1.
Bethlehem Shipbuilding Corporation
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Bethlehem Steel Corporation Shipbuilding Division was created in 1905 when Bethlehem Steel Corporation acquired the San Francisco shipyard Union Iron Works in 1905. In 1917 it was incorporated as Bethlehem Shipbuilding Corporation, Limited, headquarters were in Quincy, Massachusetts, after acquiring Fore River Shipyard in 1913 and later in Sparrows Point, Maryland, in 1964. In 1940, it was number 1 of the Big 3 U. S. shipbuilders who could build any ship, newport News Shipbuilding & Drydock and New York Shipbuilding Corporation were #2 and #3. Bethlehem had 4 yards in early 1940, Fore River, Sparrows Point, San Francisco, Bethlehem expanded during World War II as a result of the Emergency Shipbuilding program administered under the United States Maritime Commission. The Quincy yard was sold to General Dynamics Corporation in the mid-1960s, Bethlehem Steel ceased shipbuilding activities in 1997 in an attempt to preserve its core steel making operations. The following shipyards were owned by Bethlehem and they are listed in order of acquisition. Beaumont, Texas The Beaumont Yard was one of the sources of offshore drilling rigs built in the United States with seventy–two offshore rigs built at the yard. Seventy-one Type C1 ships were built during World War II by Pennsylvania Shipyards, Shipbuilding Division Photographs, circa 1900-1945 at San Francisco Maritime National Historical Park
2.
Fore River Shipyard
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Fore River Shipyard was a shipyard owned by General Dynamics Corporation located on Weymouth Fore River in Braintree and Quincy, Massachusetts. It began operations in 1883 in Braintree, and moved to its location on Quincy Point in 1901. In 1913, it was purchased by Bethlehem Steel, and later transferred to Bethlehem Shipbuilding Corporation and it was sold to General Dynamics in 1963, and closed in 1986. During its operation, yardworkers constructed hundreds of ships, for military and civilian clients. Most of the ships at the yard were built for the United States Navy, the yard also built early submarines for Electric Boat, including USS Octopus and USS Sunfish. Fore River also constructed the battleship USS Massachusetts, and the cruisers USS Springfield and USS Salem as well as the Navys first carrier USS Lexington and its successor USS Lexington. General Dynamics Quincy Shipbuilding Division, as it came to be known, ended its career as a producer of various LNG tankers. According to one theory, the yard was the origin of the Kilroy was here pop culture reference, in addition, the yard owned Bethlehem Atlantic Works, a drydock facility which was located in East Boston. The shipyard traces its beginnings back to 1882, when Thomas A. Watson purchased a farm alongside the Fore River in East Braintree, Massachusetts. In 1884, Watson attempted to farm the land, but soon realizing that it was a failure, work on the engine began in 1884, and continued into 1885, when it was deemed a financial failure. At this point, Watson decided to work with his business partner Frank O. Wellington on ship building, creating the Fore River Engine Company. The success of this operation was strengthened the fact that the shipyard was producing a quality engine. Soon, a new engine-building facility was constructed, employing between twenty and thirty workers, additionally, the Prouty Printing Press and Sims-Dudley dynamite gun, staple guns for shoes, and electric light accessories were produced by Fore River. In addition, the diversity of Fore Rivers products was due to the fact that Watson desired to employ as many friends as possible, the Panic of 1893 brought a new era to the company, as the depression limited the Fore Rivers possibilities. Fortunately for Fore River, the United States Navy awarded a contract to them to construct USS Lawrence and these two ships were the last to be constructed at the East Braintree location, as the yard moved down the river to a site on nearby Quincy Point in 1901. The construction of United States lightship LV-72 alongside the destroyers further strengthened the company financially, the awarding of USS Des Moines was also beneficial for Fore River. Faced with the problem of not having a large area to build the cruiser. The Des Moines was launched in 1902 and commissioned in 1904, bringing with it some stability to the yard
3.
Union Iron Works
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The Donahue Brothers Peter and James, Irish immigrants, founded Union Iron Works in the south of Market area of San Francisco in 1849. After years as the producer of mining, railroad, agricultural and locomotive machinery in California, Union Iron Works. In 1885, the Union Iron Works launched the first steel hulled ship on the west coast, in 1886, UIW was awarded a $1,000,000 contract to build a Naval cruiser, the Charleston, which they completed in eighteen months. From the completion of the Arago in 1884 to 1902, UIW built seventy-five marine vessels, an 1892 description of the yards stated that between 1200 and 1500 men were employed and the yearly gross revenue was between $2,000,000 and $4,000,000. By the turn of the century, the shipyard had expanded in area and these industrial facilities used five types of power, distributed throughout, electricity, compressed air, steam, hydraulic and coal or gas fire. Union Iron works built a number of ships for the United States Navy and these ships include the USS Oregon laid down in 1891, and Adder-class submarines Grampus and Pike which were launched in 1902 and 1903, respectively. The latter two were subcontracted from the Holland Torpedo Boat Company, and were the first submarines built on the West Coast, in 1902, the Union Iron Works was absorbed into a combine called the United States Shipbuilding Company and was mired in three years of litigation. In 1905, the entire 40-acre shipyard was purchased by Bethlehem Shipbuilding Corporation for one million dollars, charles M. Schwab stood on the steps of the UIW office building on 20th Street during the auction. At this point, he was the only bidder, Schwab was widely believed to have engineered the demise of the U. S. Shipbuilding Corporation in order to control of the industry. Whether or not that was true, he benefited from the collapse of the US Shipbuilding combine. At the time of the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, the passenger liner Columbia of the San Francisco. The earthquake caused the iron hulled Columbia to shift off her supports and this rendered the drydock, a key feature of the yard, damaged beyond economic repair. The Columbia on the hand, despite being partially flooded and damaged, was repaired and returned to service in January 1907. In 1908, Bethlehem Shipbuilding Corporation bought the Hunters Point, San Francisco, in the pre-World War I era, Union Iron Works built several navy ships that became internationally famous due to the Spanish–American War, Commodore Deweys flagship the Olympia. After 1905, the shipyard operated as part of Bethlehem Steel, first complete ferry built by Union Iron Works San Pablo, Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railroad passenger ferry. Hull became first fish reduction plant on San Pablo Bay Tamalpais,1900 Northwest Railroad Passenger Ferry, fred W. Weller Steel tanker S. S. Invincible 1918 Freighter S. S. auto ferry, short-lived ferry company funded by Sunny Jim James Rolph Went to Puget Sound in 1940 S. S
4.
Boston Navy Yard
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The Boston Navy Yard, originally called the Charlestown Navy Yard and later Boston Naval Shipyard, was one of the oldest shipbuilding facilities in the United States Navy. Enough of the remains in operation to support the USS Constitution. The USS Cassin Young, a World War II-era destroyer serving as a ship, is also berthed here. Among people in the area and the National Park Service, it is known as the Charlestown Navy Yard. The South Boston Naval Annex was located along the waterfront in South Boston, the earliest naval shipbuilding activities in Charlestown, Massachusetts, began during the American Revolutionary War. The land for the Charlestown Navy Yard was purchased in 1800 and the yard itself established shortly thereafter. The yard built the first U. S. ship of the line, USS Independence, but was primarily a repair and storage facility until the 1890s, by then, it was called the Boston Navy Yard. The ropewalk supplied cordage used in the Navy from the time it opened in 1837 until the Yard closed in 1975, after the Civil War, the Yard was downgraded to an Equipment and Recruit Facility. In the 1890s, the Navy began expanding and that new life to the Yard. In the first years of the 20th century, a drydock was added. During WWII, it worked to fix British ships damaged by the Germans, on September 27, 1941—Liberty Fleet Day—Boston launched two destroyers, the USS Cowie and the USS Knight. In November 1941, Boston was one of four United States naval shipyards selected to build Captain class frigates as Lend-Lease for the Royal Navy, since the United States was at war when these ships were completed, some were used by the United States Navy as destroyer escorts. In the post war period, the shipyard modified World War II ships for Cold War service through Fleet Rehabilitation and Modernization, the Korean War and Vietnam War did not bring much work to the Yard since it was so far from the fighting. Edwards Battle of Surigao Strait, Battle of Iwo Jima, Battle of Okinawa 1943, USS Richard P. Brown Battle of the Atlantic 1943, USS William C. When ideas were floated for redevelopment of the yard, one idea was to have the yard turned into a construction yard for oil tankers. Ultimately, these fell through, and the site became part of the Boston National Historical Park. Its mission is, to interpret the art and history of naval shipbuilding, the Charlestown Navy Yard hosts many attractions. The fully commissioned USS Constitution and the museum ship USS Cassin Young are tied up at Pier 1, the Navy Yard also hosts the USS Constitution Museum
5.
United States Navy
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The United States Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The U. S. Navy is the largest, most capable navy in the world, the U. S. Navy has the worlds largest aircraft carrier fleet, with ten in service, two in the reserve fleet, and three new carriers under construction. The service has 323,792 personnel on duty and 108,515 in the Navy Reserve. It has 274 deployable combat vessels and more than 3,700 operational aircraft as of October 2016, the U. S. Navy traces its origins to the Continental Navy, which was established during the American Revolutionary War and was effectively disbanded as a separate entity shortly thereafter. It played a role in the American Civil War by blockading the Confederacy. It played the role in the World War II defeat of Imperial Japan. The 21st century U. S. Navy maintains a global presence, deploying in strength in such areas as the Western Pacific, the Mediterranean. The Navy is administratively managed by the Department of the Navy, the Department of the Navy is itself a division of the Department of Defense, which is headed by the Secretary of Defense. The Chief of Naval Operations is an admiral and the senior naval officer of the Department of the Navy. The CNO may not be the highest ranking officer in the armed forces if the Chairman or the Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The mission of the Navy is to maintain, train and equip combat-ready Naval forces capable of winning wars, deterring aggression, the United States Navy is a seaborne branch of the military of the United States. The Navys three primary areas of responsibility, The preparation of naval forces necessary for the prosecution of war. The development of aircraft, weapons, tactics, technique, organization, U. S. Navy training manuals state that the mission of the U. S. Armed Forces is to prepare and conduct prompt and sustained combat operations in support of the national interest, as part of that establishment, the U. S. Navys functions comprise sea control, power projection and nuclear deterrence, in addition to sealift duties. It follows then as certain as that night succeeds the day, that without a decisive naval force we can do nothing definitive, the Navy was rooted in the colonial seafaring tradition, which produced a large community of sailors, captains, and shipbuilders. In the early stages of the American Revolutionary War, Massachusetts had its own Massachusetts Naval Militia, the establishment of a national navy was an issue of debate among the members of the Second Continental Congress. Supporters argued that a navy would protect shipping, defend the coast, detractors countered that challenging the British Royal Navy, then the worlds preeminent naval power, was a foolish undertaking. Commander in Chief George Washington resolved the debate when he commissioned the ocean-going schooner USS Hannah to interdict British merchant ships, and reported the captures to the Congress
6.
Italian Navy
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The Italian Navy is the maritime defence force of the Italian Republic. It is one of the four branches of Italian Armed Forces and was formed in 1946 from what remained of the Regia Marina after World War II. As of August 2014, the Italian Navy had a strength of 30,923 active personnel with approximately 184 vessels in service, the Regia Marina was formed on March 17,1861, after the proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy. The Italian Navy assumed its present name after the Italian monarchy was abolished following a referendum held on June 2,1946. At the end of its five years involvement in World War II, however, a large number of its naval units had survived the war, albeit in a low efficiency state, which was due to the conflict and the age of many vessels. A ban on owning Battleships, Aircraft carriers, Submarines and Amphibious Assault units, a ban on operating military installations on the islands of Pantelleria, Pianosa and on the archipelago of Pelagie Islands. The total displacement, battleships excluded, of the navy was not allowed to be greater than 67,500 tons. Some had already been dismantled in La Spezia between 1948 and 1955, including the aircraft carrier Aquila. However, the Soviet Union demanded the surrender of the battleship Giulio Cesare, the cruisers Attilio Regolo and Scipione Africano became the French Chateaurenault and Guichen, while Eugenio di Savoia became the Greek Helli. After break up and/or transfers, only a part of the fleet remained to be recommissioned into the Marina. With the new elections in 1946, the Kingdom of Italy became a Republic, the US government in Washington wished to keep its own installations on the Italian Peninsula and relaxed the Treaty restrictions by including Italy in the Mutual Defense Assistance Programme. Within NATO, the Marina Militare was assigned control of the Adriatic Sea and Strait of Otranto. This solution required a great effort to rebuild and transform the fleet. Progress was slow due to pressures on Italy and due to opposition from other European governments. These nations were concerned at seeing an Italian Navy capable of rivaling the Western naval forces, the ensign of the Italian Navy is the Italian tricolour defaced with the coat of arms of the Marina Militare. A further difference is that St, in 2012 the Navy began a restructuring process that will see a 21% decrease in personnel by 2025. A new structure was implemented in January 2014, the command structure is depicted below, Reporting to the Logistics Command is Maritime Command – divided into four areas who provide logistic support for their areas. The Corps of the Port Captaincies – Coast Guard is the coast guard of Italy and is part of the Italian Navy under the control of the Ministry of Infrastructures, in Italy, it is commonly known as simply the Guardia costiera
7.
Republic of China Navy
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The Republic of China Navy is the maritime branch of the Republic of China Armed Forces. Operations include maritime patrols in the Taiwan Strait and surrounding waters, as well as counter-strike, the Republic of China Marine Corps functions as a branch of the Navy. The ship prefix for ROCN combatants is ROCS, a usage is CNS. The Navy CHQs is subordinate to the General Staff, the Minister of Defense, internal units, Personnel, Combat Readiness & Training, Logistics, Planning, Combat Systems, General Affairs, Comptroller, Inspector General, Political Warfare. 7th Hai Feng Shore Based Anti-ship Missile Squadron, Haulien, Eastern Taiwan, Aviation Command Naval Aviation, at Pingtung, will receive 12 P-3C 2013/2014. 1st ASW Aviation Group 133rd Squadron, S-2T, at Pingtung, 2nd ASW Aviation Group 701st Helicopter Squadron, S-70C-1, at Hualien. 702nd Helicopter Squadron, S-70C-2, at Tsoying, 501st Helicopter Squadron, 500MD ASW, at Tsoying. Sources, The precursor to the modern ROC Navy was established as the Ministry of the Navy in the Provisional Government of the Republic of China in 1911 following the overthrow of the Qing dynasty. During the period of warlordism that scarred China in the 1920s and 1930s the ROCN remained loyal to the Kuomintang government of Sun Yat-sen instead of the government in Beijing. During that time and throughout World War II, the ROCN concentrated mainly on riverine warfare as the poorly equipped ROCN was not a match to Imperial Japanese Navy over ocean or coast. Following World War II, a number of Japanese destroyers and decommissioned U. S. ships were transferred to the ROC Navy. During the Chinese Civil War, the ROCN was involved in the protection of supply convoys, the subsequent reorganization and reestablishment of the Navy after evacuation to Taiwan is referenced in the lyrics of the post 1949 ROC Navy Song The New Navy. Since the 1990s the Navy has grown in importance as the emphasis of the ROCs military doctrine moves towards countering a possible Peoples Republic of China blockade, as well as offshore engagement. The ROCN has been working hard to expand its capability in electronic and anti-submarine warfare, however local shipbuilder CSBC still lacks the technology to build modern submarines. Traditionally, most ROCN equipment is purchased from the United States, the ROCN has also purchased Lafayette-class frigates from France and Zwaardvis-class submarines from the Netherlands as well as four U. S. Kidd-class destroyers originally intended for Iran. Despite the ROCN refurbishing and extending the life of its vessels and equipment. It has only two useful submarines, the U. S. Furthermore, the Legislative Yuan did not approve the budget and thereby slowed the opportunity to procure the badly needed underwater defense capability. A contract was awarded to Lockheed Martin to refurbish the 12 P-3C Orion aircraft for the ROC on 13 March 2009, in 2008, the ROCN set out to acquire an improved anti-ship capability
8.
Sims-class destroyer
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The Sims class of 12 destroyers was built for the United States Navy, and commissioned in 1939 and 1940. They were the last United States destroyer class completed prior to the American entry into World War II, All Sims-class ships saw action in World War II, and seven survived the war. No ship of this class saw service after 1946 and they were built under the Second London Naval Treaty, in which the tonnage limit on destroyer standard displacement was lifted, but an overall tonnage limit remained. Thus, to maximize the number of destroyers and avoid developing an all-new design and they are usually grouped with the 1500-ton classes and were the sixth destroyer class since production resumed with the Farragut class in 1932. The class served extensively in World War II, and five of the class were lost in the war, of the five ships lost, four were at the hands of the Japanese and one at the hands of the Germans. The class served on Neutrality Patrols in the Atlantic in 1940-41, except for Roe, Wainwright, and Buck, the class was transferred to the Pacific shortly after the attack on Pearl Harbor. All of the ships saw combat service. At the wars end in August 1945, three of the seven survivors were undergoing overhauls that were unfinished, and were ultimately scrapped. The remaining four ships were used as targets during the 1946 Operation Crossroads atomic tests at Bikini Atoll. One was sunk by the first blast, while the three were sunk as targets two years later after serving as experimental platforms. The class was designed by Gibbs & Cox and they incorporated streamlining of the bridge structure and the forward part of the hull, in an attempt to increase speed and improve fuel economy. They also had an additional 5-inch gun, with the torpedo tubes re-arranged so one less quadruple mount could be used while maintaining an eight-tube broadside, one 5-inch gun and one quad torpedo tube mount were removed, with another torpedo tube mount relocated to the centerline. Acting Secretary of the Navy Charles Edison proposed consolidation of the divisions of the two bureaus. When the bureau chiefs could not agree on how to do this, the consolidation into the new Bureau of Ships was finally effected by a law passed by Congress on 20 June 1940. The Sims class nearly duplicated the machinery of the preceding Benham class. The Benson class and their successors had echeloned boiler and engine rooms for increased survivability, in the echeloned arrangement, a loss of two adjacent compartments would still leave one boiler room and one engine room operational. Steam pressure was 600 psi, superheated to 715 °F, features that improved fuel economy included boiler economizers, double reduction gearing, and cruising turbines. The main turbines developed 51,138 shp on Sims trials and were manufactured by Westinghouse, the Sims class introduced the advanced Mark 37 Gun Fire Control System
9.
Gleaves-class destroyer
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The Gleaves-class destroyers were a class of 66 destroyers of the United States Navy built 1938–42, designed by Gibbs & Cox. The first ship of the class was USS Gleaves and they were the production destroyer of the US Navy when it entered World War II. Initially, Gleaves and Niblack, although designed by Gibbs & Cox and this temporarily made Livermore the lead ship with more complex machinery, so the class was initially called the Livermore class, and this name persisted through World War II. However, it proved possible for Gleaves and Niblack to be built to the Livermore design. Since Gleaves was completed before Livermore and had a hull number. Eighteen of these were commissioned in 1940–41, the remaining 48 “repeat Gleaveses” were authorized in 1940–42. These plus the 16 repeat Bensons were also known at the time as the Bristol class, during World War II the Bensons were usually combined with the Livermores as the Benson-Livermore class, this persisted in references until at least the 1960s. The classes are now called the Benson-Gleaves class, in some references both classes are combined and called the Benson class. The Benson- and Gleaves-class destroyers were the backbone of the pre-war Neutrality Patrols, the Bensons were originally envisioned as a single class of 24 ships, the first eight of which were ordered in fiscal year 1938. Six of these were designed by Bethlehem Shipbuilding, to be built at a Bethlehem yard and several naval shipyards, All were to have 600 psi steam superheated to 750 °F, with cruising turbines and double-reduction gearing to maximize fuel efficiency. After contract award, Bethlehem requested that their design be modified to use less-complex single-reduction gears, Bethlehem claimed they could achieve comparable fuel efficiency with the simpler machinery. This request was granted, but FY39 and FY40 ships, beginning with Livermore, so the class was known through World War II as the Benson-Livermore class, and this name persisted in many references until at least the 1960s. In the spring of 1938 the Navys Bureau of Steam Engineering requested that the FY39 and it proved possible for Bath to build their two FY38 ships, Gleaves and Niblack, to the new design. Gleaves was completed prior to Livermore and had a hull number. The only external difference between the Benson and Gleaves classes was the shape of the stacks, the Bensons were flat-sided, after the Fall of France in 1940 a rapid expansion of the Navy was envisioned. To fill the gap until the Fletcher-class destroyers would be ready for service,24 repeat Bensons were built by several Bethlehem yards, while an additional 48 repeat Gleaveses were built by various other builders. The repeat ships were ordered with reduced torpedo and gun armament and increased anti-submarine, in some references the Benson and Gleaves classes are combined as the Benson class. Loss of one compartment, or even two adjacent compartments, would no longer disable the entire propulsion system and this design was credited with the survival of USS Kearny after she was torpedoed by the German submarine U-568 near Iceland in October 1941, before the US entered the war
10.
Destroyer
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Before World War II, destroyers were light vessels with little endurance for unattended ocean operations, typically a number of destroyers and a single destroyer tender operated together. After the war, the advent of the missile allowed destroyers to take on the surface combatant roles previously filled by battleships. This resulted in larger and more powerful guided missile destroyers more capable of independent operation, the emergence and development of the destroyer was related to the invention of the self-propelled torpedo in the 1860s. A navy now had the potential to destroy an enemy battle fleet using steam launches to launch torpedoes. Fast boats armed with torpedoes were built and called torpedo boats, the first seagoing vessel designed to fire the self-propelled Whitehead torpedo was the 33-ton HMS Lightning in 1876. She was armed with two drop collars to launch these weapons, these were replaced in 1879 by a torpedo tube in the bow. By the 1880s, the type had evolved into small ships of 50–100 tons, in response to this new threat, more heavily gunned picket boats called catchers were built which were used to escort the battle fleet at sea. The anti-torpedo boat origin of this type of ship is retained in its name in other languages, including French, Italian, Portuguese, Czech, Greek, Dutch and, up until the Second World War, Polish. At that time, and even into World War I, the function of destroyers was to protect their own battle fleet from enemy torpedo attacks. The task of escorting merchant convoys was still in the future, an important development came with the construction of HMS Swift in 1884, later redesignated TB81. This was a torpedo boat with four 47 mm quick-firing guns. At 23.75 knots, while still not fast enough to engage torpedo boats reliably. Another forerunner of the torpedo boat destroyer was the Japanese torpedo boat Kotaka, designed to Japanese specifications and ordered from the London Yarrow shipyards in 1885, she was transported in parts to Japan, where she was assembled and launched in 1887. The 165-foot long vessel was armed with four 1-pounder quick-firing guns and six torpedo tubes, reached 19 knots, in her trials in 1889, Kotaka demonstrated that she could exceed the role of coastal defense, and was capable of accompanying larger warships on the high seas. The Yarrow shipyards, builder of the parts for the Kotaka, the first vessel designed for the explicit purpose of hunting and destroying torpedo boats was the torpedo gunboat. Essentially very small cruisers, torpedo gunboats were equipped with torpedo tubes, by the end of the 1890s torpedo gunboats were made obsolete by their more successful contemporaries, the torpedo boat destroyers, which were much faster. The first example of this was HMS Rattlesnake, designed by Nathaniel Barnaby in 1885, the gunboat was armed with torpedoes and designed for hunting and destroying smaller torpedo boats. Exactly 200 feet long and 23 feet in beam, she displaced 550 tons, built of steel, Rattlesnake was un-armoured with the exception of a 3⁄4-inch protective deck
11.
Babcock & Wilcox
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Babcock & Wilcox Enterprises is an American power generation company headquartered in Charlotte, North Carolina. The company was founded in 1867 in Providence, Rhode Island by partners Stephen Wilcox and George Babcock as Babcock, Wilcox & Company to manufacture, built nuclear-powered surface ship, NS Savannah. B&Ws boilers supply more than 300,000 megawatts of installed capacity in over 90 countries around the world, a reactor from B&W was destroyed by a nuclear meltdown in the Three Mile Island accident. During World War II, over half of the US Navy fleet was powered by Babcock & Wilcox boilers, the company has its headquarters in Charlotte, North Carolina. B&W also has joint major joint venture companies in Beijing and the Indian city of Pune, on June 30,2015, Babcock & Wilcox completed a spinoff from BWX Technologies, its former parent which is now headquartered in Lynchburg, Virginia. The two companies began trading separately on July 1, B&W employs approximately 5,700 people, in addition to several thousand joint venture employees. B&W PGG and its subsidiaries have facilities in Ohio, Wisconsin, Arona, Italy, Beijing, China, Esbjerg, Denmark, Babcock & Wilcox MEGTEC LLC B&W SPIG Diamond Power International, Inc. The boilers more safely generated higher pressure steam and was more efficient than existing designs, in 1891, Babcock & Wilcox Ltd is established as a separate United Kingdom company, to be responsible for all sales outside the US and Cuba. In 1902 the New York Citys first subway is powered by B&W boilers, during 1907 and 1909 Theodore Roosevelts Great White Fleet were powered by B&W Boilers. In 1929 B&W installs the worlds first commercial size recovery boiler using the magnesium bisulfite process in Quebec, between 1941 and 1945 B&W designed and delivered 4,100 marine boilers for combat and merchant ships, including 95 percent of the US fleet in Tokyo Bay at Japanese surrender. In 1942, the developed the cyclone furnace. Between 1943 and 1945 B&W provided components, materials and process development for Manhattan Project, between 1949 and 1952 B&W provided the 8 boilers for the SS United States, the fastest ocean liner ever constructed. Between 1953 and 1955 B&W designed and fabricated components for USS Nautilus, in 1961 B&W designed and supplied reactors for world’s first commercial nuclear ship NS Savannah. In 1962 B&W designed and furnished reactor systems for B&Ws first commercial reactor, Indian Point, in 1975 B&W designed and built components for liquid metal fast breeder reactors. In 1975 the long term agreements with the British Babcock & Wilcox Ltd were ended. Subsequently, the British company was renamed Babcock International Group plc, in 1978 B&W designed and built the nuclear reactor that was involved in the Three Mile Island accident. In 1999 B&W was awarded the contract to develop fuel cells, on February 22,2000, B&W filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in part as a result of thousands of claims for personal injury due to prolonged exposure to asbestos and asbestos fibers. Claims included asbestosis, lung cancer, pleural and peritoneal mesothelioma, as a condition of emerging from bankruptcy, B&W created a trust fund to compensate victims, but for amounts far less than settlements paid in individual personal injury lawsuits
12.
Boiler
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A boiler is a closed vessel in which water or other fluid is heated. The fluid does not necessarily boil, the heated or vaporized fluid exits the boiler for use in various processes or heating applications, including water heating, central heating, boiler-based power generation, cooking, and sanitation. The pressure vessel of a boiler is usually made of steel, stainless steel, especially of the austenitic types, is not used in wetted parts of boilers due to corrosion and stress corrosion cracking. In live steam models, copper or brass is used because it is more easily fabricated in smaller size boilers. For much of the Victorian age of steam, the material used for boilermaking was the highest grade of wrought iron. In the 20th century, design practice instead moved towards the use of steel, which is stronger and cheaper, with welded construction, which is quicker and requires less labour. It should be noted, however, that wrought iron boilers corrode far slower than their steel counterparts. This makes the longevity of older wrought-iron boilers far superior to those of welded steel boilers, cast iron may be used for the heating vessel of domestic water heaters. Although such heaters are usually termed boilers in some countries, their purpose is usually to produce hot water, not steam, the brittleness of cast iron makes it impractical for high-pressure steam boilers. The source of heat for a boiler is combustion of any of several fuels, such as wood, coal, oil, electric steam boilers use resistance- or immersion-type heating elements. Nuclear fission is used as a heat source for generating steam, either directly or, in most cases. Heat recovery steam generators use the heat rejected from other such as gas turbine. 18th century Haycock boilers generally produced and stored large volumes of very low-pressure steam and these could burn wood or most often, coal. Flued boiler with one or two large flues—an early type or forerunner of fire-tube boiler, fire-tube boiler, Here, water partially fills a boiler barrel with a small volume left above to accommodate the steam. This is the type of boiler used in nearly all steam locomotives, the heat source is inside a furnace or firebox that has to be kept permanently surrounded by the water in order to maintain the temperature of the heating surface below the boiling point. Fire-tube boilers usually have a low rate of steam production. Fire-tube boilers mostly burn solid fuels, but are adaptable to those of the liquid or gas variety. Water-tube boiler, In this type, tubes filled with water are arranged inside a furnace in a number of possible configurations and this type generally gives high steam production rates, but less storage capacity than the above
13.
Bethlehem Steel
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Bethlehem Steel Corporation was Americas second-largest steel producer and largest shipbuilder. Bethlehem Steel and a company, Bethlehem Shipbuilding Corporation, were two of the most powerful symbols of American industrial manufacturing leadership. In 2005, ISG merged with Mittal Steel, ending American ownership of the assets of Bethlehem Steel, the companys roots go back to 1857 when the Saucona Iron Company was first organized by Augustus Wolle. The Panic of 1857, a financial crisis, halted further organization of the company. Eventually, the organization was completed, the site moved elsewhere in South Bethlehem, on June 14,1860, the board of directors of the fledgling company elected Alfred Hunt president. On May 1,1861, the title was changed again. Construction of the first blast furnace began on July 1,1861, the first rolling mill was built between the spring of 1861 and the summer of 1863, with the first railroad rails being rolled on September 26. A machine shop, in 1865, and another blast furnace, during its early years, the company produced rails for the rapidly expanding railroads and armor plating for the US Navy. In 1899, the company assumed the name Bethlehem Steel Company, in 1904, Charles M. Schwab and Joseph Wharton formed the Bethlehem Steel Corporation with Schwab becoming its first president and chairman of its board of directors. The Bethlehem Steel Corporation installed the gray rolling mill and producing the first wide-flange structural shapes to be made in America and these shapes were partly responsible for ushering in the age of the skyscraper and establishing Bethlehem Steel as the leading supplier of steel to the construction industry. In the early 1900s, the corporation branched out from steel, with mines in Cuba. In 1913, it acquired the Fore River Shipbuilding Company of Quincy, Massachusetts, in 1917, it incorporated its shipbuilding division as Bethlehem Shipbuilding Corporation, Limited. In 1922, it purchased the Lackawanna Steel Company, which included the Delaware, Lackawanna, the nations decision to rebuild the United States Navy with steam-driven, steel-hulled warships reshaped Bethlehem Iron Companys destiny. Following the American Civil War, the Navy quickly downsized after the end of hostilities, as national energies were redirected toward settling the West, almost no new ordinance was produced, and new technology was neglected. By 1881, international incidents highlighted the poor condition of the U. S. fleet, in 1883, Secretary of the Navy William E. Chandler and Secretary of the Army Robert Todd Lincoln appointed Lt. William Jaques to the Gun Foundry Board. Jaques was sent on several fact-finding tours of European armament makers and on one of these trips he formed ties with the firm of Joseph Whitworth of Manchester. He returned to America as Whitworths agent and, in 1885, was granted a furlough to pursue this personal interest. Jaques was aware that the U. S. Navy would soon solicit bids for the production of heavy guns and other products such as armor that would be needed to further expand the fleet
14.
Gear
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A gear or cogwheel is a rotating machine part having cut teeth, or cogs, which mesh with another toothed part to transmit torque. Geared devices can change the speed, torque, and direction of a power source, Gears almost always produce a change in torque, creating a mechanical advantage, through their gear ratio, and thus may be considered a simple machine. The teeth on the two meshing gears all have the same shape, two or more meshing gears, working in a sequence, are called a gear train or a transmission. A gear can mesh with a linear toothed part, called a rack, the gears in a transmission are analogous to the wheels in a crossed, belt pulley system. An advantage of gears is that the teeth of a gear prevent slippage, in transmissions with multiple gear ratios—such as bicycles, motorcycles, and cars—the term gear as in first gear refers to a gear ratio rather than an actual physical gear. The term describes similar devices, even when the ratio is continuous rather than discrete, or when the device does not actually contain gears. Early examples of gears date from the 4th century BC in China, examples of further development include, Ma Jun used gears as part of a south-pointing chariot. The Antikythera mechanism is an example of an early and intricate geared device. Its time of construction is now estimated between 150 and 100 BC, the water-powered grain-mill, the water-powered saw mill, fulling mill, and other applications of watermill often used gears. The first mechanical clocks were built in AD725, the 1386 Salisbury cathedral clock may be the worlds oldest working mechanical clock. The definite ratio that teeth give gears provides an advantage over other drives in precision machines such as watches that depend upon an exact velocity ratio, an external gear is one with the teeth formed on the outer surface of a cylinder or cone. Conversely, a gear is one with the teeth formed on the inner surface of a cylinder or cone. For bevel gears, a gear is one with the pitch angle exceeding 90 degrees. Internal gears do not cause output shaft direction reversal, spur gears or straight-cut gears are the simplest type of gear. They consist of a cylinder or disk with teeth projecting radially, though the teeth are not straight-sided, the edge of each tooth is straight and aligned parallel to the axis of rotation. These gears mesh together correctly only if fitted to parallel shafts, No axial thrust is created by the tooth loads. Spur gears are excellent at moderate speeds but tend to be noisy at high speeds, helical or dry fixed gears offer a refinement over spur gears. The leading edges of the teeth are not parallel to the axis of rotation, since the gear is curved, this angling makes the tooth shape a segment of a helix
15.
Steam turbine
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A steam turbine is a device that extracts thermal energy from pressurized steam and uses it to do mechanical work on a rotating output shaft. Its modern manifestation was invented by Sir Charles Parsons in 1884, in 1551, Taqi al-Din in Ottoman Egypt described a steam turbine with the practical application of rotating a spit. Steam turbines were described by the Italian Giovanni Branca and John Wilkins in England. The devices described by Taqi al-Din and Wilkins are today known as steam jacks, in 1672 an impulse steam turbine driven car was designed by Ferdinand Verbiest. A more modern version of car was produced some time in the late 18th century by an unknown German mechanic. The modern steam turbine was invented in 1884 by Sir Charles Parsons, the invention of Parsons steam turbine made cheap and plentiful electricity possible and revolutionized marine transport and naval warfare. Parsons design was a reaction type and his patent was licensed and the turbine scaled-up shortly after by an American, George Westinghouse. The Parsons turbine also turned out to be easy to scale up. Parsons had the satisfaction of seeing his invention adopted for all major world power stations, a number of other variations of turbines have been developed that work effectively with steam. The de Laval turbine accelerated the steam to full speed before running it against a turbine blade, De Lavals impulse turbine is simpler, less expensive and does not need to be pressure-proof. It can operate with any pressure of steam, but is less efficient. He taught at the École des mines de Saint-Étienne for a decade until 1897, one of the founders of the modern theory of steam and gas turbines was Aurel Stodola, a Slovak physicist and engineer and professor at the Swiss Polytechnical Institute in Zurich. His work Die Dampfturbinen und ihre Aussichten als Wärmekraftmaschinen was published in Berlin in 1903, a further book Dampf und Gas-Turbinen was published in 1922. It was used in John Brown-engined merchant ships and warships, including liners, the present-day manufacturing industry for steam turbines is dominated by Chinese power equipment makers. Other manufacturers with minor market share include Bhel, Siemens, Alstom, GE, Doosan Škoda Power, Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, the consulting firm Frost & Sullivan projects that manufacturing of steam turbines will become more consolidated by 2020 as Chinese power manufacturers win increasing business outside of China. There are several classifications for modern steam turbines, Turbine blades are of two basic types, blades and nozzles. Blades move entirely due to the impact of steam on them and this results in a steam velocity drop and essentially no pressure drop as steam moves through the blades. A turbine composed of alternating with fixed nozzles is called an impulse turbine, Curtis turbine, Rateau turbine
16.
5"/38 caliber gun
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The Mark 12 5/38 caliber gun was a US naval gun. The gun was installed into Single Purpose and Dual Purpose mounts used primarily by the US Navy, the 38 caliber barrel was a mid-length compromise between the previous United States standard 5/51 low-angle gun and 5/25 anti-aircraft gun. The increased barrel length provided greatly improved performance in both anti-aircraft and anti-surface roles compared to the 5/25 gun, however, except for the barrel length and the use of semi-fixed ammunition, the 5/38 gun was derived from the 5/25 gun. Both weapons had power ramming, which enabled rapid fire at high angles against aircraft, the 5/38 entered service on USS Farragut, commissioned in 1934. The base ring mount, which improved the rate of fire, entered service on USS Gridley. Even this advanced system required nearly 100 rounds of ammunition expenditure per aircraft kill, however, the planes were normally killed by shell fragments and not direct hits, barrage fire was used, with many guns firing in the air at the same time. Base ring mounts with integral hoists had a rate of fire of 15 rounds per minute per barrel, however. On pedestal and other mounts lacking integral hoists,12 to 15 rounds per minute was the rate of fire, useful life expectancy was 4600 effective full charges per barrel. The 5/38 cal gun was mounted on a large number of US Navy ships in the World War II era. It was backfitted to many of the World War I-era battleships during their wartime refits and it has left active US Navy service, but it is still on mothballed ships of the United States Navy reserve fleets. It is also used by a number of nations who bought or were given US Navy surplus ships, each mount carries one or two Mk 12 5/38cal Gun Assemblies. The gun assembly shown is used in single mounts, and it is the gun in twin mounts. It is loaded from the left side, the left gun in twin mounts is the mirror image of the right gun, and it is loaded from the right side. The Mk12 gun assembly weighs 3,990 lb, the major Mk12 Gun Assembly characteristics are,158 Semi-automatic During recoil, some of the recoil energy is stored in the counter-recoil system. That stored energy is used during counter-recoil to prepare the gun for the next round, the firing pin is cocked, the breech is opened, the spent powder case is ejected, and the bore is air cleaned. Hand loaded A Projectile-Man and a Powder-Man are stationed at each gun assembly and their job is to move the round, consisting of a projectile and a powder case, from the hoists to the rammer tray, and then start the ram cycle. The hydraulically driven Rammer Spade, called the Power Spade in that picture, is at the back of the Rammer Tray, if the multiple names of the Spade is confusing, look at this footnote. Vertical sliding-wedge breech block The breech block closes the chamber behind the powder case and it also holds the firing pin assembly
17.
Dual-purpose gun
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A dual-purpose gun is a naval artillery mounting designed to engage both surface and air targets. The light A/A was dispersed throughout the ship and included both automatic cannons and heavy machine guns and they discarded the dedicated, anti-ship secondary batteries altogether, because a battle-line fleet would be screened against cruiser and destroyers most of the time. Rather, they replaced them with turret-mounted dual-purpose guns that could be used against both aircraft and ships and this arrangement was seen as more efficient, and was deemed adequate to meet anti-surface and anti-aircraft needs under most circumstances. Both navies were concerned of close-range torpedo attacks from enemy destroyers and torpedo boats, the French Navy used a mixed-calibre system, as well, but their secondary battery was dual-purpose. This tended to complicate ammunition supplies and render certain armament useless in some situations, dual-purpose guns are designed as a compromise between the heavy main armament of a surface combatant and dedicated anti-aircraft guns. Usually of a caliber, the gun is heavy enough to prove useful against surface targets including ships, surfaced submarines. For example, a Royal Navy battleship of the King George V class had sixteen QF Mark I5. 25-inch guns that could engage enemy ships or high level aircraft. Not all dual-purpose guns have high elevation, the determining factor was whether or not the mounting was provided with an anti-aircraft fire control system and a method for setting the time fuze in the A. A. warhead, fired by the gun. Starting with the Tribal class, the Royal Navy introduced a series of classes that had dual-purpose guns. XIX and later mountings limited to 40,50 or 55 degrees elevation, however, the guns were controlled by an A. A. fire control system, fire control and no on-mount fuze setters. Admiral Sir Philip Vian describes the use of 4, there was too little sea-room for full freedom of manoeuvre, and the aircrafts approach was screened by the rock walls. Junkers attacks persisted to the end, but the fire of the destroyers, not a ship received a direct hit, though some were damaged by the splinters from near misses. Dual-purpose guns, often abbreviated to DP guns, were designed as a secondary armament for large surface ships such as cruisers. Most DP mounted guns have calibers in the range from three to five inches, in British service the term HA/LA for High Angle/Low Angle was used
18.
M2 Browning
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The M2 Machine Gun or Browning.50 Caliber Machine Gun is a heavy machine gun designed toward the end of World War I by John Browning. Its design is similar to Brownings earlier M1919 Browning machine gun, the M2 uses the much larger and much more powerful.50 BMG cartridge, which was developed alongside and takes its name from the gun itself. It has been referred to as Ma Deuce, in reference to its M2 nomenclature, the design has had many specific designations, the official designation for the current infantry type is Browning Machine Gun, Cal.50, M2, HB, Flexible. It is effective against infantry, unarmored or lightly armored vehicles and boats, light fortifications, the M2 has been produced longer than any other machine gun. The Browning.50 caliber machine gun has been used extensively as a vehicle weapon and it was heavily used during World War II, the Korean War, the Vietnam War, the Falklands War, the Iraq War and the War in Afghanistan in the 2000s and 2010s. It is the heavy machine gun of NATO countries, and has been used by many other countries as well. The M2 has been in use longer than any firearm in U. S. inventory except the.45 ACP M1911 pistol. The current M2HB is manufactured in the U. S. by General Dynamics, Ordnance for use by the U. S. government, and for allies via Foreign Military Sales, as well as foreign manufacturers such as FN Herstal. Machine guns were used in World War I, and weapons of larger than rifle caliber were appearing. Both the British and French had large caliber machine guns, the larger rounds were needed to defeat the armor that was being introduced to the battlefield. Armor was also appearing in the skies, during World War I, the Germans introduced a heavily armored airplane, the Junkers J. I. The armor made aircraft machine guns using conventional rifle ammunition ineffective, consequently, the American Expeditionary Forces commander General John J. Pershing asked for a larger caliber machine gun. Pershing asked the Army Ordnance Department to develop a gun with a caliber of at least 0.50 inches. U. S. Col. John Henry Parker, commanding a machine gun school in France, the Army Ordnance Department ordered eight experimental Colt machine guns rechambered for the French 11 mm cartridge. The French had developed a machine gun for an even larger caliber. The French 11 mm round was found to be unsuitable because its velocity was too low, Pershing wanted a bullet of at least 670 gr and a muzzle velocity of 2,700 ft/s. Development with the French round was dropped, around July 1917, John M. Browning started redesigning his.30 caliber machine gun for a larger caliber. Winchester worked on the cartridge, which was a version of the. 30-06
19.
Torpedo tube
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A torpedo tube is a cylinder shaped device for launching torpedoes. There are two types of torpedo tube, underwater tubes fitted to submarines and some surface ships. Thus a submarine torpedo tube operates on the principle of an airlock, the diagram on the right illustrates the operation of a submarine torpedo tube. The diagram is somewhat simplified but does show the working of a torpedo launch. A torpedo tube has a number of interlocks for safety reasons. For example, an interlock prevents the door and muzzle door from opening at the same time. The submarine torpedo launch sequence is, in simplified form, Open the breech door in the torpedo room, load the torpedo into the tube. Hook up the connection and the torpedo power cable. Shut and lock the breech door, turn on power to the torpedo. A minimum amount of time is required for torpedo warmup, fire control programs are uploaded to the torpedo. This may be manually or automatically, from sea or from tanks. The tube must be vented during this process to allow for complete filling, Open the equalizing valve to equalize pressure in the tube with ambient sea pressure. If the tube is set up for Impulse Mode the slide valve will open with the muzzle door, if Swim Out Mode is selected, the slide valve remains closed. The slide valve allows water from the pump to enter the tube. Modern torpedoes have a safety mechanism that prevents activation of the torpedo unless the torpedo senses the required amount of G-force, the power cable is severed at launch. However, if a wire is used, it remains connected through a drum of wire in the tube. Torpedo propulsion systems vary but electric torpedoes swim out of the tube on their own and are of a smaller diameter,21 weapons with fuel-burning engines usually start outside of the tube. Once outside the tube the torpedo begins its run toward the target as programmed by the control system
20.
Torpedo
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Historically, it was called an automotive, automobile, locomotive or fish torpedo, colloquially called a fish. The term torpedo was originally employed for a variety of devices, from about 1900, torpedo has been used strictly to designate an underwater self-propelled weapon. Todays torpedoes can be divided into lightweight and heavyweight classes, and into straight-running, autonomous homers and they can be launched from a variety of platforms. The word torpedo comes from the name of a genus of rays in the order Torpediniformes. In naval usage, the American Robert Fulton introduced the name to refer to a gunpowder charge used by his French submarine Nautilus to demonstrate that it could sink warships. The concept of a torpedo existed many centuries before it was successfully developed. In 1275, Hasan al-Rammah described. an egg which moves itself, in modern language, a torpedo is an underwater self-propelled explosive, —but historically, the term also applied to primitive naval mines. These were used on an ad hoc basis during the modern period up to the late 19th century. An early submarine, the Turtle, attempted to lay a bomb with a fuse on the hull of HMS Eagle during the American Revolutionary War. In the early 1800s, the American inventor Robert Fulton, while in France and he coined the term torpedo in reference to the explosive charges he outfitted his submarine Nautilus. However, both the French and the Dutch governments were uninterested in the submarine, Fulton then concentrated on developing the torpedo independent of a submarine deployment. However, the British government refused to purchase the invention, stating they did not wish to introduce into naval warfare a system that would give advantage to weaker maritime nations. Fulton carried out a demonstration for the US government on 20 July 1807. Further development languished as Fulton focused on his steam-boat matters, during the War of 1812, torpedoes were employed in attempts to destroy British vessels and protect American harbors. In fact a submarine deployed torpedo was used in an attempt to destroy HMS Ramillies while in New Londons harbor. Hardy to warn the Americans to cease efforts with the use of any boat in this cruel and unheard-of warfare. Torpedoes were used by the Russian Empire during the Crimean War in 1855 against British warships in the Gulf of Finland and they used an early form of chemical detonator. During the American Civil War, the torpedo was used for what is today called a contact mine
21.
Depth charge
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A depth charge is an anti-submarine warfare weapon. It is intended to destroy a submarine by being dropped into the nearby and detonating, subjecting the target to a powerful. Most depth charges use high explosive charges and a set to detonate the charge. Depth charges can be dropped by ships, patrol aircraft, Depth charges were developed during World War I, and were one of the first effective methods of attacking a submarine underwater. They were widely used in World War I and World War II and they remained part of the anti-submarine arsenals of many navies during the Cold War. Depth charges have now largely replaced by anti-submarine homing torpedoes. A depth charge fitted with a warhead is known as a nuclear depth bomb. These were designed to be dropped from a plane or deployed by an anti-submarine missile from a surface ship, or another submarine. All nuclear anti-submarine weapons were withdrawn from service by the United States, the United Kingdom, France, Russia and they were replaced by conventional weapons whose accuracy and range had improved greatly as ASW technology improved. The first attempt to fire charges against submerged targets was with aircraft bombs attached to lanyards which triggered them, a similar idea was a 16 lb guncotton charge in a lanyarded can. Two of these together became known as the depth charge Type A. Problems with the lanyards tangling and failing to function led to the development of a chemical pellet trigger as the Type B and these were effective at a distance of around 20 ft. A1913 Royal Navy Torpedo School report described a device intended for countermining, at Admiral John Jellicoes request, the standard Mark II mine was fitted with a hydrostatic pistol preset for 45 ft firing, to be launched from a stern platform. Weighing 1,150 lb, and effective at 100 ft, the design work was carried out by Herbert Taylor at the RN Torpedo and Mine School, HMS Vernon. The first effective depth charge, the Type D, became available in January 1916 and it was a barrel-like casing containing a high explosive. There were initially two sizes—Type D, with a 300 lb charge for fast ships, and Type D* with a 120 lb charge for ships too slow to leave the area before the more powerful charge detonated. A hydrostatic pistol actuated by water pressure at a pre-selected depth detonated the charge, initial depth settings were 40 or 80 ft. Because production could not keep up with demand, anti-submarine vessels initially carried two depth charges, to be released from a chute at the stern of the ship
22.
Bofors 40 mm gun
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The Bofors 40 mm gun, often referred to simply as the Bofors gun, is an anti-aircraft/multi-purpose autocannon designed in the 1930s by the Swedish arms manufacturer AB Bofors. It was one of the most popular medium-weight anti-aircraft systems during World War II, a small number of these weapons remain in service to this day, and saw action as late as the Gulf War. In the post-war era the original design was not suitable for action against jet powered aircraft, so Bofors introduced a new model of more power. In spite of sharing almost nothing with the design other than the calibre and the distinctive conical flash hider. Although not as popular as the original L/60 model, the L/70 remains in service to this day, especially as a weapon for light armored vehicles. Bofors itself has been part of BAE Systems AB since March 2005, the Swedish Navy purchased a number of 2 pounder Pom-Poms from Vickers as anti-aircraft guns in 1922. The Navy approached Bofors about the development of a capable replacement. Bofors signed a contract in late 1928, Bofors produced a gun that was a smaller version of a 57 mm semi-automatic gun developed as an anti-torpedo boat weapon in the late 19th century by Finspong. Their first test gun was a re-barreled Nordenfelt version of the Finspong gun, testing of this gun in 1929 demonstrated that a problem existed feeding the weapon in order to maintain a reasonable rate of fire. A mechanism that was enough to handle the stresses of moving the large round was too heavy to move quickly enough to fire rapidly. One attempt to solve this problem used zinc shell cases that burned up when fired and this proved to leave heavy zinc deposits in the barrel, and had to be abandoned. This seemed to be the solution they needed, improving firing rates to a level. During this period Krupp purchased a share of Bofors. Krupp engineers started the process of updating the Bofors factories to use equipment and metallurgy. The prototype was completed and fired in November 1931, and by the middle of the month it was firing strings of two and three rounds. Changes to the mechanism were all that remained, and by the end of the year it was operating at 130 rounds per minute. Continued development was needed to turn it into a suitable for production. Since acceptance trials had been passed the year before, this known as the 40 mm akan M/32
23.
20 mm Oerlikon
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The Oerlikon 20 mm cannon is a series of autocannons, based on an original German 20 mm Becker design that appeared very early in World War I. It was widely produced by Oerlikon Contraves and others, with various models employed by both Allied and Axis forces during World War II, and many still in use today. During World War I, the German Reinhold Becker developed a 20 mm caliber cannon and this used a 20x70 RB cartridge and had a cyclic rate of fire of 300 rpm. It was used on a scale as an aircraft gun on Luftstreitkräfte warplanes. Because the Treaty of Versailles banned further production of weapons in Germany. SEMAG continued development of the weapon, and in 1924 had produced the SEMAG L, the Oerlikon firm, named after the Zürich suburb where it was based, then acquired all rights to the weapon, plus the manufacturing equipment and the employees of SEMAG. In 1927 the Oerlikon S was added to the product line. This fired a larger cartridge to achieve a muzzle velocity of 830 m/s, at the cost of increased weight. The purpose of development was to improve the performance of the gun as an anti-tank and anti-aircraft weapon. An improved version known as the 1S followed in 1930, three sizes of gun with their different ammunition and barrel length, but very similar mechanisms, continued to be developed in parallel. In 1930 Oerlikon reconsidered the application of its gun in aircraft and introduced the AF and AL, designed to be used in flexible mounts, the 15-round box magazine used by earlier versions of the gun was replaced by drum magazine holding 15 or 30 rounds. In 1935 it made an important step by introducing a series of guns designed to be mounted in or on the wings of fighter aircraft, designated with FF for Flügelfest meaning wing-mounted, these weapons were again available in the three sizes, with designations FF, FFL and FFS. The FF fired a larger cartridge than the AF, 20x72RB. The FF weighed 24 kg and achieved a velocity of 550 to 600 m/s with a rate of fire of 520 rpm. The FFL of 30 kg fired a projectile at a velocity of 675 m/s with a rate of fire of 500 rpm. And the FFS, which weighed 39 kg, delivered a high velocity of 830 m/s at a rate of fire of 470 rpm. Apart from changes to the design of the guns for wing-mounting and remote control, for the FF series drum sizes of 45,60,75 and 100 rounds were available, but most users chose the 60-round drum. The 1930s were a period of global re-armament, and a number of foreign firms took licenses for the Oerlikon family of aircraft cannon
24.
Fiscal year
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A fiscal year is the period used by governments for accounting and budget purposes, which vary between countries. It is also used for reporting by business and other organizations. Taxation laws generally require accounting records to be maintained and taxes calculated on an annual basis, the calculation of tax on an annual basis is especially relevant for direct taxation, such as income tax. Many annual government fees—such as Council rates, licence fees, etc. —are also levied on a year basis. The fiscal year end is the date marks the end of the fiscal year. Some companies—such as Cisco Systems—end their fiscal year on the day of the week each year. Under such a system, some years will have 52 weeks. Many universities have a year which ends during the summer. In the northern hemisphere this is July to the next June, in the southern hemisphere this is calendar year, January to December. Some media/communication-based organizations use a broadcast calendar as the basis for their fiscal year, the American football league NFL uses the term league year, which in effect forms the leagues fiscal year. In Afghanistan, the year was recently changed from 1 Hamal –29 Hoot to 1 Jadi –30 Qaus. The fiscal year runs with the Afghan calendar, thus resulting in difference of the Gregorian dates once in a four-year span, in Australia, a fiscal year is commonly called a financial year and starts on 1 July and ends on the next 30 June. Financial years are designated by the year of the second half of the period. For example, financial year 2017 is the 12-month period ending on 30 June 2017 and it is used for official purposes, by individual taxpayers and by the overwhelming majority of business enterprises. Business enterprises may opt to use a year that ends at the end of a week. All entities within the one group must use the financial year. The Commonwealth adopted the near-ubiquitous financial year standard since its inception in 1901, the reason given for the change was for convenience, as Parliament typically sits during May and June, while it was difficult for it to meet in November and December to pass a budget. In Austria the fiscal year is the year,1 January to 31 December
25.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
26.
Neutrality Patrol
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On September 3,1939, the British and French declarations of war on Germany initiated the Battle of the Atlantic. The United States Navy Chief of Naval Operations established an air and ship patrol of the United States Atlantic coast, including the Caribbean Sea. President Franklin D. Roosevelt declared the United States neutrality on September 5, the concept of a naval Neutrality Patrol within that zone was presented to a Conference of Foreign Ministers of the American Republics convened in Panama on September 25. After considerable debate, the agreed on October 2,1939. Despite the name, the Neutrality Patrol greatly favored the British as the Royal Navy had far greater access to the Atlantic, Patrol One, Destroyers USS Hamilton and Leary were assigned patrol station one along a northwest-southeast line off Georges Bank. Patrol Two, Destroyers USS Hopkins and Goff with aircraft of patrol squadron 54 and seaplane tender USS Owl operated from Newport, Rhode Island, between the 38th and 43rd parallels. Patrol Three, Destroyers USS Manley, Barry, Decatur and Reuben James patrolled between the 34th and 38th parallels with aircraft of patrol squadrons 52 and 53, Patrol Six, Destroyers USS Babbitt and Claxton patrolled the Florida Strait and Yucatan Channel. Gannet and Thrush established a base in Puerto Rico. Patrol Nine, Cruisers USS Quincy and Vincennes patrolled within 300 miles of the coast between Newport and Cape Hatteras, the CNO orders of September 4 directed the patrols to report the movements of warships of warring nations in cipher. The Royal Navy destroyer HMS Hyperion intercepted the German liner Columbus on December 19 after three days of radioed position reports by Neutrality Patrol destroyers and cruisers. The Neutrality Patrol similarly radioed position reports of the British RFA tanker Patella a few days later, the German freighter Konsul Horn left Aruba on January 7,1940, posing as a Soviet ship to avoid identification by the Neutrality Patrol. The German freighter Helgoland sailed from Colombia on October 24,1940, Neutrality Patrols began operating from Bermuda following the Destroyers for Bases Agreement. The base was commissioned on April 7,1941, and Carrier Division 3 began using the base the following day, by mid-June cruisers USS Memphis, Milwaukee, Cincinnati and Omaha were patrolling from Trinidad south along the coast of Brazil. Ships, planes, funding, and personnel were assigned in January and February, admiral Bristol remained in Washington, but material for the various bases was assembled and shipped from Naval Air Station Quonset Point. Admiral Bristol insisted that all records be destroyed when an operation was completed and his staff believed he was following Presidential instructions to avoid revealing operations which might not have public-opinion approval. Efforts to document Support Force operations after the war were discouraged to avoid damaging world opinion as to the integrity of United States neutrality. In Newfoundland on August 9,1941, President Roosevelt agreed to provide American destroyers as escorts for the Canada to Iceland portion of HX convoys, HX150 sailed September 16,1941, as the first convoy with American escort. ON18 sailed September 24 as the first westbound convoy with American escort, the Gleaves-class destroyer Kearny was torpedoed while escorting Convoy SC48 on October 17,1941
27.
William Shepherd Benson
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William Shepherd Benson was an admiral in the United States Navy and the first Chief of Naval Operations, holding the post throughout World War I. Born in Bibb County, Georgia, Benson graduated from the United States Naval Academy in 1877 and his early years of sea duty included cruise around the World in Dolphin during the 1880s. He was also active in coast survey and hydrographic duties, was an instructor at the Naval Academy, commanded the cruiser Albany and served as a flag aide, in 1909, Benson was promoted to captain and became Chief of Staff of the US Pacific Fleet. In 1911, Benson became the first Commanding Officer of the battleship Utah and he was Commandant of the Philadelphia Navy Yard in 1913-15. In May 1915 he was promoted to the rank of admiral and became the Navys first Chief of Naval Operations, functionally replacing Rear Admiral Bradley A. Fiske. Promoted to the rank of admiral in 1916, his responsibilities greatly expanded when the United States entered the First World War in April 1917. Over the next year and a half, he oversaw an expansion of the navy, the extension of its operations to European waters. After the November 1918 Armistice, he was a participant in the lengthy peace negotiations held in France. In World War I the Navy explored aviation, both land-based and carrier based, however, the navy nearly abolished aviation in 1919 when Benson could not. conceive of any use the fleet will ever have for aviation, and he secretly tried to abolish the Navys Aviation Division. However, Assistant Secretary of the Navy Franklin D, grudgingly allowing it a minor mission, the navy slowly built up its aviation arm. Benson retired from the service in September 1919. Over the next decade, he was active in the leadership of the U. S, Admiral William S. Benson died in Washington, D. C. His mother, Catherine Brewer Benson, was the first woman to receive a degree Georgia Female College and his son Commodore Howard Hartwell James Benson, also a career navy officer, received the Navy Cross and Legion of Merit. USS Benson and USS Admiral W. S. Benson were named in his honor, the one-block long street named Benson Street in Charleston, South Carolina was named in his honor. This article incorporates text from the public domain Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships, William Shepherd Benson biography at www. arlingtoncemetery. net Benson, William Shepherd
28.
USS Albany (CL-23)
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The third USS Albany was a United States Navy protected cruiser of the New Orleans class. She saw service in the Philippine–American War and World War I and she was renamed Albany and launched in February 1899, sponsored by Mrs. John C. Colwell, the wife of the American naval attaché in London and she was commissioned in the River Tyne, England, on 29 May 1900. On 26 June 1900, Albany put to sea bound for service in the Philippines with the Philippine–American War, steaming via Gibraltar, the Mediterranean Sea, the Suez Canal, and the Indian Ocean, the cruiser arrived at Cavite in the Philippines on 22 November. She served with the Asiatic Fleet in the Philippines for the seven months. During that tour of duty, the cruiser visited Hong Kong, from 28 December 1900 to 17 February 1901. On 3 July 1901, she departed Cavite to return to the European Station, retracing the path of her maiden voyage, Albany transited the Suez Canal early in September and reentered the Mediterranean on 15 September. For the following nine months, the warship cruised the waters of the Mediterranean visiting ports in Greece, France, Italy, Spain. She exercised with those ships until 20 July at which time she set a course for the Baltic Sea, during her sojourn in the waters of northern Europe, she visited Stockholm, Sweden, Kronstadt, Russia, and Copenhagen, Denmark. Early in September, she exited the Baltic and, after a visit to Plymouth, after almost two months of duty in the middle sea, Albany set a course for the western hemisphere early in November. She arrived in the West Indies in late November and ended the year in fleet maneuvers which she concluded early in January 1903. On the 5th, the set a course for Boston. After repairs at Boston and at the New York Navy Yard, at the end of a brief tour of duty in the Mediterranean, she transited the Suez Canal at the end of May 1903, and set a course for the Far East. She stopped for coal at Hong Kong and then joined the Asiatic Fleet at Chefoo in northern China and she spent most of the remainder of 1903 operating with that fleet in the waters of northern China, Korea, and Japan. Upon returning to Kobe and proceeding thence to Yokohama, the cruiser embarked upon a voyage to Hawaii on 3 December. She arrived in Honolulu on the 16th and remained there until the 29th at which time she headed back toward the western Pacific and she made a stop at Guam in the Ladrone Islands before arriving at Cavite in the Philippines on 20 January 1904. She operated in the Philippines for about a month and headed for the coast of China on 19 February, the warship reached Shanghai four days later and remained in the vicinity for a month before getting underway for the Philippines on 22 March. She laid over at Cavite from 26 March to 18 April, the cruiser made another brief voyage to Shanghai and back to the Philippines between 18 and 30 April
29.
USS Missouri (BB-11)
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USS Missouri, a Maine-class battleship, was the second ship both of her class and of the United States Navy to be named in honor of the 24th state. Missouri was laid down in February 1900 at the Newport News Shipbuilding & Drydock Company, was launched in December 1901 and she was armed with a main battery of four 12-inch guns and could steam at a top speed of 18 knots. Missouri spent her career in the Atlantic with the North Atlantic Fleet. In late 1907, she and the rest of the Atlantic Fleet circumnavigated the globe as the so-called Great White Fleet, the ship was decommissioned in 1910, with periodic reactivations for summer training cruises over the followed six years. After America entered World War I in April 1917, Missouri was brought back into service to train personnel for the expanding wartime Navy and she served briefly as a troopship in 1919, carrying American soldiers back from France, before being decommissioned in September that year. Ultimately, she was sold for scrapping in January 1922, Missouri was 393 feet 11 inches long overall and had a beam of 72 ft 3 in and a draft of 23 ft 9 in. She displaced 12,362 long tons as designed and up to 13,700 long tons at full load, the ship was powered by two-shaft triple-expansion steam engines rated at 16,000 indicated horsepower and twelve coal-fired Thornycroft boilers, generating a top speed of 18 knots. As built, she was fitted with heavy military masts, and she had a crew of 561 officers and enlisted men, which increased to 779–813. The ship was armed with a battery of four 12-inch/40 caliber guns in two twin gun turrets on the centerline, one forward and aft. The secondary battery consisted of sixteen 6-inch /50 caliber Mark 6 guns, for close-range defense against torpedo boats, she carried six 3-inch /50 caliber guns mounted in casemates along the side of the hull, eight 3-pounder guns, and six 1-pounder guns. As was standard for ships of the period, Missouri carried two 18 in torpedo tubes, submerged in her hull on the broadside. Missouris main armored belt was 11 in thick over the magazines, the main battery gun turrets had 12-inch thick faces, and the supporting barbettes had the same thickness of armor plating on their exposed sides. Armor that was 6 in thick protected the secondary battery, the conning tower had 10 inches thick sides. Missouri was laid down at the Newport News Shipbuilding & Drydock Company on 7 February 1900 and she was launched on 28 December 1901 and commissioned into the fleet on 1 December 1903. The ship was assigned to the North Atlantic Fleet after entering service and she steamed out of Norfolk to begin her sea trials off the Virginia Capes on 4 February 1904 before joining the rest of the fleet in the Caribbean for training exercises. On 13 April, the ship suffered an accident during gunnery training, for their actions, three men were awarded the Medal of Honor. Missouri returned to Newport News for repairs, which were completed by early June, on 9 June, Missouri left Newport News for a tour of the Mediterranean, arriving back in New York on 17 December. She remained with the North Atlantic Fleet for the three years conducting normal peacetime training
30.
USS Utah (BB-31)
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USS Utah was the second and final member of the Florida class of dreadnought battleships. The first ship of the United States Navy named after the state of Utah, she had one sister ship, Utah was built by the New York Shipbuilding Corporation, laid down in March 1909 and launched in December of that year. She was completed in August 1911, and boasted a main battery of ten 12-inch guns in five gun turrets. Utah and Florida were the first ships to arrive during the United States occupation of Veracruz in 1914 during the Mexican Revolution, the two battleships sent ashore a landing party that began the occupation of the city. After the American entrance into World War I, Utah was stationed in Bantry Bay, Ireland, throughout the 1920s, the ship conducted numerous training cruises and fleet maneuvers, and carried dignitaries on tours of South America twice, in 1924 and 1928. In 1931, Utah was demilitarized and converted into a ship and re-designated as AG-16. She was also equipped with numerous anti-aircraft guns of different types to train gunners for the fleet and she served in these two roles for the rest of the decade, and late 1941 found the ship in Pearl Harbor. She was in port on the morning of 7 December, Utah quickly rolled over and sank, the vast majority of her crew were able to escape, but 64 men were killed in the attack. The wreck remains in the harbor, and in 1972, a memorial was erected near the ship, Utah was 521 ft 6 in long overall and had a beam of 88 ft 3 in and a draft of 28 ft 6 in. She displaced 21,825 long tons as designed and up to 23,033 long tons at combat load. The ship was powered by four-shaft Parsons steam turbines rated at 28,000 shp and twelve coal-fired Babcock & Wilcox boilers, the ship had a cruising range of 5,776 nmi at a speed of 10 kn. She had a crew of 1,001 officers and men, the ship was armed with a main battery of ten 12-inch/45 Mark 5 guns in five twin gun turrets on the centerline, two of which were placed in a superfiring pair forward. The other three turrets were placed aft of the superstructure, the secondary battery consisted of sixteen 5-inch /51 guns mounted in casemates along the side of the hull. As was standard for ships of the period, she carried a pair of 21-inch torpedo tubes. The main armored belt was 11 in thick, while the deck was 1.5 in thick. The gun turrets had 12 in thick faces and the tower had 11.5 in thick sides. Utah was laid down at the New York Shipbuilding Corporation on 15 March 1909 and she was launched on 23 December 1909, sponsored by Miss Mary Alice Spry, daughter of Governor William Spry of Utah, and commissioned into the US Navy on 31 August 1911. She then conducted a cruise that stopped in Hampton Roads, Santa Rosa Island, Pensacola, Galveston, Kingston, Jamaica
31.
Philadelphia Naval Shipyard
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The Navy Yard, formerly known as the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard and Philadelphia Naval Business Center, was an important naval shipyard of the United States for almost two centuries. It is now an industrial park that includes a commercial shipyard. Philadelphias original navy yard, begun in 1776 on Front Street, the new, much larger yard grew up around facilities begun in 1871 on League Island at the confluence of the Delaware and Schuylkill Rivers. The United States Navy ended most of its activities there in the 1990s, and in 2000, the Navy still has a Naval Inactive Ship Maintenance Facility and a few engineering activities at the site. The yard has its origins in a shipyard on Philadelphias Front Street on the Delaware River that was founded in 1776, from 1812 till 1865 it was a big production center. The first ship which was launched to the water was vessel Franklin and this event was watched by more than 50,000 spectators. The rapid development of shipbuilding companies pledged Philadelphia to improve production processes. It was the first shipyard in the world which used floating dry docks in the process to improve an operating time of the ships. After the advent of ironclad warships made the site obsolete, new facilities were built in 1871 on League Island at the confluence of the Delaware and Schuylkill Rivers. After first making a request to the Secretary of the Navy via shipyard Commandant Commodore James Barron, on August 29,1835 they appealed directly to President Andrew Jackson, there is no probability they will secede from their demands. Rodegier, David R. and Foner, Sheldon Our Own Time, A History of American Labor, Naval Aircraft Factory was established at the League Island site in 1917. Just after World War I, a 350-ton capacity hammerhead crane was ordered for the yard, manufactured in 1919 by the McMyler-Interstate Company in Bedford, Ohio, the crane was called the League Island Crane by its builder. Weighing 3,500 tons, the crane was shipped to the yard in sections, the League Island Crane was for many years the Navys largest crane. Mustin Field opened at the Naval Aircraft Factory in 1926 and operated until 1963, the shipyards greatest period came in World War II, when the yard employed 40,000 people who built 53 ships and repaired 574. During this period, the built the famed battleship New Jersey and its 45, 000-ton sister ship. In the Naval Laboratory Philip Abelson developed the thermal diffusion technique for separating U-235 for the Manhattan Project. After the war, the workforce dropped to 12,000, the yard built its last new ship, the command ship Blue Ridge, in 1970. The yards closure was originally recommended in 1991 by the Base Realignment and Closure Commission, as a result of foreign competition, the planned closing was unsuccessfully litigated to the US Supreme Court in Dalton v. Specter
32.
Chief of Naval Operations
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The Chief of Naval Operations is a statutory office held by a four-star admiral in the United States Navy, and is the most senior naval officer assigned to serve in the Department of the Navy. The office is an adviser and deputy to the Secretary of the Navy. The current Chief of Naval Operations is Admiral John M. Richardson, under the authority of the Secretary of the Navy, the CNO also designates naval personnel and naval resources to the commanders of Unified Combatant Commands. The CNO also performs all other functions prescribed under 10 U. S. C. §5033, the CNO is typically the highest-ranking officer on active duty in the Navy unless the Chairman and/or the Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff are naval officers. Like the other joint chiefs, the CNO is a position and has no operational command authority over United States naval forces. The Chief of Naval Operations is nominated by the President for appointment, however, the president may waive those requirements if he determines that appointing the officer is necessary for the national interest. By statute, the CNO is appointed as a four-star admiral, number One Observatory Circle, located on the northeast grounds of the United States Naval Observatory in Washington, DC, was built in 1893 for its superintendent. The Chief of Naval Operations liked the house so much that in 1923 he took over the house as his own official residence and it remained the residence of the CNO until 1974, when Congress authorized its transformation to an official residence for the Vice President. The Chief of Naval Operations currently resides in Quarters A in the Washington Naval Yard, the position of CNO replaced the position of Aide for Naval Operations, which was a position established by regulation rather than statutory law. Lists of Commanding Officers and Senior Officials of the US Navy, archived from the original on 18 December 2007
33.
Washington, D.C.
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Washington, D. C. formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D. C. is the capital of the United States. The signing of the Residence Act on July 16,1790, Constitution provided for a federal district under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress and the District is therefore not a part of any state. The states of Maryland and Virginia each donated land to form the federal district, named in honor of President George Washington, the City of Washington was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital. In 1846, Congress returned the land ceded by Virginia, in 1871. Washington had an population of 681,170 as of July 2016. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the population to more than one million during the workweek. The Washington metropolitan area, of which the District is a part, has a population of over 6 million, the centers of all three branches of the federal government of the United States are in the District, including the Congress, President, and Supreme Court. Washington is home to national monuments and museums, which are primarily situated on or around the National Mall. The city hosts 176 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of international organizations, trade unions, non-profit organizations, lobbying groups. A locally elected mayor and a 13‑member council have governed the District since 1973, However, the Congress maintains supreme authority over the city and may overturn local laws. D. C. residents elect a non-voting, at-large congressional delegate to the House of Representatives, the District receives three electoral votes in presidential elections as permitted by the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961. Various tribes of the Algonquian-speaking Piscataway people inhabited the lands around the Potomac River when Europeans first visited the area in the early 17th century, One group known as the Nacotchtank maintained settlements around the Anacostia River within the present-day District of Columbia. Conflicts with European colonists and neighboring tribes forced the relocation of the Piscataway people, some of whom established a new settlement in 1699 near Point of Rocks, Maryland. 43, published January 23,1788, James Madison argued that the new government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance. Five years earlier, a band of unpaid soldiers besieged Congress while its members were meeting in Philadelphia, known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, the event emphasized the need for the national government not to rely on any state for its own security. However, the Constitution does not specify a location for the capital, on July 9,1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia, the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 miles on each side, totaling 100 square miles. Two pre-existing settlements were included in the territory, the port of Georgetown, Maryland, founded in 1751, many of the stones are still standing
34.
Gibbs & Cox
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Gibbs & Cox is a U. S. naval architecture firm that specializes in designing surface warships. Founded in 1922 in New York City, Gibbs & Cox is now headquartered in Arlington, the firm has offices in New York City, Washington, D. C. Newport News, Virginia, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and New Orleans, in 2003, more than 150 warships built to the firms designs, including 60 percent of the U. S. Navys surface combatant fleet, were on active duty in nearly 20 navies. The firm was founded as Gibbs Brothers by self-taught naval architect William Francis Gibbs, the name was changed when architect Daniel H. Cox of Cox & Stevens joined the firm in 1929. In 1931, Gibbs & Cox designed the MV Savarona, a luxury yacht. According to company officials, more than 70 percent of U. S. tonnage launched during World War II was built to Gibbs & Cox designs, ship types included destroyers, LST landing craft, minesweepers, tankers, cruisers, Liberty Ships, and a variety of conversions. In 1950, Gibbs & Cox designed the SS United States, the largest liner built in the United States. Of these, the most expensive and elaborate was a 1/24-scale cutaway model of the USS Agerholm and this model, which is over 16 feet long, shows the complete inner structure on the starboard, and the exterior on the port. Another notable model is the USS Missouri as she appeared on September 2,1945, at 9,02 in the morning, the time of the Japanese surrender. This 1/48-scale ship required 77,000 man-hours to construct, and is as of September 2012 on display at the Navy Museum, Washington Navy Yard, Washington, DC. Gibbs & Cox Official site
35.
Bath Iron Works
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Bath Iron Works is a major American shipyard located on the Kennebec River in Bath, Maine. Since its founding in 1884, BIW has built private, commercial and military vessels, the shipyard has built and sometimes designed battleships, frigates, cruisers and destroyers, including the Arleigh Burke class, which are currently among the worlds most advanced surface warships. Since 1995, Bath Iron Works has been a subsidiary of General Dynamics, during World War II, ships built at BIW were considered by sailors and Navy officials to be of superior toughness, giving rise to the phrase Bath-built is best-built. Bath Iron Works was incorporated in 1884 by General Thomas W. Hyde, after the war, Hyde bought a local shop that helped make windlasses and other iron hardware for the wooden ships built in Baths many shipyards. He expanded the business by improving its practices, entering new markets, by 1882, Hyde Windlass was eyeing the new and growing business of iron shipbuilding, two years later, it incorporated as Bath Iron Works. On February 28,1890, BIW won its first contract for complete vessels, the Machias, one of these 190-foot gunboats, was the first ship launched by the company. In 1892, the yard won its first commercial contract for a steel vessel, in the 1890s, the company built several yachts for wealthy sailors. In 1899, General Hyde, suffering from the Brights Disease that would kill him later that year, resigned from management of the shipyard, leaving his sons Edward and that year the shipyard began construction of the Georgia, the only battleship to be built in Bath. The ship dominated the yard for five years until its launching in 1904, the yard faced numerous challenges because of the weight of armor and weapons. In sea trials, the Georgia averaged 19.26 knots for four hours, making her the fastest ship in her class, the company continued to rely on Navy contracts, which provided 86% of the value of new contracts between 1905 and 1917. The yard also produced fishing trawlers, freighters, and yachts throughout the first half of the century, at peak production during World War II, the shipyard launched a destroyer every 17 days. Bath Iron Works ranked 50th among United States corporations in the value of World War II military production contracts, in 1981, Falcon Transport ordered two tankers, the last commercial vessels built by BIW. In 1988, the USS Samuel B, Roberts, commissioned two years earlier at Bath, survived a mine explosion that tore a hole in its engine room and flooded two compartments. Over the next two years, BIW repaired the Roberts in unique fashion, the guided missile frigate was towed to the companys dry dock in Portland, Maine, and put up on blocks, where its damaged engine room was cut out of the ship. Meanwhile, workers in Bath built a 315-ton replacement, when it was ready, the module was floated south to Portland, placed on the dry dock, slid into place under the Roberts, jacked up, and welded into place. In 2001, BIW wrapped up an effort to build an enormous concrete platform. Instead of being built on a way so that they could slide into the Kennebec at launch. This greatly reduced the work involved in building and launching the ships, the 750-foot,28, 000-ton dry dock was built by Chinas Jiangdu Yuchai Shipbuilding Company for $27 million
36.
USS Livermore (DD-429)
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USS Livermore, a Gleaves-class destroyer, was the 1st ship of the United States Navy to be named for Samuel Livermore, the first naval chaplain to be honored with a ship in his name. Launched in the aftermath of the fall of France, Livermore, with ships like the aircraft carrier Wasp and sister destroyers, she escorted as far as Iceland convoys bound for England. There ensued a shadowy undeclared war with Nazi wolfpacks and she was on convoy duty with the destroyer Kearny when the latter was torpedoed on 17 October. The hazards of this duty for Livermore also included a temporary grounding on 24 November during a storm, the attack on Pearl Harbor and full U. S. participation in World War II enlarged the scope of her actions. On 7 April 1942 Livermore departed New York for the first of many transatlantic escort missions, completing her second voyage to Greenock, Scotland on 27 June, she began coastal patrol and convoy duty southward into the Caribbean. Livermore arrived off Mehdia, French Morocco,9 November for the north African invasion and was assigned antisubmarine, antiaircraft, five days later, the invasion force successfully established ashore, she sailed for Norfolk, arriving 26 November. The year 1943 began with patrol duty off Recife, Brazil and her departure from Hampton Roads on 24 January foreshadowed a prolonged stay in the Mediterranean Sea. Two days earlier Allied forces had landed at Anzio, Italy, Livermore arrived off this embattled beachhead on 5 March. She provided both protection and shore bombardment support. After rotation to the run between Oran, Algeria, and Naples, Italy, she participated in the initial landing in southern France on 16 August. While supporting minesweepers on Cavallaire Bay with gunfire, Livermore was hit by a shore battery, the damage was slight, and her guns silenced the enemy guns. Livermore continued on duty in the western Mediterranean until 26 October when she steamed out of Oran for overhaul in New York Navy Yard, the war ended in Europe while Livermore was on the third of a new series of escort crossings between the east coast and Oran. Completing her last transatlantic voyage 29 May, she prepared for duty in the Pacific, though she departed New York on 22 June, V-J Day found her still training at Pearl Harbor. She reached Japan on 27 September escorting transports carrying soldiers of the Armys 98th Division for occupation duty and her stay in the Orient was relatively brief, for, after several voyages between Saipan, the Philippines, and Wakayama, Japan, Livermore sailed 3 November for the Aleutians. At Dutch Harbor and Attu Island, Alaska, she embarked dischargees for passage to Seattle, completing this duty 22 December 1945, she proceeded to the east coast, arriving at Charleston, South Carolina on 18 January 1946. Designated for use in the Naval Reserve Training Program, she was placed in commission, Livermore then decommissioned and was placed in service 24 January 1947, and was assigned to Naval Reserve training in the 6th Naval District. She was reassigned to the 1st Naval District on 15 March 1949, while making one of her training cruises. She ran aground off southern Cape Cod on 30 July 1949, refloated the next day she proceeded to Boston and was placed out of service 15 May 1950 and inactivated
37.
Battle of France
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The Battle of France, also known as the Fall of France, was the German invasion of France and the Low Countries in 1940 during the Second World War. Italy entered the war on 10 June 1940 and attempted an invasion of France, the German plan for the invasion of France consisted of two main operations. After the withdrawal of the BEF, the German forces began Fall Rot on 5 June, the sixty remaining French divisions made a determined resistance but were unable to overcome the German air superiority and armoured mobility. German tanks outflanked the Maginot Line and pushed deep into France, German forces occupied Paris unopposed on 14 June after a chaotic period of flight of the French government that led to a collapse of the French army. German commanders met with French officials on 18 June with the goal of forcing the new French government to accept an armistice that amounted to surrender and this led to the end of the French Third Republic. France was not liberated until the summer of 1944, in 1939, Britain and France offered military support to Poland in the likely case of a German invasion. In the dawn of 1 September 1939, the German Invasion of Poland began, France and the United Kingdom declared war on 3 September, after an ultimatum for German forces to immediately withdraw their forces from Poland was met without reply. Following this, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and Canada, on 7 September, in accordance with their alliance with Poland, France began the Saar Offensive with an advance from the Maginot Line 5 km into the Saar. France had mobilised 98 divisions and 2,500 tanks against a German force consisting of 43 divisions, the French advanced until they met the then thin and undermanned Siegfried Line. On 17 September, the French supreme commander, Maurice Gamelin gave the order to withdraw French troops to their starting positions, following the Saar Offensive, a period of inaction called the Phoney War set in between the belligerents. Adolf Hitler had hoped that France and Britain would acquiesce in the conquest of Poland, on 6 October, he made a peace offer to both Western powers. On 9 October, Hitler issued a new Führer-Directive Number 6, the plan was based on the seemingly more realistic assumption that German military strength would have to be built up for several years. For the moment only limited objectives could be envisaged and were aimed at improving Germanys ability to survive a long war in the west. Hitler ordered a conquest of the Low Countries to be executed at the shortest possible notice to forestall the French and it would also provide the basis for a long-term air and sea campaign against Britain. On 10 October 1939, Britain refused Hitlers offer of peace and on 12 October, colonel-General Franz Halder, presented the first plan for Fall Gelb on 19 October. This was the codename of plans for a campaign in the Low Countries. Halders plan has been compared to the Schlieffen Plan, the given to the German strategy of 1914 in the First World War. It was similar in both plans entailed an advance through the middle of Belgium
38.
Fletcher-class destroyer
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The Fletcher class was a class of destroyers built by the United States during World War II. The class was designed in 1939, as a result of dissatisfaction with the destroyer leader types of the Porter. Some went on to serve during the Korean War and into the Vietnam War, the United States Navy commissioned 175 Fletcher-class destroyers between 1942 and 1944, more than any other destroyer class, and the design was generally regarded as highly successful. Fletchers had a speed of 38 knots, and an armament of five 5 guns in single mounts with 1021 torpedoes in two quintuple centerline mounts. The Allen M. Sumner and Gearing classes were Fletcher derivatives, the long-range Fletcher-class ships performed every task asked of a destroyer, from anti-submarine warfare and anti-aircraft warfare to surface action. They could cover the vast distances required by fleet actions in the Pacific, in fact, they served almost exclusively in the Pacific Theater of Operations during World War II, during which they accounted for 29 Imperial Japanese Navy submarines sunk. Three have been preserved as museum ships in the U. S. the Fletcher class was the largest class of destroyer ordered, and was also one of the most successful and popular with the destroyer men themselves. Compared to earlier classes built for the Navy, they carried a significant increase in weapons and other weaponry. Their flush deck construction added structural strength, although it did make them rather cramped, the Fletcher-class was the first generation of destroyers designed after the series of Naval Treaties that had limited ship designs heretofore. The growth in the design was in part to answer a question that always dogged U. S. Navy designs, that being the long range required by operations in the Pacific Ocean. They were also to no less than five 5 in guns and ten deck-mounted torpedo tubes on the centerline. Compared to earlier designs, the Fletchers were large, allowing them to absorb the addition of two 40 mm Bofors quadruple mount AA guns as well as six 20 mm Oerlikon dual AA gun positions. This addition to the AA suite required the deletion of the forward quintuple torpedo mount, Fletchers were also much less top-heavy than previous classes, allowing them to take on additional equipment and weapons without major redesign. They were fortunate in catching American production at the moment, becoming the destroyer design, and only Fletcher-class derivatives. The first design inputs were in the fall of 1939 from questionnaires distributed around design bureaus, the design parameters were the armaments desired of the next destroyer. As such, the questions were of how many guns, torpedoes, also asked was at what point would the design grow large enough to become a torpedo target instead of a torpedo delivery system. As with other previous U. S. flush deck destroyer designs and this was mitigated by deployment to the Pacific Ocean, which is relatively calm. To achieve 38 kn with a 500-ton increase in displacement, shaft horsepower was increased from 50,000 to 60,000 compared to the previous Benson and Gleaves classes
39.
USS Bristol (DD-453)
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USS Bristol was a Gleaves-class destroyer of the United States Navy, named for Rear Admiral Mark Lambert Bristol. During her first year of service Bristol operated as a patrol and convoy escort in the North Atlantic, on 22 September 1942, Cmdr John Albert Glick took over command of the ship. On 24 October 1942, she made her first voyage to North Africa, as part of the Operation Torch landings at Fedala, while on duty in that area, she took part in Operation Husky and the Salerno landings. On 11 September 1943, Bristol rescued 70 survivors from the torpedoed destroyer Rowan, Bristol was broken in half by the single explosion. No fires resulted, but steam, electrical power, and communications were lost, eight minutes after the explosion the aft section sank, followed four minutes later by the foreparts. Bristol suffered the loss of 52 of her crew, the survivors were rescued by the destroyers Trippe, Bristol received three battle stars for her World War II service. This article incorporates text from the public domain Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships, the entry can be found here. Navsource. org, USS Bristol hazegray. org, USS Bristol
40.
Anti-submarine weapon
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An anti-submarine weapon is any one of a number of devices that are intended to act against a submarine and its crew, to destroy the vessel or reduce its capability as a weapon of war. In its simplest sense, a weapon is usually a projectile, missile or bomb that is optimized to destroy submarines. Prior to about 1890, naval weapons were used against surface shipping. With the rise of the submarine after this time, countermeasures were considered for use against them. The first submarine installation of tubes was in 1885 and the first ship was sunk by a submarine-launched torpedo in 1887. There were only two ways of countering the military initially, ramming them or sinking them with gunfire. However, once they were submerged, they were largely immune until they had to surface again, by the start of the First World War there were nearly 300 submarines in service with another 80 in production. World War I marked the first earnest conflict involving significant use of submarines, in particular, the United Kingdom was desperate to defeat the U-Boat threat against British merchant shipping. When the bombs that it employed were found to be ineffective it began equipping its destroyers with simple depth charges that could be dropped into the water around a suspected submarines location. During this period it was found that explosions of these charges were more efficient if the charges were set to explode below or above the submarine, however, many other techniques were used, including minefields, barrages and Q-ships and the use of cryptanalysis against intercepted radio messages. The airship was used to drop bombs but fixed-wing aircraft were used for reconnaissance. However, the most effective countermeasure was the convoy, in 1918 U-boat losses became unbearably high. Most of the losses were due to mines but two were torpedoed, french, Italian and Russian submarines were also destroyed. Before the war ended, the need for forward-throwing weapons had been recognized by the British, hydrophones had been developed and were becoming effective as detection and location devices. Also, aircraft and airships had flown with depth bombs, albeit small ones with poor explosives. In addition, the specialist hunter-killer submarine had appeared, HMS R-1, the main developments in this period were in detection, with both active sonar and radar becoming effective. The British integrated the sonar with fire control and weapons to form a system for warships. Germany was banned from having a fleet but began construction in secret during the 1930s
41.
Anti-aircraft warfare
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Anti-aircraft warfare or counter-air defence is defined by NATO as all measures designed to nullify or reduce the effectiveness of hostile air action. They include ground-and air-based weapon systems, associated sensor systems, command and control arrangements and it may be used to protect naval, ground, and air forces in any location. However, for most countries the main effort has tended to be homeland defence, NATO refers to airborne air defence as counter-air and naval air defence as anti-aircraft warfare. Missile defence is an extension of air defence as are initiatives to adapt air defence to the task of intercepting any projectile in flight, a surface-based air defence capability can also be deployed offensively to deny the use of airspace to an opponent. Until the 1950s, guns firing ballistic munitions ranging from 20 mm to 150 mm were the weapons, guided missiles then became dominant. The term air defence was probably first used by Britain when Air Defence of Great Britain was created as a Royal Air Force command in 1925. However, arrangements in the UK were also called anti-aircraft, abbreviated as AA, after the First World War it was sometimes prefixed by Light or Heavy to classify a type of gun or unit. Nicknames for anti-aircraft guns include AA, AAA or triple-A, an abbreviation of anti-aircraft artillery, ack-ack, NATO defines anti-aircraft warfare as measures taken to defend a maritime force against attacks by airborne weapons launched from aircraft, ships, submarines and land-based sites. In some armies the term All-Arms Air Defence is used for air defence by nonspecialist troops, other terms from the late 20th century include GBAD with related terms SHORAD and MANPADS. Anti-aircraft missiles are variously called surface-to-air missile, abbreviated and pronounced SAM, non-English terms for air defence include the German FlaK, whence English flak, and the Russian term Protivovozdushnaya oborona, a literal translation of anti-air defence, abbreviated as PVO. In Russian the AA systems are called zenitnye systems, in French, air defence is called DCA. The maximum distance at which a gun or missile can engage an aircraft is an important figure, however, many different definitions are used but unless the same definition is used, performance of different guns or missiles cannot be compared. For AA guns only the part of the trajectory can be usefully used. By the late 1930s the British definition was that height at which an approaching target at 400 mph can be engaged for 20 seconds before the gun reaches 70 degrees elevation. However, effective ceiling for heavy AA guns was affected by nonballistic factors, The maximum running time of the fuse, the capability of fire control instruments to determine target height at long range. The essence of air defence is to detect aircraft and destroy them. The critical issue is to hit a target moving in three-dimensional space, Air defence evolution covered the areas of sensors and technical fire control, weapons, and command and control. At the start of the 20th century these were very primitive or non-existent
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Displacement (ship)
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The displacement or displacement tonnage of a ship is the ships weight. The name reflects the fact that it is measured indirectly, by first calculating the volume of water displaced by the ship, by Archimedes principle, this is also the weight of the ship. Displacement should not be confused with other measurements of volume or capacity typically used for vessels such as net tonnage, gross tonnage. The process of determining a vessels displacement begins with measuring its draft This is accomplished by means of its draft marks, a merchant vessel has three matching sets, one mark each on the port and starboard sides forward, midships, and astern. These marks allow a ships displacement to be determined to an accuracy of 0. 5%, the draft observed at each set of marks is averaged to find a mean draft. The ships hydrostatic tables show the corresponding volume displaced, to calculate the weight of the displaced water, it is necessary to know its density. Seawater is more dense than water, so a ship will ride higher in salt water than in fresh. The density of water varies with temperature. Devices akin to slide rules have been available since the 1950s to aid in these calculations and it is done today with computers. Displacement is usually measured in units of tonnes or long tons and these bring the ship down to its load draft, colloquially known as the waterline. Full load displacement and loaded displacement have almost identical definitions, full load is defined as the displacement of a vessel when floating at its greatest allowable draft as established by classification societies. Warships have arbitrary full load condition established, deep load condition means full ammunition and stores, with most available fuel capacity used. Light displacement is defined as the weight of the ship excluding cargo, fuel, water, ballast, stores, passengers, crew, normal displacement is the ships displacement with all outfit, and two-thirds supply of stores, ammunition, etc. on board. Standard displacement, also known as Washington displacement, is a term defined by the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922. Naval architecture Hull Hydrodynamics Tonnage Dear, I. C. B, oxford Companion to Ships and the Sea. George, William E. Stability & Trim for the Ships Officer, turpin, Edward A. McEwen, William A. Trim and Stability Information for Drydocking Calculations, conference on the Limitation of Armament,1922. Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States,1922, proceedings of the United States Naval Institute
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Ship gun fire-control system
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Ship gun fire-control systems enable remote and automatic targeting of guns against surface ships, aircraft, and shore targets, with or without the aid of radar or optical sighting. Most US ships that are destroyers or larger employed GFCS for 5 -inch and larger guns, up to battleships, beginning with ships built in the 1960s, GFCSs were integrated with missile fire-control systems and other ship sensors. Naval fire control resembles that of ground-based guns, but with no distinction between direct and indirect fire. It is possible to control several same-type guns on a single platform simultaneously, though a ship rolls and pitches at a slower rate than a tank does, gyroscopic stabilization is extremely desirable. Naval gun fire control potentially involves three levels of complexity, Local control originated with primitive gun installations aimed by the gun crews. The director system of control was pioneered by British Royal Navy in 1912. All guns on a ship were laid from a central position placed as high as possible above the bridge. The director became a feature of battleships, with Japanese Pagoda-style masts designed to maximize the view of the director over long ranges. A fire control officer who ranged the salvos transmitted elevations and angles to individual guns, coordinated gunfire from a formation of ships at a single target was a focus of battleship fleet operations. An officer on the flagship would signal target information to ships in the formation. More sophisticated fire control systems consider more of these rather than relying on simple correction of observed fall of shot. Differently colored dye markers were sometimes included with large shells so individual guns, or individual ships in formation, early computers were people using numerical tables. Centralized naval fire control systems were first developed around the time of World War I, Local control had been used up until that time, and remained in use on smaller warships and auxiliaries through World War II. It may still be used for machine guns aboard patrol craft, beginning with the British battleship HMS Dreadnought, large warships had at least six similar big guns, which facilitated central fire control. For the UK, their first central system was built before the Great War, at the heart was an analogue computer designed by Commander Frederic Charles Dreyer that calculated rate of change of range. The Dreyer Table was to be improved and served into the period at which point it was superseded in new. Guns could then be fired in planned salvos, with each gun giving a different trajectory. Directors high on the superstructure had a view of the enemy than a turret mounted sight
44.
1.1"/75 caliber gun
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The 1. 1/75 caliber gun was an American anti-aircraft weapon of World War II. The name means that it had a diameter of 1.1 inches and barrel length of 75 ×1.1 inches =82.5 inches. The gun was designed to replace the M2 Browning and four barrels were required to duplicate the rate of fire, the first shipboard installation in 1939 was quickly nicknamed the Chicago Piano. By 1941, these guns had been mounted on destroyers, cruisers, battleships, aircraft carriers, nearly a thousand guns had been produced before production shifted to more reliable shipboard anti-aircraft machine guns in 1942. Quantities were minimal, one mount for a destroyer, two mounts for battleships, and four mounts for North Carolina–class and newer battleships. On at least some ships they were director-controlled and it was replaced by Oerlikon 20 mm cannon or Bofors 40 mm guns whenever possible, but served until the end of the war on some ships. A twin Bofors gun was about the weight, and was a much more powerful gun. The air-cooled Oerlikon had similar effective range and rate of fire with less weight. The Oerlikon could not sustain fire for as long as the water-cooled 1.1, the gun was based on patents of Richmond, Virginia, inventor Robert Hudson, who used a complicated gas-recoil operating system adapted to. 30-06 Springfield and.50 BMG. The United States Navy Bureau of Ordnance had decided the M2 Browning was inadequate for future AA duties, as a result of this and successive meetings, the decision was made to develop a 1.1 machine gun. On December 13,1923, Mr. C. F, the design of the gun mechanism was completed in 1930 and tests on the initial models were carried out in March, April and May 1931. The tests, which demonstrated a rate of 90 r. p. m. were characterized by primer blow backs, misfires. During the next two years, designers corrected these faults and the rate increased to 140. The design was turned over to the Naval Gun Factory for production in 1934 and it is interesting to note that work on the gun was financed not from regular Navy appropriations but from funds supplied through the National Industrial Recovery Act. While the longer range antiaircraft gun field was taken care of, except for insufficient numbers, the situation was far from satisfactory in the short range category. The 1.1 was too heavy to serve as a last-ditch free mount, four were mounted on the Houston and the fifth was a spare. To the surprise of most at Cavite, the one left on the dock survived the Japanese bombing. There is no record of what happened with that one 1.1 caliber mount sent to Corregidor
45.
Kamikaze
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During World War II, about 3,862 kamikaze pilots died, and about 19% of kamikaze attacks managed to hit a ship. Kamikaze aircraft were essentially pilot-guided explosive missiles, purpose-built or converted from conventional aircraft, a kamikaze could sustain damage which would disable a conventional attacker and still achieve its objective. The goal of crippling or destroying large numbers of Allied ships, particularly aircraft carriers, was considered by the Empire of Japan to be a just reason for sacrificing pilots and these attacks, which began in October 1944, followed several critical military defeats for the Japanese. They had long since lost aerial dominance due to outdated aircraft, Japan suffered from a diminishing capacity for war, and a rapidly declining industrial capacity relative to the Allies. Japan was also losing pilots faster than it could train their replacements, in combination, these factors, coupled with the unwillingness to surrender, led to the use of kamikaze tactics as Allied forces advanced towards the Japanese home islands. While the term usually refers to the aerial strikes, it has also been applied to various other suicide attacks. The Japanese military also used or made plans for non-aerial Japanese Special Attack Units, including those involving submarines, human torpedoes, speedboats, the tradition of death instead of defeat, capture, and perceived shame was deeply entrenched in Japanese military culture. It was one of the traditions in the samurai life. The Japanese word kamikaze is usually translated as divine wind, in Japanese, the formal term used for units carrying out suicide attacks during 1944–1945 is tokubetsu kōgeki tai, which literally means special attack unit. This is usually abbreviated to tokkōtai, more specifically, air suicide attack units from the Imperial Japanese Navy were officially called shinpū tokubetsu kōgeki tai. Shinpū is the on-reading of the characters that form the word kamikaze in Japanese. As a result, the attack units are sometimes known in Japan as kamikaze tokubetsu kōgeki tai. Axell and Kase see these suicides as individual, impromptu decisions by men who were prepared to die. The case of Nikolai Gastellos taran on 26 June 1941 passed into Soviet air-warfare lore, in most cases, little evidence exists that such hits represented more than accidental collisions of the kind that sometimes happen in intense sea or air battles. One example of this occurred on 7 December 1941 during the attack on Pearl Harbor, First Lieutenant Fusata Iidas plane had taken a hit and had started leaking fuel when he apparently used it to make a suicide attack on Naval Air Station Kaneohe. Before taking off, he had told his men that if his plane were to become badly damaged he would crash it into an enemy target. During 1943–1944, U. S. forces steadily advanced toward Japan, newer U. S. -made planes, especially the Grumman F6F Hellcat and Vought F4U Corsair, began to outnumber and outclass Japans fighter planes. Tropical diseases, as well as shortages of parts and fuel
United States Navy
Republic of China Navy
Marina Militare