1.
Middle Ages
–
In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or Medieval Period lasted from the 5th to the 15th century. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and merged into the Renaissance, the Middle Ages is the middle period of the three traditional divisions of Western history, classical antiquity, the medieval period, and the modern period. The medieval period is subdivided into the Early, High. Population decline, counterurbanisation, invasion, and movement of peoples, the large-scale movements of the Migration Period, including various Germanic peoples, formed new kingdoms in what remained of the Western Roman Empire. In the seventh century, North Africa and the Middle East—once part of the Byzantine Empire—came under the rule of the Umayyad Caliphate, although there were substantial changes in society and political structures, the break with classical antiquity was not complete. The still-sizeable Byzantine Empire survived in the east and remained a major power, the empires law code, the Corpus Juris Civilis or Code of Justinian, was rediscovered in Northern Italy in 1070 and became widely admired later in the Middle Ages. In the West, most kingdoms incorporated the few extant Roman institutions, monasteries were founded as campaigns to Christianise pagan Europe continued. The Franks, under the Carolingian dynasty, briefly established the Carolingian Empire during the later 8th, the Crusades, first preached in 1095, were military attempts by Western European Christians to regain control of the Holy Land from Muslims. Kings became the heads of centralised nation states, reducing crime and violence, intellectual life was marked by scholasticism, a philosophy that emphasised joining faith to reason, and by the founding of universities. Controversy, heresy, and the Western Schism within the Catholic Church paralleled the conflict, civil strife. Cultural and technological developments transformed European society, concluding the Late Middle Ages, the Middle Ages is one of the three major periods in the most enduring scheme for analysing European history, classical civilisation, or Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and the Modern Period. Medieval writers divided history into periods such as the Six Ages or the Four Empires, when referring to their own times, they spoke of them as being modern. In the 1330s, the humanist and poet Petrarch referred to pre-Christian times as antiqua, leonardo Bruni was the first historian to use tripartite periodisation in his History of the Florentine People. Bruni and later argued that Italy had recovered since Petrarchs time. The Middle Ages first appears in Latin in 1469 as media tempestas or middle season, in early usage, there were many variants, including medium aevum, or middle age, first recorded in 1604, and media saecula, or middle ages, first recorded in 1625. The alternative term medieval derives from medium aevum, tripartite periodisation became standard after the German 17th-century historian Christoph Cellarius divided history into three periods, Ancient, Medieval, and Modern. The most commonly given starting point for the Middle Ages is 476, for Europe as a whole,1500 is often considered to be the end of the Middle Ages, but there is no universally agreed upon end date. English historians often use the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485 to mark the end of the period
Middle Ages
–
The
Cross of Mathilde, a
crux gemmata made for
Mathilde, Abbess of Essen (973–1011), who is shown kneeling before the Virgin and Child in the
enamel plaque. The body of Christ is slightly later. Probably made in
Cologne or
Essen, the cross demonstrates several medieval techniques:
cast figurative sculpture,
filigree, enamelling, gem polishing and setting, and the reuse of Classical
cameos and
engraved gems.
Middle Ages
–
A late Roman statue
depicting the four Tetrarchs, now in
Venice
Middle Ages
–
Coin of
Theodoric
Middle Ages
–
Mosaic showing
Justinian with
the bishop of
Ravenna, bodyguards, and courtiers
2.
Writing system
–
A writing system is any conventional method of visually representing verbal communication. While both writing and speech are useful in conveying messages, writing differs in also being a form of information storage. The processes of encoding and decoding writing systems involve shared understanding between writers and readers of the meaning behind the sets of characters that make up a script, the general attributes of writing systems can be placed into broad categories such as alphabets, syllabaries, or logographies. Any particular system can have attributes of more than one category, in the alphabetic category, there is a standard set of letters of consonants and vowels that encode based on the general principle that the letters represent speech sounds. In a syllabary, each symbol correlates to a syllable or mora, in a logography, each character represents a word, morpheme, or other semantic units. Other categories include abjads, which differ from alphabets in that vowels are not indicated, alphabets typically use a set of 20-to-35 symbols to fully express a language, whereas syllabaries can have 80-to-100, and logographies can have several hundreds of symbols. Systems will also enable the stringing together of these groupings in order to enable a full expression of the language. The reading step can be accomplished purely in the mind as an internal process, writing systems were preceded by proto-writing, which used pictograms, ideograms and other mnemonic symbols. Proto-writing lacked the ability to capture and express a range of thoughts. Soon after, writing provided a form of long distance communication. With the advent of publishing, it provided the medium for a form of mass communication. Writing systems are distinguished from other possible symbolic communication systems in that a system is always associated with at least one spoken language. In contrast, visual representations such as drawings, paintings, and non-verbal items on maps, such as contour lines, are not language-related. Some other symbols, such as numerals and the ampersand, are not directly linked to any specific language, every human community possesses language, which many regard as an innate and defining condition of humanity. However, the development of writing systems, and the process by which they have supplanted traditional oral systems of communication, have been sporadic, uneven, once established, writing systems generally change more slowly than their spoken counterparts. Thus they often preserve features and expressions which are no current in the spoken language. One of the benefits of writing systems is that they can preserve a permanent record of information expressed in a language. In the examination of individual scripts, the study of writing systems has developed along partially independent lines, thus, the terminology employed differs somewhat from field to field
Writing system
–
Writing systems
Writing system
–
Predominant national and selected regional or minority scripts
Writing system
–
Chinese characters (漢字) are morpho-syllabic. Each one represents a syllable with a distinct meaning, but some characters may have multiple meanings or pronunciations
Writing system
–
A Specimen of typefaces and styles, by
William Caslon, letter founder; from the 1728
Cyclopaedia
3.
Duchy of Benevento
–
The Duchy of Benevento was the southernmost Lombard duchy in the Italian peninsula, centered on Benevento, a city in Southern Italy. Being cut off from the rest of the Lombard possessions by the papal Duchy of Rome, only during the reigns of Grimoald I of Benevento and the kings from Liutprand on was the duchy closely tied to the kingdom. Paul the Deacon refers to Benevento as the Samnite Duchy after the region of Samnium, the circumstances of the creation of the duchy are disputed. According to some scholars, Lombards were present in southern Italy well before the complete conquest of the Po Valley, the Lombards may have entered later, around 590. Whatever the case, the first duke was Zotto, a leader of a band of soldiers who descended the coast of Campania, though at first independent, Zotto was eventually made to submit to the royal authority of the north. His successor was Arechis, his nephew, and the principle of hereditary succession guided the Beneventan duchy to the end, a swathe of territory that owed allegiance to Rome or to Ravenna separated the dukes of Benevento from the kings at Pavia. A unique Beneventan script was developed for writing Latin. The 8th-century writer Paul the Deacon arrived in Benevento in the retinue of a princess from Pavia, under Zottos successors, the duchy was expanded against the Byzantine Empire. Arechis, himself from the duchy of Friuli, captured Capua and Crotone, sacked Byzantine Amalfi, after his reign, Byzantines holdings in southern Italy were reduced to Naples, Amalfi, Gaeta, Sorrento, Calabria, and the maritime cities of Apulia. In 662, Duke Grimoald I, went north to aid the King Godepert against his brother, the co-king Perctarit, as king of the Lombards, he tried to reinstate Arianism over the Catholicism of the late king Aripert I. However, Arianism was disappearing even in the duchy, as was the distinction between the ethnic Lombard population and the Latin- and Greek-speaking one. In 663, the city itself was besieged by the Byzantines during the attempt of Constans II. Duke Romuald I defended the city bravely, however, and the Emperor, also fearing the arrival of Romualds father, King Grimoald, however, Romuald intercepted part of the Roman army at Forino, between Avellino and Salerno, and destroyed it. A peace between the Duchy and the Eastern Empire was signed in 680, in the following decades, Benevento conquered some territories from the Byzantines, but the main enemy of the duchy was now the northern Lombard kingdom itself. King Liutprand intervened several times to impose a candidate of his own on the ducal throne and his successor, Ratchis, declared the duchies of Spoleto and Benevento foreign countries where it was forbidden to travel without a royal permission. Seeing that this was impractical and would draw Frankish attention to himself, in 787, he was forced by Charlemagnes siege of Salerno to submit to Frankish suzerainty. At this time, Benevento was acclaimed by a chronicler as a Ticinum geminum—a twin Pavia, like their Byzantine enemies, the dukes linked the palace compound with a national church, Saint Sophia. In 788, the principality was invaded by Byzantine troops led by Desideriuss son, Adelchis, however, his attempts were thwarted by Arechis son, Grimoald III, who had, however, partially submitted to the Franks
Duchy of Benevento
–
The Lombard Duchy of Benevento in the 8th century.
4.
Southern Italy
–
It generally coincides with the administrative regions of Abruzzo, Apulia, Basilicata, Campania, Calabria, Molise, Sicily, and Sardinia. Some also include the most southern and eastern parts of Lazio within the Mezzogiorno, Southern Italy carries a unique legacy of culture. It features many major tourist attractions, such as the Palace of Caserta, there are also many ancient Greek cities in Southern Italy, such as Sybaris, which were founded several centuries before the start of the Roman Republic. These same subdivisions are at the bottom of the Italian First level NUTS of the European Union, the term Mezzogiorno first came into use in the 18th century and is an Italian rendition of meridies. The term was popularised by Giuseppe Garibaldi and it eventually came into vogue after the Italian unification. In a similar manner, Southern France is colloquially known as le Midi, Southern Italy forms the lower part of the Italian boot, containing the ankle, the toe, the arch, and the heel, along with the island of Sicily. Separating the heel and the boot is the Gulf of Taranto, named after the city of Taranto and it is an arm of the Ionian Sea. The island of Sardinia, right below the French island of Corsica, on the eastern coast is the Adriatic Sea, leading into the rest of the Mediterranean through the Strait of Otranto. Along the northern coast of the Salernitan Gulf and on the south of the Sorrentine Peninsula runs the Amalfi Coast, off the tip of the peninsula is the isle of Capri. The climate is mainly Mediterranean, except at the highest elevations and the eastern stretches in Apulia, along the Ionian Sea in Calabria. The largest city of Southern Italy is Naples, a name from the Greek that it has maintained for millennia. Bari, Taranto, Reggio Calabria, Foggia, and Salerno are the next largest cities in the area. The region is very active and highly seismic, the 1980 Irpinia earthquake killed 2,914 people, injured more than 10,000. Also during this period, Greek colonies were established in places as widely separated as the eastern coast of the Black Sea, Eastern Libya and they included settlements in Sicily and the southern part of the Italian Peninsula. The Romans called the area of Sicily and the foot of Italy, Magna Graecia, the ancient geographers differed on whether the term included Sicily or merely Apulia and Calabria—Strabo being the most prominent advocate of the wider definitions. With this colonisation, Greek culture was exported to Italy, in its dialects of the Ancient Greek language, its religious rites, an original Hellenic civilization soon developed, later interacting with the native Italic and Latin civilisations. Many of the new Hellenic cities became very rich and powerful, like Neapolis, Syracuse, Acragas, other cities in Magna Graecia included Tarentum, Epizephyrian Locri, Rhegium, Croton, Thurii, Elea, Nola, Syessa, Bari, and others. After Pyrrhus of Epirus failed in his attempt to stop the spread of Roman hegemony in 282 BCE, from then to the Norman conquest of the 11th century, the south of the peninsula was constantly plunged into wars between Greece, Lombardy, and the Islamic Caliphate
Southern Italy
–
Satellite image of Southern Italy
Southern Italy
–
Greek temple of Hera,
Selinunte,
Sicily.
Southern Italy
–
Castel del Monte, built by
Frederick II between 1240 and 1250 in
Andria,
Apulia.
Southern Italy
–
Castel Nuovo,
Naples: initiated by the
Anjou, it was heavily altered as it served as
Spanish headquarters until the 18th century.
5.
Lombards
–
The Lombards or Longobards were a Germanic people who ruled large parts of the Italian Peninsula from 568 to 774. In the 1st century AD, they formed part of the Suebi, the Lombard king Audoin defeated the Gepid leader Thurisind in 551 or 552, his successor Alboin eventually destroyed the Gepids at the Battle of Asfeld in 567. The Lombards were joined by numerous Saxons, Heruls, Gepids, Bulgars, Thuringians, and Ostrogoths, by late 569 they had conquered all north of Italy and the principal cities north of the Po River except Pavia, which fell in 572. At the same time, they occupied areas in central Italy and they established a Lombard Kingdom in north and central Italy, later named Regnum Italicum, which reached its zenith under the 8th-century ruler Liutprand. In 774, the Kingdom was conquered by the Frankish King Charlemagne, however, Lombard nobles continued to rule southern parts of the Italian peninsula, well into the 11th century when they were conquered by the Normans and added to their County of Sicily. In this period, the part of Italy still under Longobardic domination was known by the name Langbarðaland in the Norse runestones. Their legacy is apparent in the regional name Lombardy. The fullest account of Lombard origins, history, and practices is the Historia Langobardorum of Paul the Deacon, pauls chief source for Lombard origins, however, is the 7th-century Origo Gentis Langobardorum. The Origo Gentis Langobardorum tells the story of a tribe called the Winnili dwelling in southern Scandinavia. The Winnili were split into three groups and one part left their land to seek foreign fields. The reason for the exodus was probably overpopulation, the departing people were led by the brothers Ybor and Aio and their mother Gambara and arrived in the lands of Scoringa, perhaps the Baltic coast or the Bardengau on the banks of the Elbe. Scoringa was ruled by the Vandals and their chieftains, the brothers Ambri and Assi, the Winnili were young and brave and refused to pay tribute, saying It is better to maintain liberty by arms than to stain it by the payment of tribute. The Vandals prepared for war and consulted Godan, who answered that he would give the victory to those whom he would see first at sunrise. The Winnili were fewer in number and Gambara sought help from Frea, at sunrise, Frea turned her husbands bed so that he was facing east, and woke him. So Godan spotted the Winnili first and asked, Who are these long-beards. and Frea replied, My lord, thou hast given them the name, from that moment onwards, the Winnili were known as the Longbeards. When Paul the Deacon wrote the Historia between 787 and 796 he was a Catholic monk and devoted Christian and he thought the pagan stories of his people silly and laughable. Paul explained that the name Langobard came from the length of their beards, a modern theory suggests that the name Langobard comes from Langbarðr, a name of Odin. Priester states that when the Winnili changed their name to Lombards, they changed their old agricultural fertility cult to a cult of Odin
Lombards
–
The Lombard possessions in Italy: The Lombard Kingdom (Neustria, Austria and Tuscia) and the Lombard Duchies of Spoleto and Benevento
Lombards
–
Wodan (Godan) and
Frigg (Frea) looking out of a window in the heavens...
Lombards
–
...and spot the Lombard women with their long hair tied as to appear as beards
Lombards
–
Lombard grave goods (6th-7th century) -
Milan,
Lombardy
6.
Palaeography
–
Palaeography or paleography is the study of ancient and historical handwriting. The discipline is important for understanding, authenticating, and dating ancient texts, however, it cannot in general be used to pinpoint dates with high precision. Palaeography can be a skill for historians and philologists, as it tackles two main difficulties. First, since the style of an alphabet in each given language has evolved constantly. Second, scribes often used many abbreviations, usually so as to more quickly and sometimes to save space. Knowledge of individual letter-forms, ligatures, punctuation, and abbreviations enables the palaeographer to read, the palaeographer must know, first, the language of the text, and second, the historical usages of various styles of handwriting, common writing customs, and scribal or notarial abbreviations. Philological knowledge of the language, vocabulary, and grammar generally used at a time or place can help palaeographers identify ancient or more recent forgeries versus authentic documents. Knowledge of writing materials is essential to the study of handwriting. Palaeography can be used to provide information about the date at which a document was written, scholars also tend to oversimplify diachronic development, assuming models of simplicity rather than complexity. It spread from the Mediterranean coast to the borders of India, becoming popular and being adopted by many people. The Aramaic script was written in a form with a direction from right to left. One innovation in Aramaic is the matres lectionis system to indicate certain vowels, Early Phoenician-derived scripts did not have letters for vowels, and so most texts recorded just consonants. Most likely as a consequence of changes in North Semitic languages. The letter aleph was employed to write /ā/, he for /ō/, yod for /ī/, Aramaic writing and language supplanted Babylonian cuneiform and Akkadian language, even in their homeland in Mesopotamia. The wide diffusion of Aramaic letters led to its writing being used not only in monumental inscriptions, Aramaic papyri have been found in large numbers in Egypt, especially at Elephantine – among them are official and private documents of the Jewish military settlement in 5 BC. In the Aramaic papyri and potsherds, words are separated usually by a small gap, at the turn of the 3rd to 2nd centuries BC, the heretofore uniform Aramaic letters developed new forms, as a result of dialectal and political fragmentation in several subgroups. The most important of these is the so-called square Hebrew block script, followed by Palmyrene, Nabataean, Aramaic is usually divided into three main parts, Old Aramaic Middle Aramaic, and Modern Aramaic of the present day. Old Aramaic appeared in the 11th century BC as the language of the first Aramaean states
Palaeography
–
William Shakespeare's will, written in
secretary hand: a script difficult for modern readers to interpret
Palaeography
–
Table showing the
Mandaic alphabet (Abagada) with some of the mysteries represented by the letters
Palaeography
–
Detail of the
Berlin papyrus 9875 showing the 5th column of
Timotheus' Persae, with a
coronis symbol to mark the end.
Palaeography
–
The
Derveni Papyrus, a Greek Macedonian philosophical text dating around 340 BC, considered Europe's oldest manuscript
7.
Rome
–
Rome is a special comune and the capital of Italy. Rome also serves as the capital of the Lazio region, with 2,873,598 residents in 1,285 km2, it is also the countrys largest and most populated comune and fourth-most populous city in the European Union by population within city limits. It is the center of the Metropolitan City of Rome, which has a population of 4.3 million residents, the city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, within Lazio, along the shores of the Tiber. Romes history spans more than 2,500 years, while Roman mythology dates the founding of Rome at only around 753 BC, the site has been inhabited for much longer, making it one of the oldest continuously occupied sites in Europe. The citys early population originated from a mix of Latins, Etruscans and it was first called The Eternal City by the Roman poet Tibullus in the 1st century BC, and the expression was also taken up by Ovid, Virgil, and Livy. Rome is also called the Caput Mundi, due to that, Rome became first one of the major centres of the Italian Renaissance, and then the birthplace of both the Baroque style and Neoclassicism. Famous artists, painters, sculptors and architects made Rome the centre of their activity, in 1871 Rome became the capital of the Kingdom of Italy, and in 1946 that of the Italian Republic. Rome has the status of a global city, Rome ranked in 2014 as the 14th-most-visited city in the world, 3rd most visited in the European Union, and the most popular tourist attraction in Italy. Its historic centre is listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site, monuments and museums such as the Vatican Museums and the Colosseum are among the worlds most visited tourist destinations with both locations receiving millions of tourists a year. Rome hosted the 1960 Summer Olympics and is the seat of United Nations Food, however, it is a possibility that the name Romulus was actually derived from Rome itself. As early as the 4th century, there have been alternate theories proposed on the origin of the name Roma. There is archaeological evidence of occupation of the Rome area from approximately 14,000 years ago. Evidence of stone tools, pottery and stone weapons attest to about 10,000 years of human presence, several excavations support the view that Rome grew from pastoral settlements on the Palatine Hill built above the area of the future Roman Forum. Between the end of the age and the beginning of the Iron age. However, none of them had yet an urban quality, nowadays, there is a wide consensus that the city was gradually born through the aggregation of several villages around the largest one, placed above the Palatine. All these happenings, which according to the excavations took place more or less around the mid of the 8th century BC. Despite recent excavations at the Palatine hill, the view that Rome has been indeed founded with an act of will as the legend suggests in the middle of the 8th century BC remains a fringe hypothesis. Traditional stories handed down by the ancient Romans themselves explain the earliest history of their city in terms of legend and myth
Rome
Rome
Rome
Rome
8.
Adriatic Sea
–
The Adriatic Sea /ˌeɪdriˈætᵻk/ is a body of water separating the Italian Peninsula from the Balkan peninsula and the Apennine Mountains from the Dinaric Alps and adjacent ranges. The Adriatic is the northernmost arm of the Mediterranean Sea, extending from the Strait of Otranto to the northwest, the countries with coasts on the Adriatic are Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Greece, Italy, Montenegro and Slovenia. The Adriatic contains over 1,300 islands, mostly located along its eastern, Croatian and it is divided into three basins, the northern being the shallowest and the southern being the deepest, with a maximum depth of 1,233 metres. The Otranto Sill, a ridge, is located at the border between the Adriatic and Ionian Seas. The prevailing currents flow counterclockwise from the Strait of Otranto, along the eastern coast, tidal movements in the Adriatic are slight, although larger amplitudes are known to occur occasionally. The Adriatics salinity is lower than the Mediterraneans because the Adriatic collects a third of the water flowing into the Mediterranean. The surface water temperatures range from 30 °C in summer to 12 °C in winter. The Adriatic Sea sits on the Apulian or Adriatic Microplate, which separated from the African Plate in the Mesozoic era, the plates movement contributed to the formation of the surrounding mountain chains and Apennine tectonic uplift after its collision with the Eurasian plate. In the Late Oligocene, the Apennine Peninsula first formed, separating the Adriatic Basin from the rest of the Mediterranean, all types of sediment are found in the Adriatic, with the bulk of the material transported by the Po and other rivers on the western coast. The western coast is alluvial or terraced, while the eastern coast is indented with pronounced karstification. There are dozens of protected areas in the Adriatic, designed to protect the seas karst habitats. The sea is abundant in flora and fauna—more than 7,000 species are identified as native to the Adriatic, many of them endemic, rare and threatened ones. The Adriatics shores are populated by more than 3.5 million people, the earliest settlements on the Adriatic shores were Etruscan, Illyrian, and Greek. By the 2nd century BC, the shores were under Romes control, following Italian unification, the Kingdom of Italy started an eastward expansion that lasted until the 20th century. Following World War I and the collapse of Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire, the former disintegrated during the 1990s, resulting in four new states on the Adriatic coast. Italy and Albania agreed on their maritime boundary in 1992, Fisheries and tourism are significant sources of income all along the Adriatic coast. Adriatic Croatias tourism industry has grown faster economically than the rest of the Adriatic Basins, maritime transport is also a significant branch of the areas economy—there are 19 seaports in the Adriatic that each handle more than a million tonnes of cargo per year. The largest Adriatic seaport by annual cargo turnover is the Port of Trieste, in the southeast, the Adriatic Sea connects to the Ionian Sea at the 72-kilometre wide Strait of Otranto
Adriatic Sea
–
Bay of Kotor, a
ria in the Southern Adriatic
Adriatic Sea
–
Map of the Adriatic Sea
Adriatic Sea
–
Adriatic islands off
Croatia 's coast
Adriatic Sea
–
A
submarine spring near
Omiš, observed through sea surface rippling
9.
Dalmatia
–
Dalmatia is one of the four historical regions of Croatia, alongside Croatia proper, Slavonia, and Istria. Dalmatia is a belt of the east shore of the Adriatic Sea. The hinterland ranges in width from fifty kilometres in the north, to just a few kilometres in the south,79 islands run parallel to the coast, the largest being Brač, Pag and Hvar. The largest city is Split, followed by Zadar, Dubrovnik, the name of the region stems from an Illyrian tribe called the Dalmatae, who lived in the area in classical antiquity. Later it became a Roman province, and as result a Romance culture emerged, along with the now-extinct Dalmatian language, later largely replaced with related Venetian. With the arrival of Croats to the area in the 8th century, who occupied most of the hinterland, Croatian and Romance elements began to intermix in language and the culture. During the Middle Ages, its cities were conquered by, or switched allegiance to. The longest-lasting rule was the one of the Republic of Venice, between 1815 and 1918, it was as a province of Austrian Empire known as the Kingdom of Dalmatia. It was the Romans who first gave Dalmatia its name, inspired by the Illyrian word “delmat”, meaning a proud and its Latin form Dalmatia gave rise to its current English name. In the Venetian language, once dominant in the area, it is spelled Dalmàssia, the modern Croatian spelling is Dalmacija, pronounced. Dalmatia is referenced in the New Testament at 2 Timothy 4,10 so its name has been translated in many of the worlds languages. In antiquity the Roman province of Dalmatia was much larger than the present-day Split-Dalmatia County, Dalmatia is today a historical region only, not formally instituted in Croatian law. Its exact extent is uncertain and subject to public perception. According to Lena Mirošević and Josip Faričić of the University of Zadar, simultaneously, the southern part of Lika and upper Pounje, which were not a part of Austrian Dalmatia, became a part of Zadar County. From the present-day administrative and territorial point of view, Dalmatia comprises the four Croatian littoral counties with seats in Zadar, Šibenik, Split, Dalmatia is therefore generally perceived to extend approximately to the borders of the Austrian Kingdom of Dalmatia. The Encyclopædia Britannica defines Dalmatia as extending to the narrows of Kotor, other sources, however, such as the Treccani encyclopedia and the Rough Guide to Croatia still include the Bay as being part of the region. This definition does not include the Bay of Kotor, nor the islands of Rab, Sveti Grgur and it also excludes the northern part of the island of Pag, which is part of the Lika-Senj County. However, it includes the Gračac Municipality in Zadar County, which was not a part of the Kingdom of Dalmatia and is not traditionally associated with the region, the inhabitants of Dalmatia are culturally subdivided into two or three groups
Dalmatia
–
The ancient core of the city of
Split, the largest city in Dalmatia, built in and around the
Palace of the Emperor Diocletian.
Dalmatia
–
Flag
Dalmatia
–
The historic core of the city of
Dubrovnik, in southern Dalmatia.
Dalmatia
–
Independent Dalmatia - Extent of Marcellinus' Control (454-468) and Julius Nepos' Control (468-480).
10.
Monastery
–
A monastery is a building or complex of buildings comprising the domestic quarters and workplaces of monastics, monks or nuns, whether living in communities or alone. A monastery generally includes a place reserved for prayer which may be a chapel, church or temple, a monastery complex typically comprises a number of buildings which include a church, dormitory, cloister, refectory, library, balneary and infirmary. These may include a hospice, a school and a range of agricultural and manufacturing such as a barn. In English usage, the monastery is generally used to denote the buildings of a community of monks. In modern usage, convent tends to be applied only to institutions of female monastics, historically, a convent denoted a house of friars, now more commonly called a friary. Various religions may apply these terms in specific ways. The earliest extant use of the term monastērion is by the 1st century AD Jewish philosopher Philo in On The Contemplative Life, in England the word monastery was also applied to the habitation of a bishop and the cathedral clergy who lived apart from the lay community. Most cathedrals were not monasteries, and were served by canons secular, however, some were run by monasteries orders, such as York Minster. Westminster Abbey was for a time a cathedral, and was a Benedictine monastery until the Reformation. They are also to be distinguished from collegiate churches, such as St Georges Chapel, in most of this article, the term monastery is used generically to refer to any of a number of types of religious community. In the Roman Catholic religion and to some extent in certain branches of Buddhism, there is a more specific definition of the term. Buddhist monasteries are generally called vihara, viharas may be occupied by males or females, and in keeping with common English usage, a vihara populated by females may often be called a nunnery or a convent. However, vihara can also refer to a temple, in Tibetan Buddhism, monasteries are often called gompa. In Thailand, Laos and Cambodia, a monastery is called a wat, in Burma, a monastery is called a kyaung. A Christian monastery may be an abbey, or a priory and it may be a community of men or of women. A charterhouse is any monastery belonging to the Carthusian order, in Eastern Christianity, a very small monastic community can be called a skete, and a very large or important monastery can be given the dignity of a lavra. The great communal life of a Christian monastery is called cenobitic, as opposed to the life of an anchorite. In Hinduism monasteries are called matha, mandir, koil, or most commonly an ashram, jains use the Buddhist term vihara
Monastery
–
The
Monastery of Santa María del Parral of the
Hieronymites monks in
Segovia,
Spain
Monastery
–
Monastery of St. Nilus on
Stolbnyi Island in
Lake Seliger near
Ostashkov,
Russia, ca. 1910
Monastery
–
Tengboche Buddhist monastery,
Nepal
Monastery
–
Rumtek Monastery,
Gangtok Sikkim
11.
Monte Cassino
–
Monte Cassino is a rocky hill about 130 kilometres southeast of Rome, Italy,2 kilometres to the west of the town of Cassino and 520 m altitude. Site of the Roman town of Casinum, it is best known for its historic abbey, St. Benedict of Nursia established his first monastery, the source of the Benedictine Order, here around 529. The hilltop sanctuary was the site of the Battle of Monte Cassino in 1944, the site has been visited many times by Popes and other senior clergy, including Pope Benedict XVI in May 2009. Since the reforms of the Second Vatican Council the monastery is one of the few remaining territorial abbeys within the Catholic Church, on 23 October 2014, Pope Francis applied the norms of the motu proprio Ecclesia Catholica to the Abbey. This act removed from its jurisdiction all 53 parishes and reduced its territory to the Abbey itself - while retaining its status as a Territorial Abbey. The former territory of the Abbey, except the land on which the Abbey Church and monastery sit, was transferred to the local diocese of Sora-Cassino-Aquino-Pontecorvo. The history of Monte Cassino is linked to the town of Cassino which was first settled in the fifth century B. C. by the Volsci people who held much of central. It was the Volsci who first built a citadel on the summit of Monte Cassino, the Volsci in the area were defeated by the Romans in 312 B. C. The Romans renamed the settlement Casinum and build a temple to Apollo at the citadel, modern excavations have found no remains of the temple, but ruins of an amphitheatre, a theatre, and a mausoleum indicate the lasting presence the Romans had there. Generations after the Roman Empire adopted Christianity the town became the seat of a bishopric in the fifth century A. D, lacking strong defences the area was subject to barbarian attack and became abandoned and neglected with only a few struggling inhabitants holding out. According to Gregory the Greats biography of Benedict, Life of Saint Benedict of Nursia, the monastery was constructed on a pagan site. The biography records that the area was still pagan at the time and Benedicts first act was to smash the sculpture of Apollo. He then reused the temple, dedicating it to Saint Martin, archaeologist Neil Christie notes that it was common in such hagiographies for the protagonist to encounter areas of strong paganism. Once established at Monte Cassino, Benedict never left and he wrote the Benedictine Rule that became the founding principle for Western monasticism, received a visit from Totila, king of the Ostrogoths, and died there. The Rule of St. Benedict mandated the moral obligations to care for the sick, so in Monte Cassino St. Benedict founded a hospital that is considered today to have been the first hospital in Europe of the new era. There Benedictine monks took care of the sick and wounded according to the Benedict’s Rule, the monastic routine called for hard work. The care of the sick was such an important duty that those caring for them were enjoined to act as if they served Christ directly, Benedict founded twelve communities for monks at nearby Subiaco, where hospitals were settled too as adjuncts to the monasteries in order to provide charity. Soon many monasteries were founded throughout Europe, and everywhere there were hospitals like in Monte Cassino, Monte Cassino became a model for future developments
Monte Cassino
–
The rebuilt Abbey of Monte Cassino
Monte Cassino
–
View across the valley
Monte Cassino
–
The façade of the church
Monte Cassino
–
Monte Cassino in ruins after Allied bombing in February 1944
12.
Bari
–
Bari is the capital city of the Metropolitan City of Bari and of the Apulia region, on the Adriatic Sea, in Italy. It is the second most important economic centre of mainland Southern Italy after Naples, the city itself has a population of about 326,799, as of 2015, over 116 square kilometres, while the urban area has 700,000 inhabitants. The metropolitan area has 1.3 million inhabitants, Bari is made up of four different urban sections. To the south is the Murat quarter, the heart of the city, which is laid out on a rectangular grid-plan with a promenade on the sea. Modern residential zones surrounding the centre of Bari were built during the 1960s and 1970s replacing the old suburbs that had developed along roads splaying outwards from gates in the city walls, in addition, the outer suburbs developed rapidly during the 1990s. The city has an airport named after Pope John Paul II, Karol Wojtyła Airport. The city was founded by the Peucetii. Its harbour, mentioned as early as 181 BC, was probably the one of the districts in ancient times, as it is at present. The first historical bishop of Bari was Gervasius who was noted at the Council of Sardica in 347, the bishops were dependent on the Patriarch of Constantinople until the 10th century. Until the arrival of the Normans, Bari continued to be governed by the Byzantines, throughout this period, and indeed throughout the Middle Ages, Bari served as one of the major slave depots of the Mediterranean, providing a central location for the trade in Slavic slaves. The city was conquered and the Emirate extinguished in 871, due to the efforts of Emperor Louis II, in 885, Bari became the residence of the local Byzantine catapan, or governor. In 1025, under the Archbishop Byzantius, Bari became attached to the see of Rome and was granted provincial status, in 1071, Bari was captured by Robert Guiscard, following a three-year siege. Maio of Bari, a Lombard merchants son, was the third of the admirals of Norman Sicily. The Basilica di San Nicola was founded in 1087 to receive the relics of this saint, the saint began his development from Saint Nicholas of Myra into Saint Nicholas of Bari and began to attract pilgrims, whose encouragement and care became central to the economy of Bari. In 1095 Peter the Hermit preached the first crusade there, the Greeks were not brought over to the Latin way of thinking, and the Great Schism was inevitable. A civil war broke out in Bari in 1117 with the murder of the archbishop, control of Bari was seized by Grimoald Alferanites, a native Lombard, and he was elected lord in opposition to the Normans. By 1123, he had increased ties with Byzantium and Venice, Grimoald increased the cult of St Nicholas in his city. He later did homage to Roger II of Sicily, but rebelled and was defeated in 1132, Bari was occupied by Manuel I Komnenos between 1155 and 1158
Bari
–
A collage of Bari, Top left:Swabian Castle, Top right:Night in Pane e Pomodoro Beach, Bottom left:Ferrarese Square, Bottom upper light:Bari University in Andrea da Bari street, Bottom lower right:View of Punta Perotti seaside area
Bari
–
Joachim Murat
Bari
–
Bari (Lungomare Perotti, old town view).
Bari
–
St. Nicholas Basilica
13.
Roman cursive
–
Roman cursive is a form of handwriting used in ancient Rome and to some extent into the Middle Ages. It is customarily divided into old cursive, and new cursive, a more formal style of writing was based on Roman square capitals, but cursive was used for quicker, informal writing. It was most commonly used from about the 1st century BC to the 3rd century AD, pseudolus, Ut opinor, quaerunt litterae hae sibi liberos, alia aliam scandit. Pseudolus, Has quidem pol credo nisi Sibylla legerit, interpretari alium posse neminem, calidorus, Cur inclementer dicis lepidis litteris lepidis tabellis lepida conscriptis manu. Pseudolus, An, opsecro hercle, habent quas gallinae manus, calidorus, Take these letters, then tell yourself what misery and concern are wasting me away. Pseudolus, I will do this for you, pseudolus, In my opinion, these letters are seeking children for themselves, one mounts the other. Calidorus, Are you mocking me with your teasing, pseudolus, Indeed, by Pollux I believe that unless the Sibyl can read these letters, nobody else can understand them. Calidorus, Why do you speak harshly about these letters and charming tablets. Pseudolus, By Hercules I beg you, do even hens have hands like these, for indeed a hen wrote these letters. Old Roman cursive is very difficult to read for people used to the current cursive forms of the Latin script. New Roman cursive, also called minuscule cursive or later Roman cursive, the uncial and half-uncial scripts also most likely developed from this script, a, g, r, and s are particularly similar. According to Jan-Olaf Tjäder, new Roman cursive influenced the development of not only uncial, gaelic type is an example of a later usage of uncial. Demotic Hieratic Jan-Olaf Tjäder, Die nichtliterarischen lateinischen Papyri Italiens aus der Zeit 445–700, staff, Vindolanda Tablets on line, Centre for the Study of Ancient Documents and the Academic Computing Development Team at Oxford University
Roman cursive
–
Cursive handwriting from the reign of
Claudius (41 to 54 AD): uobis · ujdetur · p · c · décernám[us · ut · etiam] prólátis · rebus ijs · júdicibus · n[ecessitas · judicandj] imponátur quj · jntrá rerum [· agendárum · dies] jncoháta · judicia · non · per[egerint · nec] defuturas · ignoro · fraudes · m[onstrósa · agentibus] multas · aduersus · quas · exc[ogitáuimus]...
Roman cursive
–
Roman cursive, old and new
Roman cursive
–
Ancient and Medieval
14.
Pope Victor III
–
Pope Victor III, born Dauferio, was Pope from 24 May 1086 to his death in 1087. He was the successor of Pope Gregory VII, yet his pontificate is far less impressive in history than his time as Desiderius, the great Abbot of Montecassino. His failing health was the factor that made him so reluctant to accept his pontifical election, the only literary work of his that remains is his Dialogues on the miracles performed by Saint Benedict of Nursia and other saints at Montecassino. Pope Leo XIII beatified him on 23 July 1887 and he was born in 1026 to a branch of the Lombard dukes of Benevento as the only son of Prince Landulf V of Benevento. After his father died in battle with the Normans in 1047, he fled from a marriage and, though brought back by force. He went to Cava de Tirreni, where he obtained permission to enter the monastery of S. Sophia at Benevento and it was a decision that his mother vehemently opposed, owing to his being the only son and the only child. About this time he was brought to the notice of St. Leo IX, somewhat later Desiderius attached himself to the court of Pope Victor II at Florence. There he met two monks of the renowned Benedictine monastery of Monte Cassino, with whom he returned in 1055 and he joined the community and was shortly afterwards appointed superior of the dependent house at Capua. In 1057 Pope Stephen IX, who had retained the abbacy of Monte Cassino, came to visit and at Christmas, believing himself to be dying, the pope recovered, and, desiring to retain the abbacy during his lifetime, appointed the abbot-designate his legate for Constantinople. It was at Bari, when about to sail for the East, having obtained a safe-conduct from Robert Guiscard, the Norman Count of Apulia, he returned to his monastery and was duly installed by Cardinal Humbert on Easter Day 1058. Pope Nicholas II elevated him into the cardinalate the Cardinal-Deacon of Santi Sergio e Bacco on 6 March 1058 and he opted to be the Cardinal-Priest of Santa Cecilia in 1059. Desiderius rebuilt the church and conventual buildings, perfected the products of the scriptorium and re-established monastic discipline, on 1 October 1071, the new Basilica of Monte Cassino was consecrated by Pope Alexander II. Desiderius reputation brought gifts and exemptions to the abbey, Desiderius had been appointed papal vicar for Campania, Apulia, Calabria and the Principality of Beneventum with special powers for the reform of monasteries. Within two years of the consecration of the Cassinese Basilica, Alexander II died and was succeeded by Hildebrand as Pope Gregory VII, Desiderius was able to call forth the help of the Normans of southern Italy repeatedly in favour of the Holy See. Already in 1059 he had persuaded Robert Guiscard and Richard of Capua to become vassals of St, at the end of 1080 Desiderius obtained Norman troops for Gregory. In 1082 he visited the Italian king and future Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV at Albano, in 1083 the peace-loving abbot joined Hugh of Cluny in an attempt to reconcile pope and emperor, and his proceedings seem to have aroused some suspicion in Gregorys entourage. In 1084, when Rome was in Henrys hands and the besieged in Castel SantAngelo. Yet when the latter lay dying at Salerno on 25 May 1085, the Roman people had expelled the antipope Clement III from the city, and hither Desiderius hastened to consult with the cardinals on the approaching election
Pope Victor III
–
Pope Blessed Victor III
Pope Victor III
–
Pope Victor III
Pope Victor III
–
Vicente Carducho: Vision of Pope Victor III.
Monastery of El Paular (Spain).
15.
Ligature (typography)
–
In writing and typography, a ligature occurs where two or more graphemes or letters are joined as a single glyph. An example is the character æ as used in English, in which the letters a and e are joined, the common ampersand developed from a ligature in which the handwritten Latin letters e and t were combined. The origin of typographical ligatures comes from the invention of writing with a stylus on fibrous material or clay, the earliest known script, Sumerian cuneiform, includes many cases of character combinations that, over time, gradually evolve from ligatures into separately recognizable characters. Ligatures figure prominently in many manuscripts, notably the Brahmic abugidas. Medieval scribes who wrote in Latin increased their speed by combining characters. Others conjoined letters for aesthetic purposes, for example, in blackletter, letters with right-facing bowls and those with left-facing bowls were written with the facing edges of the bowls superimposed. In many script forms, characters such as h, m, scribes also used notational abbreviations to avoid having to write a whole character in one stroke. Manuscripts in the century employed hundreds of such abbreviations. In hand writing, a ligature is made by joining two or more characters in atypical fashion by merging their parts or by writing one above or inside the other. While in printing, a ligature is a group of characters that is typeset as a unit, for example, in some cases the fi ligature prints the letters f and i with a greater separation than when they are typeset as separate letters. When printing with movable type was invented around 1450, typefaces included many ligatures and additional letters, Ligatures began to fall out of use due to their complexity in the 20th century. Sans serif typefaces, increasingly used for text, generally avoid ligatures, though notable exceptions include Gill Sans. Inexpensive phototypesetting machines in the 1970s also generally avoid them, the trend was further strengthened by the desktop publishing revolution starting around 1977 with the production of the Apple II. Early computer software in particular had no way to allow for ligature substitution, as most of the early PC development was designed for the English language dependence on ligatures did not carry over to digital. Ligature use fell as the number of traditional hand compositors and hot metal typesetting machine operators dropped since the mass of the IBM Selectric brand of electric typewriter in 1961. A designer active in the period commented, some of the world’s greatest typefaces were quickly becoming some of the world’s worst fonts, Ligatures have grown in popularity over the last 20 years due to an increasing interest in creating typesetting systems that evoke arcane designs and classical scripts. One of the first computer typesetting programs to take advantage of computer-driven typesetting was Donald Knuths TeX program, now the standard method of mathematical typesetting, its default fonts are explicitly based on nineteenth-century styles. Many new fonts feature extensive ligature sets, these include FF Scala, Seria and others by Martin Majoor, mrs Eaves by Zuzana Licko contains a particularly large set to allow designers to create dramatic display text with a feel of antiquity
Ligature (typography)
–
Simple example of widely used ligatures typed by handwriting typographic font.
Ligature (typography)
–
Long s + i ligature in a
Garamond font.
Ligature (typography)
–
Ligatures "Th" and "Wh" illustration
Ligature (typography)
–
"ß" in the form of a "ſʒ" ligature on a street sign in Berlin ("Petersburger Straße"). The sign on the right ("Bersarinplatz") ends with a "tʒ" ligature.
16.
Merovingian script
–
Merovingian script was a medieval variant of the Latin script so called because it was developed in the Frankish Kingdom during the Merovingian dynasty. It was used in the 7th and 8th centuries before the Carolingian dynasty, there were four major centres of Merovingian script, the monasteries of Luxeuil, Laon, Corbie, and Chelles. Each script developed from uncial, half-uncial, and the Merovingian charter scripts, the Luxeuil type uses distinctive long, slim capital letters as a display script. These capitals have wedge-shaped finials, and the crossbar of ⟨a⟩ resembles a small letter <v> while that of ⟨h⟩ is a wavy line, the letter ⟨o⟩ is often written as a diamond shape, with a smaller ⟨o⟩ written inside. The letter ⟨a⟩ resembles two ⟨c⟩s, and because of this feature the Luxeuil type is sometimes called a type. The letter ⟨t⟩ is also used in numerous ligatures where it has other forms. The letters ⟨e⟩ and ⟨r⟩ are also often found in ligature. The Laon type has thicker display capitals than the Luxeuil type, capital initial letters are often decorated with animals, and there are many ligatures with the letter ⟨i⟩. Like Visigothic script, there are two different ⟨ti⟩ ligatures, representing two different sounds, the letters ⟨d⟩ and ⟨q⟩ often have open bowls. Because of these features, Laon type is sometimes called a-z type, the Corbie type as used in the 8th century, was based on uncial and the Luxeuil type, but was also similar to half-uncial and insular script, with elements of Roman cursive. It is sometimes called eN-type, as the letter ⟨e⟩ has a high, open loop. After the mid-8th century, the letter also has a loop and resembles the letter ⟨u⟩. A more distinctive type was developed at Corbie in the 9th century, the letter ⟨b⟩ is similar to Luxeuil type, but the letter ⟨a⟩ has a straight first stroke, resembling a combination of ⟨i⟩ and ⟨c⟩. This type was used from the end of the 8th century until the mid-9th century, the Liber glossarum, a major medieval reference work, was written in the a-b type script of Corbie. The Chelles type was similar to the Luxeuil a-b type, there was also a Merovingian cursive script, used in charters and non-religious writings. All of these types were later influenced by Carolingian script, which replaced it entirely. Along with resemblances to Carolingian and Visigothic, Merovingian shares some features with Beneventan script, Latin Palaeography, Antiquity and the Middle Ages. Lowe, E. A. Codices Latini Antiquiores, A Palaeographical Guide to Latin Manuscripts Prior to the Ninth Century
Merovingian script
–
Sample from an 8th-century evangelary in the Merovingian script
Merovingian script
–
Folio 144 of the Lectionary of Luxeuil, manuscript Lat. 9427, at the
National Library of France. The folio's content consists of
Acts 5:17-25. Tempore illo exsur- / gens autem princeps sacerdotum: et omnes / qui cum illo erant· quae est heresis sadducaeor u m ·...
Merovingian script
–
Ancient and Medieval
17.
Visigothic script
–
Visigothic script was a type of medieval script that originated in the Visigothic kingdom in Hispania. Its more limiting alternative designations littera toletana and littera mozarabica associate it with scriptoria specifically in Toledo and it was perfected in the 9th-11th centuries and declined afterwards. It developed from uncial script, and shares features of uncial. Other features of the include a open-top a, similar shapes for the letters ⟨r⟩ and ⟨s⟩. There are two forms of the letter ⟨d⟩, one with a straight vertical ascender, and another with an ascender slanting towards the left, the letters ⟨e⟩ and ⟨r⟩ also have many different forms when written in ligature. Of particular interest is the special Visigothic z ⟨ꝣ⟩, which after adoption into Carolingian handwriting eventually transformed into the c-cedilla ⟨ç⟩, from the standard script, a capital-letter display script was developed, with long slender forms. There was also a form used for charters and non-religious writings. The Leonese cursive was used in the Christian north, while the Mozarabic was used by Christians living in the Muslim south, the cursive forms were probably influenced by Roman cursive, brought to Iberia from North Africa. Visigothic script has many similarities with Beneventan script and Merovingian script, littera Visigothica, blog specialized in Visigothic script Visigothic Minuscule on Medieval Writing Muñoz y Rivero, Jesús. Paleografía visigoda, método teórico-práctico para aprender a leer los códices y documentos españoles de los siglos V al XII, del Camino Martínez, Mª del Carmen. Los orígenes de la escritura visigótica, actas del VIII Coloquio del Comité International de Paléographie Latine. Libros y librerías en la Rioja altomedieval, códices visigóticos en la Monarquía leonesa. Consideraciones sobre la escritura visigótica cursiva, millares Carlo, Agustín, con la colaboración de José Manuel Ruiz Asencio. La datación de los códices litúrgicos toledanos, mundó, Anscari M. Alturo Perucho, Jesús. La escritura de transición de la visgótica a la carolina en la Cataluña del siglo IX, actas del VIII Coloquio del Comité International de Paléographie Latine. Selig, Maria, Frank, Barbara, Hartmann, Jörg, le passage à lécrit des langues romanes. Antigüedad y Cristianismo, Monografías históricas sobre la Antigüedad Tardía
Visigothic script
–
Ancient and Medieval
Visigothic script
–
Evolution from Visigothic Zet ⟨ Ꝣ ⟩ to modern ⟨ Ç ⟩.
18.
Ascender (typography)
–
In typography, an ascender is the portion of a minuscule letter in a Latin-derived alphabet that extends above the mean line of a font. That is, the part of a letter that is taller than the fonts x-height. Ascenders, together with descenders, increase the recognizability of words, for this reason, many situations that require high legibility such as road signs avoid using solely capital letters, the all caps style. These then became universal across the UK, see Road signs in the United Kingdom. In many fonts intended for text, such as Bembo and Garamond
Ascender (typography)
–
The ascenders are the parts of lowercase characters that lie above the mean line.
19.
Uncial
–
Uncial is a majuscule script commonly used from the 4th to 8th centuries AD by Latin and Greek scribes. Uncial letters were used to write Greek, Latin, and Gothic, early uncial script is likely to have developed from late Old Roman cursive. In the oldest examples of uncial, such as the De bellis macedonicis manuscript in the British Library, all of the letters are disconnected from one another, word separation, however, is characteristic of later uncial usage. As the script evolved over the centuries, the became more complex. Specifically, around AD600, flourishes and exaggerations of the basic strokes began to appear in more manuscripts, ascenders and descenders were the first major alterations, followed by twists of the tool in the basic stroke and overlapping. By the time the more compact minuscule scripts arose circa AD800, some of the evolved uncial styles formed the basis for these simplified, uncial was still used, particularly for copies of the Bible, tapering off until around the 10th century. There are over 500 surviving copies of uncial script, by far the largest number prior to the Carolingian Renaissance, in general, there are some common features of uncial script, ⟨f⟩, ⟨i⟩, ⟨p⟩, ⟨s⟩, ⟨t⟩ are relatively narrow. ⟨m⟩, ⟨n⟩ and ⟨u⟩ are relatively broad, ⟨m⟩ is formed with curved strokes ⟨⟩, ⟨e⟩ is formed with a curved stroke, and its arm does not connect with the top curve ⟨⟩, the height of the arm can also indicate the age of the script. ⟨l⟩ has a base, not extending to the right to connect with the next letter. ⟨r⟩ has a long, curved shoulder ⟨ꞃ⟩, often connecting with the next letter, ⟨s⟩ resembles the long s ⟨ſ⟩, in uncial it ⟨ꞅ⟩ looks more like ⟨r⟩ than ⟨f⟩. In particular, the bow of the letter ⟨a⟩ is particularly sharp, italian uncial has round letters with flatter tops, and a with a sharp bow, an almost horizontal rather than vertical stem in ⟨d⟩, and forked finials. Insular uncial generally has definite word separation, and accent marks over stressed syllables, probably because Irish scribes did not speak a language descended from Latin. French uncial uses thin descenders, an ⟨x⟩ with lines that cross higher than the middle, and a ⟨d⟩ with a stem, and there are many decorations of fish, trees. Cyrillic manuscript developed from Greek uncial in the ninth century. The earlier form was called ustav, and later developed into semi-ustav script, there is some doubt about the original meaning of the word. Uncial itself probably comes from St. Habeant qui volunt veteres libros, vel in membranis purpureis auro argentoque descriptos, vel uncialibus ut vulgo aiunt litteris onera magis exarata quam codices. Let those who so desire have old books, or books written in gold and silver on purple parchment, or burdens written in uncial letters, the term uncial in the sense of describing this script was first used by Jean Mabillon in the early 18th century. Thereafter his definition was refined by Scipione Maffei, who used to refer to this script as distinct from Roman square capitals, the word, uncial, is also sometimes used to refer to manuscripts that have been scribed in uncial, especially when differentiating from those penned with minuscule
Uncial
–
The
Book of Kells, c. AD 800, is lettered in a script known as "insular majuscule", a variety of uncial script that originated in Ireland.
Uncial
–
A sample of the Latin text from the
Codex Bezae
Uncial
–
A portion of the
Codex Sinaiticus, in Byzantine uncial, containing
Esther 2:3–8.
Uncial
–
Ancient and Medieval
20.
Scribal abbreviation
–
Scribal abbreviations or sigla are the abbreviations used by ancient and medieval scribes writing in Latin, and later in Greek and Old Norse. Modern manuscript editing employs sigla as symbols indicating the location of a source manuscript, thus, lapidaries, engravers, and copyists made the most of the available writing space. Scribal abbreviations were infrequent when writing materials were plentiful, but by the 3rd and 4th centuries AD, writing materials were scarce and costly. During the Roman Republic, several abbreviations, known as sigla, were in use in inscriptions. Additionally, in this period shorthand entered general usage, the earliest Western shorthand system known to us is that employed by the Greek historian Xenophon in the memoir of Socrates, and called notae socratae. This notation was akin to modern stenographic writing systems and it employed symbols for whole words or word roots and grammatical modifier marks, and could be used to write either whole passages in shorthand or only certain words. However the alphabet notation had an existence as it was often associated with witchcraft and magic. Sigla were mostly used in inscriptions, in some places. The identity and usage of abbreviations is not constant but changes from region to region, Scribal abbreviation increased in usage and reached its height in the Carolingian Renaissance. The most common abbreviations, called notae communes, are encountered across most of Europe, Scribal abbreviations can be found in epigraphy, sacred and legal manuscripts, written in Latin or in a vulgar tongue, either calligraphically or not. These two forms of abbreviation are called suspensions, according to Trabe, these abbreviations are not really meant to lighten the burden of the scribe but rather to shroud in reverent obscurity the holiest words of the Christian religion. Still, when occasion required referring to three or four persons, the doubling of the final consonant yielded to the simple plural siglum. To that effect, a vinculum above a letter or a letter-set also was so used, likewise the tilde, an undulated, curved-end line, came into standard late-medieval usage. These typographic abbreviations should not be confused with the abbreviations, i. e. loc. cit. viz. Moreover, besides scribal abbreviations, ancient texts also contain variant typographic characters, including ligatures, the s. The u and v characters originated as scribal variants for their respective letters, some ancient and medieval sigla are still used in English and other European languages, the Latin ampersand, replaces the conjunction and in English, et in Latin and French, and y in Spanish. The Tironian sign ⁊, resembling the digit seven, represents the conjunction et, and is only to the x-height, in current Irish language usage. Typographically, the ampersand, representing the word et, is a ligature of the letters e and t
Scribal abbreviation
–
Text sample from an early 15th-century Bible manuscript
Scribal abbreviation
–
Sigla frequently used in contemporary
Church Slavonic
Scribal abbreviation
–
Entries for
Croydon and
Cheam,
Surrey, in
Domesday Book (1086), as published using
record type in 1783.
21.
Question mark
–
The question mark is a punctuation mark that indicates an interrogative clause or phrase in many languages. The question mark is not used for indirect questions, the question mark glyph is also often used in place of missing or unknown data. In Unicode, it is encoded at U+003F, lynne Truss attributes an early form of the modern question mark in western language to Alcuin of York. Truss describes the punctus interrogativus of the late 8th century as and this earliest question mark was a decoration of one of these dots, with the lightning flash perhaps meant to denote intonation, and perhaps associated with early musical notation like neumes. It has also suggested that the glyph derives from the Latin quaestiō, meaning question. The lowercase q was written above the o, and this mark was transformed into the modern symbol. According to a 2011 discovery by a Cambridge manuscript expert, Syriac was the first language to use a mark to indicate an interrogative sentence. The Syriac question mark has the form of a double dot. In English, the question mark typically occurs at the end of a sentence, however, the question mark may also occur at the end of a clause or phrase, where it replaces the comma, Is it good in form. Or, Showing off for him, for all of them, what did he have to be hubrid about. —but from mood and nervousness. This is quite common in Spanish, where the use of bracketing question marks explicitly indicates the scope of interrogation, en el caso de que no puedas ir con ellos, ¿quieres ir con nosotros. In Spanish, since the edition of the Ortografía of the Royal Academy in 1754. An interrogative sentence, clause, or phrase begins with a question mark ⟨¿⟩ and ends with the question mark ⟨. ⟩, as in, Ella me pregunta «¿qué hora es. » – She asks me. The one exception is when the mark is matched with an exclamation mark, as in. – Who do you think you are, nonetheless, even here the Academy recommends matching punctuation, ¡¿Quién te has creído que eres. Other languages of Spain, Catalan and Galician also uses the opening question mark though usually only in long sentences or in cases which would otherwise be ambiguous. Basque only use one question mark, in Armenian the question mark takes the form of an open circle and is placed over the last vowel of the question word. It is defined in Unicode at U+055E ՞ ARMENIAN QUESTION MARK, the Greek question mark appeared around the same time as the Latin one, in the 8th century
Question mark
–
One possible origin of the question mark from Latin.
22.
Uncial script
–
Uncial is a majuscule script commonly used from the 4th to 8th centuries AD by Latin and Greek scribes. Uncial letters were used to write Greek, Latin, and Gothic, early uncial script is likely to have developed from late Old Roman cursive. In the oldest examples of uncial, such as the De bellis macedonicis manuscript in the British Library, all of the letters are disconnected from one another, word separation, however, is characteristic of later uncial usage. As the script evolved over the centuries, the became more complex. Specifically, around AD600, flourishes and exaggerations of the basic strokes began to appear in more manuscripts, ascenders and descenders were the first major alterations, followed by twists of the tool in the basic stroke and overlapping. By the time the more compact minuscule scripts arose circa AD800, some of the evolved uncial styles formed the basis for these simplified, uncial was still used, particularly for copies of the Bible, tapering off until around the 10th century. There are over 500 surviving copies of uncial script, by far the largest number prior to the Carolingian Renaissance, in general, there are some common features of uncial script, ⟨f⟩, ⟨i⟩, ⟨p⟩, ⟨s⟩, ⟨t⟩ are relatively narrow. ⟨m⟩, ⟨n⟩ and ⟨u⟩ are relatively broad, ⟨m⟩ is formed with curved strokes ⟨⟩, ⟨e⟩ is formed with a curved stroke, and its arm does not connect with the top curve ⟨⟩, the height of the arm can also indicate the age of the script. ⟨l⟩ has a base, not extending to the right to connect with the next letter. ⟨r⟩ has a long, curved shoulder ⟨ꞃ⟩, often connecting with the next letter, ⟨s⟩ resembles the long s ⟨ſ⟩, in uncial it ⟨ꞅ⟩ looks more like ⟨r⟩ than ⟨f⟩. In particular, the bow of the letter ⟨a⟩ is particularly sharp, italian uncial has round letters with flatter tops, and a with a sharp bow, an almost horizontal rather than vertical stem in ⟨d⟩, and forked finials. Insular uncial generally has definite word separation, and accent marks over stressed syllables, probably because Irish scribes did not speak a language descended from Latin. French uncial uses thin descenders, an ⟨x⟩ with lines that cross higher than the middle, and a ⟨d⟩ with a stem, and there are many decorations of fish, trees. Cyrillic manuscript developed from Greek uncial in the ninth century. The earlier form was called ustav, and later developed into semi-ustav script, there is some doubt about the original meaning of the word. Uncial itself probably comes from St. Habeant qui volunt veteres libros, vel in membranis purpureis auro argentoque descriptos, vel uncialibus ut vulgo aiunt litteris onera magis exarata quam codices. Let those who so desire have old books, or books written in gold and silver on purple parchment, or burdens written in uncial letters, the term uncial in the sense of describing this script was first used by Jean Mabillon in the early 18th century. Thereafter his definition was refined by Scipione Maffei, who used to refer to this script as distinct from Roman square capitals, the word, uncial, is also sometimes used to refer to manuscripts that have been scribed in uncial, especially when differentiating from those penned with minuscule
Uncial script
–
The
Book of Kells, c. AD 800, is lettered in a script known as "insular majuscule", a variety of uncial script that originated in Ireland.
Uncial script
–
A sample of the Latin text from the
Codex Bezae
Uncial script
–
A portion of the
Codex Sinaiticus, in Byzantine uncial, containing
Esther 2:3–8.
Uncial script
–
Ancient and Medieval
23.
Carolingian minuscule
–
It was developed for the first time, in about 780, by the Benedictine monks of Corbie Abbey. It was used in the Holy Roman Empire between approximately 800 and 1200, codices, pagan and Christian texts, and educational material were written in Carolingian minuscule throughout the Carolingian Renaissance. The script developed into blackletter and became obsolete, though its revival in the Italian Renaissance forms the basis of more recent scripts, the script is derived from Roman half uncial and the insular scripts that were being used in Irish and English monasteries. The strong influence of Irish literati on the script can be seen in the distinctively cló-Gaelach forms of the letters, Carolingian minuscule was created partly under the patronage of the Emperor Charlemagne. Although Charlemagne was never fully literate, he understood the value of literacy, Charlemagne sent for the English scholar Alcuin of York to run his palace school and scriptorium at his capital, Aachen. Efforts to supplant Merovingian and Germanic scripts had been under way before Alcuin arrived at Aachen, Carolingian minuscule was uniform, with rounded shapes in clearly distinguishable glyphs, disciplined and above all, legible. Traditional charters, however, continued to be written in a Merovingian chancery hand long after manuscripts of Scripture, documents written in a local language, like Gothic or Anglo-Saxon rather than Latin, tended to be expressed in traditional local script. Carolingian script generally has fewer ligatures than other scripts, although the et, æ, rt, st. Ascenders are usually clubbed – i. e. they become thicker near the top, the early period of the script, during Charlemagnes reign in the late 8th century and early 9th, still has widely varying letter forms in different regions. The uncial form of the letter a, similar to a c, is still used in manuscripts from this period. There is also use of such as the question mark. The script flourished during the 9th century, when regional hands developed into an international standard, modern glyphs, such as s and v, began to appear, and ascenders, after thickening at the top, were finished with a three-cornered wedge. The script began to evolve slowly after the 9th century, in the 10th and 11th centuries, ligatures were rare and ascenders began to slant to the right and were finished with a fork. The letter w also began to appear, by the 12th century, Carolingian letters had become more angular and were written closer together, less legibly than in previous centuries, at the same time, the modern dotted i appeared. The new script spread through Western Europe most widely where Carolingian influence was strongest, in luxuriously produced lectionaries that now began to be produced for princely patronage of abbots and bishops, legibility was essential. It reached far afield, the 10th century Freising manuscripts, which contain the oldest Slovene language, in Switzerland, Carolingian was used in the Rhaetian and Alemannic minuscule types. Alemannic minuscule, used for a time in the early 9th century, is usually larger and broader. In Austria, Salzburg was the centre of Carolingian script, while Fulda, Mainz
Carolingian minuscule
–
Example from 10th-century manuscript,
Vulgate Luke 1:5-8.
Carolingian minuscule
–
Page of text (folio 160v) from a Carolingian Gospel Book (British Library, MS Add. 11848), written in Carolingian minuscule. Text is
Vulgate Luke 23:15-26.
Carolingian minuscule
–
A page of the
Freising manuscripts, 10th century
Slovene text written in Carolingian minuscules
Carolingian minuscule
–
Ancient and Medieval
24.
Insular script
–
Insular script was a medieval script system invented in Ireland that spread to Anglo-Saxon England and continental Europe under the influence of Irish Christianity. Irish missionaries also took the script to continental Europe, where they founded monasteries such as Bobbio, the scripts were also used in monasteries like Fulda, which were influenced by English missionaries. It is associated with Insular art, of which most surviving examples are illuminated manuscripts and it greatly influenced Irish orthography and modern Gaelic scripts in handwriting and typefaces. Insular script comprised a family of different scripts used for different functions, at the top of the hierarchy was the Insular half-uncial, used for important documents and sacred text. The full uncial, in a version called English uncial, was used in some English centres, then in descending order of formality and increased speed of writing came set minuscule, cursive minuscule and current minuscule. These were used for texts, letters, accounting records, notes. The scripts developed in Ireland in the 7th century and were used as late as the 19th century, works written in Insular scripts commonly use large initial letters surrounded by red ink dots. Letters with ascenders are written with triangular or wedge-shaped tops, the bows of letters such as b, d, p, and q are very wide. The script uses many ligatures and has many unique scribal abbreviations, Insular script was spread to England by the Hiberno-Scottish mission, previously, uncial script had been brought to England by Augustine of Canterbury. The influences of both scripts produced the Insular script system, Insular hybrid minuscule, the most formal of the minuscules, came to be used for formal church books when use of the Irish majuscule diminished. Insular set minuscule Insular cursive minuscule Insular current minuscule, the least formal, brown has also postulated two phases of development for this script, Phase II being mainly influenced by Roman Uncial examples, developed at Wearmouth-Jarrow and typified by the Lindisfarne Gospels. Insular script was used not only for Latin religious books, but also for other kind of book. Insular script was influential in the development of Carolingian minuscule in the scriptoria of the Carolingian empire, in Ireland, Insular script was superseded in c.850 by Late Insular script, in England, it was followed by a form of Caroline minuscule. The Tironian et ⟨⁊⟩ — equivalent of ampersand — was in use in the script and is occasionally continued in modern Gaelic typefaces derived from insular script. There are only a few insular letters encoded, these are shown below, to display the other characters there are several fonts that may be used, three free ones that support these characters are Junicode, Montagel, and Quivira. Carolingian minuscule Gaelic type Hiberno-Saxon art Insular G Tironian et Irish orthography List of Hiberno-Saxon illustrated manuscripts Manual of Latin Palaeography, pfeffer Mediæval An insular minuscule as a Unicode font
Insular script
–
The beginning of the
Gospel of Mark from the
Book of Durrow.
Insular script
–
St Chad Gospels: "Et factum est iterum cum sabbatis ambularet Iesus per sata" (Mark 2:23, p. 151)
25.
Blackletter
–
Blackletter, also known as Gothic script, Gothic minuscule, or Textura, was a script used throughout Western Europe from approximately 1150 to well into the 17th century. It continued to be used for the Danish language until 1875, Fraktur is a notable script of this type, and sometimes the entire group of Blackletter faces is incorrectly referred to as Fraktur. Blackletter is sometimes called Old English, but it is not to be confused with the Old English language, despite the popular, though mistaken, belief that the language was written with blackletter. The Old English, or Anglo-Saxon, language predates blackletter by many centuries, Carolingian minuscule was the direct ancestor of blackletter. Blackletter developed from Carolingian as an increasingly literate 12th-century Europe required new books in different subjects. New universities were founded, each producing books for business, law, grammar, history and these books needed to be produced quickly to keep up with demand. Carolingian, though legible, was time-consuming and labour-intensive to produce and its large size consumed a lot of manuscript space in a time when writing materials were very costly. The term Gothic was first used to describe this script in 15th-century Italy, in the midst of the Renaissance, Gothic was a synonym for barbaric. Flavio Biondo, in Italia Illustrata thought it was invented by the Lombards after their invasion of Italy in the 6th century. Not only were black-letter forms called Gothic script, but any other seemingly barbarian script, such as Visigothic, Beneventan and this in contrast to Carolingian minuscule, a highly legible script which the Humanists called littera antiqua, wrongly believing that it was the script used by the Romans. It was in fact invented in the reign of Charlemagne, although only used significantly after that era, the black letter should not be confused either with the ancient alphabet of the Gothic language, nor with the sans-serif typefaces that are also sometimes called Gothic. Textualis, also known as textura or Gothic bookhand, was the most calligraphic form of black letter, johannes Gutenberg carved a textualis typeface – including a large number of ligatures and common abbreviations – when he printed his 42-line Bible. However, the textualis was rarely used for typefaces afterwards, according to Dutch scholar Gerard Lieftinck, the pinnacle of black-letter use occurred in the 14th and 15th centuries. For Lieftinck, the highest form of textualis was littera textualis formata, the usual form, simply littera textualis, was used for literary works and university texts. Lieftincks third form, littera textualis currens, was the form of black letter, extremely difficult to read and used for textual glosses. Textualis was most widely used in France, the Low Countries, England, some characteristics of the script are, tall, narrow letters, as compared to their Carolingian counterparts. Ascenders are vertical and often end in sharp finials when a letter with a bow is followed by letter with a bow, the bows overlap. A related characteristic is the r, the shape of r when attached to other letters with bows, only the bow and tail were written
Blackletter
–
Latin script (Blackletter hand)
Blackletter
–
Folio 56r of the
Aberdeen Bestiary, an early example of black letter from the 12th century
Blackletter
–
Page of a rare black-letter Bible, 1497, printed in Strasbourg by Johann Grüninger. The coloured chapter initials were handwritten after printing
Blackletter
–
Textualis mixed with select use of Antiqua in an 1853 Dutch edition of the
New Testament.
26.
Rotunda (script)
–
The Rotunda is a specific medieval blackletter script. Sometimes, it is not considered a script, but a script on its own. It was used mainly in southern Europe, one of the key differences between Rotunda and other blackletter scripts is that broken bows appear only in a few letters such as d. The r rotunda, rounded r, is an old letter variant commonly used in rotunda scripts and it is thought that this variant form of that letter was originally devised either to save space while writing on expensive parchment or for aesthetic reasons. The long, medial or descending s is a form of the letter s formerly used where s occurred in the middle or at the beginning of a word. The modern letterform was called the terminal, round, or short s, there is a form of Italian blackletter known as rotunda, as it was less angular than in northern centres. The most usual form of Italian rotunda was littera bononiensis, used at the University of Bologna in the 13th century, biting is a common feature in rotunda, but breaking is not. Italian Rotunda also is characterized by unique abbreviations, such as q with a line beneath the bow signifying qui, and unusual spellings, such as x for s
Rotunda (script)
–
An italicized long s used in the word "Congress" in the
United States Bill of Rights.
Rotunda (script)
–
Overview on some blackletter typefaces
27.
Bastarda
–
Bastarda was a blackletter script used in France, the Burgundian Netherlands and Germany during the 14th and 15th centuries. The Burgundian variant of script can be seen as the script of the Dukes of Burgundy and was used to produce some of the most magnificent manuscripts of the 15th century. The early printers produced regional versions in type which were used especially to print texts in the vernacular languages, the earliest bastarda type was produced by Gutenberg in 1454/1455. The main variety was the one used in France, which was found in Geneva, Antwerp. Another local variety was found in the Netherlands, Caxtons first types were a poor copy of this. The French lettre bâtarde passed out of use by the mid-16th century, british typeface designer Jonathan Barnbrook has designed a contemporary interpretation titled Bastard
Bastarda
–
Bastarda type in Fry's
Pantographia
Bastarda
–
Ancient and Medieval
28.
Humanist minuscule
–
Humanist minuscule is a handwriting or style of script that was invented in secular circles in Italy, at the beginning of the fifteenth century. Few periods in Western history have produced writing of such great beauty, the humanistic term litterae antiquae applied to this hand was an inheritance from the fourteenth century, where the phrase had been opposed to litterae modernae, or Blackletter. The humanist minuscule was connected to the content of the texts for which it was the appropriate vehicle. A humanist manuscript was intended to suggest its contents by its look, Martin Davies has noted, old wine in new bottles, for Petrarch the gothic hand violated three principles, writing, he said, should be simple, clear and orthographically correct. Boccaccio was an admirer of Petrarch, from Boccaccios immediate circle this post-Petrarchan semi-gothic revised hand spread to literati in Florence, Lombardy. A more thorough reform of handwriting than the Petrarchan compromise was in the offing, the generator of the new style was Poggio Bracciolini, a tireless pursuer of ancient manuscripts, who developed the new humanist script in the first decade of the 15th century. Berthold Ullman identifies the watershed moment in the development of the new humanistic hand as the youthful Poggios transcription of Ciceros Epistles to Atticus, by the time the Medici library was catalogued in 1418, almost half the manuscripts were noted as in the lettera antica. The new script was embraced and developed by the Florentine humanists and educators Niccolò de Niccoli, in the late fifteenth century this chancery script in the Antique manner was further developed by humanists in Rome. Calligraphic forms of this chancery italic were popularized by the famous Roman writing master Ludovico Arrighi in the sixteenth century
Humanist minuscule
–
Page from the
Book of Hours of
Giovanni II Bentivoglio,
Bologna, c. 1497-1500. Humanist minuscule with colored
versals and decorations.
Humanist minuscule
–
Ancient and Medieval
29.
Greek minuscule
–
The minuscule script was a Greek writing style which was developed as a book hand in Byzantine manuscripts during the 9th and 10th centuries. It replaced the earlier style of writing, from which it differed in using smaller, more rounded and more connected letter forms. Many of these forms had previously developed as parts of more cursive writing. The basic letter shapes used in the script were the ancestors of modern lower case Greek letters. Manuscripts from the oldest phase of writing are known in scholarship today as codices vetustissimi. Those from the mid-10th to the centuries are known as codices vetusti. Minuscule writing remained in use for handwriting throughout the Byzantine and into the post-Byzantine era, in the modern era, western printers used minuscule book hands as a model for developing early Greek print fonts. Like with Latin, it common to mix minuscule writing with some uncial or capital letters, with the latter used for emphasis, in titles. From this practice, the orthographic system of letter case for Greek arose. In modern Greek writing, the upper case letters are generally modeled on the shapes of ancient inscriptions
Greek minuscule
–
Ancient and Medieval
Greek minuscule
–
Earliest type of minuscule writing, from a 10th-century manuscript of
Thucydides.
30.
Early Cyrillic alphabet
–
The Early Cyrillic alphabet is a writing system that was developed during the late ninth century on the basis of the Greek alphabet for the Orthodox Slavic population in Europe. It was developed in the Preslav Literary School in the First Bulgarian Empire in order to write the Old Church Slavonic language. The modern Cyrillic script is used primarily for Slavic languages. The earliest form of manuscript Cyrillic, known as ustav, was based on Greek uncial script, augmented by ligatures, the Glagolitic alphabet was created by the monk Saint Cyril, possibly with the aid of his brother Saint Methodius, around 863. One possibility is that this systematization of Cyrillic was undertaken at the Council of Preslav in 893, particularly, this principle is violated by certain vowel letters, which represent plus the vowel if they are not preceded by a consonant. It is also violated by a significant failure to distinguish between /ji/ and /jĭ/ orthographically, there was no distinction of capital and lowercase letters, though manuscript letters were rendered larger for emphasis, or in various decorative initial and nameplate forms. Letters served as numerals as well as signs, the values of the numerals were directly borrowed from their Greek-letter analogues. Letters without Greek equivalents mostly had no numeral values, whereas one letter, since its creation, the Cyrillic script has adapted to changes in spoken language and developed regional variations to suit the features of national languages. It has been the subject of academic reforms and political decrees, variations of the Cyrillic script are used to write languages throughout Eastern Europe and Asia. The form of the Russian alphabet underwent a change when Tsar Peter the Great introduced the Civil Script in 1708, some letters and breathing marks which were only used for historical reasons were dropped. Medieval letterforms used in typesetting were harmonized with Latin typesetting practices, exchanging medieval forms for Baroque ones, the reform subsequently influenced Cyrillic orthographies for most other languages. Today, the orthography and typesetting standards only remain in use in Church Slavonic. A comprehensive repertoire of early Cyrillic characters is included in the Unicode since version 5.1 standard and these characters and their distinctive letterforms are represented in specialized computer fonts for Slavistics. In addition to the letters, there were a number of scribal variations, combining ligatures. Each letter had a numeric value also, inherited from the corresponding Greek letter, a titlo over a sequence of letters indicated their use as a number, usually this was accompanied by a dot on either side of the letter. In numerals, the place was to the left of the tens place. Thousands are formed using a symbol, ҂, which was attached to the lower left corner of the numeral. Many fonts display this symbol incorrectly as being in line with the letters instead of subscripted below, later manuscripts made increasing use of a different style of abbreviation, in which some of the left-out letters were superscripted above the abbreviation and covered with a pokrytie diacritic
Early Cyrillic alphabet
Early Cyrillic alphabet
–
During the
Middle Ages the Cyrillic Alphabet was known as the
Slavic Alphabet or the
Bulgarian Alphabet.
Early Cyrillic alphabet
–
ℓ 1
Early Cyrillic alphabet
–
ℓ 5
31.
Glagolitic script
–
The Glagolitic script is the oldest known Slavic alphabet. It was created in the 9th century by Saint Cyril, a Byzantine monk from Thessaloniki and he and his brother, Saint Methodius, were sent by the Byzantine Emperor Michael III in 863 to Great Moravia to spread Christianity among the West Slavs in the area. After the deaths of Cyril and Methodius, the Glagolitic alphabet ceased to be used in Moravia, the Glagolitic alphabet was preserved only by the Croats, using it from the 12th to the 20th century, mostly in liturgy. The name was not created until many centuries after the scripts creation, the verb glagolati means to speak. It has been conjectured that the name developed in Croatia around the 14th century and was derived from the word glagolity. In Old Church Slavonic the name is Ⰽⱛⱃⰺⰾⰾⱁⰲⰺⱌⰰ, Кѷрїлловица, the creation of the characters is popularly attributed to Saints Cyril and Methodius, who may have created them to facilitate the introduction of Christianity. It is believed that the letters were fitted to Bulgarian. The number of letters in the original Glagolitic alphabet is not known, in later centuries, the number of letters dropped dramatically, to fewer than 30 in modern Croatian and Czech recensions of the Church Slavic language. Twenty-four of the 41 original Glagolitic letters probably derive from graphemes of the medieval cursive Greek small alphabet but have given an ornamental design. The source of the consonantal letters is unknown. If they were added by Cyril, it is likely that they were taken from a used for Christian scripture. It is frequently proposed that the letters sha Ⱎ, tsi Ⱌ, and cherv Ⱍ were taken from the letters shin ש and tsadi צ of the Hebrew alphabet, however, Cubberley suggests that if a single prototype were presumed, the most likely source would be Armenian. Other proposals include the Samaritan alphabet, which Cyril learned during his journey to the Khazars in Cherson, an alternate theory asserts that Saint Cyril did not develop Glagolitic script, instead improving and codifying a preexisting South Slavic script derived from Linear B. Comparison of Linear A and Linear B with the Glagolitic script finds 20 Glagolitic characters aligning in form and/or phonetics with Linear A and 23 with Linear B, Glagolitic letters were also used as numbers, similarly to Cyrillic numerals. Unlike Cyrillic numerals, which inherited their numeric value from the corresponding Greek letter, the Kiev Missal, found in the 19th century in Jerusalem, was dated to the 10th century. In 886 an East Frankish bishop of Nitra named Wiching banned the script and jailed 200 followers of Methodius and they were then dispersed or, according to some sources, sold as slaves by the Franks. Many of them, however, reached Bulgaria and were commissioned by Boris I of Bulgaria to teach, after the adoption of Christianity in Bulgaria in 865, religious ceremonies and Divine Liturgy were conducted in Greek by clergy sent from the Byzantine Empire, using the Byzantine rite. As a result of Boris measures, two academies, one in Ohrid and one in Preslav, were founded, from there, the students traveled to other places and spread the use of their alphabet
Glagolitic script
–
A page from the
Zograf Codex with text of the
Gospel of Luke
Glagolitic script
–
The
Baška tablet, found in the 19th century on
Krk, was dated to the year 1100.
Glagolitic script
–
Glagolitic script in the
Zagreb Cathedral
Glagolitic script
–
A page from the 10th–11th century
Codex Zographensis found in the
Zograf Monastery in 1843.
32.
Court hand
–
Court hand was a style of handwriting used in medieval English law courts. Originally used by the courts, it later came into use by professionals such as lawyers. It is noticeably upright and packed together with long ascenders and descenders, the latter often. The hand took its name from the fact that it was associated with formal records of the courts of Common Pleas and Kings Bench. In the 17th and 18th centuries the writing became increasingly stylised, and not in any Hand commonly called Court Hand, and in Words at Length and not abbreviated. Even in the 19th century, however, an ability to read court hand was considered useful for anyone who had to deal with old court records. In Shakespeares Henry VI, Part 2, Act 4, scene 2, Dick the Butcher says of Emmanuel, Clerk of Chatham, He can make Obligations, and write court-hand. In Charles Dickens novel Bleak House, Lady Dedlock begins a significant subplot by noticing a particular law hand on a legal document, Court hand is referred to in T. H. Whites novel The Sword in the Stone. Chancery hand Palaeography Samples of court hand Wright, Andrew, Trice Martin, court-Hand Restored or, The Students Assistant in Reading Old Deeds, Charters, Records, Etc. London, Reeves & Turner. English Court Hand A. D.1066 to 1500, Illustrated Chiefly from the Public Records
Court hand
–
Ancient and Medieval
Court hand
–
Court hand: alphabet (upper-cases and lower-cases) and some syllable abbreviations
33.
Gothic alphabet
–
The Gothic alphabet is an alphabet for writing the Gothic language, created in the 4th century by Ulfilas for the purpose of translating the Bible. It is completely different from the Gothic script of the Middle Ages, Ulfilas is thought to have consciously chosen to avoid the use of the older Runic alphabet for this purpose, as it was heavily connected with heathen beliefs and customs. Also, the Greek-based script probably helped to integrate the Gothic nation into the dominant Greco-Roman culture around the Black Sea, below is a table of the Gothic alphabet. Two letters used in its transliteration are not used in current English, the Runic þ, as with the Greek alphabet, Gothic letters were also assigned numerical values. When used as numerals, letters were written either between two dots or with an overline, two letters,
Gothic alphabet
–
Gothic
Gothic alphabet
–
First page of the
Codex Argenteus or "Silver Bible", a 6th-century manuscript containing bishop
Ulfilas 's 4th century translation of the Christian
Bible into the
Gothic language.
Gothic alphabet
–
Ancient and Medieval
34.
Cursive
–
Cursive, is any style of penmanship in which some characters are written joined together in a flowing manner, generally for the purpose of making writing faster. Formal cursive is generally joined, but casual cursive is a combination of joins, the writing style can be further divided as looped, italic, or connected. The cursive method is used with a number of alphabets due to its improved writing speed, in some alphabets, many or all letters in a word are connected sometimes making a word two single complex strokes. Cursive is any style of penmanship in which the symbols of the language are written in a conjoined and/or flowing manner and this writing style is distinct from printscript using block letters, in which the letters of a word are unconnected and in Roman/Gothic letterform rather than joined-up script. Not all cursive copybooks join all letters, formal cursive is generally joined, in the Arabic, Syriac, Latin, and Cyrillic alphabets, many or all letters in a word are connected, sometimes making a word one single complex stroke. In Hebrew cursive and Roman cursive, the letters are not connected, in Maharashtra there is a version of Cursive called Modi In looped cursive penmanship, some ascenders and descenders have loops which provide for joins. Cursive italic penmanship—derived from chancery cursive—uses non-looped joins or no joins, in italic cursive, there are no joins from g, j, q or y, and a few other joins are discouraged. Italic penmanship became popular in the 15th-century Italian Renaissance, the term italic as it relates to handwriting is not to be confused with italic typed letters that slant forward. Many, but not all, letters in the handwriting of the Renaissance were joined, the origins of the cursive method is associated with practical advantages of writing speed and infrequent pen lifting to accommodate the limitations of the quill. Quills are fragile, easily broken, and will spatter unless used properly, steel dip pens followed quills, they were sturdier, but still had some limitations. The individuality of the provenance of a document was a factor also, the term cursive derives from the 18th century Italian corsivo from Medieval Latin cursivus, which literally means running. This term in turn derives from Latin currere, Modi is a script used to write the Marathi language, which is the primary language spoken in the state of Maharashtra, India. There are at least two different theories concerning its origin, modI was an official script used to write Marathi until the 20th century when the Balbodh style of the Devanagari script was promoted as the standard writing system for Marathi. Although Modi was primarily used to write Marathi, other such as Urdu, Kannada, Gujarati, Rajasthani, Hindi. In Bengali cursive script the letters are more likely to be more curvy in appearance than in standard Bengali handwriting, also, the horizontal supporting bar on each letter runs continuously through the entire word, unlike in standard handwriting. Roman cursive is a form of handwriting used in ancient Rome and it is customarily divided into old cursive, and new cursive. New Roman cursive, also called minuscule cursive or later Roman cursive, the Greek alphabet has had several cursive forms in the course of its development. In antiquity, a form of handwriting was used in writing on papyrus
Cursive
–
Example of classic American business cursive handwriting known as
Spencerian script from 1884.
Cursive
–
Looped cursive as taught in Britain in mid-twentieth century
Cursive
–
Verses from the
Qur'an in Classical Arabic, written in the cursive
Arabic script.
Cursive
–
half of the
National Anthem of Bangladesh written in Cursive
Bengali.
35.
Chancery hand
–
The term chancery hand can refer to either of two very different styles of historical handwriting. This early chancery hand is a form of blackletter, versions of it were adopted by royal and ducal chanceries, which were often staffed by clerics who had taken minor orders. The English chancery hand was already an arcane specialty by the time of the Restoration, kipps, who directed me to Mr. In England and France at the time it was known as Italic, in English it is often changed in spelling to cancellaresca corsiva. The Italian scribe Ludovico Vicentino degli Arrighis 1522 influential pamphlet on handwriting called La Operina was the first book on writing the script known as cursive chancery hand. He was a scribe in the Papal Curia, which had refined cursive chancery hand in its infancy during the half of the fifteenth century. While considered a cursive, this hand was strongly disciplined in form, regular in movement and slightly, if at all. In cursive chancery hand the pen was held slanted at an angle for speed. In fifteenth-century Italy the cursive hand was employed in correspondence, everyday business. S. Osley, Scribes and Sources, Handbook of Chancery Hand in the Sixteenth Century, facsimile selections from a range of continental and English writing masters
Chancery hand
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Ancient and Medieval
Chancery hand
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English chancery hand. Facsimile letter from
Henry V of England, 1418.
36.
Italic script
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Italic script, also known as chancery cursive, is a semi-cursive, slightly sloped style of handwriting and calligraphy that was developed during the Renaissance in Italy. It is one of the most popular used in contemporary Western calligraphy. Italic script is based largely on Humanist minuscule, which draws on Carolingian minuscule. The capital letters are the same as the Humanist capitals, modeled on Roman square capitals, the Italian scholar Niccolò de Niccoli was dissatisfied with the lowercase forms of Humanist minuscule, finding it too slow to write. In response, he created the Italic script, which features and techniques characteristic of a quickly written hand, oblique forms, fewer strokes per character. Perhaps the most significant change to any single character was to the form of the a, under the influence of Italic movable type used with printing presses, the style of handwritten Italic script moved towards disjoined, more mannered characters. By the 1550s the Italic script had become so laborious that it fell out of use with scribes, the style became increasingly influenced by the development of Copperplate writing styles in the eighteenth century. The style Italic script used today is heavily influenced by developments made as late as the early 20th century. In the past few decades, the script has been promoted in English-speaking countries as an easier-to-learn alternative to traditional styles of cursive handwriting. In the UK this revival was due in part to Alfred Fairbanks book A Handwriting Manual, a modern version called Getty-Dubay was introduced in 1976
Italic script
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Ancient and Medieval
Italic script
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One of the innovations of Niccoli's Italic script was the major change to the Humanist minuscule a.
37.
Round hand
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Round Hand is a type of handwriting and calligraphy originating in England in the 1660s primarily by the writing masters John Ayres and William Banson. During the Renaissance writing masters of the Apostolic Camera developed the italic cursiva script, by the end of the 16th century italic circumflessa began to replace italic cursiva. Italic circumflessa was further adapted into the French style rhonde in the early 17th century, by the mid-17th century French officials were flooded with documents written in various hands at varied levels of skills and artistry. As a result began to complain that many such documents were beyond their ability to cipher. In England Edward Cocker had been publishing copybooks based upon French rhonde in the 1640s, in the 1680s John Ayres and William Banson popularized their versions of rhonde after further refining and developing it into what had become known as English round hand style. The typefaces Snell Roundhand and Kuenstler Script are based on style of handwriting. George Snell was particularly noted for his reaction to other variants of roundhand, developing his own Snell Roundhand which emphasised restraint, carter, Rob, Day, Ben, Meggs, Philip. Typographic Design, Form and Communication, Second Edition, van Nostrand Reinhold, Inc,1993 ISBN 0-442-00759-0. Fiedl, Frederich, Nicholas Ott and Bernard Stein, typography, An Encyclopedic Survey of Type Design and Techniques Through History. The History and Technique of Lettering Dover Publications, Inc.1998, the Art of Calligraphy, Western Europe & America. Folger Shakespeare Library web page on round hand manuscripts Columbia University online facsimile of writing manuals including The Universal Penman
Round hand
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Ancient and Medieval
Round hand
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George Bickham's Round Hand script, from The Universal Penman, c. 1740–1741.
38.
Secretary hand
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The hand thus used by secretaries was developed from cursive business hands and was in common use throughout the British Isles through the seventeenth century. In spite of its loops and flourishes it was used by scriveners and others whose daily employment comprised hours of writing. At the time of Henry VII, many began to use the Italian style instead. English ladies were taught an Italian hand, suitable for the occasional writing that they were expected to do. Grace Ioppolo notes that the convention in writing the texts of dramas was to act and scene settings, characters names and stage directions in italic. The modern use of italic font stems from these distinctions, aside from palaeographers themselves, genealogists, social historians and scholars of Early Modern literature have become accustomed to reading secretary hand. William Henry Ireland used the hand to forge many Shakespeare documents. Two brief pamphlets provide introductory orientation, Lionel M. Munby, Secretary Hand, an introduction,1984
Secretary hand
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Covenant bond from 1623 written in Latin and English
Secretary hand
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William Shakespeare 's will, written in secretary hand.
Secretary hand
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Ancient and Medieval
39.
Library hand
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Library hand is a rounded style of handwriting once taught in library schools. The intention was to ensure uniformity and legibility in the cards of library catalogs. It was Melvil Dewey and Thomas Edison who developed and perfected the approved library hand to be taught in library school, the 1903 Handbook of the New York State Library School listed the requirements of library hand. They included legibility, speed, and uniformity, the particular type of ink, inkstands, pens, penholders, and erasers was specified. The standards for lettering were dictated in regard to size, slant, spacing, special letters and figures, the teaching of library hand declined after the widespread introduction of the typewriter in the early 20th century
Library hand
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'Joined hand' from John Cotton Dana's A Library Primer (Chicago: Library Bureau, 1899), page 71
Library hand
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The first card written west of Cambridge, in library hand
Library hand
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Ancient and Medieval
40.
Spencerian script
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Spencerian Script was developed in 1840, and began soon after to be taught in the school Spencer established specifically for that purpose. He quickly turned out graduates who left his school to start replicas of it abroad, Spencer never saw the great success that his penmanship style enjoyed because he died in 1864, but his sons took upon themselves the mission of bringing their late fathers dream to fruition. This they did by distributing Spencers previously unpublished book, Spencerian Key to Practical Penmanship and it was gradually replaced in primary schools with the simpler Palmer Method developed by Austin Norman Palmer. The text in Ford Motor Companys logo is written in this style, an official recognition by IAMPETH as a uniquely American form, combined with various new books, video tutorials and methods, is making Spencerian more accessible to those interested in learning it. Copperplate script DNealian Round hand Zaner-Bloser IAMPETH, Scanned original Spencer Brothers instructional publications, Spencerian script samples New Spencerian Compendium on the Internet Archive
Spencerian script
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Enduring example, twenty years after Platt Rogers Spencer's death, of Spencerian script from 1884
Spencerian script
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P. R. Spencer's book, published 1866
Spencerian script
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Ancient and Medieval
41.
Palmer Method
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The Palmer Method of penmanship instruction was developed and promoted by Austin Palmer in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. It was largely created as a style of the Spencerian Method. The Palmer Method soon became the most popular handwriting system in the United States, under the method, students were taught to adopt a uniform system of cursive writing with rhythmic motions. The method developed around 1888 and was introduced in his book Palmers Guide to Business Writing, Palmers method involved muscle motion in which the more proximal muscles of the arm were used for movement, rather than allowing the fingers to move in writing. In spite of opposition from the publishers, this textbook enjoyed great success. The method won awards, including the Gold Medal at the Panama Pacific Exposition in San Francisco, in 1915, and the Gold Medal at the Sesquicentennial Exposition in Philadelphia, in 1926. To educators, the methods advocates emphasized regimentation, and that the method would thus be useful in schools to increase discipline and character, the DNealian method, introduced in 1978, sought to address problems raised by the Zaner-Bloser method, returning to a more cursive style. The Palmer company stopped publishing in the 1980s, in radar engineering, a Palmer Scan is a scanning technique that produces a scanning beam by moving the main antenna and its feed in a circular motion. The name was derived from the looping circles practiced by students of the Palmer Method, new York, A. N. Palmer Company. The Palmer Method of Business Writing, the Palmer Method of Business Writing. Excerpt from Spencerian Script and Ornamental Penmanship, Script and Scribble, The Rise and Fall of Handwriting. The object of this website is to teach rapid, easily-executed and it has not been written to exploit any one’s skill as a pen artist. It aims to be of use to those who are ambitious to become good, the lessons it contains are not experimental, but have been the means of guiding millions of boys and girls, young men and women to a good business style of writing
Palmer Method
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Sample writing from The Palmer Method of Business Writing
Palmer Method
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Alphabet and numerals from The Palmer Method of Business Writing
Palmer Method
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Ancient and Medieval
42.
Kurrent
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Kurrent is an old form of German-language handwriting based on late medieval cursive writing, also known as Kurrentschrift, Alte Deutsche Schrift and German cursive. Over the history of its use into the first part of the 20th century, German writers used both cursive styles, Kurrent and English cursive, in parallel, location, contents and context of the text determined which script style to use. Sütterlin is a script based on Kurrent that is characterized by simplified letters. It was developed in 1911 and taught in German schools as primary script from 1935 until the beginning of January,1941, then it was replaced with normal German handwriting, which is sometimes referred to as Latin writing. See Ausgangsschrift for examples of post-1941 school handwriting samples, antiqua-Fraktur dispute Blackletter Eszett Fraktur Sütterlin handwriting Grundschrift handwriting German handwriting Schrift Overview and examples of Kurrent
Kurrent
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Letter from
Lessing to
Kleist, 14 March 1758
Kurrent
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Alphabet in kurrent script from about 1865. The next-to-last line shows the umlauts ä, ö, ü, and the corresponding capital letters Ae, Oe, and Ue; and the last line shows the ligatures ch, ck, th, sch, sz, and st.
Kurrent
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Manuscript by
Wilhelm Busch (undated, late 19th century)
Kurrent
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Example from a book published in 1905
43.
Russian cursive
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The Russian cursive is the handwritten form of the modern Russian Cyrillic script, used instead of the block letters seen in printed material. In addition, Russian italics for the letters are often based on the Russian cursive. Most handwritten Russian, especially personal letters and schoolwork, uses the cursive alphabet, in Russian schools most children are taught from first grade how to write with this script. It became the counterpart of so-called civil printed script of books. In order, modern Cyrillic italic typefaces are based mostly on the shape of the letters. The resulting cursive bears many similarities with the Latin cursive, one must not confuse the historical Russian chancery hand, the contemporary Russian cursive and the contemporary Russian stenography. The latter is completely different from the two, though it is sometimes called ско́ропись like the former. Russian cursive is much like contemporary calligraphic Latin cursive, therefore, certain combinations of these Russian letters cannot be unambiguously deciphered without knowing the language or without a broader context. For example, in the words волшебник, magician and домик, little house the combinations лш, there are examples of different words that become absolutely identical in their cursive form, e. g. мщу, revenge and лицу, a face. In some forms of cursive the distinction between т and ш may become elusive, because both are written in the shapes of either m or ɯ. To alleviate this case of ambiguity, a bar can be written above the character if it is т. Also, writing т in its printed form rather than its usual m shape is common, the letter д may also be written in the shape of ∂. Several letters in Russian cursive are different from the used in the Serbian and Macedonian languages. Thus, Serbian/Macedonian г and п are written like the cursive Latin i and u with macron, cursive Russian alphabet Russian cursive writing practice sheet PDF
Russian cursive
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19th century variants of Russian calligraphic cursive letters.
Russian cursive
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Russian calligraphic handwriting from a Russian schoolbook (1916).
Russian cursive
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Ancient and Medieval
44.
Shorthand
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Shorthand is an abbreviated symbolic writing method that increases speed and brevity of writing as compared to longhand, a more common method of writing a language. The process of writing in shorthand is called stenography, from the Greek stenos and it has also been called brachygraphy, from Greek brachys and tachygraphy, from Greek tachys, depending on whether compression or speed of writing is the goal. A typical shorthand system provides symbols or abbreviations for words and common phrases, abbreviation methods are alphabet-based and use different abbreviating approaches. Several autocomplete programs, standalone or integrated in text editors, based on word lists, many journalists use shorthand writing to quickly take notes at press conferences or other similar scenarios. Shorthand was used widely in the past, before the invention of recording. Shorthand was considered a part of secretarial training and police work. Although the primary use of shorthand has been to record oral dictation or discourse, for example, healthcare professionals may use shorthand notes in medical charts and correspondence. The earliest known indication of shorthand systems is from the Parthenon in Ancient Greece and this shows a writing system primarily based on vowels, using certain modifications to indicate consonants. Hellenistic tachygraphy is reported from the 2nd century BC onwards, though there are indications that it might be older, the oldest datable reference is a contract from Middle Egypt, stating that Oxyrhynchos gives the semeiographer Apollonios for two years to be taught shorthand writing. Hellenistic tachygraphy consisted of word stem signs and word ending signs, over time, many syllabic signs were developed. In Ancient Rome, Marcus Tullius Tiro, a slave and later a freedman of Cicero, the Tironian notes consisted of Latin word stem abbreviations and of word ending abbreviations. The original Tironian notes consisted of about 4000 signs, but new signs were introduced, in order to have a less complex writing system, a syllabic shorthand script was sometimes used. After the decline of the Roman Empire, the Tironian notes were no longer used to transcribe speeches, though they were known and taught. After the 11th century, however, they were mostly forgotten, when many monastery libraries were secularized in the course of the 16th-century Protestant Reformation, long-forgotten manuscripts of Tironian notes were rediscovered. In imperial China, clerks used an abbreviated, highly cursive form of Chinese characters to record court proceedings and these records were used to create more formal transcripts. One cornerstone of imperial court proceedings was that all confessions had to be acknowledged by the signature, personal seal, or thumbprint. Versions of this technique survived in clerical professions into the modern day, an interest in shorthand or short-writing developed towards the end of the 16th century in England. In 1588 Timothy Bright published his Characterie, An Arte of Shorte, Swifte and Secrete Writing by Character which introduced a system with 500 arbitrary symbols each representing one word
Shorthand
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Dutch stenography using the "System Groote"
Shorthand
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Sun Guoting 's Treatise on Calligraphy, an example of cursive writing of Chinese characters.
Shorthand
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Tombstone of
Heinrich Roller, inventor of a
German shorthand system, with a sample of his shorthand
Shorthand
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Ancient and Medieval
45.
Zaner-Bloser
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Zaner-Bloser, Inc. headquartered in Columbus, Ohio, publishes research-based handwriting, reading, writing, spelling, and vocabulary programs. Founded by Master Penman Charles Paxton Zaner, the history can be traced back to 1888 when it was known as the Zanerian College of Penmanship. Zaner’s enthusiasm about this utilitarian art inspired him to open a school that would prepare students for careers in the penmanship industry. In 1891, Zaner sold shares of the Zanerian College of Penmanship to another skilled penman, in 1972, Zaner-Bloser, Inc. became a wholly owned subsidiary of Highlights for Children. Charles Paxton Zaner, born near Bloomsburg, Pennsylvania in 1864, in 1882, he enrolled in G. W. Michaels Pen Art Hall in Oberlin, Ohio. After graduation, Zaner worked as a penman at two different business colleges before deciding to open his own school in 1888—the Zanerian College of Penmanship. In 1889, fellow Master Penman Lloyd Kelchner became a partner with Zaner and that same year, Kelchner left the business arrangement, leading Zaner and Bloser to become equal partners in what had then become the Zaner-Bloser Company. Zaner built a reputation for himself as a Master Penman and he maximized his exposure and recognition in the industry with monthly magazines that included countless lessons in penmanship and pen art, for which he enlisted the help of other industry experts. This, as well as numerous other endeavors, established Zaner as a figure in what is called the Golden Age of Ornamental Penmanship. Elmer Ward Bloser was born in 1865 and raised on his farm in Pennsylvania. His interest in writing was apparent even as a child, when he sold writing inks, in 1883, Bloser began attending G. W. Michael’s Pen Art Hall, where his writing acumen eventually earned him a position as penmanship instructor, bloser’s penmanship career advanced with such success that he was considered one of the finest in the industry. In 1891, he purchased shares of the Zanerian College of Penmanship, after Charles Paxton Zaners untimely death in 1918, Bloser purchased the company’s remaining shares and continued to manage Zaner-Bloser’s successful operation until his own death in 1929
Zaner-Bloser
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Zaner-Bloser, Inc.
Zaner-Bloser
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Zanerian College of Penmanship
Zaner-Bloser
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Charles Paxton Zaner
Zaner-Bloser
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Ancient and Medieval
46.
List of writing systems
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This is a list of writing systems, classified according to some common distinguishing features. There are at least 3866 writing systems, the usual name of the script is given first, the name of the language in which the script is written follows, particularly in the case where the language name differs from the script name. Other informative or qualifying annotations for the script may also be provided, ideographic scripts, and pictographic scripts are not thought to be able to express all that can be communicated by language, as argued by the linguists John DeFrancis and J. Marshall Unger. Unger disputes claims made on behalf of Blissymbols in his 2004 book Ideogram, Although a few pictographic or ideographic scripts exist today, there is no single way to read them, because there is no one-to-one correspondence between symbol and language. Hieroglyphs were commonly thought to be ideographic before they were translated, in some cases of ideographic scripts, only the author of a text can read it with any certainty, and it may be said that they are interpreted rather than read. Such scripts often work best as mnemonic aids for oral texts, aztec – Nahuatl – Although some proper nouns have phonetic components. Mixtec – Mixtec Dongba – Naxi – Although this is supplemented with syllabic Geba script. Ersu Shābā – Ersu Míkmaq hieroglyphic writing – Míkmaq – Does have phonetic components, nsibidi – Ekoi, Efik/Ibibio, Igbo Testerian – used for missionary work in Mexico Other Mesoamerican writing systems with the exception of Maya Hieroglyphs. There are also symbol systems used to represent things other than language, some of these are Blissymbols – A constructed ideographic script used primarily in Augmentative and Alternative Communication. IConji – A constructed ideographic script used primarily in social networking Isotype Sona language A wide variety of notations Linear B, in logographic writing systems, glyphs represent words or morphemes, rather than phonetic elements. Note that no logographic script is composed solely of logograms, all contain graphemes that represent phonetic elements as well. These phonetic elements may be used on their own, or may serve as phonetic complements to a logogram, in the case of Old Persian, all vowels were written regardless, so it was effectively a true alphabet despite its syllabic component. In Japanese a similar system plays a role in foreign borrowings, for example, is written +. Paleohispanic semi-syllabaries behaved as a syllabary for the consonants and as an alphabet for the rest of consonants. The Tartessian or Southwestern script is typologically intermediate between a pure alphabet and the Paleohispanic full semi-syllabaries, Although the letter used to write a stop consonant was determined by the following vowel, as in a full semi-syllabary, the following vowel was also written, as in an alphabet. Some scholars treat Tartessian as a redundant semi-syllabary, others treat it as a redundant alphabet, zhuyin is semi-syllabic in a different sense, it transcribes half syllables. That is, it has letters for syllable onsets and rimes rather than for consonants, eskayan – Bohol, Philippines Bamum script – Bamum A segmental script has graphemes which represent the phonemes of a language. Note that there need not be a one-to-one correspondence between the graphemes of the script and the phonemes of a language, Linear alphabets are composed of lines on a surface, such as ink on paper
List of writing systems
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Writing systems
List of writing systems
List of writing systems
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A
Palaung manuscript written in a Brahmic abugida
47.
History of writing
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The history of writing traces the development of expressing language by letters or other marks and also the study and description of these developments. One of the earliest forms of expression is cuneiform. Writing numbers for the purpose of record keeping began long before the writing of language, see History of writing ancient numbers for how the writing of numbers began. It is generally agreed that true writing of language was conceived and developed in at least two places and possibly more. Egyptian script is dissimilar from Mesopotamian cuneiform, but similarities in concepts, similar debate surrounds the Indus script of the Bronze Age Indus Valley civilization in Ancient India. In addition, the script is still undeciphered and there is debate whether the script is true writing at all. An additional possibility is the undeciphered Rongorongo script of Easter Island and it is debated whether this is true writing, and if it is, whether it is another case of cultural diffusion of writing. The oldest example is from 1851,139 years after their first contact with Europeans, one explanation is that the script was inspired by Spains written annexation proclamation in 1770. Recent examples are the Cherokee syllabary, invented by Sequoyah, symbolic communication systems are distinguished from writing systems in that one must usually understand something of the associated spoken language to comprehend the text. In contrast, symbolic systems such as signs, painting, maps. Every human community possesses language, a feature regarded by many as an innate, however the development of writing systems, and their partial supplantation of traditional oral systems of communication, have been sporadic, uneven and slow. Once established, writing systems on the change more slowly than their spoken counterparts. Writing allows societies to transmit information and share knowledge, scholars make a reasonable distinction between prehistory and history of early writing, but have disagreed concerning when prehistory becomes history and when proto-writing became true writing. Writing, in its most general terms, is a method of recording information and is composed of graphemes, the emergence of writing in a given area is usually followed by several centuries of fragmentary inscriptions. Historians mark the historicity of a culture by the presence of coherent texts in the writing system. The invention of writing was not an event, but a gradual process initiated by the appearance of symbols. A conventional proto-writing to true writing system follows a series of developmental stages, Picture writing system. Transitional system, graphemes refer not only to the object or idea which it represents, phonetic system, graphemes refer to sounds or spoken symbols, and the form of the grapheme is not related to its meanings
History of writing
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Writing systems
History of writing
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Sumer, an ancient civilization of southern
Mesopotamia, is believed to be the place where
written language was first invented around 3200 BC
History of writing
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Middle Babylonian legal tablet from Alalah in its envelope
History of writing
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Sequence of ten Indus signs discovered near the northern gate of the Indus site
Dholavira
