1.
New Jersey
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New Jersey is a state in the Northeastern and mid-Atlantic regions of the United States. It is bordered on the north and east by New York, on the southeast and south by the Atlantic Ocean, on the west by Pennsylvania, New Jersey is the fourth-smallest state but the 11th-most populous and the most densely populated of the 50 United States. New Jersey lies entirely within the statistical areas of New York City. New Jersey was inhabited by Native Americans for more than 2,800 years, in the early 17th century, the Dutch and the Swedes made the first European settlements. New Jersey was the site of decisive battles during the American Revolutionary War in the 18th century. In the 19th century, factories in cities such as Camden, Paterson, Newark, Trenton, around 180 million years ago, during the Jurassic Period, New Jersey bordered North Africa. The pressure of the collision between North America and Africa gave rise to the Appalachian Mountains, around 18,000 years ago, the Ice Age resulted in glaciers that reached New Jersey. As the glaciers retreated, they left behind Lake Passaic, as well as rivers, swamps. New Jersey was originally settled by Native Americans, with the Lenni-Lenape being dominant at the time of contact, scheyichbi is the Lenape name for the land that is now New Jersey. The Lenape society was divided into clans that were based upon common female ancestors. These clans were organized into three distinct phratries identified by their animal sign, Turtle, Turkey, and Wolf and they first encountered the Dutch in the early 17th century, and their primary relationship with the Europeans was through fur trade. The Dutch became the first Europeans to lay claim to lands in New Jersey, the Dutch colony of New Netherland consisted of parts of modern Middle Atlantic states. Although the European principle of ownership was not recognized by the Lenape. The first to do so was Michiel Pauw who established a patronship called Pavonia in 1630 along the North River which eventually became the Bergen, peter Minuits purchase of lands along the Delaware River established the colony of New Sweden. During the English Civil War, the Channel Island of Jersey remained loyal to the British Crown and it was from the Royal Square in St. Helier that Charles II of England was proclaimed King in 1649, following the execution of his father, Charles I. The North American lands were divided by Charles II, who gave his brother, the Duke of York, the region between New England and Maryland as a proprietary colony. James then granted the land between the Hudson River and the Delaware River to two friends who had remained loyal through the English Civil War, Sir George Carteret and Lord Berkeley of Stratton, the area was named the Province of New Jersey. Since the states inception, New Jersey has been characterized by ethnic, New England Congregationalists settled alongside Scots Presbyterians and Dutch Reformed migrants
2.
Hudson County, New Jersey
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Hudson County, a county in the U. S. state of New Jersey, lies west of the lower Hudson River, which was named for Henry Hudson, the sea captain who explored the area in 1609. Hudson County is the fourth-most populous county in the state, there are 12 municipalities in Hudson County, listed with area in square miles and 2010 Census data for population and housing. North Hudson and West Hudson each comprise municipalities in their distinct areas, according to the 2010 Census, the county had a total area of 62.31 square miles, including 46.19 square miles of land and 16.12 square miles of water. Based on land area, it is the smallest of New Jerseys 21 counties, less than half the size of the next smallest, Hudson is located in the heart of New York metropolitan area in northeastern New Jersey. The topography is marked by the New Jersey Palisades in the north with cliffs overlooking the Hudson to the east and less severe cuesta, or slope and they gradually level off to the southern peninsula, which is coastal and flat. The western region, around the Hackensack and Passaic is part of the New Jersey Meadowlands, much of the land along the countys extensive shoreline and littoral zone was created by land reclamation. The highest point, at 260 feet above sea level, is in West New York, North Bergen is the city with the second most hills per square mile in the United States behind San Francisco. Ellis Island and Liberty Island, opposite Liberty State Park, lie entirely within Hudson Countys waters, Liberty Island is wholly part of New York. Largely created through land reclamation, Ellis Island covers a area of 27.5 acres, with the 2. 74-acre natural island. Shooters Island, in the Kill van Kull, is shared with New York. Robbins Reef Light sits atop a reef which runs parallel the Bayonne and these boundaries and the topography-including many hills and inlets-create very distinct neighborhoods. Kennedy Boulevard runs the length of the peninsula. Numerous cuts for rail and vehicular traffic cross Bergen Hill, given its proximity to Manhattan, it is sometimes referred to as New York Citys sixth borough. At the time of European contact in the 17th century, Hudson County was the territory of the Lenape, namely the bands known as the Hackensack, the Tappan, the Raritan, and the Manhattan. They were a seasonally migrational people who practiced small-scale agriculture augmented by hunting and gathering which likely, given the topography of the area and these groups had early and frequent trading contact with Europeans. The west bank of the North River and the cliffs, hills, in 1630, Michael Pauw received a land patent, or patroonship and purchased the land between the Hudson and Hackensack Rivers, giving it the Latin-ized form of his name, Pavonia. He failed to settle the area and was forced to return his holdings to the Dutch West India Company, homesteads were established at Communipaw, Harsimus, Paulus Hook and Hoebuck. A series of raids and reprisals across the province lasted two years, and ended in an uneasy truce, other homesteads were established at Constable Hook, Awiehaken, and other lands at Achter Col on Bergen Neck
3.
Jersey City, New Jersey
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Jersey City is the second-most-populous city in the U. S. state of New Jersey after Newark. It is the seat of Hudson County as well as the countys largest city. 7% from the 2010 United States Census, when the citys population was at 247,597, ranking the city the 75th-largest in the nation. Part of the New York metropolitan area, Jersey City is bounded on the east by the Hudson River and Upper New York Bay and on the west by the Hackensack River and Newark Bay. After a peak population of 316,715 measured in the 1930 Census, the land comprising what is now Jersey City was inhabited by the Lenape, a collection of tribes. After spending nine days surveying the area and meeting its inhabitants, by 1621, the Dutch West India Company was organized to manage this new territory and in June 1623, New Netherland became a Dutch province, with headquarters in New Amsterdam. Michael Reyniersz Pauw received a grant as patroon on the condition that he would establish a settlement of not fewer than fifty persons within four years. He chose the west bank of the North River and purchased the land from the Lenape and this grant is dated November 22,1630 and is the earliest known conveyance for what are now Hoboken and Jersey City. Pauw, however, was a landlord who neglected to populate the area and was obliged to sell his holdings back to the Company in 1633. That year, a house was built at Communipaw for Jan Evertsen Bout, superintendent of the colony, during Kiefts War, approximately eighty Lenapes were killed by the Dutch in a massacre at Pavonia on the night of February 25,1643. Scattered communities of farmsteads characterized the Dutch settlements at Pavonia, Communipaw, Harsimus, Paulus Hook, Hoebuck, Awiehaken, and other lands behind Kil van Kull. The first village established on what is now Bergen Square in 1660, among the oldest surviving houses in Jersey City are the Newkirk House, the Van Vorst Farmhouse, and the Van Wagenen House. During the American Revolutionary War, the area was in the hands of the British who controlled New York, in the Battle of Paulus Hook Major Light Horse Harry Lee attacked a British fortification on August 19,1779. During the 19th century, former slaves reached Jersey City on one of the four routes of the Underground Railroad that led to the city. The City of Jersey was incorporated by an act of the New Jersey Legislature on January 28,1820, from portions of Bergen Township, while the area was still a part of Bergen County. The city was reincorporated on January 23,1829, and again on February 22,1838, on February 22,1840, it became part of the newly created Hudson County. Soon after the Civil War, the idea arose of uniting all of the towns of Hudson County east of the Hackensack River into one municipality. A bill was approved by the legislature on April 2,1869. An element of the bill provide that only contiguous towns could be consolidated, while a majority of the voters across the county approved the merger, the only municipalities that had approved the consolidation plan and that adjoined Jersey City were Hudson City and Bergen City
4.
Saint Peter's University
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Saint Peters University is a private, coeducational Jesuit Roman Catholic college in the United States. Located in Jersey City, New Jersey, the school was founded as Saint Peters College in 1872 by the Society of Jesus, today, Saint Peters is one of 28 member institutions of the Association of Jesuit Colleges and Universities. Saint Peters University offers over 60 undergraduate and graduate programs to more than 2,600 undergraduate and 800 graduate students and its college mascot is the Peacock and its sports teams play in the Metro Atlantic Athletic Conference, of which it is a founding member. The school is located on a 30-acre campus just south of Journal Square, evening and weekend classes are offered in Jersey City, Englewood Cliffs, and South Amboy. In 2015-16, Saint Peters was ranked fifth nationwide by Money magazine in the category of Colleges That Add the Most Value, according to the magazine, the top value-added colleges are those that best help students exceed expectations. The University was also ranked in the top 18% of all American colleges for educational quality, affordability, the U. S. News & World Report Best Colleges 2016 guide ranked the institution among the top 100 universities in the Regional Universities North region. The college was chartered in 1872 and enrolled its first students in 1878 at Warren Street, in Jersey City, on the present site of its high school section. In September 1918, the college was closed, along several other Jesuit colleges and high schools. Although the war ended two months after its closing, and despite clamoring from alumni, it took until 1930 to re-open the college. The college was located on Newark Avenue, before moving in 1936 to its current location on Hudson Boulevard. Unlike other institutions in New Jersey, the school was segregated for many years. It was first integrated in 1936, when the college admitted its first black student, the college granted an honorary Doctor of Divinity degree to Martin Luther King, Jr. in 1965. Recent years have seen much construction for the college, in 1975, the college constructed the Yanitelli Recreational Life Center, a sports complex. Beginning with the 1983 acquisition of its first residence hall, the college has converted four apartment buildings to dormitory use, gannon Hall, the science building and one of the first structures on campus, underwent an $8.2 million renovation. In 2004, the pedestrian bridge over Kennedy Boulevard linked the East Campus. In 2006, the college began a $50 million capital campaign, further expansion of the east side of the campus included plans for a student center, which has been in service since construction was completed in 2013. The new McMahon Student Center houses offices for many of Saint Peters administrative branches, as well as numerous student led organizations, on December 24,2006, sitting college President James N. Loughran, S. J. was found dead in his home. On May 10,2007, the Board of Trustees appointed Eugene J. Cornacchia, dr. Cornacchia is the first layperson to serve as President of the 135-year-old Catholic, Jesuit institution
5.
New Netherland
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New Netherland was a 17th-century colonial province of the Seven United Netherlands that was located on the East Coast of North America. The colony was conceived as a business venture to exploit the North American fur trade. The settlement of New Sweden encroached on its flank, while its northern border was re-drawn to accommodate an expanding New England. During the 1650s, the colony experienced dramatic growth and became a port for trade in the North Atlantic. The surrender of Fort Amsterdam to England in 1664 was formalized in 1667, in 1673, the Dutch re-took the area but relinquished it under the Second Treaty of Westminster ending the Third Anglo-Dutch War the next year. The inhabitants of New Netherland were Native Americans, Europeans, and Africans, descendants of the original settlers played a prominent role in colonial America. For two centuries, New Netherland Dutch culture characterized the region, during the 17th century, Europe was undergoing expansive social, cultural, and economic growth, known as the Dutch Golden Age in the Netherlands. Nations vied for domination of trade routes around the globe. Simultaneously, philosophical and theological conflicts were manifested in military battles across the continent, the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands had become a home to many intellectuals, international businessmen, and religious refugees. He was turned back by the ice of the Arctic in his second attempt and he ended up exploring the waters off the east coast of North America aboard the vlieboot Halve Maen. His first landfall was at Newfoundland and the second at Cape Cod, Hudson believed that the passage to the Pacific ocean was between the St. Lawrence River and Chesapeake Bay, so he sailed south to the Bay then turned northward, traveling close along the shore. He first discovered Delaware Bay and began to sail upriver looking for the passage and this effort was foiled by sandy shoals, and the Halve Maen continued north. After passing Sandy Hook, Hudson and his crew entered the narrows into the Upper New York Bay, Hudson believed that he had found the continental water route, so he sailed up the major river which later bore his name, the Hudson. He found the water too shallow to proceed several days later, at the site of present-day Troy and his report was first published in 1611 by Emanuel Van Meteren, an Antwerp émigré and the Dutch Consul at London. This stimulated interest in exploiting this new resource, and it was the catalyst for Dutch merchant-traders to fund more expeditions. Flemish Lutheran émigré merchants such as Arnout Vogels sent the first follow-up voyages to exploit this discovery as early as July 1610. In 1611–1612, the Admiralty of Amsterdam sent two expeditions to find a passage to China with the yachts Craen and Vos, captained by Jan Cornelisz Mey and Symon Willemsz Cat. The results of explorations, surveys, and charts made from 1609 through 1614 were consolidated in Block’s map
6.
Bergen Square
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Bergen Square, at the intersection of Bergen Avenue and Academy Street in Jersey City, is in the southwestern part of the much larger Journal Square district. Nearby are the Van Wagenen House and Old Bergen Church, two structures from the colonial period, St. George & St. Shenouda Coptic Orthodox Church founded by early Egyptian immigrants was one of the original Coptic congregations in New Jersey. Permission to settle there was granted by the Director-General of New Netherland, a statue of Stuyvesant by J. Massey Rhind is situated on the square to commemorate the event. The square was surveyed and designed by Jacques Cortelyou and is the first example of what was to become known as a Philadelphia square in the United States. Though there no buildings from the still standing, the names of streets. In the immediate vicinity, there are cemeteries and the Old Bergen Church which were founded by the settlers and those who survived the counterattack were ordered back to the relative safety of New Amsterdam, on the tip of Manhattan. After the treaty was signed in 1645, the communities at Pavonia and Communipaw continued to grow steadily, a stipulation for the settlement was that a garrison be built so that homesteaders, whose farms spread out around the village, could retreat there in the event of an attack. In 1664, a negotiated surrender gave control of New Netherland to the English, to celebrate the 250th anniversary of the towns founding in 1910, the New York Times sponsored a seven-week composition competition for Jersey City students to study and write about its history
7.
Route of the Lincoln Highway
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In many regions, there was general consensus among those who had power or interest in influencing the route. But in a few regions the choice of route was a topic during the 1920s. The highway followed the route, The very short Lincoln Highway section in New York went west from Times Square on 42nd Street to the Weehawken Ferry. It was realigned down Broadway from which it turned right and passed through the Holland Tunnel after it opened in 1927, the original route of Lincoln Highway came off the New York Central Railroads ferry at Weehawken Terminal and climbed the Palisades on Pershing Road. At the top it went west on 5th Street to the Hudson County Boulevard on which it travelled south to Communipaw Avenue in Jersey City. After the opening of the Holland Tunnel and part of the Route 1 Extension, veering west it crossed the Hackensack River and Kearny Point on what is now U. S. Route 1-9 Truck and where the road is still known as Lincoln Highway. Some sources indicate the Highway bypassing the corner of Hudson County Boulevard and Communipaw Avenue by passing through Lincoln Park, which had been the route of Newark Plank Road. Crossing the Passaic River, the Highway entered the Ironbound district of Newark along Ferry Street and Market Street, in downtown Newark at Four Corners, it turned south on Broad Street, at what was claimed to be the third busiest traffic center in the United States. By 1924 this had been bypassed using Jackson and Lafayette Streets, from Broad Street, the Highway cut over to Frelinghuysen Avenue, possibly on Clinton Avenue or Poinier Street, or via Elizabeth Avenue and Meeker Avenue. After construction of the Holland Tunnel the ferry portion was abandoned, a reroute in 1928 took the Lincoln Highway onto the new Route 1 Extension from east of downtown Newark to North Avenue in Elizabeth, and west on North Avenue back to the old road. The Highway was also moved to the new Holland Tunnel and approach east of the Hudson County Boulevard, by then the U. S. Highway System was marked, and the Lincoln Highway was fading in importance. From the corner of Frelinghuysen Avenue and Poinier Street in Newark to Brunswick Circle in Trenton, many parts are still known as Lincoln Highway. The only changes have been the following, The original road may have followed Clinton Avenue to Elizabeth Avenue in Newark, Route 27 now has a one-way pair in Elizabeth. The northbound side, on Cherry Street, is the old Lincoln Highway, the old road is now Middlesex-Essex Turnpike and Thornall Street, on the east side of the tracks. However, until 1919, the road used Colonia Boulevard, New Dover Road. Until 1919, the road was what is now named Old Road. The old bridge over the Millstone River at Kingston still exists, the Lincoln Highway entered Trenton along Brunswick Avenue, now northbound US206 and BUS US1. Until 1920 the Highway used the Calhoun Street Bridge over the Delaware River into Pennsylvania, in 1920 the Highway was moved from the tolled Calhoun Street Bridge to the free Bridge Street Bridge
8.
Journal Square
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The square itself is at the intersection of Kennedy Boulevard and Bergen Avenues. The broader area extends to and includes Bergen Square, McGinley Square, India Square, many local, state, and federal agencies serving Hudson County maintain offices in the district. The Newkirk House and Van Wagenen House remain, while the still-intact Sip Manor was moved to Westfield, the newspaper built new headquarters and the new square was named in its honor. The bridge carrying the boulevard was designed by consulting engineer Abraham Burton Cohen, karen Angel of The New York Daily News described Journal Square from the 1920s to the 1960s as crown jewel, a glowing commercial, entertainment and transportation hub of the city. The Jersey Bounce, a hit song in the 1940s mentions Journal Square in its lyrics as the place where it got started, two days before Election Day in 1960 John F. Kennedy made his last campaign speech before returning to New England at Journal Square. Hudson Boulevard was named Kennedy Boulevard soon after his assassination, the Tube Bar, so-called for the Hudson Tubes was made famous by Louis Red Deutsch getting prank calls there. The Journal Square Transportation Center, opened between 1973-1975, includes the Journal Square PATH and bus station, and is headquarters of the Port Authority Trans-Hudson. It is attributed to have contributed to the decline of the district by moving the train-bus interchange, in front of the station is a statue of Jackie Robinson who in 1946 crossed the baseball color line at Roosevelt Stadium. A statue of Christopher Columbus, the work of Jersey City native Archimedes Giacomontonio, has located on the square since 1950. The Stanley and the Loews have both been restored, the first now an Assembly Hall of Jehovahs Witnesses, the used as a moviehouse. The campus of Hudson County Community College is a collection of buildings throughout the district around the square, a few blocks to the south near McGinley Square, are Saint Peters University, Hudson Catholic Regional High School, and the Jersey City Armory. A concentration of shops operated two of the ethnic groups, Overseas Filipino and Indian American, can be found along Newark Avenue. Northeast of Journal Square is Five Corners, the county seat of Hudson County, the Five Corners Branch of the Jersey City Public Library is sited on the intersection itself, while William L. Dickinson High School is located nearby at 2 Palisade Avenue. Many of the buildings in Journal Square include housing stock, convenience stores, bodegas, and downscale franchises, a proposed development by Kushner Real Estate Group and National Real Estate Advisors, Journal Squared, is planned as a 2,300,000 square foot 3-tower residential complex. The first phase, a 53-story tower, opened in early 2017 and it sits directly adjacent to the Journal Squared PATH station as a continuation of the dense transit-oriented development that has arisen further to the east in Jersey City. The towers were designed by Hollwich Kushner and Handel Architects, as of 2008 there were proposals to build a complex called 1 Journal Square which would combine rental housing, multi-story retail, and parking. Plans for the mixed-use development call for 68-story and 50-story residential towers above a 7-story retail, while the site has been cleared, construction has not begun. A further extension to 2013 requested by MEPTA was not granted by the Jersey City Redevelopment Agency, Jersey City is one of nine municipalities in New Jersey designated as eligible for Urban Transit Hub Tax Credits by the states Economic Development Authority
9.
Bergen Section, Jersey City
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The name Bergen, used throughout Hudson County, is taken from the original Bergen, New Netherland settlement at Bergen Square. While there was discussion of building a county long road as early as the 1870s, in the early automobile age it became part of the route of the Lincoln Highway and one of the busiest roads in the state. Bergen Avenue is a major thoroughfare in the city running south from Journal Square along the ridge of the diminishing Hudson Palisades known as Bergen Hill. Monticello Avenue, which takes its name from mid 19th suburban development, is a shopping district lined with many buildings with storefronts being brought back into use. As its name suggests West Bergen overlaps this neighborhood, the section retains much of the character that at one time made it the premiere 20th century residential district of the city. A variety of styles can be found along the Boulevard, Bergen Avenue. Many of the buildings are pre-war, built during the period of expansive growth in the 1920s and 1930s. Including The Hague, residence of one of the citys best-known mayor, among the many landmarks in the area are the Fairmount Apartments, Temple Beth-El, and the former Jersey City YMCA. Lincoln the Mystic, a statue of a seated Abraham Lincoln by James Earle Fraser is situated at the entrance to the park bears the presidents name. And is one of the Hudson Countys largest public green spaces, in 1997, the New Jersey State Historic Preservation Office listed part of the neighborhood the West Bergen Historic District on the New Jersey Register of Historic Places. It describes it as significant with a diverse collection of mostly residential building built between 1880s and 1930s. There are approximately 300 to 400 contributing property, some of which are large homes not found in the other historic districts. In 2014 The Jersey City Landmarks Conservancy proposed an area which is larger than the one called the West Bergen-East Lincoln Park Historic District. Approval was required by the city, and the ordinance was passed in June 2015, West Side Avenue local southbound to Droyers Point and Hudson Mall and north bound to Journal Square. Crosstown service along West Side Avenue and Montgomery Street to McGinley Square and Exchange Place
10.
Terraced house
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They are also known in some areas as row houses or linked houses. Terrace housing can be throughout the world, though it is in abundance in Europe and Latin America. The Place des Vosges in Paris is one of the examples of the style. Sometimes associated with the class, historical and reproduction terraces have increasingly become part of the process of gentrification in certain inner-city areas. Yarmouth Rows in Great Yarmouth, Norfolk is an example where the building fronts uniformly ran right to the property line, Townhouses are generally two- to three-storey structures that share a wall with a neighbouring unit. As opposed to an apartment building, townhouses do not have neighbouring units above or below them and they are similar in concept to row houses or terraced houses, except they are usually divided into smaller groupings of homes. The first and last of these houses is called an end terrace, in Australia, the term terrace house refers almost exclusively to Victorian and Edwardian era terraces or replicas almost always found in the older, inner city areas of the major cities. Terraced housing was introduced to Australia from England in the century, basing their architecture on those in the UK, France. Large numbers of terraced houses were built in the suburbs of large Australian cities, particularly Sydney and Melbourne. Detached housing became the style of housing in Australia following Federation in 1901. The most common building material used was brick, often covered with cement render, many terraces were built in the Filigree style, a style distinguished through heavy use of cast iron ornament, particularly on the balconies and sometimes depicting native Australian flora. In the 1950s, many urban renewal programs were aimed at eradicating them entirely in favour of modern development, in recent decades these inner-city areas and their terraced houses have been gentrified. The suburbs in which houses are often found are often sought after in Australia due to their proximity to the CBD of the major cities. They are therefore sometimes quite expensive even though they are not the preferred accommodation style. The lack of windows on the side, the gardens. The lack of off-street parking that most have is also an issue for the majority Australians, terraced housing has long been a popular style in Paris, France. The Place des Vosges was one of the earliest examples of the style, in Parisian squares, central blocks were given discreet prominence, to relieve the façade. Terraced building including housing was used primarily during Haussmanns renovation of Paris between 1852 and 1870 creating whole streetscapes consisting of terraced rows
11.
Edwardian era
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The death of Queen Victoria in January 1901 marked the end of the Victorian era. The new king Edward VII was already the leader of an elite that set a style influenced by the art. The Liberals returned to power in 1906 and made significant reforms, below the upper class, the era was marked by significant shifts in politics among sections of society that had been largely excluded from wielding power in the past, such as common labourers. The Edwardian period is sometimes imagined as a golden age of long summer afternoons and garden parties. This perception was created in the 1920s and later by those who remembered the Edwardian age with nostalgia, the Edwardian age was also seen as a mediocre period of pleasure between the great achievements of the preceding Victorian age and the catastrophe of the following war. Recent assessments emphasise the differences between the wealthy and the poor during the Edwardian era and describe the age as heralding great changes in political and social life. Robert Tressells popular novel The Ragged-Trousered Philanthropists is an example of the eras social critique. Despite this, this type of perception has been challenged more recently by modern historians, the British historian Lawrence James has argued that, during the early 20th century, the British felt increasingly threatened by rival powers such as Germany, Russia, and the United States. There was a political awareness of the working class, leading to a rise in trade unions. The aristocracy remained in control of top government offices, the Conservatives – at the time called Unionists – were dominant from the 1890s to 1906. The party had many strengths, appealing to voters supportive of imperialism, tariffs, the Church of England, a powerful Royal Navy, and traditional hierarchical society. There was a powerful leadership base in the aristocracy and landed gentry in rural England, plus strong support from the Church of England. Historians have used election returns to demonstrate that Conservatives did surprisingly well in working-class districts and they had an appeal as well to the better-off element of traditional working class Britons in the larger cities. Nevertheless, the weaknesses were accumulating, and proved so overwhelming in 1906 that they did not return to power until 1922. The Conservative Party was losing its drive and enthusiasm, especially after the retirement of the charismatic Joseph Chamberlain, there was a bitter split on tariff reform, that drove many of the free traders over to the Liberal camp. Tariff reform was an issue that the Conservative leadership inexplicably clung to. Support among the top tier of the class, and in lower middle class weakened. The 1906 election was a landslide for the opposition, which saw its total vote jump 25 percent, the Liberal Party lacked a unified ideological base in 1906
12.
Art Deco
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Art Deco, sometimes simply referred to as Deco, is a style of visual arts, architecture and design that first appeared in France just before World War I. It took its name, short for Arts Decorators, from the Exposition Internationale des Arts Décoratifs et Industriels Modernes held in Paris in 1925 and it combined modernist styles with fine craftsmanship and rich materials. During its heyday, Art Deco represented luxury, glamour, exuberance, Art Deco was a pastiche of many different styles, sometimes contradictory, united by a desire to be modern. It featured rare and expensive materials such as ebony and ivory, the Chrysler Building and other skyscrapers of New York were the most visible monuments of the new style. In the 1930s, during the Great Depression, the became more subdued. New materials arrived, including chrome plating, stainless steel and plastic, a more sleek form of the style, called Streamline Moderne, appeared in the 1930s, it featured curving forms and smooth, polished surfaces. Art Deco became one of the first truly international architectural styles, with examples found in European cities, the style came to an end with the beginning of World War II. Deco was replaced as the dominant global style by the functional and unadorned styles of modernism. The term arts décoratifs was first used in France in 1858, in 1868, Le Figaro newspaper used the term art décoratifs with respect to objects for stage scenery created for the Théâtre de lOpéra. In 1875, furniture designers, textile, jewelry and glass designers and it took its present name of ENSAD in 1927. The term Art déco was then used in a 1966 newspaper article by Hillary Gelson in the Times, describing the different styles at the exhibit. Art Deco gained currency as a broadly applied stylistic label in 1968 when historian Bevis Hillier published the first major book on the style. Hillier noted that the term was already being used by art dealers and cites The Times, in 1971, Hillier organized an exhibition at the Minneapolis Institute of Arts, which he details in his book about it, The World of Art Deco. The emergence of Art Deco was closely connected with the rise in status of decorative artists, the term arts décoratifs had been invented in 1875, giving the designers of furniture, textiles, and other decoration official status. The Société des artistes décorateurs, or SAD, was founded in 1901, a similar movement developed in Italy. The first international exhibition devoted entirely to the arts, the Esposizione international dArte decorative moderna, was held in Turin in 1902. Several new magazines devoted to decorative arts were founded in Paris, including Arts et décoration, Decorative arts sections were introduced into the annual salons of the Sociéte des artistes français, and later in the Salon dautomne. French nationalism also played a part in the resurgence of decorative arts, in 1911 the SAD proposed the holding of a major new international exposition of decorative arts in 1912
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