Napier automobile in 6 hours and 6 minutes for six laps of the Highroads Course.90 mph. The 1905 International Motor-Cycle Cup Race for five laps was won by J. S, campbell despite a fire during a pit stop in 4 hours,9 minutes and 36 seconds at an average race speed of 30.04 mph. The TT Races since the first race in 1907 have been in the format of time-trial, the current format is a clutch start and race competitors will be started singly at 10-second intervals. Start Preliminaries First Signal –45 minutes before the start with a warm-up of engines in the Race Paddock, Second Signal –30 minutes before start. Third Signal –15 minutes before start, race competitors move to the start-line, fourth Signal –5 minutes before start, signal to clear the grid and race competitors move towards the exit-gate. Entrants must be in possession of a valid National Entrants or FIM Sponsors Licence for Road Racing. 5-mile Snaefell Mountain Course
34.
Kingdom of Italy
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The state was founded as a result of the unification of Italy under the influence of the Kingdom of Sardinia, which can be considered its legal predecessor state. Italy declared war on Austria in alliance with Prussia in 1866, Italian troops entered Rome in 1870, ending more than one thousand years of Papal temporal power. Italy entered into a Triple Alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary in 1882, victory in the war gave Italy a permanent seat in the Council of the League of Nations. Fascist Italy is the era of National Fascist Party rule from 1922 to 1943 with Benito Mussolini as head of government, according to Payne, Fascist regime passed through several relatively distinct phases. The first phase was nominally a continuation of the parliamentary system, then came the second phase, the construction of the Fascist dictatorship proper from 1925 to 1929. The third phase, with activism, was 1929–34. The war itself was the phase with its disasters and defeats. Italy was allied with Nazi Germany in World War II until 1943 and it switched sides to the Allies after ousting Mussolini and shutting down the Fascist party in areas controlled by the Allied invaders. Shortly after the war, civil discontent led to the referendum of 1946 on whether Italy would remain a monarchy or become a republic. Italians decided to abandon the monarchy and form the Italian Republic, the Kingdom of Italy claimed all of the territory which is modern-day Italy. The development of the Kingdoms territory progressed under Italian re-unification until 1870, the state for a long period of time did not include Trieste or Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol, which are in Italy today, and only annexed them in 1919. After the Second World War, the borders of present-day Italy were founded, the Kingdom of Italy was theoretically a constitutional monarchy. Executive power belonged to the monarch, as executed through appointed ministers, two chambers of parliament restricted the monarchs power—an appointive Senate and an elective Chamber of Deputies. The kingdoms constitution was the Statuto Albertino, the governing document of the Kingdom of Sardinia. In theory, ministers were responsible to the king. However, in practice, it was impossible for an Italian government to stay in office without the support of Parliament, members of the Chamber of Deputies were elected by plurality voting system elections in uninominal districts. A candidate needed the support of 50% of those voting, and of 25% of all enrolled voters, if not all seats were filled on the first ballot, a runoff was held shortly afterwards for the remaining vacancies. After a brief multinominal experimentation in 1882, proportional representation into large, regional, Socialists became the major party, but they were unable to form a government in a parliament split into three different factions, with Christian Populists and classical liberals
35.
Belgium
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Belgium, officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a sovereign state in Western Europe bordered by France, the Netherlands, Germany, Luxembourg, and the North Sea. It is a small, densely populated country which covers an area of 30,528 square kilometres and has a population of about 11 million people. Additionally, there is a group of German-speakers who live in the East Cantons located around the High Fens area. Historically, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg were known as the Low Countries, the region was called Belgica in Latin, after the Roman province of Gallia Belgica. From the end of the Middle Ages until the 17th century, today, Belgium is a federal constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. It is divided into three regions and three communities, that exist next to each other and its two largest regions are the Dutch-speaking region of Flanders in the north and the French-speaking southern region of Wallonia. The Brussels-Capital Region is a bilingual enclave within the Flemish Region. A German-speaking Community exists in eastern Wallonia, Belgiums linguistic diversity and related political conflicts are reflected in its political history and complex system of governance, made up of six different governments. Upon its independence, declared in 1830, Belgium participated in the Industrial Revolution and, during the course of the 20th century, possessed a number of colonies in Africa. This continuing antagonism has led to several far-reaching reforms, resulting in a transition from a unitary to a federal arrangement during the period from 1970 to 1993. Belgium is also a member of the Eurozone, NATO, OECD and WTO. Its capital, Brussels, hosts several of the EUs official seats as well as the headquarters of major international organizations such as NATO. Belgium is also a part of the Schengen Area, Belgium is a developed country, with an advanced high-income economy and is categorized as very high in the Human Development Index. A gradual immigration by Germanic Frankish tribes during the 5th century brought the area under the rule of the Merovingian kings, a gradual shift of power during the 8th century led the kingdom of the Franks to evolve into the Carolingian Empire. Many of these fiefdoms were united in the Burgundian Netherlands of the 14th and 15th centuries, the Eighty Years War divided the Low Countries into the northern United Provinces and the Southern Netherlands. The latter were ruled successively by the Spanish and the Austrian Habsburgs and this was the theatre of most Franco-Spanish and Franco-Austrian wars during the 17th and 18th centuries. The reunification of the Low Countries as the United Kingdom of the Netherlands occurred at the dissolution of the First French Empire in 1815, although the franchise was initially restricted, universal suffrage for men was introduced after the general strike of 1893 and for women in 1949. The main political parties of the 19th century were the Catholic Party, French was originally the single official language adopted by the nobility and the bourgeoisie
36.
Yvan Goor
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Yvan Goor, sometimes written as Ivan Goor, was a Belgian cyclist and motorcyclist. Yvan Goor began cycling with the support of his father, who acted as his manager, Goor focused on motor-paced racing and his father acted as his pacemaker. In 1906, whilst racing at Magdeburg, Goors father fell heavily and was unable to compete for the rest of the season, twice, in 1910 and 1911, Goor was Belgian champion in motor-paced racing and in 1908,1912 and 1914 he came second. In 1921, Goor ended his career as a professional cyclist as he was unable to compete at the level as before the war. As a member of the RC Pesant Club Liégois, he created a fund for cyclists. In 1924, at the age of 40, Goor took up motorcycle racing, twice he was European champion in the 175 cc category, in 1930 and 1934 whilst riding a DKW and Benelli respectively. In 1931 he came second in the European Championship to Eric Fernihough in the 175 cc category,1910 Belgian motor-paced racing champion 1911 Belgian motor-paced racing champion 1930 –175 cc European champion 1934 –175 cc European champion Ottinger, Stefan. DKW Motorradsport 1920 -1939, von ersten Siegen des Zschopauer Zweitakters bei Bahnrennen bis zu den Europameisterschafts-Erfolgen, chemnitz, HB-Werbung und Verlag GmbH & Co. Yvan Goor profile at Cycling Archives
37.
1950 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season
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The 1950 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season was the second F. I. M. Road Racing World Championship Grand Prix season, the season consisted of six Grand Prix races in five classes, 500cc, 350cc, 250cc, 125cc and Sidecars 600cc. It began on 10 June, with Isle of Man TT, points were awarded to the top six finishers in each race. All rounds counted towards the championship in the 125cc and Sidecars, chronosports S. A. ISBN 2-940125-32-5 The Official MotoGP website
38.
Dario Ambrosini
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Dario Ambrosini was an Italian Grand Prix motorcycle road racer who competed for the Benelli factory racing team. He finished second to Bruno Ruffo in the inaugural FIM 250cc world championship in 1949 and he returned in 1950 and claimed the 250cc world championship with three victories including one at the 1950 Isle of Man TT. Ambrosini was killed during practice for the 1951 French Grand Prix at Albi. 1949 point system Points system from 1950 to 19685 best results were counted up until 1955
Carlo Baschieri
Yvan Goor
Dario Ambrosini
Kel Carruthers
Ted Mellors
