1.
Bentley
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Bentley Motors Limited is a British manufacturer and marketer of luxury cars and SUVs—and a subsidiary of Volkswagen AG since 1998. The joining and eventual separation of Bentley and Rolls-Royce follows a series of mergers and acquisitions, beginning with the 1931 purchase by Rolls-Royce of Bentley, Rolls-Royce Motors was subsequently sold to engineering conglomerate, Vickers and in 1998, Vickers sold Rolls-Royce to Volkswagen AG. The aerospace company, Rolls-Royce Plc, ultimately sold both to BMW AG, at the DFP factory, in 1913, he noticed an aluminum paperweight and thought that aluminum might be a suitable replacement for cast iron to fabricate lighter pistons. The first Bentley aluminum pistons were fitted to Sopwith Camel aero engines during World War I, in August 1919, W. O. registered Bentley Motors Ltd. and in October he exhibited a car chassis, with dummy engine, at the London Motor Show. Ex–Royal Flying Corps officer Clive Gallop designed an innovative 4 valves per cylinder engine for the chassis, by December the engine was built and running. Delivery of the first cars was scheduled for June 1920, the durability of the first Bentley cars earned widespread acclaim and they competed in hill climbs and raced at Brooklands. Bentleys first major event was the 1922 Indianapolis 500, a race dominated by specialized cars with Duesenberg racing chassis and they entered a modified road car driven by works driver, Douglas Hawkes, accompanied by riding mechanic, H. S. Bertie Browning. Hawkes completed the full 500 miles and finished 13th with an speed of 74.95 mph after starting in 19th position. The team was rushed back to England to compete in the 1922 RAC Tourist Trophy. In ironic reference to his heavyweight boxers stature, Captain Woolf Barnato was nicknamed Babe, in 1925, he acquired his first Bentley, a 3-litre. With this car he won numerous Brooklands races, just a year later he acquired the Bentley business itself. The Bentley enterprise was always underfunded, but inspired by the 1924 Le Mans win by John Duff and Frank Clement, Barnato had incorporated Baromans Ltd in 1922, which existed as his finance and investment vehicle. Via Baromans, Barnato initially invested in excess of £100,000, saving the business, a financial reorganisation of the original Bentley company was carried out and all existing creditors paid off for £75,000. Existing shares were devalued from £1 each to just 1 shilling, Barnato held 149,500 of the new shares giving him control of the company and he became chairman. Barnato injected further cash into the business, £35,000 secured by debenture in July 1927, £40,000 in 1928, with renewed financial input, W. O. Bentley was able to design another generation of cars. The Bentley Boys were a group of British motoring enthusiasts that included Woolf Barnato, Sir Henry Tim Birkin, steeple chaser George Duller, aviator Glen Kidston, sammy Davis, and Dr Dudley Benjafield. The Bentley Boys, favored Bentley cars, many were independently wealthy and often had a military background. They kept the reputation for high performance alive, Bentley was noted for its four consecutive victories at the 24 Hours of Le Mans from 1927 to 1930
2.
Automotive design
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Automotive design is the profession involved in the development of the appearance, and to some extent the ergonomics, of motor vehicles or more specifically road vehicles. This most commonly refers to automobiles but also refers to motorcycles, trucks, buses, coaches, the functional design and development of a modern motor vehicle is typically done by a large team from many different disciplines included within automotive engineering. Automotive design in context is primarily concerned with developing the visual appearance or aesthetics of the vehicle. Automotive design is practiced by designers who usually have an art background, the task of the design team is usually split into three main aspects, exterior design, interior design, and color and trim design. Graphic design is also an aspect of design, this is generally shared amongst the design team as the lead designer sees fit. Design focuses not only on the outer shape of automobile parts. The aesthetic value will need to correspond to ergonomic functionality and utility features as well, though not all the new vehicular gadgets are to be designated as factory standard items, some of them may be integral to determining the future course of any specific vehicular models. The stylist responsible for the design of the exterior of the vehicle develops the proportions, shape, Exterior design is first done by a series of digital or manual drawings. Progressively, drawings that are more detailed are executed and approved by appropriate layers of management, Clay and or digital models are developed from, and along with the drawings. The data from these models are used to create a full sized mock-up of the final design. With three- and five-axis CNC milling machines, the model is first designed in a computer program and then carved using the machine. Even in times of high-class 3d software and virtual models on power walls, here the emphasis is on ergonomics and the comfort of the passengers. The procedure here is the same as with exterior design, the color and trim designer is responsible for the research, design, and development of all interior and exterior colors and materials used on a vehicle. These include paints, plastics, fabric designs, leather, grains, carpet, headliner, wood trim, Color, contrast, texture, and pattern must be carefully combined to give the vehicle a unique interior environment experience. Designers work closely with the exterior and interior designers, designers draw inspiration from other design disciplines such as, industrial design, fashion, home furnishing, architecture, and sometimes product design. Specific research is done into global trends to design for two to three model years in the future. Trend boards are created from research in order to keep track of design influences as they relate to the automotive industry. The designer then uses this information to develop themes and concepts that are further refined and tested on the vehicle models
3.
W. O. Bentley
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Walter Owen Bentley, MBE was an English engineer who designed engines for cars and aircraft, raced cars and motorcycles, and founded Bentley Motors Limited in Cricklewood near London. He was known as W. O. without any need to add the word Bentley, Bentley, born in Hampstead, London, was the youngest of his Adelaide-born parents’ nine children. His father was retired businessman Alfred Bentley, and mother was Emily and he later recalled, The sight of one of Patrick Stirlings eight-foot singles could move me profoundly. My longest day, ” he said, “was London to Leeds and back and this was a total days run of 400 miles, entailing a consumption of about seven tons of coal, every pound of it to be shovelled. He completed his apprenticeship in the summer of 1910 but decided that the railways did not offer him enough scope for a satisfying career, in 1909 and 1910 Bentley raced Quadrant, Rex, and Indian motorcycles. He competed in two Isle of Man Tourist Trophy races, on a Rex in 1909 and as a member of Indians factory team in 1910 and he was fascinated by the cabbies ingenuity at fiddling the meters. In 1912 he joined his brother, H. M. Bentley, fitted with the alloy pistons and a modified camshaft, a DFP took several records at Brooklands in 1913 and 1914. As security considerations prevented his broadcasting the information to engine manufacturers and that man, Commander Wilfred Briggs, would be his senior officer throughout the war. Bentley next visited Louis Coatalen at Sunbeam, with the result that the innovation was used in all their aero engines. Bentley also visited Gwynnes, whose Chiswick factory made French Clerget engines under licence, when the Clerget licensees proved unwilling to implement Bentley’s more important suggestions the Navy gave him a team to design his own aero engine at the Humber factory in Coventry. Designated the BR1, Bentley Rotary 1, the engine was different from the Clerget except in the design of the cam mechanism. A prototype was running in the summer of 1916. The bigger BR2 followed in early 1918, in recognition, Bentley was awarded the MBE. After he was invited In 1920 to make a claim, which the Clerget licensees contested unsuccessfully, after the war, in early 1919, W. O. and his brother founded Bentley Motors Limited. They formed a group at small premises in Cricklewood to turn his aero engines business into one of car production, in a group that included Frank Burgess and Harry Varley, they set about designing a high quality sporting tourer for production under the name Bentley Motors. Clive Gallop joined the team as a designer to help develop their 3,000 cubic centimetres straight-4 engine. The 3-litre engine ran for the first time in New Street Mews, Baker Street, a plaque marks the building in what is now Chagford Street NW1. W. O. ’s first complete Bentley 3 Litre car began road tests in January 1920, W. O. ’s motto was To build a good car, a fast car, the best in class.95 mph
4.
Car classification
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Governments and private organizations have developed car classification schemes that are used for innumerable purposes including regulation, description and categorization, among others. This article details commonly used classification schemes in use worldwide, vehicles can be categorized in numerous ways. Regulatory agencies may also establish a vehicle classification system for determining a tax amount, in the United Kingdom, a vehicle is taxed according to the vehicles construction, engine, weight, type of fuel and emissions, as well as the purpose for which it is used. Other jurisdictions may determine vehicle tax based upon environmental principles, such as the user pays principle, another standard for road vehicles of all types that is used internationally, is ISO 3833-1977. In the United States, since 2010 the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety uses a scheme it has developed that takes into account a combination of both shadow and weight. The United States Federal Highway Administration has developed a scheme used for automatically calculating road use tolls. There are two categories depending on whether the vehicle carries passengers or commodities. Vehicles that carry commodities are further subdivided by number of axles and number of units, the United States Environmental Protection Agency has developed a classification scheme used to compare fuel economy among similar vehicles. Passenger vehicles are classified based on a total interior passenger. Trucks are classified based upon their gross vehicle weight rating, heavy duty vehicles are not included within the EPA scheme. A similar set of classes is used by the Canadian EPA, in Australia, the Federal Chamber of Automotive Industries publishes its own classifications. This is a table listing several different methods of vehicle classification. Straddling the boundary between car and motorbike, these vehicles have engines under 1.0 litre, typically only two passengers, and are sometimes unorthodox in construction. Some microcars are three-wheelers, while the majority have four wheels, microcars were popular in post-war Europe, where their appearance led them to be called Bubble cars. More recent microcars are often electric powered, the size of ultracompact cars will be less than minicars, but have engine greater than 50cc displacement and able to transport 1 or 2 persons. Ultracompact cars cannot use standard, because of strict safety standards for minicars. The regulation about running capacity and safety performance of cars will be published in early autumn. Today, there are smaller than ultracompact cars, called category-1 motorized vehicles which it has 50cc displacement or less
5.
Chassis
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A chassis consists of an internal vehicle frame that supports an artificial object in its construction and use, can also provide protection for some internal parts. An example of a chassis is the underpart of a motor vehicle, if the running gear such as wheels and transmission, and sometimes even the drivers seat, are included, then the assembly is described as a rolling chassis. In the case of vehicles, the rolling chassis means the frame plus the running gear like engine, transmission, drive shaft, differential. An under body, which is not necessary for integrity of the structure, is built on the chassis to complete the vehicle. For commercial vehicles, a rolling chassis consists of an assembly of all the parts of a truck to be ready for operation on the road. The design of a car chassis will be different than one for commercial vehicles because of the heavier loads. Commercial vehicle manufacturers sell chassis only, cowl and chassis, as well as chassis cab versions that can be outfitted with specialized bodies and these include motor homes, fire engines, ambulances, box trucks, etc. In particular applications, such as buses, a government agency like National Highway Traffic Safety Administration in the U. S. defines the design standards of chassis. An armoured fighting vehicles hull serves as the chassis and comprises the part of the AFV that includes the tracks, engine, drivers seat. This describes the hull, although common usage might include the upper hull to mean the AFV without the turret. The hull serves as a basis for platforms on tanks, armoured carriers, combat engineering vehicles. In an electronic device, the chassis consists of a frame or other supporting structure on which the circuit boards. In the absence of a frame, the chassis refers to the circuit boards and components themselves. The combination of chassis and outer covering is called an enclosure. Vietnam Studies, Department of the Army, Washington, D. C.1978
6.
Automobile layout
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In automotive design, the automobile layout describes where on the vehicle the engine and drive wheels are found. Many different combinations of engine location and driven wheels are found in practice, factors influencing the design choice include cost, complexity, reliability, packaging, weight distribution, and the vehicles intended handling characteristics. Layouts can roughly be divided into two categories, front- or rear-wheel drive, four-wheel-drive vehicles may take on the characteristics of either, depending on how power is distributed to the wheels. Front-wheel-drive layouts are those in which the front wheels of the vehicle are driven, the most popular layout used in cars today is the front-engine, front-wheel drive, with the engine in front of the front axle, driving the front wheels. As the steered wheels are also the wheels, FF cars are generally considered superior to FR cars in conditions such as snow, mud. The weight of the engine over the wheels also improves grip in such conditions. Electronic traction control can avoid wheelspin but largely negates the benefit of extra torque/power, a transverse engine is commonly used in FF designs, in contrast to FR which uses a longitudinal engine. This is another reason luxury/sports cars avoid the FF layout, exceptions do exist, such as the Volvo S80 which uses transversely mounted inline 6 and V8 engines, and the Ford Taurus SHO, available with a 60° V8 and front-wheel drive. There are some exceptions to this as rear engine designs do not take away interior space and it also has fewer components overall and thus lower weight. However, this may apply for cars with moderate power-to-weight ratio. According to road test with two Dodge Daytonas, one FWD and one RWD, the layout is also important for what configuration is the fastest. Weight shifting limits the acceleration of a front-wheel-drive vehicle, however, since front-wheel-drive cars have the weight of the engine over the driving wheels, the problem only applies in extreme conditions in which case the car understeers. On snow, ice, and sand, rear-wheel drive loses its traction advantage to front or all-wheel-drive vehicles which have greater weight over the driven wheels. Rear-wheel-drive cars with engine or mid engine configuration retain traction over the driven wheels. A rear-wheel-drive cars centre of gravity is shifted rearward when heavily loaded with passengers or cargo, on front-wheel-drive cars, the short driveshaft may reduce drivetrain elasticity, improving responsiveness. Instead, the tunnel may be used to route the exhaust system pipes. Weight, Fewer components usually means lower weight, improved fuel efficiency due to less weight. Cost, Fewer material components and less installation complexity overall, however, the considerable MSRP differential between a FF and FR car cannot be attributed to layout alone. Few modern family cars have rear-wheel drive as of 2009, so a direct cost comparison is not necessarily possible, assembly efficiency, the powertrain can often be assembled and installed as a unit, which allows more efficient production
7.
Front-engine, rear-wheel-drive layout
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In automotive design, an FR, or front-engine, rear-wheel-drive layout is one where the engine is located at the front of the vehicle and driven wheels are located at the rear. This was the automobile layout for most of the 20th century. Modern designs commonly use the front-engine, front-wheel-drive layout, the first FR car was an 1895 Panhard model, so this layout was known as the Système Panhard in the early years. The layout has the advantage of minimizing mechanical complexity, as it allows the transmission to be placed in-line with the output shaft. In comparison, a vehicle with the engine over the driven wheels eliminates the need for the drive shaft, in order to reduce the relative weight of the drive shaft, the transmission was normally split into two parts, the gearbox and the final drive. The gearbox was produced with its highest gear being 1,1. The final drive, in the axle, would then reduce this to the most appropriate speed for the wheels. As power is the product of torque and angular velocity, spinning the shaft faster for any given power reduces the torque, in an era when gasoline was cheap and cars were heavy, the mechanical advantages of the FR drivetrain layout made up for any disadvantage in weight terms. It remained almost universal among car designs until the 1970s, after the Arab oil embargo of 1973 and the 1979 fuel crises, a majority of American FR vehicles were phased out for the FF layout – this trend would spawn the SUV-van conversion market. Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, most American companies set as a priority the eventual removal of rear-wheel drive from their mainstream, chrysler went 100% FF by 1990 and GMs American production went entirely FF by 1997 except the Corvette, Firebird and Camaro. This configuration is referred to as a transaxle since the transmission. In Europe, front-wheel drive was popularized by small cars like the Mini, Renault 5 and Volkswagen Golf, upscale marques like Mercedes-Benz, BMW, and Jaguar remained mostly independent of this trend, and retained a lineup mostly or entirely made up of FR cars. Japanese mainstream marques such as Toyota were almost exclusively FR until the late 1970s, toyotas first FF vehicle was the Toyota Tercel, with the Corolla and Celica later becoming FF while the Camry was designed as an FF from the beginning. The Supra, Cressida, Crown, and Century remained FR, luxury division Lexus has a mostly FR lineup. Subarus BRZ is an FR car, currently most cars are FF, including all front-engined economy cars, though FR cars are making a return as an alternative to large sport-utility vehicles. In North America, GM returned to production of FR-based luxury vehicles with the 2003 Cadillac CTS, as of 2012, all but the SRX and XTS are FR-based vehicles. Chevrolet reintroduced the FR-based Camaro in 2009, and the Caprice PPV in 2011, Pontiac also had a short run with the FR-based G8 and Pontiac Solstice. A Chevrolet replacement for the G8 called the Chevrolet SS was released in 2013, chrysler and Dodge reintroduced the 300 and Charger on a FR platform
8.
Engine
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An engine or motor is a machine designed to convert one form of energy into mechanical energy. Heat engines burn a fuel to heat, which is then used to create a force. Electric motors convert electrical energy into motion, pneumatic motors use compressed air. In biological systems, molecular motors, like myosins in muscles, use energy to create forces. The word engine derives from Old French engin, from the Latin ingenium–the root of the word ingenious. Pre-industrial weapons of war, such as catapults, trebuchets and battering rams, were called siege engines, the word gin, as in cotton gin, is short for engine. Most mechanical devices invented during the revolution were described as engines—the steam engine being a notable example. However, the steam engines, such as those by Thomas Savery, were not mechanical engines. In this manner, an engine in its original form was merely a water pump. Devices converting heat energy into motion are commonly referred to simply as engines, examples of engines which exert a torque include the familiar automobile gasoline and diesel engines, as well as turboshafts. Examples of engines which produce thrust include turbofans and rockets, the term motor derives from the Latin verb moto which means to set in motion, or maintain motion. Thus a motor is a device that imparts motion, motor and engine later came to be used largely interchangeably in casual discourse. However, technically, the two words have different meanings, however, rocketry uses the term rocket motor, even though they consume fuel. A heat engine may also serve as a prime mover—a component that transforms the flow or changes in pressure of a fluid into mechanical energy. An automobile powered by a combustion engine may make use of various motors and pumps. Another way of looking at it is that a motor receives power from an external source, simple machines, such as the club and oar, are prehistoric. More complex engines using human power, animal power, water power, wind power and these were used in cranes and aboard ships in Ancient Greece, as well as in mines, water pumps and siege engines in Ancient Rome. The writers of those times, including Vitruvius, Frontinus and Pliny the Elder, treat these engines as commonplace, by the 1st century AD, cattle and horses were used in mills, driving machines similar to those powered by humans in earlier times
9.
Straight-six engine
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The straight-six engine or inline-six engine is an internal combustion engine with the cylinders mounted in a straight line along the crankcase with all the pistons driving a common crankshaft. The bank of cylinders may be oriented at any angle, and where the bank is inclined to the vertical, the straight-six layout is the simplest engine layout that possesses both primary and secondary mechanical engine balance, resulting in much less vibration than engines with fewer cylinders. In automobiles, the design is used for engine displacements ranging from approximately 2 to 5 litres. It is also used for smaller engines but these, although very smooth running. Since the length of an engine is proportional to the number of cylinders in one bank. Pre-World War II engines could be large by modern standards — such as the Rolls Royce Silver Ghosts 7.4 L engine and the 824 cu in of the 1910s Peerless, Pierce. They were used in a variety of including the de Havilland Dragon Rapide. The largest are used to ships, and use fuel oil. The straight-six can also be viewed as a modular component of larger motors which stack several straight-sixes together, e. g. flat- or V-12s, W-18s. Straight-six engines were introduced earlier than V6 engines. While the first straight-six was manufactured in 1903 by Spyker, it was not until 1950 that a production V6 was introduced, V6s had intrinsic vibration problems not present in the straight-six. The poor secondary harmonic balance of four-cylinder engines is largely addressed with the use of balance shafts although it can never match the in-line six, TVR used a straight-six configuration exclusively in their final cars before their demise. In a reversal of trends, Mercedes-Benz announced a return to inline-6 engines in October 2016. This was a part of a trend toward higher efficiency engines with fewer cylinders, manufacturers began to replace V8 engines with straight-6 engines and V6 engines with straight-4 engines, while V8 engines became smaller. Straight-sixes continue to be used in medium to large trucks, Ford is one notable exception using a V8 in medium duty trucks. GM pickup trucks abandoned the straight-six in 1984 for the 4.3 V6, in 2002, General Motors introduced the Vortec 4200 as part of the modular straight-four, straight-five and straight-six GM Atlas engine line. It was used in their sport utility vehicles. Jeep abandoned the straight-six in 2006 with the 2006 Jeep Wrangler being the last vehicle, Ram Trucks continues to offer straight-six engines in its heavy duty pickup truck and chassis cab models, although only V6 and V8 engines are available in the smaller versions
10.
Wheelbase
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In both road and rail vehicles, the wheelbase is the distance between the centers of the front and rear wheels. For road vehicles with more than two axles, the wheelbase is defined as the distance between the axle and the centerpoint of the driving axle group. In the case of a truck, the wheelbase would be the distance between the steering axle and a point midway between the two rear axles. The wheelbase of a vehicle equals the distance between its front and rear wheels, at equilibrium, the total torque of the forces acting on a vehicle is zero. So, for example, when a truck is loaded, its center of gravity shifts rearward, the amount the vehicle sinks will depend on counter acting forces like the size of the tires, tire pressure, and the stiffness of the suspension. If the vehicle is accelerating or decelerating, extra torque is placed on the rear or front tire respectively, so, as is common experience, when the vehicle accelerates, the rear usually sinks and the front rises depending on the suspension. Likewise, when braking the front noses down and the rear rises, because of the effect the wheelbase has on the weight distribution of the vehicle, wheelbase dimensions are crucial to the balance and steering. For example, a car with a greater weight load on the rear tends to understeer due to the lack of the load on the front tires. This is why it is crucial, when towing a single-axle caravan, likewise, a car may oversteer or even spin out if there is too much force on the front tires and not enough on the rear tires. Also, when turning there is lateral torque placed upon the tires which imparts a turning force that depends upon the length of the distances from the CM. Wheelbases provide the basis for one of the most common vehicle size class systems, some luxury vehicles are offered with long-wheelbase variants to increase the spaciousness and therefore the luxury of the vehicle. Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Tony Blair was given a version of the Rover 75 for official use. In contrast, coupé varieties of vehicles such as the Honda Accord are usually built on shorter wheelbases than the sedans they are derived from. The wheelbase on many commercially available bicycles and motorcycles is so short, relative to the height of their centers of mass, in skateboarding the word wheelbase is used for the distance between the two inner pairs of mounting holes on the deck. This is different from the distance between the centers of the two wheel pairs. A reason for this use is that decks are sold with prefabricated holes. It is therefore easier to use the holes for measuring and describing this characteristic of the deck. A common misconception is that the choice of wheelbase is influenced by the height of the skateboarder, however, the length of the deck would then be a better candidate, because the wheelbase affects characteristics useful in different speeds or terrains regardless of the height of the skateboarder
11.
Bentley 8 Litre
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The Bentley 8 Litre was a luxury car based on the largest rolling chassis made by Bentley Motors Limited at Cricklewood, London. Intended to provide the basis for a car for very wealthy buyers. Sales of the 8-litre were too slow to turn the finances around and, less than nine months after the 8-litres introduction. The straight-six engine used an iron block and non-detachable cylinder head with a crankcase made from Elektron. The engine had a bore of 110 mm and a stroke of 140 mm, both engine and gearbox were mounted each at three points on rubber to isolate the chassis and body from vibration. The chassis was a frame with large tubular steel cross-members downswept from the front. Neither engine nor gearbox contributed to the bracing of the chassis, steering was by worm and sector and castor action could be adjusted to suit individual taste. There was centralised chassis lubrication including the springs but not for the front axle or the clutch withdrawal system. The 8-Litre chassis was available with either a 144-inch wheelbase or a longer 156-inch wheelbase, three were built with a 138-inch wheelbase. The manufacturer claimed a maximum speed of approximately 125 mph, a speed in excess of 105 mph was guaranteed by the manufacturer. As a result of the worldwide Great Depression, the 8 Litre did not sell enough to improve Bentleys financial situation. The chassis was priced at £1,850, roughly equivalent to £293,000 in 2010, only 100 of these cars were made, of which 35 were on the shorter wheelbase and 65 were on the longer wheelbase. Fewer than 25 were fitted with open bodies and it is suggested that the cost of the development of the car was a prime reason for Bentley Motors going bankrupt. Bentley made one attempt at financial recovery by installing modified Ricardo 4-litre engines in a shortened 8-Litre chassis. Announced on 15 May 1931, only 50 were made before Bentley Motors Ltd. was placed into receivership, when Rolls-Royce bought Bentley Motors from the receiver in November 1931, it discontinued production of the 8-Litre and disposed of all spare parts for it. 78 Bentley 8 Litre cars were known to survive as at mid-2011, many of these have had their original limousine or saloon bodies replaced by new replica tourer bodies. As a result, Bentley 8 Litres with original bodies are much sought after by collectors. The only Bentley 8 Litre with an American body, which was also the first Bentley with a body, was built by the W. M. Murphy Company of Pasadena for a customer in Santa Barbara
12.
Blue Train Races
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The Blue Train Races were a series of record-breaking attempts between automobiles and trains in the late 1920s and early 1930s. It saw a number of motorists and their own or sponsored automobiles race against the Le Train Bleu, a train that ran between Calais and the French Riviera. It was colloquially referred to as le train bleu in French and the Blue Train in English because of its dark blue sleeping cars, and became formally known as Le Train Bleu after World War II. It was created by a private French railroad company, the Chemins de fer de Paris à Lyon et à la Méditerranée, or PLM, to take British aristocrats, celebrities and it made its first journey on December 8,1922. The prime season for le train bleu was between November and April, when wealthy travellers escaped the British winter to spend their holiday on the French Riviera and it originated at the Gare Maritime in Calais, where it picked up British passengers from the ferries across the English Channel. It departed at 1,00 in the afternoon and went to the Gare du Nord in Paris, then around Paris by the Grande Ceinture line to the Gare de Lyon, where it picked up additional passengers and coaches. It departed Paris early in the evening, and made stops at Dijon, Chalon, in January 1930, the Rover name was publicised by a race between a Rover and Le train bleu on the trains 750-mile run between Calais and Cannes. The idea of racing the Blue Train was popular with motor enthusiasts, many had already failed this challenge. Noble knew that the speed of the Blue Train, once all its stops and detours were taken into account, In early March 1930. Eugster raced an Alvis Silver Eagle against the Blue Train and beat it to Calais by three hours. Woolf Barnato, chairman of Bentley and winner of the 24 Hours of Le Mans in 1928 and 1929, contended that just to go faster than the Blue Train was of no special merit. He raised the stakes by arguing that at the wheel of his Bentley Speed Six, he could be at his club in London before the train reached Calais, from Lyon onwards they had to battle against heavy rain. At 4, 20h, in Auxerre, they lost time searching for a refueling rendezvous, through central France they hit fog, then shortly after Paris they had a burst tyre, requiring the use of their only spare. The French authorities promptly fined him a sum far greater than his winnings for racing on public roads, Barnato drove an H. J. Mulliner-bodied Bentley Speed Six formal saloon during the race, which became known as the Blue Train Bentley. Two months later, on 21 May 1930, he took delivery of a new Bentley Speed Six streamlined fastback Sportsman Coupe by Gurney Nutting, Barnato named it the Blue Train Special in memory of his race, and it too became commonly referred to as the Blue Train Bentley. The H. J. Mulliner-bodywork was stripped off the cars chassis to make place for a bespoke replacement. As time passed, the Gurney Nutting-bodied car was regularly mistaken for or erroneously referred to as being the car that had raced the Blue Train. This was reiterated in articles and in Terence Cuneos painting of the race, in 2005 Bentley featured the coupé in the companys promotional material celebrating the races 75th anniversary
13.
Woolf Barnato
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Joel Woolf Barnato was a British financier and racing driver, one of the Bentley Boys of the 1920s. He achieved three wins out of three entries in the 24 Hours of Le Mans race. The youngest son of Fanny Bees and Barney Barnato, who had made a fortune as a Randlord in South African diamond and gold mining, born at Spencer House,27 St Jamess Place, London, he had a sister Leah Primrose and brother Isaac Jack Henry. The family divided their time between London, Brighton, Colwyn Bay and South Africa, in 1897, when Woolf two years old, his father died near Madeira during a sea crossing from South Africa to London. Woolf hence inherited his fathers fortune at the time, but with the placed in trust, he only inherited his first instalment of £250,000. In addition, Woolf also benefited from an inheritance after the murder of Woolf Barnato Joel in Johannesburg in 1898. Barnato was educated at Charterhouse School and Trinity College, Cambridge, Barnatos attitude to a new sport that took his interests, was to immerse himself in the learning process, practising endlessly and taking lessons only from the very best instructors he could find. His desire to excel at whatever he attempted was considerable and he collected prizes for motor boat racing, using his Bentley-powered boat Ardenrun V, a good amateur boxer and a keen shot. He bred horses whilst at his house Ardenrun, and hunted with the Old Surrey, a strong swimmer, he played tennis to country house level. He also took lessons at Coombe Hill Golf Club, Kingston, Surrey, with the club professional Archie Compston, Barnato served as an officer in the Royal Field Artillery, British Army in World War I. Serving in France, Egypt and Palestine, he attained the rank of Captain in the stages of the war. Having claimed a share of the profits from 1897 to 1916. After a long dispute in South Africa, Woolf settled for £900,000 plus £50,000 in costs. He then sued his family for the £50,000, as well as £23,883 for disbursements, following settlement of the case, Barnato played first-class cricket, appearing as wicket-keeper with Surrey County Cricket Club from 1928 to 1930. Barnato acquired his first Bentley in 1925, just 12 months before he acquired the business itself. With this car he won numerous Brooklands races and he was a member of a social set of wealthy British motorists known as the Bentley Boys who favoured the cars of W. O. Bentley. Many were independently wealthy, often with a background in military service, Barnato was nicknamed Babe, in ironic deference to his heavyweight boxers build. Inspired by the 1924 Le Mans win by John Duff and Frank Clement, Barnato had incorporated Baromans Ltd in 1922, which effectively existed as his finance and investment vehicle
14.
Rolling chassis
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A rolling chassis is the chassis of a car or truck, assembled together with the engine and drivetrain, but without bodywork. Such rolling chassis were built by car makers, for supply to coachbuilders who would build the bodywork. Although common in the days of motoring, such rolling chassis are now rare. A few custom markets, such as limousines, may use them. In some cases, a rolling chassis had a fuel tank and drivers seat attached. In restoration circles, the term is applied to a bodyshell with suspension fitted. Glider, a rolling chassis without powertrain
15.
Bentley 3 Litre
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The Bentley 3 Litre was a car chassis manufactured by Bentley. The companys first it was developed from 1919 and made available to customers coachbuilders from 1921 to 1929, the Bentley was very much larger than the 1368 cc Bugattis that dominated racing at the time, but double the size of engine and strength compensated for the extra weight. Its weight, size, and speed prompted Ettore Bugatti to call it the fastest lorry in the world, the 3 Litre was delivered as a running chassis to the coachbuilder of the buyers choice. Bentley referred many customers to their near neighbour Vanden Plas for bodies, dealers might order a short cost-saving run of identical bodies to their own distinctive design. Most bodies took the simplest and cheapest form, tourers, customers included Prince George, Duke of Kent, Gertrude Lawrence, and Beatrice Lillie. The 3.0 L straight-4 engine was designed by ex-Royal Flying Corps engineer Clive Gallop and was very advanced for its time. It was one of the first production car engines with 4 valves per cylinder, dry-sump lubrication, the four valve SOHC Hemi design, with a bevel-geared shaft drive for the camshaft, was based on the pre-war 1914 Mercedes Daimler M93654 racing engine. Just before the outbreak of the war Mercedes had placed one of the winning Grand Prix cars in their London showroom in Long Acre. Bentley, then being commissioned in the Royal Naval Air Service, a notable difference to both the Mercedes and the aero engines was the cast-iron monobloc design, and the fully Aluminium enclosed camshaft, which greatly contributed to its durability. But having the valve-head and block in one-piece made for a complicated and this was a feature shared during that time by the Bugattis which the car was later to compete with. The engine was also among the first with two spark plugs per cylinder, pent-roof combustion chambers, and twin carburetters. It was extremely undersquare, optimized for low-end torque, with a bore of 80 mm, the Speed Model could reach 90 mph, the Super Sports could exceed 100 mph. The chassis from a Humber was designed by Frederick Tasker Burgess previously chief designer at Humber who had worked with W. O. during the war producing the aero engines BR1 and BR2. It should be noted that Bentley did not deliver complete vehicles, only the rear wheels had brakes until 1924, when four-wheel brakes were introduced. There were three variants of the 3 litre and they became known by the colours commonly used on the radiator badge. There was a definite rule controlling badge colours but astonishingly it has since established that given special circumstances the factory would indeed supply a wrong colour. This was the model with 117.5 in wheelbase from 1921 to 1929 or long 130.0 in wheelbase from 1923 to 1929. This used a 5.3,1 high compression engine in the 117.5 in wheelbase chassis and was made from 1924 to 1929
16.
Sports car
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A sports car is a small, usually two seater, two door automobile designed for spirited performance and nimble handling. According to the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the first known use of the term was in 1928, Sports cars may be spartan or luxurious, but high maneuverability and minimum weight are requisite. The basis for the car is traced to the early 20th century touring cars and roadsters. These raced in rallies, such as the Herkomer Cup, Prinz-Heinrich-Fahrt. These would shortly be joined by the French DFP and the Rolls-Royce Silver Ghost. In 1921, Ballot premiered its 2LS, with a remarkable 75 hp DOHC two liter, designed by Ernest Henry, capable of 150 km/h, at most, one hundred were built in four years and this was followed by the SOHC 2LT and 2LTS. The same year, Benz built a supercharged 28/95PS four for the Coppa Florio, duerkopps Zoller-blown two liter in 1924, as well. There was a clear cleavage by 1925, by the end of the 1920s, AC produced a 2-liter six, the 3. Benz introduced the powerful SS and SSK, and Alfa Romeo, hispano-Suizas Alfonso XIII is considered the first sportcar developed between 1911 and 1914. Two companies would offer really reliable sports cars, Austin with the Seven, the drive train and engine layout significantly influences the handling characteristics of an automobile, and is crucially important in the design of a sports car. The front-engine, rear-wheel-drive layout is common to cars of any era and has survived longer in sports cars than in mainstream automobiles. Examples include the Caterham 7, Mazda MX-5, and the Chevrolet Corvette, more specifically, many such sports cars have a FMR layout, with the centre of mass of the engine between the front axle and the firewall. In search of improved handling and weight distribution, other layouts are sometimes used, the RMR layout is commonly found only in sports cars—the motor is centre-mounted in the chassis, and powers only the rear wheels. Some high-performance sports car manufacturers, such as Ferrari and Lamborghini have preferred this layout, Porsche is one of the few remaining manufacturers using the rear-engine, rear-wheel-drive layout. The motors distributed weight across the wheels, in a Porsche 911, provides excellent traction, Porsche has continuously refined the design and in recent years added electronic driving aids to counteract these inherent design shortcomings. The front-engine, front-wheel-drive layout layout which is the most common in sport compacts and hot hatches, however, its conservative handling effect, particularly understeer, and the fact that many drivers believe rear wheel drive is a more desirable layout for a sports car count against it. The Fiat Barchetta, Saab Sonett, and Berkeley cars are cars with this layout. Before the 1980s few sports cars used four-wheel drive, which had added a lot of weight
17.
Development mule
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A development mule in the automotive industry is a testbed vehicle equipped with prototype components requiring evaluation. They are often camouflaged to deceive competitors and thwart a curious automotive press, mules are necessary because automakers must assess new aspects of vehicles for both strengths and weaknesses before production. Mules are drivable, often pre-production, vehicles, sometimes away from realization. If no comparable vehicle is available in-house or an external benchmark is being used mules may be based on another manufacturers model, development mules are often used very heavily during testing and scrapped. Occasionally they are acquired by members of the engineering team or executives overseeing the design process. Automotive design Pre-production car Vehicle glider
18.
Inline-four engine
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The inline-four engine or straight-four engine is a type of inline internal combustion four-cylinder engine with all four cylinders mounted in a straight line, or plane along the crankcase. The single bank of cylinders may be oriented in either a vertical or a plane with all the pistons driving a common crankshaft. Where it is inclined, it is called a slant-four. In a specification chart or when an abbreviation is used, an engine is listed either as I4 or L4. The inline-four layout is in primary balance and confers a degree of mechanical simplicity which makes it popular for economy cars. However, despite its simplicity, it suffers from an imbalance which causes minor vibrations in smaller engines. These vibrations become more powerful as engine size and power increase, the inline-four is the most common engine configuration in modern cars, while the V6 engine is the second most popular. This inline engine configuration is the most common in cars with a displacement up to 3.0 L, in practice, the displacement of inline-four petrol engines in cars rarely exceeds this figure. For example, the largest engine of this form on the U. S. market in model year 2015 is the Toyota 2TR-FE, however, there are some notable exceptions. Early vehicles also tended to have engines with larger displacements to develop horsepower, the Model A Ford was built with a 3.3 L inline-four engine. Inline-four diesel engines, which are lower revving than gasoline engines, Mitsubishi still employs a 3.0 L inline-four diesel. Generally, European and Asian manufacturers of trucks with a vehicle weight rating between 7.5 and 18 tonnes use inline four-cylinder diesel engines with displacements around 5 L. The MAN D0834 engine is a 4.6 L inline-4 with 220 hp and 627 lb·ft, the Isuzu Forward is a medium-duty truck which is available with a 5.2 L inline-four engine that delivers 210 hp and 470 lb·ft. The Hino Ranger is a medium-duty truck which is available with a 5.1 L inline-four engine that delivers 175 hp and 465 lb·ft, the earlier Hino Ranger even had a 5.3 L inline-four engine. The Kubota M135X is a tractor with a 6.1 L inline-four and this turbo-diesel engine has a bore of 118 mm and a relatively long stroke of 140 mm. One of the strongest Powerboat-4-cylinders is the Volvo Penta D4-300 turbodiesel and this is a 3.7 L-inline-4 with 300 hp and 516 lb·ft. Brunswick Marine built a 127 kW3.7 L 4-cylinder gasoline engine for their Mercruiser Inboard/outboard line, the block was formed from one half of a Ford 460 cubic inch V8 engine. This engine was produced in the 1970s and 1980s, One of the largest inline-four engines is the MAN B&W 4K90 marine engine
19.
Weymann Fabric Bodies
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Weymann Fabric Bodies is a patented design system for fuselages for aircraft and superlight coachwork for motor vehicles. The system used a wood frame covered in fabric. It was popular on cars from the 1920s until the early 1930s as it reduced the usual squeaks, Fabric provided a matt surface and the framework sharp corners. Introduced to the market in 1921, Weymanns bodies fell out of popularity within a decade, the Weymann system comprises an ultra-light wood framework with special metal joints so that timber does not touch timber. Small metal panels are inserted between the fabric and the framework to make rounded external corners, straining wires are fitted to hold the doors in shape when they are stressed by acceleration or bumps. Any exposed joints in the fabric are covered with aluminium mouldings, the seats are fixed directly to the chassis. Passengers were therefore in almost direct contact with the firmly mounted engine, where the market permitted some isolation was provided by luxuriously sprung passenger-seating often topped with inflated pneumatic cushions. An early portrait may be seen in the archives of FLIGHT magazine, daimler had always built their own bodies though as usual in that period to suit customers they provided a large number of chassis to external coach builders. Seats were Dryad basket-chairs of wicker button-quilted in Bedford cord, daimler chose to name its Weymann bodies Construction Z. The licensing company which provided customers with permits to make Weymann fabric bodies for fitting to chassis was based in Paris, Weymann claimed 123 licensees of his patents and that he received payment for around 70,000 bodies. Licensed manufacturers included, Weymann Motor Bodies limited, founded in England in 1922 with the first licences issued in 1923 to, amongst others, the Rover Company. In 1925 a move was made into actual body production as well as licensing, the enterprise was a success and a move was made to larger premises at what had been the Blériot aircraft factory, Addlestone near Weybridge, Surrey, England. By 1930 the company had turned its attention to bus body construction, Weymann American Body Company of Indianapolis, USA Carrozzeria Touring, Milan Lombardy Italy and its own development, Superleggera. The Weymann Story, Part One - 1923-1945, coachbuilt Weymann American Voisin C7 under restoration
20.
Touring car
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A touring car is an open car seating four or more. A popular car body style in the twentieth century, it declined in popularity in the 1920s when closed bodies became less expensive. A tourer, in Britain and the Commonwealth, is a vehicle, however. The term all-weather tourer was used to describe open vehicles that could be fully enclosed, a popular version of the touring car style was the torpedo, with the hood/bonnet line at the cars waistline giving the car a straight line from front to back. This eventually became the version of the touring car. In 1916, the US-based Society of Automobile Engineers defined a touring car as, the term has also been defined as an open car seating five or more. Touring cars may have two or four doors, engines on early models were either in the front, or in a mid-body position. When the top was folded down, it formed a bulky mass known as the fan behind the seat, fan covers were made to protect the top. The touring car style was popular in the early 20th century, being an alternative to the runabout. Most of Model Ts produced by Ford between 1908 and 1927 were four and then three-door models touring cars, accounting for 6,519,643 cars sold out of the 15,000,000 estimated Model Ts built. The popularity of the car began to wane in the 1920s when cars with enclosed passenger compartments became more affordable. In Australia tourers may have two or four doors, the belt lines of tourers were often lowered in the front doors to give the car a more sporting character. And would then be named sports tourers, the torpedo body style was a type of touring body used from the early twentieth century until the mid-1920s. A torpedos hood line was level with the waistline, giving a straight line from front to back. The torpedo style became the style of touring car and the name fell into disuse around 1920
21.
Freestone and Webb
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Freestone and Webb were English coachbuilders who made bodies for Rolls-Royce and Bentley motor cars but also built bodies on other chassis including Alfa Romeo, Packard, and Mercedes-Benz. The business was founded in 1923 by V. E, Freestone and A. J. Webb as a specialist coachbuilding service in workshops in Brentfield Road, Stonebridge Park, Willesden, North London, where it remained for its entire life. Freestone had learnt his trade working at Crossley Motors, Webb had returned to England having trained in France, while working on bespoke Rolls-Royce and Bentley cars they developed the style known as Top hat, and popularised the Razor Edge style. Delivering up to 15 cars per annum they showed their cars at the London Motor Show, converted to aircraft components like many coachbuilders during the Second World War they made highly detailed and intricate wing tips for the Supermarine Spitfire. After the Second World War Rolls-Royce offered a complete steel-bodied car, in the postwar austerity orders to Freestone and Webb tumbled and they began to suffer financial difficulties. In May 1957 Freestone & Webb Limited was taken over by the Swain Group and this was the same year as the introduction of the Bentley S1/Rolls-Royce Silver Cloud both of which continued to be available as a chassis-only option until 1965. Freestone & Webb continued to refurbish and build bodies until 1958 when it became a pure showroom brand. After Swain decided to divest itself of its coach building arm and focus just on motor retail Freestone & Webb was sold to the new owners of fellow coachbuilders Harold Radford in 1963
22.
Lyon
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Lyon or Lyons is a city in east-central France, in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region, about 470 km from Paris and 320 km from Marseille. Inhabitants of the city are called Lyonnais, Lyon had a population of 506,615 in 2014 and is Frances third-largest city after Paris and Marseille. Lyon is the capital of the Metropolis of Lyon and the region of Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes, the metropolitan area of Lyon had a population of 2,237,676 in 2013, the second-largest in France after Paris. The city is known for its cuisine and gastronomy and historical and architectural landmarks and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, Lyon was historically an important area for the production and weaving of silk. It played a significant role in the history of cinema, Auguste, the city is also known for its famous light festival, Fête des Lumières, which occurs every 8 December and lasts for four days, earning Lyon the title of Capital of Lights. Economically, Lyon is a centre for banking, as well as for the chemical, pharmaceutical. The city contains a significant software industry with a focus on video games. Lyon hosts the headquarters of Interpol, Euronews, and International Agency for Research on Cancer. Lyon was ranked 19th globally and second in France for innovation in 2014 and it ranked second in France and 39th globally in Mercers 2015 liveability rankings. These refugees had been expelled from Vienne by the Allobroges and were now encamped at the confluence of the Saône and Rhône rivers, dio Cassius says this task was to keep the two men from joining Mark Antony and bringing their armies into the developing conflict. The Roman foundation was at Fourvière hill and was officially called Colonia Copia Felix Munatia, a name invoking prosperity, the city became increasingly referred to as Lugdunum. The earliest translation of this Gaulish place-name as Desired Mountain is offered by the 9th-century Endlicher Glossary, in contrast, some modern scholars have proposed a Gaulish hill-fort named Lugdunon, after the Celtic god Lugus, and dúnon. It then became the capital of Gaul, partly due to its convenient location at the convergence of two rivers, and quickly became the main city of Gaul. Two emperors were born in city, Claudius, whose speech is preserved in the Lyon Tablet in which he justifies the nomination of Gallic senators. Today, the archbishop of Lyon is still referred to as Primat des Gaules, the Christians in Lyon were martyred for their beliefs under the reigns of various Roman emperors, most notably Marcus Aurelius and Septimus Severus. Local saints from this period include Blandina, Pothinus, and Epipodius, in the second century AD, the great Christian bishop of Lyon was the Easterner, Irenaeus. Burgundian refugees fleeing the destruction of Worms by the Huns in 437 were re-settled by the commander of the west, Aëtius. This became the capital of the new Burgundian kingdom in 461, in 843, by the Treaty of Verdun, Lyon, with the country beyond the Saône, went to Lothair I
23.
Dieppe
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Dieppe is a coastal community in the Arrondissement of Dieppe in the Seine-Maritime department in the Normandy region of northern France. The population stood at 34,670 in 2006, the mouth of the Scie river lies in the Canton of Dieppe-Ouest at Hautot-sur-Mer. The inhabitants of the town of Dieppe are called Dieppois and Dieppoise in French, Dieppe belongs to the Pays de Caux, lying along the Alabaster Coast in the region of Normandy. It is located on the Channel coast, north of Rouen at the mouth of the Arques river, mentioned as Deppae in 1015–1029, Dieppa in 1030, then in the 12th century, Deppa, Deupa and Diopa. From Dutch diep > deep, or Old English deop or Old Norse djupr, the same adjective can be recognized in other place-names like Dieppedalle and Dipdal in Normandy, which is the same as Deepdale in Great Britain. The stream running through Dieppe was called Tella in Merovingian and Carolingian documents, the name has stuck to the town, although the name of the stream changed again, to Béthune. First recorded as a fishing settlement in 1030, Dieppe was an important prize fought over during the Hundred Years War. Dieppe housed the most advanced French school of cartography in the 16th century, the expedition resulted in the construction of Fort Caroline, the first French colony in the New World. Another expedition two years before where Goulaine de Laudonnière was under command of Jean Ribault, a local Huguenot captain, had resulted in the foundation of Charlesfort, Dieppe was the premier port of the kingdom in the 17th century. On July 23,1632,300 colonists heading to New France departed from Dieppe, at the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685, Dieppe lost 3,000 of its Huguenot citizens, who fled abroad. Dieppe was an important target in wartime, the town was destroyed by an Anglo-Dutch naval bombardment in 1694. It was rebuilt after 1696 in a typical French classical style by Ventabren, an architect and it was popularised as a seaside resort following the 1824 visit of the widowed Duchess of Berry, daughter-in-law of Charles X. She encouraged the building of the recently renovated municipal theatre, the Petit-Théâtre, during the later 19th century, Dieppe became popular with English artists as a beach resort. Prominent literary figures such as Arthur Symons loved to keep up with the latest fads of avant-garde France here, Dieppe was occupied by German naval and army forces after the fall of France in 1940. In order to allow a better defence of the coast against a possible Allied landing, the destruction of the casino had only begun at the time of the Dieppe Raid. The Dieppe Raid in the Second World War was a battle for the Allies. The Allies suffered more than 1,400 deaths,1,946 Canadian soldiers were captured—more prisoners than the army lost in the 11 months of the 1944–45 NW Europe campaign. However, no major objectives on the ground were achieved, in the air, the port remained garrisoned by German forces until the conclusion of the Battle of Normandy
24.
Three-way junction
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A 3-way junction is a type of road intersection with three arms. A Y junction generally has 3 arms of equal size, a T junction also has 3 arms, but one of the arms is generally a minor road connecting to larger road. Some T junctions are controlled by lights, but others rely upon drivers to obey right-of-way rules. In Taiwan, when at least two vehicles reach a T intersection without a traffic light, the vehicle on the side road is to yield to any other vehicle straight on the main road. If two vehicles want to turn left, the vehicle on the left is to yield, when one road at a 3-way junction has a higher traffic volume than the other, turns are characterized as right-in, right-out, left-in and left-out. A turn in represents a turn from the road into the minor road. A turn out represents a turn out of the road onto the major road. A 3-way junction allowing all four of these turns is characterized as full-movement and these terms also apply to turns between roads and driveways. An experiment was done in Illinois, United States to allow going straight on red when approaching a T junction on the main road, with the intersecting road on the left
25.
Rolls-Royce Limited
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This article covers from 1904 to 1987 when this business by then owned by Rolls-Royce plc was again listed on the Stock Exchange. For the present day owners of the business enterprise, see Rolls-Royce Holdings for aero-engines etc. Rolls-Royce Limited owned a British luxury-car and aero engine manufacturing business founded in 1904 by Charles Stewart Rolls, Rolls-Royce Limited was incorporated on 15 March 1906 as a vehicle for their ownership of their Rolls-Royce business. Their business quickly developed a reputation for superior engineering quality, best car in the world, Rolls-Royce became a leading manufacturer of piston aero-engines after it was brought into building them by the First World War. In the late 1960s, Rolls-Royce Limited became hopelessly crippled by its mismanagement of development of its advanced RB211 jet engine and the consequent cost over-runs. In 1971 their financial collapse was dealt with by sale, at a price which took years to negotiate, of the entire business to a new government-owned company. Insolvent Rolls-Royce Limited was put into liquidation, everything that could be sold off was sold off but more than 45 years later there are still assets remaining to be sold. Rolls-Royce Limited continued to trade and realise the surplus assets bought from the former company, in 1977 Rolls-Royce Limited, given the necessary consent, was re-named Rolls-Royce Limited. It remained nationalised until 1987 when, re-named Rolls-Royce plc, the government sold its shares to the public, today it owns and operates Rolls-Royces principal business though it is no longer listed on the stock exchange. Instead it has been a subsidiary of a holding company currently Rolls-Royce Holdings plc since 2003. A marketing survey in 1987 showed there was one brand name more widely known than Rolls-Royce. In 1884 Henry Royce started an electrical and mechanical business and he made his first car, a two-cylinder Royce 10, in his Manchester factory in 1904. Henry Royce was introduced to Charles Rolls at the Midland Hotel, Rolls was proprietor of an early motor car dealership, C. S. Rolls & Co. in Fulham. In spite of his preference for three- or four-cylinder cars, Rolls was impressed with the Royce 10, the first Rolls-Royce car, the Rolls-Royce 10 hp, was unveiled at the Paris Salon in December 1904. During 1906 Royce had been developing an improved model with more power than the Rolls-Royce 30 hp. Initially designated the 40/50 hp, this was Rolls-Royces first all-new model, the new 40/50 was responsible for Rolls-Royces early reputation with over 6,000 built. Its chassis was used as a basis for the first British armoured car used in world wars Aero-engine manufacture began in 1914 because the government requested it. After the First World War, Rolls-Royce successfully avoided attempts to encourage British car manufacturers to merge, faced with falling sales of the 40/50 Rolls-Royce introduced the smaller, cheaper Twenty in 1922, effectively ending the one-model policy followed since 1908
26.
Route nationale
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A route nationale, or simply nationale, is a trunk road in France. Trunk roads in France are important roads which cross broad portions of the French territory and their use is free, except when crossing certain structures subjected to toll. They are open to all vehicles, except on certain sections having the status of motorway, France currently has 30,500 km of nationales and publicly owned motorways. By comparison, routes départementales cover a distance of 365,000 km. The main trunk road network reflects the tradition of France. Indeed, trunk roads begin on the parvis of Notre-Dame of Paris at Kilometre Zero, to ensure an effective road network, new roads not serving Paris were created. The system dates back to December 16,1811, when Napoleon designated a number of routes impériales, first class routes were numbered from 1 to 14, all began at Paris, radiating out in a clockwise manner. Route 1 ran from Paris north to Calais, and is still the general path of route nationale 1, second class routes, from 15 to 27, did the same, while third class routes from 28 to 229 provided less major connections. During the Bourbon Restoration, in 1824, these routes were renamed routes royales, route 3, Paris to Hamburg via Soissons, Reims and Liège, was renumbered to 31 and 51, and the subsequent routes were shifted down by one. Routes 19 and 20 were completely outside the post-Napoleon France, in 1830 the highways were renamed routes nationales. In 2006 the French Government downgraded a number of the routes nationales to departmental status
27.
H. J. Mulliner & Co.
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H. J. Mulliner & Co. was a well-known British coachbuilder operating from Bedford Park, Chiswick, West London. The company which owned it was formed by H J Mulliner in 1897, in December 1909 the controlling interest in this company passed to John Croall & Sons of Edinburgh. Croall sold that interest to Rolls-Royce in 1959, Mulliner is now the personal commissioning department for Bentley. Henry Jervis Mulliner, born in Liverpool but raised in Chiswick, was the son of Robert Bouverie Mulliner from Northampton, third son of Francis Mulliner of Leamington Spa. His son H J Mulliner incorporated his own company in 1897 while with Mulliner London Limited and he found a special interest in the automobile side of that business and expanded in 1900 by buying from Mulliner London Limited the Mulliner showroom in Brook Street, Mayfair, London. The location was convenient for his clients than Chiswick. One of the clients was C. S. Rolls who had a built on a Rolls-Royce Silver Ghost for his own use. In 1906 the London works were moved from Mayfair to Chiswick, a family connection was maintained as Croall employed H J Mulliners wifes brother, Frank Piesse, to run the company. Although bodies were fitted to chassis, by the 1930s virtually the entire output was being fitted to Rolls-Royce. Rolls-Royce acquired Mulliner in July 1959 and merged it with Park Ward which they had owned since 1939 forming Mulliner Park Ward in 1961, a financial columnist noted that the outlay for Rolls-Royce was relatively small as the net assets of John Croall were around £250,000. It was noted that Mulliner was one of the last independent coach builders, others being controlled by motor manufacturers or distributors
28.
Rolls-Royce Phantom I
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The Phantom was Rolls-Royces replacement for the original Silver Ghost. Introduced as the New Phantom in 1925, the Phantom had a larger engine than the Silver Ghost, the Phantom was built in Derby in England and in Springfield, Massachusetts in the United States. There were several differences in specification between the English and American Phantoms, the Phantom was replaced by the Phantom II in 1929, at which point it was called the Phantom I. Introduced in 1925, the Phantom I was Rolls-Royces second 40/50 hp model, when the New Phantom was replaced by another 40/50 hp model in 1929, the replacement was named Phantom II and the New Phantom was renamed Phantom I. One major improvement over the Silver Ghost was the new pushrod-OHV straight-6 engine, constructed as two groups of three cylinders with a single detachable head, the engine was described by Rolls-Royce as producing sufficient power. The engine used a 4¼ in bore and undersquare 5½ in stroke for a total of 7.7 L of displacement, in 1928, the cylinder heads were upgraded from cast iron to aluminium, this caused corrosion problems. The separate gearbox connected through a rubberised fabric flexible coupling to the clutch and through a torque tube enclosed drive to the differential at rear, as in the Silver Ghost. The New Phantom used the frame as the Silver Ghost, with semi-elliptical springs suspending the front axle. 4-wheel brakes with a servo-assistance system licensed from Hispano-Suiza were also specified, like the Silver Ghost, the Phantom was constructed both at Rolls-Royces Derby factory in the United Kingdom and at a factory in Springfield, Massachusetts in the United States. The US factory produced Phantom Is from 1926 to 1931, principal differences between the US and UK models included wheelbases and transmissions. Both versions were specified with the same standard 143½ in wheelbase, the long-wheelbase U. S. model was 146½ in, both versions used a single dry-plate clutch, with US models equipped with a centre change 3-speed transmission and UK a 4-speed. Other minor differences included fuel gauge placement, with the UK Phantom Is at the tank but some US models having one on the dash, only the chassis and mechanical parts were produced by Rolls-Royce. The body was made and fitted by a coachbuilder selected by the owner, coachbuilders who produced bodies for Phantom I cars included Barker, Park Ward, Thrupp & Maberly, Mulliner, Hooper and the Italian coachbuilder Zagato. American Phantoms could be bought with standardized bodies from Brewster & Co. which was owned by Rolls-Royce, Phantom I,2269 Phantom I,1240 Citations Bibliography Baldwin, N. A-Z of Cars of the 1920s. Sir Henrys Final Masterpiece Or How Glenn Ford Pushed a Button and Won the War, the International Club for Rolls-Royce & Bentley Owners Desk Diary 2009. The Story of Veteran & Vintage Cars, orleans, Ontario, Canada, Canadian Driver Communications. Archived from the original on 2012-07-07, Rolls-Royce later adopted this system under licence from Hispano and used it for many years. Princes Risborough, Buckinghamshire, UK, Shire Publications
29.
Camshaft
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A camshaft is a shaft to which a cam is fastened or of which a cam forms an integral part. An early cam was built into Hellenistic water-driven automata from the 3rd century BC, the camshaft was later described in Turkey by Al-Jazari in 1206. He employed it as part of his automata, water-raising machines, the cam and camshaft later appeared in European mechanisms from at least the 14th century, or possibly earlier. In internal combustion engines with pistons, the camshaft is used to operate poppet valves and it consists of a cylindrical rod running the length of the cylinder bank with a number of oblong lobes protruding from it, one for each valve. The cam lobes force the valves open by pressing on the valve, or on some intermediate mechanism, Camshafts can be made out of several types of material. These include, Chilled iron castings, Commonly used in volume production. Other elements are added to the iron casting to make the material more suitable for its application. Billet Steel, When a high quality camshaft or low volume production is required, engine builders and this is a much more time consuming process, and is generally more expensive than other methods. However, the product is far superior. CNC lathes, CNC milling machines, and CNC camshaft grinders will be used during production, different types of steel bar can be used, one example being EN40b. When manufacturing a camshaft from EN40b, the camshaft will also be heat treated via gas nitriding and it gives a surface hardness of 55-60 HRC. These types of camshafts can be used in high-performance engines, the relationship between the rotation of the camshaft and the rotation of the crankshaft is of critical importance. Since the valves control the flow of the air/fuel mixture intake and exhaust gases, for this reason, the camshaft is connected to the crankshaft either directly, via a gear mechanism, or indirectly via a belt or chain called a timing belt or timing chain. Direct drive using gears is unusual because of the cost, the frequently reversing torque caused by the slope of the cams tends to cause gear rattle which for an all-metal gear train requires further expense of a cam damper. Rolls-Royce V8 used gear drive as, unlike chain, it could be made silent, where gears are used in cheaper cars, they tend to be made from resilient fibre rather than metal, except in racing engines that have a high maintenance routine. Fibre gears have a life span and must be replaced regularly. In some designs the camshaft also drives the distributor and the oil, some vehicles may have the power steering pump driven by the camshaft. With some early fuel injection systems, cams on the camshaft would operate the fuel injectors, honda redesigned the VF750 motorcycle from chain drive to the gear drive VFR750 due to insurmountable problems with the VF750 Hi-Vo inverted chain drive
30.
Multi-valve
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In automotive engineering a multi-valve or multivalve engine is one where each cylinder has more than two valves. A multi-valve engine has better breathing and may be able to operate at higher revolutions per minute than a two-valve engine, a multi-valve engine design typically has three, four, or five valves per cylinder to achieve improved performance. Any four-stroke internal combustion engine needs at least two valves per cylinder, one for intake of air and fuel, and another for exhaust of combustion gases. Adding more valves increases valve area and improves the flow of intake and exhaust gases, thereby enhancing combustion, volumetric efficiency, multi-valve geometry allows the spark plug to be ideally located within the combustion chamber for optimal flame propagation. Multi-valve engines tend to have smaller valves that have lower reciprocating mass, which can wear on each cam lobe. Some engines are designed to each intake valve at a slightly different time. More valves also provide additional cooling to the cylinder head, the disadvantages of multi-valve engines are an increase in manufacturing cost and a potential increase in oil consumption due to the greater number of valve stem seals. Some SOHC multi-valve engines use a single fork-shaped rocker arm to drive two valves so that fewer cam lobes will be needed in order to reduce manufacturing costs, three-valve cylinder head This has a single large exhaust valve and two smaller intake valves. A three-valve layout allows better breathing than a head. The manufacturing cost for this design can be lower than for a four-valve design, the three-valve design was common in the late 1980s and early 1990s, and from 2004 the main valve arrangement used in Ford F-Series trucks, and Ford SUVs. Four-valve cylinder head This is the most common type of multi-valve head and this design allows similar breathing as compared to a three-valve head, and as the small exhaust valves allow high RPM, this design is very suitable for high power outputs. Five-valve cylinder head Less common is the head, with two exhaust valves and three inlet valves. All five valves are similar in size and this design allows excellent breathing, and, as every valve is small, high RPM and very high power outputs are theoretically available. After making five-valve Genesis engines for several years, Yamaha has reverted to the cheaper four-valve design, beyond five valves For a cylindrical bore and equal-area sized valves, increasing the number of valves beyond five decreases the total valve area. The following table shows the areas of differing valve quantities as proportion of cylinder bore. These percentages are based on geometry and do not take into account orifices for spark plugs or injectors. Also, in practice, exhaust valves are larger than intake in heads with an even number of valves-per-cylinder. The same applies to variable valve timing and variable intake manifolds, rotary valves also offer improved engine breathing and high rev performance but these were never very successful
31.
Monobloc engine
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A monobloc or en bloc engine is an internal-combustion piston engine where some of the major components are formed, usually by casting, as a single integral unit, rather than being assembled later. This has the advantages of improving mechanical stiffness, and also improving the reliability of the sealing between them, monobloc techniques date back to the beginnings of the internal combustion engine. Use of the term has changed over time, usually to address the most pressing mechanical problem affecting the engines of its day, where the monobloc technique has later become the norm, the specific term falls from favour. It is now usual and un-noteworthy practice to use monobloc cylinders and crankcases, the head gasket is the most highly stressed static seal in an engine and was a source of considerable trouble in early years. The monobloc cylinder head forms both cylinder and head in one unit, thus avoiding the need for a seal, along with head gasket failure, one of the least reliable parts of the early petrol engine was the exhaust valve, which tended to fail by overheating and burning. A monobloc head could provide water cooling, thus reduced valve wear. Engines with gaskets required a metal-to-metal contact face here, disrupting water flow, the drawback to the monobloc head is that access to the inside of the combustion chamber becomes difficult. Access through the bore is restricted for machining the valve seats. An even more serious restriction is that for the task of de-coking and re-grinding the valve seats. Rather than removing the head from above, the mechanic must now remove pistons, connecting rods. One solution to this for side-valve engines was to place a screwed plug directly above each valve, the tapered threads of the screwed plug provided a reliable seal. For low-powered engines this was a solution for some years. It was difficult to cool this plug, as the water jacket didnt extend into the plug, as performance increased, it also became important to have better combustion chamber designs with less dead space. One solution was to place the spark plug in the centre of this plug, however this also placed the spark plug further away from the main combustion chamber, leading to long flame paths and slower ignition. During World War I, development of the combustion engine progressed enormously. After the war, as civilian car production recommenced, the cylinder head was required less frequently. Only high-performance cars such as the Leyland Eight of 1920 persisted with it, aircraft engines at this time were beginning to use high supercharging pressures, increasing the stress on their head gaskets. Engines such as the Rolls-Royce Buzzard used monobloc heads for reliability, the last engines to make widespread use of monobloc cylinder heads were large air-cooled aircraft radial engines, such as the Wasp Major
32.
Head gasket
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A head gasket is a gasket that sits between the engine block and cylinder head in an internal combustion engine. MLS or Multiple Layers Steel – Most modern head engines are produced with MLS gaskets and these typically consist of three layers of steel. The contact faces are coated with a rubber-like coating such as Viton that adheres to the cylinder block. Solid copper – a solid sheet of copper, and typically requires special machining called o-ringing that places a piece of wire around the circumference of the cylinder to bite into the copper, when this is performed copper gaskets are extremely durable. Recently companies have started producing copper gaskets with integral sealing wires permitting their retrofit into engines without the removal of the block for machine work. Typically these are made from asbestos or graphite but are prone to blowouts than newer gaskets. Asbestos gaskets are becoming rare due to health concerns. Elastomeric – a gasket type used by Rover on their K Series engines and it utilised a steel core plate with molded in place silicone rubber beads to seal oil and coolant passages. The bores were sealed by rolled steel fire rings in a conventional manner. The idea behind the design was to produce a production version of the technology used in F1 engines at the time. The original application of the gasket on the versions of the K Series was very successful. However, an engine redesign resulted in persistent problems with the design – the joint interface became unstable, the cost of a replacement gasket is usually not extreme, but the price of total repair is significantly high. This is because the process of removing/replacing an engine head is very time consuming - around 75% of cost will be labor, furthermore, untreated blown gaskets usually seriously damage the engine, then requiring even more expensive work. The usual internal combustion engine is a water-cooled four-stroke gasoline design, apart from sealing the cylinder, the head gasket also seals water and oil conduits between the head and block. Any connectivity between them will cause failure, or significant problems like burning oil. Blue exhaust smoke may be indicative of oil burning, white exhaust smoke is an indicator of coolant burning, another sign of head gasket wear. Occasionally, the compression in the cylinder will cause a leak to form in the gasket, engine makers have responded to this by adding a non-stick coating such as Teflon to the surface of the head gasket. Coolant can leak into the cylinders, causing the exhaust to issue steam, if a very large amount of coolant does this, hydrolock can occur, causing extensive engine damage
33.
Ignition magneto
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An ignition magneto, or high tension magneto, is a magneto that provides current for the ignition system of a spark-ignition engine, such as a petrol engine. It produces pulses of voltage for the spark plugs. The older term tension means voltage, the use of ignition magnetos is now confined mainly to engines where there is no other available electrical supply, for example in lawnmowers and chainsaws. It is also used in aviation piston engines even though an electrical supply is usually available. In this case the magnetos self-powered operation is considered to offer increased reliability, firing the gap of a spark plug, particularly in the combustion chamber of a high-compression engine, requires a greater voltage than can be achieved by a simple magneto. The high-tension magneto combines an alternating current magneto generator and a transformer, a high current at low voltage is generated by the magneto, then transformed to a high voltage by the transformer. Magneto ignition was introduced on the 1899 Daimler Phönix and this was followed by Benz, Mors, Turcat-Mery, and Nesseldorf, and soon was used on most cars up until about 1918 in both low voltage and high voltage magnetos. In the type known as a magneto, the engine rotates a coil of wire between the poles of a magnet. In the inductor magneto, the magnet is rotated and the coil remains stationary, as the magnet moves with respect to the coil, the magnetic flux linkage of the coil changes. This induces an EMF in the coil, which in turn causes a current to flow. One or more times per revolution, just as the pole moves away from the coil and the magnetic flux begins to decrease. This causes the field in the primary coil to collapse rapidly. As the field collapses rapidly there is a voltage induced across the primary coil. As the points begin to open, point spacing is such that the voltage across the primary coil would arc across the points. The capacitors function is similar to that of a snubber as found in a flyback converter, a second coil, with many more turns than the primary, is wound on the same iron core to form an electrical transformer. The ratio of turns in the winding to the number of turns in the primary winding, is called the turns ratio. Voltage across the primary results in a proportional voltage being induced across the secondary winding of the coil. The turns ratio between the primary and secondary coil is selected so that the voltage across the secondary reaches a high value
34.
Clutch
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A clutch is a mechanical device which engages and disengages power transmission especially from driving shaft to driven shaft. In the simplest application, clutches connect and disconnect two rotating shafts, in these devices, one shaft is typically attached to an engine or other power unit while the other shaft provides output power for work. While typically the motions involved are rotary, linear clutches are also possible, in a torque-controlled drill, for instance, one shaft is driven by a motor and the other drives a drill chuck. The clutch connects the two shafts so they may be locked together and spin at the speed, locked together but spinning at different speeds, or unlocked. This type of clutch has protruding circular edge and a hole for them that engages and disengages during operation and this type is less effective since human foot or hand power on clutching reaches about 10 KN or 1,000 kg. The vast majority of clutches ultimately rely on frictional forces for their operation, the purpose of friction clutches is to connect a moving member to another that is moving at a different speed or stationary, often to synchronize the speeds, and/or to transmit power. Usually, as little slippage as possible between the two members is desired, various materials have been used for the disc-friction facings, including asbestos in the past. Modern clutches typically use an organic resin with copper wire facing or a ceramic material. Ceramic materials are used in heavy applications such as racing or heavy-duty hauling, though the harder ceramic materials increase flywheel. In the case of wet clutches, composite materials are very common. Since these wet clutches typically use an oil bath or flow-through cooling method for keeping the disc pack lubricated and cooled, friction-disc clutches generally are classified as push type or pull type depending on the location of the pressure plate fulcrum points. In a pull-type clutch, the action of pressing the pedal pulls the release bearing, pulling on the spring and disengaging the vehicle drive. The opposite is true with a type, the release bearing is pushed into the clutch disengaging the vehicle drive. In this instance, the bearing can be known as a thrust bearing. A clutch damper is a device that softens the response of the clutch engagement/disengagement, in automotive applications, this is often provided by a mechanism in the clutch disc centres. In addition to the damped disc centres, which reduce driveline vibration and these weaker springs are compressed solely by the radial vibrations of an idling engine. They are fully compressed and no longer in use once the main damper springs take up drive, mercedes truck examples, A clamp load of 33 kN is normal for a single plate 430. The 400 Twin application offers a clamp load of a mere 23 kN, bursts speeds are typically around 5,000 rpm with the weakest point being the facing rivet
35.
Drum brake
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A drum brake is a brake that uses friction caused by a set of shoes or pads that press outward against a rotating cylinder-shaped part called a brake drum. The term drum brake usually means a brake in which shoes press on the surface of the drum. When shoes press on the outside of the drum, it is called a clasp brake. Where the drum is pinched between two shoes, similar to a disc brake, it is sometimes called a pinch drum brake. A related type called a band brake uses a belt or band wrapping around the outside of a drum. The modern automobile drum brake was first used in a car made by Maybach in 1900 and he used woven asbestos lining for the drum brake lining, as no alternative dissipated heat like the asbestos lining, though Maybach had used a less sophisticated drum brake. In the first drum brakes, levers and rods or cables operated the shoes mechanically, from the mid-1930s, oil pressure in a small wheel cylinder and pistons operated the brakes, though some vehicles continued with purely mechanical systems for decades. Some designs have two wheel cylinders, as the shoes in drum brakes wear, brakes required regular manual adjustment until the introduction of self-adjusting drum brakes in the 1950s. Drums are prone to brake fading with repeated use, in 1953, Jaguar fielded three cars equipped with disc brakes at Le Mans, where they won, in large part due to their superior braking over drum-equipped rivals. This spelled the beginning of the crossover of drum brakes to disc brakes in passenger cars, from 1955 to the 1970s, disc brakes gradually replaced drum brakes on the front wheels of cars. Now practically all cars use disc brakes on the front wheels, in the United States, the Jeep CJ-5 was the final automobile to use front drum brakes when it was phased out in 1984. However, drum brakes are often used for handbrakes, as it has proven very difficult to design a disc brake suitable for holding a parked car. Moreover, it is easy to fit a drum handbrake inside a disc brake so that one unit serves as both service brake and handbrake. When working on systems of older cars, care must be taken not to inhale any dust present in the brake assembly. The United States Federal Government began to regulate production. Owners initially complained of poor braking with the replacements, however, a majority of daily-driven older vehicles have been fitted with asbestos-free linings. Many other countries also limit the use of asbestos in brakes, drum brake components include the backing plate, brake drum, shoe, wheel cylinder, and various springs and pins. The backing plate provides a base for the other components. Since all braking operations exert pressure on the plate, it must be strong
36.
24 Hours of Le Mans
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The 24 Hours of Le Mans is the worlds oldest active sports car race in endurance racing, held annually since 1923 near the town of Le Mans, France. It is one of the most prestigious races in the world and is often called the Grand Prix of Endurance. The event represents one leg of the Triple Crown of Motorsport, other events being the Indianapolis 500, since 2012, the 24 Hours of Le Mans has been a part of the FIA World Endurance Championship. In 2017, it will be the round of the season. The race has over the years inspired imitating races all over the globe, popularizing the 24-hour format at places like Daytona, Nürburgring, Spa-Francorchamps, and Bathurst. The American Le Mans Series and Europes Le Mans Series of multi-event sports car championships were spun off from 24 Hours of Le Mans regulations. At a time when Grand Prix motor racing was the dominant form of motorsport throughout Europe, Le Mans was designed to present a different test. Instead of focusing on the ability of a car company to build the fastest machines and this encouraged innovation in producing reliable and fuel-efficient vehicles, because endurance racing requires cars that last and spend as little time in the pits as possible. At the same time, the layout of the track necessitated cars with better aerodynamics, while this was shared with Grand Prix racing, few tracks in Europe had straights of a length comparable to the Mulsanne. Additionally, because the road is public and thus not as meticulously maintained as permanent racing circuits, racing puts more strain on the parts, increasing the importance of reliability. The oil crisis in the early 1970s led organizers to adopt a fuel economy formula known as Group C that limited the amount of each car was allowed. Although it was abandoned, fuel economy remains important as new fuel sources reduced time spent during pit stops. Such technological innovations have had an effect and can be incorporated into consumer cars. This has also led to faster and more exotic supercars as manufacturers seek to develop road cars in order to develop them into even faster GT cars. Additionally, in recent years hybrid systems have been championed in the LMP category as rules have changed to their benefit. The race is held in June, leading at times to very hot conditions for drivers, particularly in closed vehicles with poor ventilation, the race begins in mid-afternoon and finishes the following day at the same hour the race started the previous day. Over the 24 hours, modern competitors often cover distances well over 5,000 km, the record is 2010s 5,410 km, six times the length of the Indianapolis 500, or approximately 18 times longer than a Formula One Grand Prix. Drivers and racing teams strive for speed and avoiding damage, as well as managing the cars consumables, primarily fuel, tires
37.
1930 24 Hours of Le Mans
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The 193024 Hours of Le Mans was the 8th Grand Prix of Endurance, and took place on 21 and 22 June 1930. The pairing of Odette Siko and Marguerite Mareuse would go in history as the first women to compete, miss Dorothy Paget –6,48 Distance –2930.663 km Average Speed –122.111 km/h 6th Biennial Cup – #4 Bentley Motors Ltd. Index of Performance – #15 Arthur W. Fox & Charles Nicholl
38.
Hooper (coachbuilder)
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Hooper & Co. was a British coachbuilding company based in Westminster London. From 1805 to 1959 it was a successful maker, to special order. The company was founded as Adams and Hooper in 1805 and held a warrant from 1830, building elegant horse-drawn carriages, supplying them to King William IV, Queen Victoria. They moved into motor bodies at the turn of the 20th century, the first royal car, a Hooper body on a Daimler chassis, was delivered to Sandringham on 28 March 1900. It was painted brown with red lines, a livery which continued for the royal family well into the twentieth century. Hooper specialized in the top tier of the market, building the most luxurious bodies possible without consideration of cost. The models were not sporty, as the company specialized in stately, coach customers included the Marquis of Londonderry and the Marquis of Crewe. Car body customers included the Kings of Spain, Norway, Portugal and Siam, the Shah of Persia, in 1911, Hooper built an extension onto their Kings Road works, due to increased customer demand. Their London showroom, opened 1896, was on the corner of St James Street and Bennet Street and it included a vehicle lift so that coaches and cars could be displayed at first floor. The alterations are likely to have been overseen by Francis Hooper, architect, during World War I, Hooper turned to aircraft manufacture, eventually producing Sopwith Camels at the rate of three a day. With peace, the returned to coachbuilding. They weathered the Great Depression of the 1930s far better than most coachbuilders, even building a factory in Acton. In the peak year of 1936, more than 300 bodies were built, in 1938 Hooper acquired rivals Barker who were in receivership. Hooper was acquired by The Daimler Company in 1940, becoming part of the BSA industrial group, post war, Hooper became famous for making a series of outrageously-bodied large Daimlers for Lady Docker, the wife of the BSA chairman. This seasons extravagant new Docker Daimler was exhibited each October at the London Motor Show, cast alloy was first used about 1933 in door and windscreen pillars where the fight between roof and scuttle structures tended to cause cracking. Hoopers the coachbuilders, whose Rolls-Royce seven-seater limousine, at £9,185, is the most expensive car at the Motor Show, are celebrating their 150th anniversary in a dignified way. The atmosphere in their St Jamess street showrooms is halfway between that of a tailors and the waiting-room of a distinguished physician. The quiet, unruffled representatives of the firm at the Hooper stand at Earls Court give an impression of solid continuity
39.
Western Australia Police
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The genesis of the police was the appointment of a sheriff by Captain Stirling on 18 June 1829, as part of the proclamation of the Swan River Colony. The proclamation provided for the appointment of a sheriff having under his direction a high constable, constables, bailiffs, the sheriff still exists as an officer of the Western Australian Justice Department—no longer having jurisdiction over police or highways. The sheriff retains responsibility for enforcement of judgments and the administration of jury service. Police continue to carry out sheriff and bailiff duties, particularly in remote country locations, early colonial policemen were recruited by magistrates and worked part-time. They were paid only for specific tasks, such as one shilling for serving a summons, by 1830, there were fifteen part-time constables in the state, of whom five worked in Perth. It was involved in the Pinjarra Massacre, in which Captain Ellis, the first full-time constable for Perth was appointed in 1840. The Legislative Council passed an ordinance in 1849 that outlined police powers. An organised police force was established in 1853. After convicts started arriving in the colony in 1849, the acquired the duties of registering and supervising the ticket-of-leave men. By 1870, after transportation had ceased, some 1,244 ticket-of-leave men had to be supervised by 146 police employees, applicants for police service were required to be aged under forty, literate and physically fit. Leave was difficult to obtain and officers were not to appear in public out of uniform. Until the end of the century, the monthly pay day was marked by a parade with band. A Criminal Investigation Department was set up in 1873, although two detectives had been sent out from Britain in 1854, a fingerprint bureau was set up in 1902 and the first female officer was appointed in 1921. The Police Headquarters is located in East Perth overlooking the Causeway, the 1960s curved building also housed the former East Perth Lockup. and a magistrates courtroom. The structure is entered on the State Heritage Register, recruits are trained at the Western Australian Police Academy at Joondalup. Previously the Academy was located at Maylands, in premises used by various units including the mounted. The command structure has the state divided into three regions and sub-divided into fourteen districts, as of 2012 there were 35 metropolitan and 123 regional police stations. The highest-ranking officer is the Commissioner of Police, the current Commissioner is Karl OCallaghan, appointed in June 2004
40.
Sedan (automobile)
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A sedan /sᵻˈdæn/ or saloon is a passenger car in a three-box configuration with A, B & C-pillars and principal volumes articulated in separate compartments for engine, passenger and cargo. The passenger compartment features two rows of seats and adequate passenger space in the compartment for adult passengers. The cargo compartment is typically in the rear, with the exception of some rear-engined models, such as the Renault Dauphine, Tatra T613, Volkswagen Type 3 and it is one of the most common car body styles. A battery electric sedan such as the Tesla Model S has no engine compartment, but a front cargo compartment, the primary purpose of the sedan is to transport people and their baggage on ordinary roads. Sedan versions of the body style have a central pillar that supports the roof and come in two-. Sedans usually have a two-box or three-box body, popular in the U. S. from the 1950s through the 1970s, true hardtop body designs have become increasingly rare. For example,1962 Rambler Classic sedans feature identical windshield, A-pillar, roof, C-pillar, and rear window. A two- or four-door design built on a chassis, but with a shorter roof and interior space. Originating from the car on a Pullman passenger train that was well appointed. A notchback sedan is a sedan, where the passenger volume is clearly distinct from the trunk volume of the vehicle. The roof is on one plane, generally parallel to the ground, the window at a sharp angle to the roof. A fastback sedan is a sedan, with continuous slope from the roof to the base of the decklid. They are not fastbacks because their bodyline changes from the roof to the rear deck and their steeply raked rear windows end with a decklid that does not continue down to the bumper. Instead, their ends are tall — sometimes in a Kammback style — to increase trunk space. Typically this design is chosen for its aerodynamic advantages, automakers can no longer afford the penalty in fuel consumption produced by the traditional notchback three box form. In historic terminology, a sedan will have a frame around the door windows, a true hardtop design also has no center or B pillar for roof support behind the front doors). This pillarless body style offers greater visibility, however, it requires extra underbody strengthening for structural rigidity. The hardtop design can be considered separately, or it can be called a hardtop sedan, during the 1960s and 1970s, hardtop sedans were often sold as sport sedans by several American manufacturers and they were among the top selling body styles
41.
Tim Birkin
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Sir Henry Ralph Stanley Tim Birkin, 3rd Baronet was a British racing driver, one of the Bentley Boys of the 1920s. Birkin was born into a wealthy Nottingham family in 1896, the son of Sir Thomas Stanley Birkin, 2nd Bt. and the Hon. Margaret Diana Hopetoun Chetwynd. In childhood, Henry Birkin gained the nickname Tim, after the comic book character Tiger Tim, created by Julius Stafford Baker. It was his nickname for the rest of his life, Birkin married Audrey Clara Lilian Latham, daughter of Sir Thomas Paul Latham, 1st Bt. and Florence Clara Walley, on 12 July 1921, they divorced in 1928. He and Audrey had two daughters, Pamela and Sara, both of whom married and had issue, the elder daughter Pamela married two Buxton cousins in succession, and her second husband was the Life Peer Baron Buxton of Alsa, KCVO, MC. She had seven children including wildlife film-maker Cindy Buxton, the younger daughter Sara married twice, and had two sons by her first husband. At his death in 1933, without sons of his own, he was succeeded by his next surviving male relative, his paternal uncle Sir Alexander Russell Birkin and his younger brother, Archie Birkin, was killed during practice for the 1927 Isle of Man TT motorcycle races. In 1921 Birkin turned to racing, competing a few races at Brooklands. Business and family pressures then forced him to retire from the tracks until 1927 when he entered a three litre Bentley for a six-hour race. For 1928 he acquired a 4½ litre car and after good results decided to return to motor racing. Soon Birkin, racing with a blue and white spotted silk scarf around his neck, the next year Birkin was back as winner, racing the Speed Six as co-driver to Woolf Barnato. If Bentley wanted a powerful car he developed a bigger model. Ettore Bugatti once referred to the Bentley as the worlds fastest lorry, back in 1928 however, Birkin had come to the conclusion that the future lay in getting more power from a lighter model by fitting a supercharger to the 4½ litre Bentley. When Bentley Motors refused to create the supercharged model Birkin sought he determined to develop it himself, adding a huge Roots-type supercharger in front of the radiator driven straight from the crankshaft gave the car a unique appearance. The 242 bhp blower Bentley was born, the first car, a stripped down Brooklands racer known as Bentley Blower No.1, first appeared at the Essex six hour race at Brooklands on 29 June 1929. However, the car proved to be very unreliable. Bentley himself had never accepted the blower Bentley, nevertheless, with Wolf Barnatos support, Birkin persuaded W. O. to produce the fifty supercharged cars necessary for the model to be accepted for the Le Mans twenty-four-hour race. In addition to production cars built by Bentley Motors, Birkin put together a racing team of four remodelled prototypes
42.
Glen Kidston
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George Pearson Glen Kidston was an English record-breaking aviator and motor racing driver. Kidston was a member of the well-known Bentley Boys of the late 1920s, Kidston was one of the four, core Grosvenor Square-based Bentley team drivers, whose day-long parties passed into contemporary legend. A Lieutenant Commander in the Royal Navy, he was torpedoed twice in the morning during the action of 22 September 1914 against German submarine U-9 under the command of Commander Otto Weddigen. Following repatriation he served in the dreadnought HMS Orion, with the British Grand Fleet at the Battle of Jutland, Kidston served on several leading-edge British submarines, including the notorious X1, which he served on in North Sea trials. During the trials the X1 embedded itself in the seabed as its gauges were faulty, in December 1926 he received command of an H-class submarine, the Beardmore-built H24, built at Portsmouth. Away from his duties as a submariner, he was a pioneer of naval flight. Glen Kidston competed in motor races including the Monte Carlo Rally, Isle of Man TT motorcycle races. Kidston entered the 1929 Irish Grand Prix Éireann Cup at Phoenix Park but was beaten by the Alfa Romeo of former Russian Imperial Guard officer Boris Ivanowski. This was achieved at the expense of Britons Glen Kidston and Henry Birkin, whose Bentleys were second and he also owned and raced the first Bugatti in the UK and entered the Le Mans 24-hour race in 1929 and 1930. On the second occasion he won the race, driving a Bentley Speed Six in partnership with Woolf Barnato, in 1929 Kidston was travelling from Croydon to Amsterdam in a German airliner. 21 mins into the flight he sensed an imminent crash and assumed the safety position, on impact, Kidston kicked out the fuselage whilst alight all over and doused himself in the wet grass. He re-entered the burning wreckage to save the badly burned Prince who subsequently died, Kidston fought through a mile of woodland at night to summon help. As he flagged a motorist down, his clothes were still smoking and he was then hospitalised with extensive burns. Kidston was a big game shot and travelled on pioneering safaris in remote Kenyan districts. Films of these expeditions, of his naval and other aviation and Bentley teamwork are held at the British Film Institute due to their quality. In April 1931, Kidston completed a record breaking flight from Netheravon, Wiltshire to Cape Town and he completed the journey in just 6½ days, flying his own specially adapted Lockheed Vega monoplane and averaging 131 mph. However, Kidston was never to make the return trip, a memorial to him, an aluminium propellor set in stone, stands at the crash site. His gravestone at St. Peters in Glasbury-upon-Wye on the Welsh borders, his home, reads Time and tide wait for no man
43.
Le Train Bleu
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The Calais-Mediterranée Express was a luxury French night express train which operated from 1886 to 2003. It gained international fame as the train of wealthy and famous passengers between Calais and the French Riviera in the two decades before World War II. It was colloquially referred to as Le Train Bleu in French, in December 1883 the Compagnie Internationale des Wagons-Lits created its second luxury train after the Orient Express introduced in June earlier that year. The connection between Paris and Rome was introduced as Calais Nice Rome Express, but was reduced to Calais Nice Express after only one year. In 1885 several Italian railways merged and CIWL could buy the routes served by Pullman. The train was to be named Rome Express, in order to serve the British customers the Calais-Mediterranée Express was created in 1886, but it lasted until 1890 before the Rome Express made its first journey. The Calais-Méditerrannée Express was introduced in the 1886/1887 winter timetable, in the winter of 1889/1890 the name was changed to Méditerrannée Express, due to the creation of the Club train. At the southern end the route was extended to San Remo, after the introduction of the Rome Express on 15 November 1890, the two trains were combined between Paris and Mâcon. South of Mâcon the Rome Express continued during the night over the Mont Cenis railway, after several breaches of contract by CIWL the London Chatham & Dover Railway cancelled the contract, and it lasted until 1926 before a new integrated boattrain service was created as Golden Arrow. The Méditerrannée Express northern terminus was Calais again, the service was suspended at the beginning of the First World War. The whole route was served again on 9 December 1922, the introduction ride was made by two trains with many invitees and nearly 50 journalists, departing from Calais and Paris bound for Nice. The sleeping cars were painted blue with gold trim and this eventually led to the nickname Blue Train in 1923. This name was taken over soon in English advertisements, Summer on the French Riviera by the Blue Train, the height of the season for le train bleu was between November and April, when many travellers escaped the British winter to spend time on the French Riviera. Its terminus was at the Gare Maritime in Calais, where it picked up British passengers from the ferries across the English Channel and it departed Paris early in the evening, and made stops at Dijon, Châlons, and Lyon, before reaching Marseilles early the next morning. The sleeping cars had only ten sleeping compartments each, with one attendant assigned to each sleeping car, early passengers included the Prince of Wales, Charlie Chaplin, designer Coco Chanel, Winston Churchill and writers F. Scott Fitzgerald, Evelyn Waugh and Somerset Maugham. After a one and half hour stop the two cars were conveyed further south by the Côte dAzur Pullman Express. In 1936, the new Popular Front Government in France introduced the paid two-week vacation for French workers, second-class and third-class sleeping cars were added to the Blue Train to carry middle and working class French people on holiday to the South of France. In 1938, the Popular Front government nationalized the railway companies in France
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