1.
Coat of arms
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A coat of arms is an heraldic visual design on an escutcheon, surcoat, or tabard. The coat of arms on an escutcheon forms the central element of the heraldic achievement which in its whole consists of shield, supporters, crest. A coat of arms is traditionally unique to a person, family, state. The ancient Romans used similar insignia on their shields, but these identified military units rather than individuals, the first evidence of medieval coats of arms has been attributed to the 11th century Bayeux Tapestry in which some of the combatants carry shields painted with crosses. However, that heraldic interpretation remains controversial, coats of arms came into general use by feudal lords and knights in battle in the 12th century. By the 13th century, arms had spread beyond their initial battlefield use to become a flag or emblem for families in the social classes of Europe. Exactly who had a right to use arms, by law or social convention, in the German-speaking regions both the aristocracy and burghers used arms, while in most of the rest of Europe they were limited to the aristocracy. The use of spread to the clergy, to towns as civic identifiers. Flags developed from coats of arms, and the arts of vexillology, the coats of arms granted to commercial companies are a major source of the modern logo. Despite no widespread regulation, heraldry has remained consistent across Europe, some nations, like England and Scotland, still maintain the same heraldic authorities which have traditionally granted and regulated arms for centuries and continue to do so in the present day. In England, for example, the granting of arms is and has controlled by the College of Arms. Unlike seals and other emblems, heraldic achievements have a formal description called a blazon. Many societies exist that also aid in the design and registration of personal arms, in the heraldic traditions of England and Scotland, an individual, rather than a family, had a coat of arms. In those traditions coats of arms are legal property transmitted from father to son, wives, undifferenced arms are used only by one person at any given time. Other descendants of the bearer could bear the ancestral arms only with some difference. One such charge is the label, which in British usage is now always the mark of an apparent or an heir presumptive. Because of their importance in identification, particularly in seals on legal documents and this has been carried out by heralds and the study of coats of arms is therefore called heraldry. In time, the use of arms spread from military entities to educational institutes, the author Helen Stuart argues that some coats of arms were a form of corporate logo
2.
Giovanni Visconti (archbishop of Milan)
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Giovanni Visconti was an Italian Roman Catholic cardinal, who was co-ruler in Milan and lord of other Italian cities. He also was a leader who fought against Florence, and used force to capture. He was the son of Matteo I Visconti and Bonacossa Borri, Giovanni Visconti was elected archbishop by the Capitol of Milan in 1317, but Pope John XXII refused to confirm the election and instead raised Aircardus from Comodeia to that position. In 1323 John excommunicated him with an accusation of heresy, and Visconti found an ally in the antipope Nicholas V, who give him the title of cardinal. In 1331 he became bishop and lord of Novara, and in 1339, after Aicardus death, he triumphantly entered Milan, officially, he thus was Archbishop of Milan from 1342 to 1354. Together with his brother Luchino, Visconti bought from the Pope the title of co-ruler of Milan, after Luchinos death, he associated in the lordship the sons of his other brother, Stefano, who were Matteo II, Bernabò and Galeazzo II. The year after Luchino Viscontis death in 1349, and with the approval of his relations, Giovanni Visconti assumed full lordship of Milan and began consolidating power in Lombardy and beyond. The same year,1350, he obtained lordship over Bologna and placed in nephew, Bernabò, afraid of his growing strength, in 1350 Florence organized a conference in Arezzo with a papal legate and representatives of other cities to form an alliance against Milan. Aware of these moves against him, Giovanni Visconti cultivated affection and alliance with the Ghibellines of Tuscany, after the death of Mastino II della Scala of Verona, who had been hostile to the Archbishop, he gained the friendship of Mastino’s son, Cangrande II della Scala. In 1351, he sent troops from Milan and Bologna, and from allies in Faenza and Forlì, all led by Bernabò, with war occurring in the Romagna region, Giovanni Visconti was able to lull the Florentines into believing that he had no intentions towards them. However, he then had many leading Bolognese citizens arrested and tortured and he used this as a justification of war against Florence and the Guelphs of Tuscany. In 1352, Giovanni Visconti became lord of Genoa, and in the following year, in 1353, Petrarch visited as his guest. Giovanni Visconti died 5 October 1354
3.
Gian Galeazzo Visconti
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Gian Galeazzo Visconti, son of Galeazzo II Visconti and Bianca of Savoy, was the first Duke of Milan and ruled the late-medieval city just before the dawn of the Renaissance. He was the founding patron of the Certosa di Pavia, completing the Visconti Castle at Pavia begun by his father. During his patronage of the Visconti Castle, he contributed greatly to the growth of the collection of scientific treatises, although most famous as Signore of Milan, Gian Galeazzo was the son of Galeazzo II Visconti who possessed the signoria of the city of Pavia. In 1385 Gian Galeazzo gained control of Milan by overthrowing his uncle Bernabò through treacherous means and he imprisoned his uncle who soon died, supposedly poisoned on his orders. His first marriage was to Isabelle of Valois, who brought him the title of comte de Vertus in Champagne, rendered in Italian as Conte di Virtù, the title by which he was known in his early career. A devoted father to his daughter Valentina, Gian Galeazzo reacted to gossip about Valentina at the French Court by threatening to declare war on France. The wife of King Charles VI of France was Isabeau of Bavaria, the granddaughter of Bernabò Visconti, and, thus, galeazzos role as a statesman also took other forms. He lost Padua in 1390, when it reverted to Francesco Novello da Carrara and he received the title of Duke of Milan from Wenceslaus, King of the Romans in 1395 for 100,000 florins. In 1400, Gian Galeazzo appointed a host of clerks and departments entrusted with improving the public health, for the new system of administration and bookkeeping this established, he is credited with creating the first modern bureaucracy. Gian Galeazzo had dreams of uniting all of northern Italy into one kingdom, the obstacles to his success included Bologna and especially Florence. In 1402, Gian Galeazzo launched assaults upon these cities, the warfare was extremely costly on both sides, but it was universally believed the Milanese would emerge victorious. The Florentine leaders, especially the chancellor Coluccio Salutati worked successfully to rally the people of Florence, but the Florentines were being taxed hard by famine, disease, Galeazzo won another victory over the Bolognese at the Battle of Casalecchio on 26 June 1402. Galeazzos dreams were to come to naught, however, as he succumbed to a fever at the castello of Melegnano on 10 August 1402 and his empire fragmented as infighting among his successors wrecked Milan, partly through his division of his lands among both legitimate and illegitimate heirs. His library, housed in the grandest princely dwelling in Italy, the castello in Pavia, montechino Italian Castle Piacenza Bueno de Mesquita, D. M. Giangaleazzo Visconti, Duke of Milan, A Study in the Political Career of an Italian Despot
4.
Nobility
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The privileges associated with nobility may constitute substantial advantages over or relative to non-nobles, or may be largely honorary, and vary from country to country and era to era. There is often a variety of ranks within the noble class. g, san Marino and the Vatican City in Europe. Hereditary titles often distinguish nobles from non-nobles, although in many nations most of the nobility have been un-titled, some countries have had non-hereditary nobility, such as the Empire of Brazil. The term derives from Latin nobilitas, the noun of the adjective nobilis. In modern usage, nobility is applied to the highest social class in pre-modern societies and it rapidly came to be seen as a hereditary caste, sometimes associated with a right to bear a hereditary title and, for example in pre-revolutionary France, enjoying fiscal and other privileges. Nobility is a historical, social and often legal notion, differing from high socio-economic status in that the latter is based on income. Being wealthy or influential cannot, ipso facto, make one noble, various republics, including former Iron Curtain countries, Greece, Mexico, and Austria have expressly abolished the conferral and use of titles of nobility for their citizens. Not all of the benefits of nobility derived from noble status per se, usually privileges were granted or recognised by the monarch in association with possession of a specific title, office or estate. Most nobles wealth derived from one or more estates, large or small and it also included infrastructure such as castle, well and mill to which local peasants were allowed some access, although often at a price. Nobles were expected to live nobly, that is, from the proceeds of these possessions, work involving manual labour or subordination to those of lower rank was either forbidden or frowned upon socially. In some countries, the lord could impose restrictions on such a commoners movements. Nobles exclusively enjoyed the privilege of hunting, in France, nobles were exempt from paying the taille, the major direct tax. In some parts of Europe the right of war long remained the privilege of every noble. During the early Renaissance, duelling established the status of a respectable gentleman, Nobility came to be associated with social rather than legal privilege, expressed in a general expectation of deference from those of lower rank. By the 21st century even that deference had become increasingly minimised, in France, a seigneurie might include one or more manors surrounded by land and villages subject to a nobles prerogatives and disposition. Seigneuries could be bought, sold or mortgaged, if erected by the crown into, e. g. a barony or countship, it became legally entailed for a specific family, which could use it as their title. Yet most French nobles were untitled, in other parts of Europe, sovereign rulers arrogated to themselves the exclusive prerogative to act as fons honorum within their realms. Nobility might be inherited or conferred by a fons honorum
5.
House of Visconti
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Visconti is the family name of two important Italian noble dynasties of the Middle Ages. There are two distinct Visconti families, the first one in the Republic of Pisa in the mid twelfth century who achieved prominence first in Pisa, the second rose to power in Milan, where they ruled from 1277 to 1447 and where several collateral branches still exist. Pope Gregory X, who reigned from 1271 to 1276, was a member of the House of Visconti, the renowned director Luchino Visconti is a scion of this latter family. This symbol is closely connected with Milan. Any link between the two families in Pisa-Gallura and Milan has yet to be proven, the first Visconti of note in Pisa was Alberto, who bore the title patrician. Albertos son, Eldizio, bore the titles patrician and consul from 1184 to 1185 and it was Eldizios sons, Lamberto and Ubaldo I, who brought the family to the height of its influence in Pisa and Sardinia. Both of them carried the title of patrician and each served a term as podestà, in 1212 various factions, pro- and anti-Visconti clashed for control over Pisa. In mid-January 1213, William I of Cagliari led a coalition of forces to victory in battle near Massa over the combined forces of Lucca. Afterward, Pisa divided power between four rectores, one of which was a Visconti, the Visconti of Sardinia continued to take a part in Pisan politics to the end of the century, but their influence there was greatly diminished after 1213. In Sardinia Eldizio had married a daughter of Torchitorio III of Cagliari, in 1207, Lamberto married Elena, the heiress of Barisone II of Gallura, thus securing control over the northeastern corner of Sardinia with his capital at Civita. In 1215, he and Ubaldo established their hegemony over the Giudicato of Cagliari in the south of the island as well, through advantageous marriages, Lambertos son, Ubaldo II, secured power in Logudoro for a time. By mid century, Pisan authority was unopposed in Sardinia thanks to intermarriages between the Visconti family and the great families of Pisa and Sardinia. Lambert Ubaldo John Nino his wife Beatrice dEste married secondly on 24 June 1300 to Galeazzo I Visconti, Lord of Milan. Joanna stepsister of Azzone Visconti of the Milan line The effective founder of the Visconti of Milan, Ottone, the family loved to claim legendary versions about its origins, while established facts reflect quite sober and almost humble beginnings. The branch of the Visconti family that came to rule Milan was originally entrusted with the lordship of Massino, a village above Lago Maggiore, which they controlled from the twelfth century. It is said that the Milanese Visconti had their origins in a family of capitanei whom archbishop Landulf of Milan had granted certain feudal holdings known as caput plebis. A document from the year 1157 says the Visconti were holders of the captaincy of Marliano, decades before that, before 1070, they had gained the title of viscount to be later inherited down the male line. The Visconti ruled Milan until the early Renaissance, first as Lords, then, from 1395, with the mighty Gian Galeazzo who endeavored to unify Northern Italy and Tuscany, Visconti rule in Milan ended with the death of Filippo Maria Visconti in 1447
6.
Beatrice Regina della Scala
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Beatrice Regina della Scala was an Italian noblewoman, a member of the Scaliger family of Northern Italy. She was the wife of Bernabò Visconti, Lord of Milan, Beatrice Regina was born in Verona in 1331, the youngest child and only daughter of Mastino II della Scala and Taddea da Carrara. She had three brothers, and five illegitimate half-siblings. Her father, who was a member of the Scaliger family of Northern Italy, was Lord of Verona, Vicenza, Brescia, Parma, on 27 September 1350 in Verona, Beatrice Regina was married to Bernabò Visconti, son of Stefano Visconti and Valentina Doria. She was nineteen years of age and he was twenty-seven, the marriage welded a powerful political alliance between Milan and Verona. He assumed power as Lord of Milan in 1354, henceforth and it has been claimed that Bernabò was a cruel and ruthless despot, and an implacable enemy of the Church. He seized the city of Bologna, rejected the Pope and his authority, confiscated ecclesiastical property. He was excommunicated as a heretic in 1363 by Pope Urban V, when Bernabò was in one of his frequent rages, only Beatrice Regina was able to approach him. Marco Visconti, married Elisabeth of Bavaria Rodolfo Visconti, Lord of Parma Ludovico Visconti, married Violante Visconti and they had a son, Giovanni, who left descendants. Carlo Visconti, married Beatrice of Armagnac, daughter of John II, Count of Armagnac and Jeanne de Périgord, agnese Visconti, married in 1380 Francesco I Gonzaga, by whom she had one daughter. Agnes was executed for alleged adultery, Antonia Visconti, married Eberhard III, Count of Wurttemberg, by whom she had three sons. Mastino Visconti, married Antonia della Scala, daughter of Cangrande II, giammastino Visconti, married Cleofa della Scala, by whom he had three children. She was the daughter of Cangrande II, lucia Visconti, married Edmund Holland, 4th Earl of Kent, the marriage was childless. Elisabetta Visconti, married on 26 January 1395 Ernest, Duke of Bavaria, by whom she had five children including Albert III, Bernabò fathered at least twelve illegitimate children by a variety of mistresses. Beatrice Regina died on 18 June 1384 at the age of fifty-three years, a year and a half later, her husband was deposed and later poisoned by his nephew and son-in-law Gian Galeazzo Visconti, who in 1395 became the first Duke of Milan. She gave her name to the church of Santa Maria alla Scala in Milan, and by extension, charles Cawley, Medieval Lands, Lords of Milan Barbara W. Tuchman, A Distant Mirror, Alfred A. Knopf Inc
7.
Taddea Visconti
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Taddea Visconti, Duchess of Bavaria was an Italian noblewoman of the Visconti family, the ruling house in Milan from 1277 to 1447. She was the first wife of Stephen III, Duke of Bavaria, born in Milan in 1351, sometime after 27 June, Taddea was the eldest child of Bernabò Visconti, Lord of Milan, and Beatrice Regina della Scala. She had sixteen siblings, but she was her parents favorite child. Her paternal grandparents were Stefano Visconti, Lord of Milan, and Valentina Doria, Bavaria was the wealthiest and most powerful of the German states at the time. Bernabò managed to secure the marriages of four of his children to members of the ruling Wittelsbach family, Taddea, being the eldest, was the first of the four Visconti children selected. In 1367, Taddea became the first wife of Stephen III of Bavaria-Ingolstadt and he ruled jointly with his brothers, Frederick and John II, in Bavaria-Landshut. Taddea brought a dowry of 100,000 gold ducats and her husband Stephen is described by historian Barbara Tuchman as reckless, prodigal, ostentatious, amorous, restless without a tournament or war and well-suited to a Visconti daughter. The marriage produced three children, Louis VII, Duke of Bavaria, married firstly Anne de Bourbon, by whom he had issue and he had several illegitimate children by various mistresses. Isabeau of Bavaria, Queen consort of King Charles VI of France, unnamed son Adjustment to life in Bavaria proved a difficult challenge for Taddea, prompting her, in later years, to take extended journeys abroad. The climate of Munich did not prove healthy for her, and she developed a persistent cough, after Stephen III became duke, Taddea was required to attend more state functions, her health notwithstanding. In the 1370s, she began to pay visits to her homeland, usually bringing her husband and children with her. After a trip to Milan in December 1380, Taddea fell seriously ill, by the time she returned to Bavaria, she was suffering from fever, coughing and weight loss. Her health continued to fail and she died on 28 September 1381 in Munich at the age of 30 and she was buried in Unsere Liebe Frau. When news of her death reached Milan, her father ordered his subjects to wear mourning clothes. Less than four years later, her daughter, Isabeau, became Queen of France, taddeas husband Stephen married secondly, on 16 January 1401, Elisabeth of Cleves, daughter of Count Adolf III of Cleves
8.
Viridis Visconti
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Viridis Visconti was an Italian noblewoman, a daughter of Bernabò Visconti and his wife Beatrice Regina della Scala. By her marriage to Leopold III, Duke of Austria, Viridis was Duchess consort of Austria, Styria and Carinthia, Viridis was born in Milan, Italy and was the second of seventeen children. Her sister, Taddea Visconti married Stephen III, Duke of Bavaria and was mother of Isabeau of Bavaria, Viridis and the rest of her sisters secured politically advantageous marriages. Her maternal grandparents were Mastino II della Scala and his wife Taddea da Carrara and her paternal grandparents were Stefano Visconti and his wife Valentina Doria. Viridis father, Bernabò was described as a cruel and ruthless despot and he was also an implacable enemy of the Church. He seized the city of Bologna, rejected the Pope and his authority, confiscated ecclesiastical property. He was excommunicated as a heretic in 1363 by Pope Urban V, when Bernabò was in one of his frequent rages, only the childrens mother, Beatrice Regina, was able to approach him. Viridis married Leopold III, Duke of Austria, son of Albert II, Duke of Austria, Viridis died on 1 March 1414 and out-lived at least three of six children, since her younger daughter, Katherines date of death is unknown. Viridis is buried in Sittich in Lower Carniola Tuchman, Barbara, a distant mirror, the calamitous 14th century. Media related to Viridis Visconti at Wikimedia Commons
9.
Caterina Visconti
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Caterina Visconti was a member of the Italian noble family Visconti, which ruled Milan from 1277 to 1447. She was the wife of Gian Galeazzo Visconti, the first Duke of Milan. Her granddaughter was Bianca Maria Visconti, who became Duchess of Milan in 1447, Caterina was born in Milan, one of the seventeen children of Bernabò Visconti, Lord of Milan, and Beatrice Regina della Scala. Her paternal grandparents were Stefano Visconti, Lord of Milan, and Valentina Doria and her niece, Isabeau of Bavaria, daughter of her eldest sister, Taddea, was a Queen consort of France upon her marriage in 1385 to King Charles VI. Following the murder of her grandfather, Isabeau became one of the most implacable enemies of Caterinas husband Gian Galeazzo and his daughter, Valentina. Early in 1379, a marriage was discussed between Caterina and King Richard II of England. The Kings tutor and advisor, Sir Simon Burley went to Milan to negotiate, Bernabò also rejected it, as he favoured another alliance for his daughter. From Isabelle, Gian Galeazzo had inherited the title of Count of Vertus in Champagne, in 1385, Gian Galeazzo deposed Caterinas father, Bernabò as Lord of Milan. Bernabò was imprisoned at the Castle of Trezzo where he was poisoned on orders of Gian Galeazzo. Caterina became the Duchess of Milan on 11 May 1395, when her husband was created the first duke by Wenceslaus, to commemorate the event, a missal was painted by Anovelo da Imbonate, depicting, in the foreground, the kneeling figures of Caterina and Gian Galeazzo. It is now in the library of the Basilica of SantAmbrogio in Milan and her husband granted her the castle of Monza and the signoria of Vicenza. Caterina and her husband commissioned the construction of the Certosa di Pavia and she and Gian Galeazzo had three children, Daughter. Gian Maria Visconti, 2nd Duke of Milan, married Antonia Malatesta, Filippo Maria Visconti, 3rd Duke of Milan, married Beatrice Lascaris di Tenda, widow of Facino Cane. The marriage was childless and he had her executed on charges of adultery, by his mistress, Agnese del Maino, he had a daughter, Bianca Maria Visconti, who succeeded him as Duchess of Milan. When Gian Galeazzo died of a fever on 3 September 1402, the Duchy was riven by strife and numerous revolts as rival factions between Gian Galeazzos legitimate and illegitimate heirs contested for land and power during her regency. Caterinas faction was led by Francesco Barbavara, Count of Valsesia, the faction led by her enemy, the condottiero Facino Cane, however prevailed, thus he, along with the illegitimate sons of Gian Galeazzo, created doubts about Caterinas loyalty in her sons mind. Convinced of his mothers treachery, Gian Maria had Caterina arrested on 18 August 1404 and imprisoned in her own castle of Monza and she was about forty-three years old. Her son Gian Maria was assassinated in 1412 by a group of Milanese Ghibellines, Caterinas second son Filippo Maria succeeded him as Duke of Milan
10.
Agnese Visconti
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Agnese Visconti also known as Agnes was a daughter of Bernabò Visconti and his wife Beatrice Regina della Scala. She was consort of Mantua by her marriage to Francesco I Gonzaga, Agnese was born in Milan, Italy and was the ninth of seventeen children. Agneses sister, Taddea Visconti, married Stephen III, Duke of Bavaria and was mother of Isabeau of Bavaria, Agnese and the rest of her sisters secured politically advantageous marriages. Agneses maternal grandparents were Mastino II della Scala and his wife Taddea da Carrara and her paternal grandparents were Stefano Visconti and his wife Valentina Doria. Agneses father, Bernabò, was a cruel and ruthless despot, and he seized the papal city of Bologna, rejected the Pope and his authority, confiscated ecclesiastical property, and forbade any of his subjects to have any dealings with the Curia. He was excommunicated as a heretic in 1363 by Pope Urban V, when Bernabò was in one of his frequent rages, only the childrens mother, Beatrice Regina, was able to approach him. Agneses father led a policy of balance between the powers of the Gonzaga family. Her father arranged for her to marry condottiero Francesco I Gonzaga and he was the son of Ludovico I Gonzaga and Alda dEste. Agnese brought a dowry of 50,000 gold scudi and the cities of Parma, Cremona, Brescia, the couple had only one daughter, Alda Gonzaga, who married in 1405 Francis II Novello da Carrara, Lord of Padua. Agnese was later accused by her husband of having committed adultery with Antonio Scandiano, Agnese may not have been guilty, as her husband wanted to end his alliance with her father and wanted to form one instead with Gian Galeazzo Visconti. He could have just divorced Agnese, but to break off all relations with her father completely and she was executed in Mantua 1391 along with her alleged lover
11.
Antonia Visconti
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Antonia Visconti was a daughter of Bernabò Visconti and his wife Beatrice Regina della Scala. Antonia was Countess of Württemberg by her marriage, Antonia was born in Milan and was the tenth of her parents seventeen children. Another sister, Agnes, married Francesco I Gonzaga and was executed for supposed adultery in 1391, Antonias youngest sister Elisabetta was married to Ernest, Duke of Bavaria. Antonias maternal grandparents were Mastino II della Scala and his wife Taddea da Carrara and her paternal grandparents were Stefano Visconti and his wife Valentina Doria. Her father, Bernabò was a cruel and ruthless despot, and he seized the papal city of Bologna, rejected the Pope and his authority, confiscated ecclesiastical property, and forbade any of his subjects to have any dealings with the Curia. He was excommunicated as a heretic in 1363 by Pope Urban V, when Bernabò was in one of his frequent rages, only Beatrice Regina was able to approach him. Antonia was originally betrothed to Frederick III the Simple and this was different from other family marriages because most of Antonias sisters married members of the House of Wittelsbach. Ten years after the first suggestion of marriage, a contract was drawn up. However, Antonia never married Frederick because he died 27 January 1377 before the marriage could take place, Antonia could have become Queen consort of Sicily if she had married Frederick. Antonia married in Bad Urach three years later on 27 October 1380 to Eberhard III, Count of Württemberg, Antonia laid out water gardens in their castle grounds, known as der Frau von Mailand Garten. Antonia and Eberhard had three sons, but only one lived to adulthood, Eberhard IV, Count of Württemberg, ulrich Ludwig Some believe that the couple had another child. Antonia and Eberhard were married for twenty-five years, on 26 March 1405 Antonia died at Old Castle, leaving her husband and surviving son. Eberhard remarried after Antonias death to Elisabeth, daughter of John III, Burgrave of Nuremberg and they had a daughter, also called Elisabeth. Tests were done on the genetics of the House of Württemberg by Gerhard O. Schwerdfeger, there were cases of mental illness in the family and according to Schwerdfeger the gene came from the House of Visconti. Otto of Bavaria and Ludwig II of Bavaria both had a disorder, they are both descended from Antonia. Antonias father, did have frequent rages
12.
Maddalena Visconti
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Maddalena Visconti was a daughter of Bernabò Visconti and his wife Beatrice Regina della Scala. Maddalena was Duchess of Bavaria-Landshut by her marriage to Frederick, Duke of Bavaria, Maddalena was born in Milan and was the twelfth of seventeen children born to her parents. Maddalenas maternal grandparents were Mastino II della Scala and his wife Taddea da Carrara and her paternal grandparents were Stefano Visconti and his wife Valentina Doria. Her father, Bernabò was a cruel and ruthless despot, and he seized the papal city of Bologna, rejected the Pope and his authority, confiscated ecclesiastical property, and forbade any of his subjects to have any dealings with the Curia. He was excommunicated as a heretic in 1363 by Pope Urban V, when Bernabò was in one of his frequent rages, only Beatrice Regina was able to approach him. Maddalena married on 2 September 1381 Frederick, Duke of Bavaria and her father wanted to improve relations with Bavaria so married his three daughters, Maddalena, Elisabetta and Taddea to the three rival Dukes. Frederick had been married to Anna of Neuffen, with whom he had a daughter, Isabella of Bavaria. On Annas death, Frederick married Maddalena, the couple had five children, Henry XVI the Rich. Elisabeth, married to Frederick I, Margrave of Brandenburg, magdalene, married 1404 to Count Johann Meinhard VII of Görz. Maddalenas stepdaughter, Isabella was married to one of Maddalenas brother, Marco Visconti, from 1375 to 1392 Frederick ruled with his brothers Stephen III and John II, Maddalena therefore ruled as consort jointly with sister Taddea, but only for a few weeks, before Taddea died. John IIs wife was Catherine of Gorizia, it is unknown whether Maddalena, in 1387 Frederick imprisoned the archbishop of Salzburg to force him to finish his alliance with a confederation of cities in Swabia. Frederick was an advisor of King Wenceslaus in legal affairs and a candidate for the kings succession when he died at Budweis already in 1393. He was succeeded in Bavaria-Landshut by his son with Maddalena, Henry, Henry inherited not only the black hair of Maddalena but also the despotic temperament of her family, the Visconti. Henry oppressed very cruelly uprisings of the citizenry of Landshut in 1410 and fought successfully against his cousin Louis VII the Bearded and he united Louis’ enemies in the Parakeet Society of 1414 and the League of Constance of 1415. Maddalena died in Burghausen, Bavaria on 17 July 1404 and she is buried at Raitenhaslach Monastery
13.
Doria (family)
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Documentary evidence refers to two members of that family, Martino and Genuardo, in 1110, they are called filii Auriae. The Doria had fiefs in Sardinia from the 12th century to the 15th century, although uncommon, Doria is also known as a female first name. Simon Doria lived in the late 12th century and was an admiral of the Genoese in the assault against Saint Jean dAcre. Percivalle Doria, who died in 1275 fighting for the Ghibelline, was an infamous warlord, also a poet, Simon Doria was podestà of Savona and Albenga. Tedisio Doria financed the expedition of Vadino and Ugolino Vivaldi in 1291, branca Doria is mentioned by Dante in the Divine Comedy because of his treacherous murder of Michele Zanche, his father-in-law, in 1275. Brancaleone Doria ruled the Giudicato of Arborea and nearly conquered the whole of Sardinia in the fourteenth century. Ottone Doria commanded the 5,000 or more Genoese crossbowmen hired by the French for the Battle of Crécy against the English, like many of his troops, he was killed in the battle, where the Genoese ended by being attacked by both sides. Heavy rain had made their bowstrings wet and useless so Ottone ordered a retreat, the French cavalry saw this as cowardice and attacked them, while others were slain by the English bowmen. The most remarkable member of the family is Admiral Andrea Doria, Prince of Melfi and his nephew was Giovanni Andrea Doria, another admiral, Giovanni Andreas son was Giovanni Doria, a cardinal of the Catholic Church. Other notable Dorias of the period include admiral Carlo Doria and art collector Giovanni Carlo Doria, the family had relationships with political entities both in and out of Europe. During the attempts by the Mongol ilkhanate ruler Abaqa to form a Franco-Mongol alliance, many male children of the Doria family were named after foreign rulers, such as Abaga, Casano, and Aitone, named after Hayton, or Hethum I, king of Cilician Armenia. Some members of the family became doge of Genoa, agnatic members of the family are marchesi al cognome, that is, bear the title of marquess attached to the family name as a courtesy title. Non-agnatic princely branches like the Colonna-Doria are still flourishing, there are also titled branches outside Italy, such as the Porrata Doria family in Spain, which rank as marquesses. The Doria clan helped finance the Portuguese and Spanish navigations in the late 15th and 16th centuries, francesco Doria, a banker at Seville, financed Christopher Columbuss expeditions, and his son Aleramo Doria was a banker to King John III of Portugal until 1556. Finally, Aleramos daughter Clemenza Doria was one of the earliest settlers in the 16th-century Portuguese colonization of Brazil, or João Agripino da Costa Doria III held a cabinet-level position in the José Sarney administration in Brazil. The genoese Lodisio Doria, knight of Christs Order, settled in the island of Madeira and their descendants are the Teixeira Doria, lords of Pena dAguia, and França Doria families, which also have as direct ancestor the Portuguese navigator Tristão Vaz. The França Doria branch is headed by the Count of Calçada, the name Doria was used in Cornelia Funkes Inkheart series for a semi-main character who eventually fell in love with the teenage heroine. Documentary sources at the Arquivo Nacional da Torre do Tombo, Lisbon Phillips, J. R. S
14.
Italians
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Italians are a nation and ethnic group native to Italy who share a common culture, ancestry and speak the Italian language as a native tongue. The majority of Italian nationals are speakers of Standard Italian. Italians have greatly influenced and contributed to the arts and music, science, technology, cuisine, sports, fashion, jurisprudence, banking, Italian people are generally known for their localism and their attention to clothing and family values. The term Italian is at least 3,000 years old and has a history that goes back to pre-Roman Italy. According to one of the common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The Etruscan civilization reached its peak about the 7th century BC, but by 509 BC, when the Romans overthrew their Etruscan monarchs, its control in Italy was on the wane. By 350 BC, after a series of wars between Greeks and Etruscans, the Latins, with Rome as their capital, gained the ascendancy by 272 BC, and they managed to unite the entire Italian peninsula. This period of unification was followed by one of conquest in the Mediterranean, in the course of the century-long struggle against Carthage, the Romans conquered Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica. Finally, in 146 BC, at the conclusion of the Third Punic War, with Carthage completely destroyed and its inhabitants enslaved, octavian, the final victor, was accorded the title of Augustus by the Senate and thereby became the first Roman emperor. After two centuries of rule, in the 3rd century AD, Rome was threatened by internal discord and menaced by Germanic and Asian invaders. Emperor Diocletians administrative division of the empire into two parts in 285 provided only temporary relief, it became permanent in 395, in 313, Emperor Constantine accepted Christianity, and churches thereafter rose throughout the empire. However, he moved his capital from Rome to Constantinople. The last Western emperor, Romulus Augustulus, was deposed in 476 by a Germanic foederati general in Italy and his defeat marked the end of the western part of the Roman Empire. During most of the period from the fall of Rome until the Kingdom of Italy was established in 1861, Odoacer ruled well for 13 years after gaining control of Italy in 476. Then he was attacked and defeated by Theodoric, the king of another Germanic tribe, Theodoric and Odoacer ruled jointly until 493, when Theodoric murdered Odoacer. Theodoric continued to rule Italy with an army of Ostrogoths and a government that was mostly Italian, after the death of Theodoric in 526, the kingdom began to grow weak
15.
Milan
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Milan is a city in Italy, capital of the Lombardy region, and the most populous metropolitan area and the second most populous comune in Italy. The population of the city proper is 1,351,000, Milan has a population of about 8,500,000 people. It is the industrial and financial centre of Italy and one of global significance. In terms of GDP, it has the largest economy among European non-capital cities, Milan is considered part of the Blue Banana and lies at the heart of one of the Four Motors for Europe. Milan is an Alpha leading global city, with strengths in the arts, commerce, design, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, services, research, and tourism. Its business district hosts Italys Stock Exchange and the headquarters of the largest national and international banks, the city is a major world fashion and design capital, well known for several international events and fairs, including Milan Fashion Week and the Milan Furniture Fair. The city hosts numerous cultural institutions, academies and universities, with 11% of the national total enrolled students, Milans museums, theatres and landmarks attract over 9 million visitors annually. Milan – after Naples – is the second Italian city with the highest number of accredited stars from the Michelin Guide, the city hosted the Universal Exposition in 1906 and 2015. Milan is home to two of Europes major football teams, A. C. Milan and F. C. Internazionale, the etymology of Milan is uncertain. One theory holds that the Latin name Mediolanum comes from the Latin words medio, however, some scholars believe lanum comes from the Celtic root lan, meaning an enclosure or demarcated territory in which Celtic communities used to build shrines. Hence, Mediolanum could signify the central town or sanctuary of a Celtic tribe, indeed, the name Mediolanum is borne by about sixty Gallo-Roman sites in France, e. g. Saintes and Évreux. Alciato credits Ambrose for his account, around 400 BC, the Celtic Insubres settled Milan and the surrounding region. In 222 BC, the Romans conquered the settlement, renaming it Mediolanum, Milan was eventually declared the capital of the Western Roman Empire by Emperor Diocletian in 286 AD. Diocletian chose to stay in the Eastern Roman Empire and his colleague Maximianus ruled the Western one, immediately Maximian built several monuments, such as a large circus 470 m ×85 m, the Thermae Herculeae, a large complex of imperial palaces and several other buildings. With the Edict of Milan of 313, Emperor Constantine I guaranteed freedom of religion for Christians, after the city was besieged by the Visigoths in 402, the imperial residence was moved to Ravenna. In 452, the Huns overran the city, in 539, the Ostrogoths conquered and destroyed Milan during the Gothic War against Byzantine Emperor Justinian I. In the summer of 569, a Teutonic tribe, the Lombards, conquered Milan, some Roman structures remained in use in Milan under Lombard rule. Milan surrendered to the Franks in 774 when Charlemagne took the title of King of the Lombards, the Iron Crown of Lombardy dates from this period
16.
Mastino II della Scala
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Mastino II della Scala was lord of Verona. He was a member of the famous Scaliger family of northern Italy and he was the son of Alboino I della Scala and Beatrice da Correggio. At the death of Cangrande I, he and his brother Alberto II were associated in the rule of Verona, soon, however, Mastinos independent attitude overshadowed the brothers presence. In the first part of his reign, abandoning the careful policy of balance held by his father, he conquered Brescia, Parma in Lombardy, however, the extension of Mastinos power spurred the creation of League of all the other local powers. In the first year of war he managed to resist, but in 1336 the League was joined by Azzone Visconti of Milan, the Este of Ferrara, the Gonzaga of Mantua and the Papal States. Surrounded by every side, he could ask for a treaty of peace through the intermediation of Emperor Louis IV of Bavaria. His territories were restricted to Verona and Vicenza, the remaining split among the victorious enemies. An attempt to part of his lands with the German mercenaries that had remained in Vicenza after the war. He died in Verona in 1351 and he is buried in the Gothic mausoleum near the church of Santa Maria Antica, in one of the Scaliger Tombs. In 1328 he married Taddea da Carrara and Anna Gradenigo. M
17.
Verona
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Verona is a city on the Adige river in Veneto, Italy, with approximately 265,000 inhabitants and one of the seven provincial capitals of the region. It is the second largest city municipality in the region and the third largest in northeast Italy, the metropolitan area of Verona covers an area of 1,426 km2 and has a population of 714,274 inhabitants. Three of Shakespeares plays are set in Verona, Romeo and Juliet, The Two Gentlemen of Verona and it is unknown if Shakespeare ever visited Verona or Italy at all, but his plays have lured many visitors to Verona and surrounding cities many times over. The city has been awarded World Heritage Site status by UNESCO because of its structure and architecture. According to a theory that considers the geographical position of the city, Verona is short for Versus Romae which means In the direction of Rome because as italian people say All roads lead to Rome. The exclamation Vae Romae if understood in Latin means Alas Rome, in fact, to express distress or denounce a disgrace ancient Romans used the Latin interjection vae. So, you explain the famous poem by William Shakespeare There is no world without Verona walls, But purgatory, torture. Hence-banished is banishd from the world, And worlds exile is death, the writer would express a Roman concept through its character named Romeo, a name that invokes Rome, according to which the city of Verona was a boundary between the Roman world and barbaric one. Verona was a place of passage and to horses, for those who wanted to go and had walked the Via Claudia Augusta. So the expression Vae Romae Alas Rome would indicate spirit of the place, another theory is that it is connected to the river. Vera was a name of the river Adige before the adoption of the current name, as in many similar instances in Europe the name of the town is formed with the addition of suffix -ona which means settlement over. The city was sometimes known as Welsch-Bern in German. The precise details of Veronas early history remain a mystery, one theory is it was a city of the Euganei, who were obliged to give it up to the Cenomani. With the conquest of the Valley of the Po the Veronese territory became Roman, Verona became a Roman colonia in 89 BC, and then a municipium in 49 BC when its citizens were ascribed to the Roman tribe Poblilia or Publicia. The city became important because it was at the intersection of several roads, stilicho defeated Alaric and his Visigoths here in 403. But, after Verona was conquered by the Ostrogoths in 489, theoderic the Great was said to have built a palace there. It remained under the power of the Goths throughout the Gothic War, except for a day in 541. The defections that took place among the Byzantine generals with regard to the booty made it possible for the Goths to regain possession of the city, in 552 Valerian vainly endeavored to enter the city, but it was only when they were fully overthrown that the Goths surrendered it
18.
Carraresi
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The Carraresi were an important family of northern Italy in the 12th to 15th centuries. As signori of Padua, their power and patronage placed them in an isolated position far outshining any other single family. Margaret Plant has examined how in its period of domination in Padua from 1337 to 1405 the house of Carrara sustained a singular chapter in the history of patronage. Faithful to the Emperors generation after generation, after becoming lords of Pernumia, in 1338 they ousted the Veronese della Scala from Padua, in 1388 a coalition of Milanese and Venetian forced Francesco il Vecchio to abdicate in favor of his son. The Venetians invested Padua as Venetian territory in 1405, part of their palace in Padua is still standing. Notable parts are the Loggia and the Sala dei Giganti and they erected the important Abbazia di Santo Stefano abbey in the locality Carrara Santo Stefano, between the modern Due Carrare and Padua. The abbeys church, dedicated to Saint Stephen, is standing today and contains, among others. In the 15th century the Carraresi were represented in the male line of the two descended from 13th-century brothers Marsilio and Jacopino. The imprese of the coat of arms is a four-wheeled cart. Gumberto Gumberto Litolfo da Carrara, who founded the Abbazia of Santo Stefano in Due Carrare
19.
Pope Urban V
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Pope Urban V, born Guillaume de Grimoard, was Pope from 28 September 1362 to his death in 1370 and was also a member of the Order of Saint Benedict. He was the sixth Avignon Pope, and the only Avignon pope to be beatified, even after his election as pontiff, he continued to follow the Benedictine Rule, living simply and modestly. His habits did not always gain him supporters who were used to lives of affluence, Urban V pressed for reform throughout his pontificate and also oversaw the restoration and construction of churches and monasteries. One of the goals he made upon his election to the Papacy was the reunion of the Eastern and Western Churches and he came as close as some of his predecessors and successors, but did not succeed. Guillaume de Grimoard was born in 1310 in the Castle of Grizac in the French region of Languedoc, the son of Guillaume de Grimoard, Lord of Bellegarde. He had two brothers, Étienne and Anglic, the cardinal, and a sister Delphine. In 1327, Guillaume Grimoard became a Benedictine monk in the small Priory of Chirac, near his home and he was sent to St. Victor for his novitiate. After his profession of vows, he was ordained a priest in his own monastery in Chirac in 1334. He studied literature and law at Montpellier, and then he moved to the University of Toulouse and he earned a doctorate in Canon Law on 31 October 1342. He was appointed Prior of Nôtre-Dame du Pré in the diocese of Auxerre by Pope Clement VI and he began both disciplinary and financial reforms. Prior Grimoard became Procurator-General for the Order of St. Benedict at the Papal Curia and he became a noted canonist, teaching at Montpellier, Paris and Avignon. He was appointed by the Bishop of Clermont, Pierre de Aigrefeuille to be his Vicar General, when Bishop Pierre was transferred to Uzès, Guillaume Grimond became Vicar General of Uzès. Guillaume was named abbot of the monastery of Saint-Germain en Auxerre on 13 February 1352 by Pope Clement VI, in 1359 the town and abbey were captured by the English and subjected to heavy imposts. In the summer of 1352 Pope Clement VI summoned Abbot Guillaume for an assignment, northern Italy had been in a chaotic state for some time, thanks to the ambitions of the Visconti of Milan, led by Archbishop Giovanni Visconti. He had conquered much of Lombardy, seized the Papal city of Bologna, in order to keep a hold on the territory for the Church, the Pope had hit on the scheme of making Archbishop Visconti his Vicar of Bologna for the present. He drew up an agreement on 27 April 1352, which absolved the Visconti of all their transgressions, the Pope even made the first payment on the subsidy which he was going to provide them. On 26 July, Abbot Grimoard and Msgr, azzo Manzi da Reggio, the Dean of the Cathedral of Aquileia, were presented with written instructions by Pope Clement to go to northern Italy as Apostolic nuncios to deal with the situation. This he did on 2 October 1352, Guillaume was allotted 8 gold florins a day for his expenses, his associate Anzo only 4 florins
20.
Matteo II Visconti
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Matteo II Visconti was co-ruler of Milan together with his brothers Galeazzo II and Bernabò. He was the eldest son of Stefano Visconti and Valentina Doria, in 1342 he married Egidiola di Filippino of Gonzaga. His uncle Luchino Visconti exiled him to Montferrat in 1346, as co-ruler of the domain after the death of his uncle Giovanni Visconti, Matteo was given Lodi, Piacenza, Parma and Bologna. He died after a dinner in which, according to his mother and others and his daughter Caterina was married to Feltrino Gonzaga of Mantua. Dellistoria dei visconti e delle cose dItalia, avvenute sotto di essi, descritta
21.
Galeazzo II Visconti
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Galeazzo II Visconti was a member of the Visconti dynasty and a ruler of Milan, Italy. The founder of the Visconti house is a claim, though widespread credit goes to Galeazzo’s ancestor. Other notable figures in the Visconti family include Matteo I, Luchino I, prior to his rule over Milan, Galeazzo II was briefly exiled by one of his uncles, Luchino. During his exile he stayed in Savoy before eventually being invited to return to Milan and share rule over the city with his relatives, Bernabò and Matteo I Visconti. Galeazzo’s fame is outstripped by that of his son Gian Galeazzo, Galeazzo II became co-ruler of Milan with his brothers Bernabò and Matteo II through a statute forged by the Milanese General Council. During his time as signore, Galeazzo II was focused on increasing the prestige and he forged ties with Holy Roman emperor Charles IV, who granted him and his two brothers, the shared title of imperial vicar. Although Visconti military activities in North Italy allowed Galeazzo II to set up his base of operations in Pavia and his death on August 4,1378 allowed his son Gian Galeazzo Visconti to expand the influence of the family as signore. Galeazzo II Visconti’s most notable campaigns were against Pope Gregory XI. A series of battles were fought between the papacy and members of the Visconti family, including Bernarbò and Galeazzo Visconti that ultimately ended in a peace treaty, another accomplishment of Galeazzo’s was to claim Pavia in 1359, which helped him fund military expeditions. Pavia later became a residence of the Visconti family. Despite his accomplishments, Galeazzo II Viscontis legacy has largely been coloured by a few aspects of his life. He is largely remembered through the successes of his son, Gian Galeazzo Visconti, finally, Galeazzo II is associated with a sinister legacy of brutal torture. This comes from his and his brothers introduction of the Querasima torture protocol at the beginning of their reign in Milan. Galeazzo II Visconti was the son of Stefano Visconti and Valentina Doria, the House of Visconti held family ties to Pisa, Sardinia and Milan. Originally, the founding of the Milanese Visconti line was a contested issue. Galeazzo’s ancestors, Azzone and Ottone Visconti both held legitimate claims to be considered the founder of their house, however, it was under Ottone that the power of the Visconti house expanded before becoming the dynastic power they were later infamous for. Previously, the Visconti family had only enjoyed limited privileges within the city, as a result of his efforts, Ottone was recognized as the official founder of the Visconti house over Azzone. As the archbishop of Milan from 1277-1294, Ottone wrested control over Milan from its previous rulers before skillfully maneuvering his nephew Matteo I Visconti into a position of power, Matteo il Magno ruled from 1294-1302 and then again from 1311-1322, preceding Galeazzo’s rule
22.
Bergamo
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Bergamo is a city in Lombardy, Italy, about 40 km northeast of Milan and 30 km from the lakes Como and Iseo. The foothills of the Bergamo Alps begin immediately north of the town, Bergamo is the seat of the Province of Bergamo. With a population of around 120,000, Bergamo is the fourth-largest city in Lombardy, the metropolitan area of Bergamo extends beyond the administrative city limits, spanning over a densely urbanized area with slightly less than 500,000 inhabitants. The Bergamo metropolitan area is part of the broader Milan metropolitan area. As of 2015, Bergamo is the second most visited city in Lombardy after Milan, Bergamo occupies the site of the ancient town of Bergomum, founded as a settlement of the Celtic tribe of Cenomani. In 49 BC it became a Roman municipality, containing c.10,000 inhabitants at its peak, an important hub on the military road between Friuli and Raetia, it was destroyed by Attila in the 5th century. From the 6th century Bergamo was the seat of one of the most important Lombard duchies of northern Italy, together with Brescia, Trento, after the conquest of the Lombard Kingdom by Charlemagne, it became the seat of a county under one Auteramus. An important Lombardic hoard dating from the 6th to 7th centuries was found in the vicinity of the city in the 19th century and is now in the British Museum. From the 11th century onwards, Bergamo was an independent commune, the local Guelph and Ghibelline factions were the Colleoni and Suardi, respectively. Feuding between the two initially caused the family of Omodeo Tasso to flee north c, from 1264, Bergamo was intermittently under the rule of Milan. In 1331, it gave itself to John of Bohemia, after a short conquest by the Malatesta in 1407, in 1428 it fell under the control of the Venetian Republic, remaining part of it until 1797. Between 1797 and 1815, Bergamo and its territory were included in the political entities born in North Italy during the French, notably, the Venetians fortified the higher portion of the town. In 1815, it was assigned to the Austrian Empire, giuseppe Garibaldi freed it in 1859 during the Second Italian War of Independence, when Bergamo became part of the Kingdom of Italy. During the 20th century Bergamo became one of Italys most industrialized cities and it is also one of the few Italian cities that did not suffer major destruction during World War II. Bergamo experiences a subtropical climate characteristic of Northern Italy. While most of Italy is characterized by dry summers with little to no precipitation, Bergamo has the reverse trend, the two parts of the town are connected by funicular/cable car, roads, and foot-paths. Parking spaces are limited in the upper city. The upper city, surrounded by Venetian walls built in the 16th century, Città Alta is an extremely expensive place to live in, with properties being sold for five to twelve thousand euro per square meter
23.
Brescia
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Brescia is a city and comune in the region of Lombardy in northern Italy. It is situated at the foot of the Alps, a few kilometres from the lakes Garda, with a population of 196,480, it is the second largest city in the region and the fourth of northwest Italy. The urban area of Brescia extends beyond the city limits and has a population of 672,822. The city is the capital of the Province of Brescia, one of the largest in Italy. Founded over 3,200 years ago, Brescia has been an important regional centre since pre-Roman times, Brescia is considered the industrial capital of Italy. The metallurgy and the production of tools and firearms are of particular economic significance, along with mechanical. In addition, Brescia is the setting for most of the action in Alessandro Manzonis 1822 play Adelchi, Brescia and its territory will be the European Region of Gastronomy in 2017. Various myths relate to the founding of Brescia, one assigns it to Hercules while another attributes its foundation as Altilia by a fugitive from the siege of Troy. According to another myth, the founder was the king of the Ligures, Cidnus, colle Cidneo was named after that version, and it is the site of the medieval castle. Others scholars attribute the founding of Brescia to the Etruscans, the Gallic Cenomani, allies of the Insubres, invaded in the 7th century BC, and used the town as their capital. The city became Roman in 225 BC, when the Cenomani submitted to the Romans, during the Carthaginian Wars, Brixia was allied with the Romans. During a Celtic alliance against the city remained fateful to the Romans, with their Roman allies the city remain and attacked and destroyed the Insubres by surprise. Subsequently, the city and the tribe entered the Roman world peacefully as faithful allies, in 89 BC, Brixia was recognized as civitas and in 41 BC, its inhabitants received Roman citizenship. Augustus founded a colony there in 27 BC, and he. Roman Brixia had at least three temples, an aqueduct, a theatre, a forum with another temple built under Vespasianus, when Constantine advanced against Maxentius in 312, an engagement took place at Brixia in which the enemy was forced to retreat as far as Verona. In 402, the city was ravaged by the Visigoths of Alaric I, during the 452 invasion of the Huns under Attila, the city was besieged and sacked. Forty years later, it was one of the first conquests by the Gothic general Theoderic the Great in his war against Odoacer, in 568, Brescia was taken from the Byzantines by the Lombards, who made it the capital of one of their semi-independent duchies. The first duke was Alachis, who died in 573, later dukes included the future kings of the Lombards Rothari and Rodoald, and Alachis II, a fervent anti-Catholic who was killed in battle at Cornate dAdda in 688
24.
Cremona
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Cremona listen is a city and comune in northern Italy, situated in Lombardy, on the left bank of the Po River in the middle of the Pianura Padana. It is the capital of the province of Cremona and the seat of the local city, Cremona is first mentioned in history as a settlement of the Cenomani, a Gallic tribe that arrived in the Po valley around 400 BC. However, the name Cremona most likely back to earlier settlers and puzzled the ancients. In 218 BC the Romans established on that spot their first military outpost north of the Po river, Cremona and nearby Placentia, were founded in the same year, as bases for penetration into what became the Roman Province of Gallia Cisalpina. Cremona quickly grew into one of the largest towns in northern Italy, as it was on the road connecting Genoa to Aquileia. The famous poet Virgil, who went to school in Cremona, had to forfeit his ancestral farm, when the Lombards invaded much of Italy in the second half of the 6th century AD, Cremona remained a Byzantine stronghold as part of the Exarchate of Ravenna. The city expanded towards the north-west, with the creation of a great trenched camp outside the walls, in 603, it was conquered by the Lombard king Agilulf and again destroyed. Its territory was divided between the two duchies of Brescia and Bergamo, however, in 615 queen Theodelinda, a devout Roman Catholic intent on converting her people, had Cremona rebuilt and re-installed a bishop there. Control of the city fell increasingly to its bishop, who became a Holy Roman Empire vassal after Charlemagnes conquest of Italy, in this way, Cremona increased its power and its prosperity steadily and some of its bishops had important roles between the 10th and 11th centuries. Bishop Liutprand of Cremona was a member of the Imperial court under the Saxony dynasty and its economy was boosted by the creation of a river port out of the former Byzantine fortress. However, the two bishops Lambert and Ubaldo created discord with the citys people, Emperor Conrad II settled the quarrel by entering in Cremona in 1037 together with the young Pope Benedict IX. Under Henry IV, Cremona refused to pay the oppressive taxes requested by the Empire, according to a legend, the great gonfaloniere Giovanni Baldesio of Cremona faced the emperor himself in a duel. As Henry was knocked from his horse, the city was saved the annual payment of the 3 kg golden ball, which, for that year, was instead given to Berta, Giovannis girlfriend, as her dowry. The first historical news about a free Cremona is from 1093, as it entered into an alliance led by Mathilde of Canossa, together with Lodi, Milan. The conflict ended with the defeat of Henry IV and his famous humiliation of Canossa to Pope Urban II in 1098, Cremona gained the Insula Fulcheria, the area around the nearby city of Crema, as its territory. After that time, the new commune warred against nearby cities to enlarge its territory, in 1107 Cremona conquered Tortona, but four years later its army was defeated near Bressanoro. As in many northern Italian cities, the people were divided into two opposing parties, the Guelphs, who were stronger in the new city, and the Ghibellines, the parties were so irreconcilable that the former built a second Communal Palace, the still existing Palazzo Cittanova. When Frederick Barbarossa descended into Italy to assert his authority, Cremona sided with him in order to gain his support against Crema, the subsequent victory and its loyal imperial stance earned Cremona the right to create a mint for its own coinage in 1154
25.
Crema, Lombardy
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Crema is a city and comune in the province of Cremona, in the region of Lombardy in northern Italy. It is built along the river Serio at 43 kilometres from Cremona and it is also the seat of the Catholic Bishop of Crema, who gave to Crema the title of city. Cremas main economic activities relate to agriculture and cattle breeding. Inhabitants are called cremaschi, singular cremasco, Crema hosts the Computer Science Department of the University of Milan. Other linguistic roots may suggest an origin, in particular the Indo-European root meaning a boundary. Other authorities trace its foundation back to the 4th century CE, according to another version, it was instead an even more ancient Celtic or Etruscan settlement. Crema first appears in documents in the 11th century as a possession of the counts of Camisano. It was then ruled by Boniface, margrave of Tuscany, in 1098, Matilde gave the town as a gift to the Bishop of Cremona. In 1159, after it had signed an alliance with Milan against the Ghibelline Cremona, the siege of Crema was marked by several episodes of brutality. The Germans hung some Cremaschi prisoners to their siege machines hoping the defenders would not fire against their fellows, however, this expedient did not work, and turned the battle into a slaughter. After the Peace of Constance the city was allowed to be rebuilt as a castrum, henry VI gave it back to his allied Cremonese. A period as a free Commune followed, during which, however, in any case, the city was reinforced with new walls, ditches and gates, and a network of canals further improved agriculture. In the 13th century Crema was also enriched with its famous cathedral, the communal independence ended in 1335, when the city surrendered to Gian Galeazzo Visconti, whose family held the city until the end of the century. In 1361 Crema was touched by the Black Death, a brief period of rule by the Guelph Benzoni family followed. The seignory passed again to the Visconti, and, from 1449 onwards, as a Venetian inland province, Crema obtained numerous privileges and was safe from the economic decline of the nearby Duchy of Milan under the Spanish rule. It kept a substantial autonomy, which allowed a program of new buildings and these included a new line of walls, the rebuilding of the Palazzo Comunale, the Palazzo della Notaria, now Palazzo Vescovile. The 17th century saw the beginning of the decadence of the city, caused by the decline of its industrial activities, in 1796 an Academy of Agriculture was founded. After the fall of the Republic of Venice in 1797, the French army deposed the last podestà, at first Crema formed the province of Crema-Lodi, but later it was annexed to the province of Cremona
26.
Sforza Castle
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Sforza Castle is in Milan, northern Italy. It was built in the 15th century by Francesco Sforza, Duke of Milan, later renovated and enlarged, in the 16th and 17th centuries it was one of the largest citadels in Europe. Extensively rebuilt by Luca Beltrami in 1891–1905, it now houses several of the citys museums, the original construction was ordered by local lord Galeazzo II Visconti in 1358–c. 1370, this castle was known as Castello di Porta Giova, the castle was the main residence in the city of its Visconti lords, and was destroyed by the short-lived Golden Ambrosian Republic which ousted them in 1447. In 1450, Francesco Sforza, once he shattered the republicans, in 1452 he hired sculptor and architect Filarete to design and decorate the central tower, which is still known as Torre del Filarete. After Francescos death, the construction was continued by his son Galeazzo Maria, the decoration was executed by local painters. In 1476, during the regency of Bona of Savoy, the tower with her name was built, in 1494 Ludovico Sforza became lord of Milan, and called numerous artists to decorate the castle. These include Leonardo da Vinci and Bramante, who painted frescoes in the Sala del Tesoro, around 1498, Leonardo worked at the ceiling of the Sala delle Asse, painting decorations of vegetable motifs. In the following years, however, the castle was damaged by assaults from Italian, French and German troops, after the French victory in the 1515 Battle of Marignano, the defeated Maximilian Sforza, his Swiss mercenaries, and the cardinal-bishop of Sion retreated into the castle. However, King Francis I of France followed them into Milan, in 1521, in a period in which it was used as a weapons depot, the Torre del Filarete exploded. When Francesco II Sforza returned briefly to power in Milan, he had the fortress restored and enlarged, under the Spanish domination which followed, the castle became a citadel, as the governors seat was moved to the Ducal Palace. Its garrison varied from 1,000 to 3,000 men, in 1550 works began to adapt the castle to modern fortification style, as an hexagon -shaped star fort, following the addition of 12 bastions. The external fortifications reached 3 km in length and covered an area of 25.9 hectares, the castle remained in use as a fort also after the Spaniards were replaced by the Austrians in Lombardy. Most of the fortifications were demolished during the period of Napoleonic rule in Milan under the Cisalpine Republic. The semi-circular Piazza Castello was constructed around the city side of the castle, the area on the country side of the castle was laid out as a 700-by-700-metre square parade ground known as Piazza dArmi. After the unification of Italy in the 19th century, the castle was transferred from military use to the city of Milan, parco Sempione, one of the largest parks in the city, was created on the former parade grounds. The government of Milan undertook restoration works, directed by Luca Beltrami, the Via Dante was cut through the medieval street layout in the 1880s to provide a direct promenade between the castle and the Duomo on axis with the main gate. The central tower, known as the Torre Filarete, above the city entrance was rebuilt, on the basis of 16th-century drawings
27.
Marquard of Randeck
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Marquard of Randeck was Patriarch of Aquileia from 1365 until his death. He was born at Augsburg, the son of a knight, but was educated by his uncle and he was later a chancellor of emperor Charles IV at Avignon. He was appointed as prince-bishop of Augsburg in 1348, six years later, he accompanied the emperor in his visit to Rome. The following year, Marquard was sent to Pisa to suppress an anti-imperial revolt and he anyway remained for a period at Pisa as imperial captain and governor in Italy. In 1356 he was captured by the condottiero Lodrisio Visconti at Casorate Primo, in 1365 the emperor made him as lieutenant general in Friuli. In the same year, pope Urban VI gave him the vacant title of Patriarch of Aquileia, and Marquard entered at Cividale in June 1366. Marquard received a state with numerous rebellions, such as those of Gualtiero Bertoldo IV of Spilimbergo and of the lords of Duino, Marquard was able to recover all the lost lands and to force his enemies, including also the counts of Gorizia, to peace. The Venetians besieged Trieste, Lepold III arrived with 10,000 men, supported by a Genoese contingent, but they were crushed and the city surrendered. The Austrians left the alliance, and the members were again defeated on the Piave and near Treviso by the Venetian doge Andrea Contarini. The two parties signed a treaty of peace on 12 September 1373, during the War of Chioggia, the patriarch took advantage of the initial difficulties of the Venetians to invade Istria, capturing Koper and Pula. After a series of changes of possessions, Trieste was confirmed to the patriarchate at the Treaty of Turin and he also restored the Basilica of Aquileia, damaged by an earthquake in 1348 and rebuilt in Gothic style. Marquard died at Trieste in January 1381, bianchi, G. Documenti per la storia del Friuli dal 1200 al 1400. La spada e la croce XV secoli di storia
28.
Pope Innocent VI
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Pope Innocent VI, born Étienne Aubert, was Pope from 18 December 1352 to his death in 1362. He was the fifth Avignon Pope, Étiennes father was Adhemar Aubert, seigneur de Montel-de-Gelat in Limousin province. He was a native of the hamlet of Les Monts, Diocese of Limoges, on 20 September 1342, he was raised to the position of Cardinal Priest of SS. He was made cardinal-bishop of Ostia and Velletri on 13 February 1352, by Pope Clement VI, Etienne was crowned pope on 30 December 1352 by Cardinal Gaillard de la Mothe. Upon his election, he revoked a signed agreement stating the college of cardinals was superior to the pope and his subsequent policy compares favourably with that of the other Avignon Popes. It was largely through the exertions of Innocent VI that the Treaty of Brétigny between France and England was brought about, during his pontificate, the Byzantine emperor John V Palaeologus offered to submit the Greek church to the Roman See on condition of assistance against John VI Cantacuzenus. The resources at the disposal of the Pope, however, were all required for exigencies nearer home, most of the wealth accumulated by John XXII and Benedict XII had been lost during the extravagant pontificate of Clement VI. Innocent VI economised by cutting the chapel staff from twelve to eight, works of art were sold rather than commissioned. His pontificate was dominated by the war in Italy and by Avignons recovery from the plague, by 1357, he was complaining of poverty. Innocent VI was a patron of letters, and, if the extreme severity of his measures against the Fraticelli is ignored, he retains a high reputation for justice. Although, St. Bridget of Sweden denounced him as a persecutor of Christians and he died on 12 September 1362 and was succeeded by Urban V. Today his tomb can be found in the Carthusian monastery in the Chartreuse du Val de Bénédiction in Villeneuve-les-Avignon, modified text from the 9th edition of an unnamed encyclopedia Tomasello, Music and ritual at Papal Avignon 1309–1403. Louis XI, Josepf Frederic, Louis Vaesen, Etienne Charavay, societe detudes de la province de Cambrai, Lille-1907 Antoine Pellisier. Innocent VI, le reformateur, deuxième pape Limousin
29.
Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor
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Charles IV, born Wenceslaus, was a King of Bohemia and the first King of Bohemia to also become Holy Roman Emperor. He was a member of the House of Luxembourg from his fathers side and the House of Přemyslid from his mothers side and he was the eldest son and heir of King John of Bohemia, who died at the Battle of Crécy on 26 August 1346. Charles inherited the County of Luxembourg from his father and was elected king of the Kingdom of Bohemia, on 2 September 1347, Charles was crowned King of Bohemia. On 11 July 1346, the prince-electors chose him as King of the Romans in opposition to Emperor Louis IV, Charles was crowned on 26 November 1346 in Bonn. After his opponent died, he was re-elected in 1349 and crowned King of the Romans, in 1355 he was crowned King of Italy and Holy Roman Emperor. With his coronation as King of Burgundy in 1365, he became the ruler of all the kingdoms of the Holy Roman Empire. Charles IV was born to King John of the Luxembourg dynasty and he was originally named Wenceslaus, the name of his maternal grandfather, King Wenceslaus II. He chose the name Charles at his confirmation in honor of his uncle, King Charles IV of France and he received French education and was literate and fluent in five languages, Latin, Czech, German, French, and Italian. In 1331 he gained experience of warfare in Italy with his father. At the beginning of 1333, Charles went to Lucca to consolidate his rule there, in an effort to defend the city, Charles founded the nearby fortress and the town of Montecarlo. From 1333 he administered the lands of the Bohemian Crown due to his fathers frequent absence, in 1334, Charles was named Margrave of Moravia, the traditional title for heirs to the throne. Two years later, he assumed the government of Tyrol on behalf of his brother, John Henry, as he had previously promised to be subservient to Clement, he made extensive concessions to the pope in 1347. Confirming the papacy in the possession of vast territories, he promised to annul the acts of Louis against Clement, to no part in Italian affairs. Charles IV was in a weak position in Germany. Owing to the terms of his election, he was referred to as a Priests King. Many bishops and nearly all of the Imperial cities remained loyal to Louis the Bavarian, civil war in Germany was prevented, however, when Louis IV died on 11 October 1347, after suffering a stroke during a bear hunt. Thereafter, Charles faced no direct threat to his claim to the Imperial throne, Charles initially worked to secure his power base. Bohemia had remained untouched by the plague, Prague became his capital, and he rebuilt the city on the model of Paris, establishing the New Town
30.
Galeotto I Malatesta
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Galeotto I Malatesta was an Italian condottiero, who was lord of Rimini, Fano, Ascoli Piceno, Cesena and Fossombrone. Born in Rimini, he was the son of Pandolfo I Malatesta, in 1333 he was captured while besieging Ferrara, but was soon freed and fought alongside Ferrantino Malatesta against the Papal legate in Romagna. When the latter plotted against him, Galeotto imprisoned him and declared himself lord of Rimini, the war between the two lasted until 1343. Ludwig of Bavaria also made him lord of Fano, after a period as condottiero for and later tyrann of Ascoli Piceno, in 1349 he travelled to the Holy Land. In 1351 he was hired in the Kingdom of Naples, in 1352 Malatesta led a campaign in Abruzzo in the service of Louis of Anjou, King of Sicily, and laid siege to the fortress of Aversa, held by the mercenary leader Fra Moriale. Giovanni was defeated in the battle of Viterbo of 10 March 1354, albornoz then moved to the Marche and Romagna against the Malatesta of Rimini and the Ordelaffi of Forlì. The Papal commander Rodolfo II da Varano, lord of Camerino, defeated Galeotto Malatesta, after the Albornozs defeat his family was made Papal vicar in Rimini, Pesaro, Fano and Fossombrone. In 1356 he took part in the crusade declared against the Ordelaffi of Forlì, in the 1360 he was first made commander-in-chief by the Queen of Naples Joan I, but later he switched to the Republic of Florence and then again to the Byzantine Empire. In 1372 Pope Gregory XI confirmed Galeotto general commander of the Papal Army against Bernabò Visconti, whom he defeated at Montichiari, near Brescia, after the death of his nephews, Galeotto managed to gain the whole family seigniory in Romagna. After a series of small but ferocious ravages in the area, in 1376 he captured Cesena, later he warred against Guido da Polenta for Cesenatico, conquering Senigallia from him in 1383, as well as other lands. The war was continued by his sons, as Galeotto I died in 1385 at Cesena
31.
Mantua
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Mantua is a city and commune in Lombardy, Italy, and capital of the province of the same name. In 2016, Mantua became Italian Capital of Culture, as chosen by the Italian Government on 27 October 2015, in 2017, Mantua will also be European Capital of Gastronomy, included in the Eastern Lombardy District. In 2007, Mantuas centro storico and Sabbioneta were declared by UNESCO to be a World Heritage Site. Mantuas historic power and influence under the Gonzaga family has made it one of the artistic, cultural, and especially musical hubs of Northern Italy. Mantua is noted for its significant role in the history of opera, the city is known for its architectural treasures and artifacts, elegant palaces. It is the place where the composer Monteverdi premiered his opera LOrfeo and it is the nearest town to the birthplace of the Roman poet Virgil, who was commemorated by a statue at the lakeside park Piazza Virgiliana. Mantua is surrounded on three sides by artificial lakes, created during the 12th century, as the defence system. These lakes receive water from the Mincio River, a tributary of the Po River which descends from Lake Garda, the three lakes are called Lago Superiore, Lago di Mezzo, and Lago Inferiore. A fourth lake, Lake Pajolo, which served as a defensive water ring around the city. These dated, without interruption, from Neolithic times to the Bronze Age and the Gallic phases, and ended with Roman residential settlements, which could be traced to the 3rd century AD. Mantua was a settlement which was first established about the year 2000 BC on the banks of River Mincio. In the 6th century BC, Mantua was an Etruscan village which, the name may derive from the Etruscan god Mantus. This new Roman territory was populated by soldiers of Augustus. Mantuas most famous ancient citizen is the poet Virgil, or Publius Vergilius Maro, after the fall of the western Roman Empire in 476 AD, Mantua was invaded in turn by Goths, Byzantines, Longobards, and Franks. In the 11th century, Mantua became a possession of Boniface of Canossa, the last ruler of that family was the countess Matilda of Canossa, who, according to legend, ordered the construction of the precious Rotonda di San Lorenzo in 1082. The Rotonda still exists today and was renovated in 2013, free Imperial City of Mantua After the death of Matilda of Canossa, Mantua became a free commune and strenuously defended itself from the Holy Roman Empire during the 12th and 13th centuries. In 1198, Alberto Pitentino altered the course of River Mincio, three of these lakes still remains today and the fourth one, which ran through the centre of town, was reclaimed in the 18th century. Podesteria Rule From 1215, the city was ruled under the podesteria of the Gallic-Guelph Rambertino Buvalelli, during the struggle between the Guelphs and the Ghibellines, Pinamonte Bonacolsi took advantage of the chaotic situation to seize power of the podesteria in 1273
32.
John II of France
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John II, called John the Good, was a monarch of the House of Valois who ruled as King of France from 1350 until his death. While John was a prisoner in London, his son Charles became regent and faced several rebellions, to liberate his father, he concluded the Treaty of Brétigny, by which France lost many territories and paid an enormous ransom. In an exchange of hostages, which included his second son Louis, Duke of Anjou, when John was informed that Louis had escaped from captivity, he voluntarily returned to England, where he died in 1364. He was succeeded by his son Charles V, John was nine years old when his father had himself crowned as Philip VI of France. Initially a marriage with Eleanor of Woodstock, sister of King Edward III of England, was considered, Bohemia had aspirations to control Lombardy and needed French diplomatic support. The military clauses stipulated that, in the event of war, the political clauses ensured that the Lombard crown would not be disputed if the king of Bohemia managed to obtain it. Philip selected Bonne of Bohemia as a wife for his son, as she was closer to child-bearing age, and the dowry was fixed at 120,000 florins. John reached the age of majority,13 years and one day, on 27 April 1332, the wedding was celebrated on 28 July at the church of Notre-Dame in Melun in the presence of six thousand guests. The festivities were prolonged by a two months when the young groom was finally knighted at the cathedral of Notre Dame in Paris. Upon his accession as Duke of Normandy in 1332, John had to deal with the reality that most of the Norman nobility was already allied with the English camp, effectively, Normandy depended economically more on maritime trade across the English Channel than on river trade on the Seine. The Duchy had not been English for 150 years, but many landowners had holdings across the Channel, consequently, to line up behind one or other sovereign risked confiscation. Therefore, Norman members of the nobility were governed as interdependent clans and it was split into two key camps, the counts of Tancarville and the counts of Harcourt, which had been in conflict for generations. King Philip, worried about the richest area of the breaking into bloodshed, ordered the bailiffs of Bayeux. Geoffroy dHarcourt raised troops against the king, rallying a number of nobles protective of their autonomy, the rebels demanded that Geoffroy be made duke, thus guaranteeing the autonomy granted by the charter. Royal troops took the castle at Saint-Sauveur-le-Vicomte and Geoffroy was exiled to Brabant, three of his companions were decapitated in Paris on 3 April 1344. In 1342, John was in Avignon at the coronation of Pope Clement VI, by 1345, increasing numbers of Norman rebels had begun to pay homage to Edward III, constituting a major threat to the legitimacy of the Valois kings. The defeat at the Battle of Crécy on 26 August 1346, defections by the nobility, whose land fell within the broad economic influence of England, particularly in the north and west, increased. Consequently, King Philip VI decided to seek a truce, Duke John met Geoffroy dHarcourt, to whom the king agreed to return all confiscated goods, even appointing him sovereign captain in Normandy
33.
Bologna
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Bologna is the largest city of the Emilia-Romagna Region in Northern Italy. It is the seventh most populous city in Italy, located in the heart of an area of about one million. The first settlements back to at least 1000 BC. The city has been a centre, first under the Etruscans. Home to the oldest university in the world, University of Bologna, founded in 1088, Bologna is also an important transportation crossroad for the roads and trains of Northern Italy, where many important mechanical, electronic and nutritional industries have their headquarters. According to the most recent data gathered by the European Regional Economic Growth Index of 2009, Bologna is the first Italian city, Bologna is home to numerous prestigious cultural, economic and political institutions as well as one of the most impressive trade fair districts in Europe. In 2000 it was declared European capital of culture and in 2006, the city of Bologna was selected to participate in the Universal Exposition of Shanghai 2010 together with 45 other cities from around the world. Bologna is also one of the wealthiest cities in Italy, often ranking as one of the top cities in terms of quality of life in the country, after a long decline, Bologna was reborn in the 5th century under Bishop Petronius. According to legend, St. Petronius built the church of S. Stefano. After the fall of Rome, Bologna was a stronghold of the Exarchate of Ravenna in the Po plain. In 728, the city was captured by the Lombard king Liutprand, the Germanic conquerors formed a district called addizione longobarda near the complex of S. Stefano. Charlemagne stayed in this district in 786, traditionally said to be founded in 1088, the University of Bologna is widely considered to be the first university. The university originated as a centre of study of medieval Roman law under major glossators. It numbered Dante, Boccaccio and Petrarca among its students, the medical school is especially famous. In the 12th century, the families engaged in continual internecine fighting. Troops of Pope Julius II besieged Bologna and sacked the artistic treasures of his palace, in 1530, in front of Saint Petronio Church, Charles V was crowned Holy Roman Emperor by Pope Clement VII. Then a plague at the end of the 16th century reduced the population from 72,000 to 59,000, the population later recovered to a stable 60, 000–65,000. However, there was also great progress during this era, in 1564, the Piazza del Nettuno and the Palazzo dei Banchi were built, along with the Archiginnasio, the centre of the University
34.
Avignon
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Avignon is a commune in south-eastern France in the department of Vaucluse on the left bank of the Rhône river. Of the 90,194 inhabitants of the city, about 12,000 live in the ancient town centre enclosed by its medieval ramparts. Between 1309 and 1377, during the Avignon Papacy, seven popes resided in Avignon. Papal control persisted until 1791 when, during the French Revolution, the town is now the capital of the Vaucluse department and one of the few French cities to have preserved its ramparts. The historic centre, which includes the Palais des Papes, the cathedral, the medieval monuments and the annual Festival dAvignon have helped to make the town a major centre for tourism. The commune has been awarded one flower by the National Council of Towns, the earliest forms of the name were reported by the Greeks, Аὐενιὼν = Auenion Άουεννίων = Aouennion. The Roman name Avennĭo Cavarum, i. e. Avignon of Cavares accurately shows that Avignon was one of the three cities of the Celtic-Ligurian tribe of Cavares, along with Cavaillon and Orange. The current name dates to a pre-Indo-European or pre-Latin theme ab-ên with the suffix -i-ōn This theme would be a hydronym - i. e. a name linked to the river, but perhaps also an oronym of terrain. The site of Avignon has been occupied since the Neolithic period as shown by excavations at Rocher des Doms and the Balance district. In 1960 and 1961 excavations in the part of the Rocher des Doms directed by Sylvain Gagnière uncovered a small anthropomorphic stele. Carved in Burdigalian sandstone, it has the shape of a tombstone with its face engraved with a stylized human figure with no mouth. On the bottom, shifted slightly to the right is an indentation with eight radiating lines forming a solar representation - a unique discovery for this type of stele. There were also some Chalcolithic objects for adornment and an abundance of Hallstatt pottery shards which could have been native or imported, the name of the city dates back to around the 6th century BC. The first citation of Avignon was made by Artemidorus of Ephesus, although his book, The Journey, is lost it is known from the abstract by Marcian of Heraclea and The Ethnics, a dictionary of names of cities by Stephanus of Byzantium based on that book. He said, The City of Massalia, near the Rhone and this name has two interpretations, city of violent wind or, more likely, lord of the river. Other sources trace its origin to the Gallic mignon and the Celtic definitive article, Avignon was a simple Greek Emporium founded by Phocaeans from Marseille around 539 BC. It was in the 4th century BC that the Massaliotes began to sign treaties of alliance with some cities in the Rhone valley including Avignon and Cavaillon, a century later Avignon was part of the region of Massaliotes or country of Massalia. Fortified on its rock, the city later became and long remained the capital of the Cavares, with the arrival of the Roman legions in 120 BC. the Cavares, allies with the Massaliotes, became Roman
35.
Florin (Italian coin)
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The Florentine florin was a coin struck from 1252 to 1533 with no significant change in its design or metal content standard during that time. It had 72 grains of pure or fine gold worth approximately 140 modern US dollars. The fiorino doro of the Republic of Florence was the first European gold coin struck in sufficient quantities to play a significant commercial role since the seventh century, in the fourteenth century, a hundred and fifty European states and local coin-issuing authorities made their own copies of the florin. The most important of these was the Hungarian forint, because the Kingdom of Hungary was a source of European gold. The design of the original Florentine florins was the distinctive fleur-de-lis badge of the city on one side, on other countries florins, the inscriptions were changed, and local heraldic devices were substituted for the fleur-de-lis. Later, other figures were often substituted for St. John, on the Hungarian forints, St. John was re-labelled St. Ladislaus, an early Christian king and patron saint of Hungary, and a battle axe substituted for the originals sceptre. Gradually the image became more regal looking, the weight of the original fiorino doro of Florence was chosen to equal the value of one lira in the local money of account in 1252. However, the content of the florin did not change while the money of account continued to inflate, by 1500. The values of other countries money continually varied against each other, Lira History of coins in Italy Soldo Venetian grosso Venetian lira Denaro Lira http, //www. gmmnut. com/gmm/sca/florin. html - See Discussion Philip Grierson. Money and its use in medieval Europe, richard A. Goldthwaite http, //www3. telus. net/Quattrocento_Florence/economy. html BROKEN as of Feb 2011 Money museum, Fiorino dOro
36.
Cansignorio della Scala
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Cansignorio della Scala was Lord of Verona from 1359 until 1375, initially together with his brother Paolo Alboino. He inherited the lordship of Verona at the death of his father Mastino, together with his brothers Cangrande II, however, Cangrande took the effective reins. Cansignorio plotted against his rule and, after having him assassinated. Before his death in 1375 he had his brother Paolo Alboino assassinated to give the succession to his illegitimate sons Bartolomeo II, the latter however were forced by the citys bankruptcy to accept the protectorate of Bernabò Visconti. Cansignorios tomb is one of the notable Gothic Scaliger tombs in the courtyard of Santa Maria Antica of Verona, cansignorio married Agnes of Durazzo, second daughter of Charles, Duke of Durazzo and Maria of Calabria. Agnes was a sister of Joanna, Duchess of Durazzo. Cansignorio had three children, all illegitimate. His daughter Lucia della Scala married first Cortesia Serego and then Bernardino da Polenta of the family of Ravenna. His sons Bartolomeo II della Scala and Antonio I della Scala would succeed as Lords of Verona
37.
Reggio Emilia
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Reggio Emilia is a city in northern Italy, in the Emilia-Romagna region. It has about 170,000 inhabitants and is the comune of the Province of Reggio Emilia. The town is referred to by its more official name of Reggio nellEmilia listen. The inhabitants of Reggio nellEmilia usually call their town by the name of Reggio. In some ancient maps the town is also named Reggio di Lombardia, the old town has an hexagonal form, which derives from the ancient walls, and the main buildings are from the 16th–17th centuries. The comunes territory is totally on a plain, crossed by the Crostolo stream, Reggio began as a historical site with the construction by Marcus Aemilius Lepidus of the Via Aemilia, leading from Piacenza to Rimini. Reggio became an administration centre, with a forum called at first Regium Lepidi, then simply Regium. During the Roman age Regium is cited only by Festus and Cicero, however, it was a flourishing city, a Municipium with its own statutes, magistrates and art collegia. Apollinaris of Ravenna brought Christianity in the 1st century CE, the sources confirm the presence of a bishopric in Reggio after the Edict of Milan. In 440 the Reggio diocese was placed under the jurisdiction of Ravenna by Western Roman Emperor Valentinianus III, at the end of the 4th century, however, Reggio had decayed so much that Saint Ambrose included it among the dilapidated cities. Further damage occurred with the Barbarian invasions, after the deposition of Romulus Augustulus in 476 Reggio was part of Odoacers realm. In 489 it came under Ostrogothic control, from 539 it was part of the Roman Empire, Reggio was chosen as Duchy of Reggio seat. In 773 the Franks took Reggio, charlemagne gave the bishop the authority to exercise royal authority over the city and established the diocese limits. In 888 Reggio was handed over to the Kings of Italy, in 899 the Magyars heavily damaged it, killing Bishop Azzo II. As a result of new walls were built. On 31 October 900 Emperor Louis III gave authority for the erection of a castrum in the citys centre. In 1002 Reggios territory, together with that of Parma, Brescia, Modena, Mantua and Ferrara, were merged into the March of Tuscany, Reggio became a free commune around the end of the 11th or the beginning of the 12th century. In 1167 it was a member of the Lombard League and took part in the Battle of Legnano, in 1183 the city signed the Treaty of Konstanz, from which the citys consul, Rolando della Carità, received the imperial investiture
38.
House of Este
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The House of Este is a European princely dynasty. The elder branch of the House of Este included the dukes of Brunswick and Lüneburg and produced Britains Hanoverian monarchs, the younger branch of the House of Este included rulers of Ferrara, and of Modena and Reggio. According to Edward Gibbon the family originated from the Roman Attii family, however, there is little evidence to support this hypothesis. The names of the members of the family indicate that a Frankish origin is much more likely. The first known member of the house was Margrave Adalbert of Mainz, known only as the father of Oberto I, Count palatine of Italy, who died around 975. Obertos grandson, Albert Azzo II, Margrave of Milan built a castle at Este, near Padua, and named himself after the location. He had three sons from two marriages, two of whom became the ancestors of the two branches of the family, Welf IV, the eldest, was the son of Kunigunde, the last of the Elder Welfs. He inherited the property of his uncle, Welf, Duke of Carinthia, became duke of Bavaria in 1070, and is the ancestor of the elder branch. Hugh, issue of Azzos second marriage to Garsend of Maine, inherited the French County of Maine, a legacy of his mothers dowry, Fulco I, Margrave of Milan, the third son, is the ancestor of the younger Italian line of Este. Este itself was taken over in 1275 by Padua and in 1405, after the peace ending the Napoleonic wars reshaped Europe, ushering in the Modern era, the Electorate of Hanover, was dissolved by treaty. Its lands were enlarged and the state was promoted to a kingdom, the House of Este gave Great Britain and the United Kingdom the Hanoverian monarchs. All later generations of the Italian branch are descendants of Fulco dEste, from 1171 on, his descendants were titled Margraves of Este. Obizzo I, the first margrave, battled against Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa and his nephew Azzo dEste VI became podestà of Mantua and Verona. As the dowry of his niece the Marchesella, Ferrara passed to Azzo VI dEste In 1146, in 1242 Azzo VII Novello was nominated podestà for his lifetime. The lordship of Ferrara was made hereditary by Obizzo II, who was proclaimed Lord of Ferrara in 1264, Lord of Modena in 1288, Ferrara was a papal fief and the Este family were given the position of hereditary papal vicars in 1332. Ferrara became a significant center of culture under Niccolò dEste III and he held a Council in Ferrara in 1438, later known as the Council of Florence. His successors were his brothers Leonello and Borso, who was elevated to Duke of Modena and Reggio by Emperor Frederick III in 1452, receiving these duchies as imperial fiefs. In 1471, he received the duchy of Ferrara as papal fief from Pope Paul II, Borso was succeded by a half-brother, Ercole, who was one of the most significant patrons of the arts in late 15th and early 16th century Italy
39.
Pope Gregory XI
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Pope Gregory XI was pope from 30 December 1370 to his death in 1378. He was the seventh and last Avignon pope and the most recent French pope, in 1377, Gregory XI returned the Papal court to Rome, ending nearly 70 years of papal residency in Avignon, France. His death shortly after was followed by the Western Schism and he was born Pierre Roger de Beaufort in Maumont in the modern commune of Rosiers-dÉgletons, Limousin, around 1330. The nephew of Pope Clement VI, he succeeded Pope Urban V at the conclave of 1370 and was the seventh. During his pontificate, vigorous measures were taken against proponents of Lollardy, which had found acceptance in Germany, England, and other parts of Europe. Efforts were made to corrupt practices in the various monastic orders, such as collecting fees from persons visiting holy sites. Gregory confirmed a treaty between Sicily and Naples at Villeneuve-lès-Avignon on 20 August 1372, which brought about a permanent settlement between the kingdoms, which were both papal fiefs. The Decadicon was submitted to Pope Gregory XI in the part of the 1370s by French canonist. Gregory formally condemned fourteen articles of the Sachsenspiegel in 1374 and nineteen propositions of Wycliffes On Civil Dominion in 1377 and his decision to return to Rome is supposedly attributed in part to the incessant pleas, demands, and threats of Catherine of Siena. A return had been attempted by Gregorys predecessor, Urban V, but the demands of the Hundred Years War brought him north of the Alps again, and Avignon was still the seat of the Bishop of Rome. The project of returning again to Rome was delayed by a conflict between the pope and Florence, known as the War of the Eight Saints, the pope put Florence under interdict during 1376. The return of the Curia to Rome began on 13 September 1376 and was concluded with the arrival of Gregory XI on 17 January 1377, Gregory XI did not long survive this trip, dying in Rome on 27 March 1378. He was buried the day in the church of Santa Maria Nuova. After his death the College of Cardinals was pressured by a Roman mob that broke into the chamber to force an Italian pope into the papacy. The Italian chosen was Urban VI, soon after being elected, Urban gained the Cardinals enmity. The cardinals withdrew from Rome to Fondi, where they annulled their election of Urban and elected a French pope, Clement VII, subsequently, the Western Schism created by the selection of rival popes forced the people of Europe into a dilemma of papal allegiance. This schism was not resolved fully until the Council of Constance was called by a group of cardinals, boldly, the council deposed both current popes and, in 1417, elected Martin V as their successor. The chaos of the Western Schism thus brought about reforming councils and gave them the power over who was elected, le voyage de Grégoire XI ramenant la Papauté dAvignon à Rome, 1376-1377 suivi du texte latin et de la traduction franç. de lItinerarium Gragerii XI de Pierre Ameilh
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Trezzo sull'Adda Bridge
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The Trezzo sullAdda Bridge or Trezzo Bridge was a medieval bridge at Trezzo sullAdda in Lombardy, Italy, spanning the Adda river. The Trezzo Bridge was built between 1370 and 1377 by order of the lord of Milan Bernabò Visconti, fortified with towers, it provided access to a Visconti castle high above the Adda. During a siege in 1416, the condottiero Carmagnola deliberately caused the structure to collapse by weakening one of its abutments and its single arch featured a span of 72 m, according to other sources even as much as 76 m. By comparison, the second largest pre-industrial bridge vault, the French Pont de Vieille-Brioude, the rise of the segmental arch was ca.21 m, with a span-to-rise ratio of 3.3,1. The arch rip, measured at the springing, was 2.25 m thick, the sandstone bridge was almost 9 m wide. Today, the two abutments with overhanging remnants of the vault are all that remain. The Trezzo Bridge was not matched until the metal Wearmouth Bridge of the span was built at Sunderland, England. Longer masonry arch spans were not achieved until the 1903 Adolphe Bridge in Luxembourg, garrison, A History of Engineering and Technology, CRC Press,1999, ISBN 978-0-8493-9810-0 Hans Straub et al. Ein Überblick von der Antike bis in die Neuzeit, Birkhäuser,1992, ISBN 978-3-7643-2441-4 Leonardo Fernández Troyano, Bridge Engineering
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Republic of Venice
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It was based in the lagoon communities of the historically prosperous city of Venice. It was a leading European economic and trading power during the Middle Ages, the Venetian city state was founded as a safe haven for people escaping persecution in mainland Europe after the fall of the Roman Empire. In its early years, it prospered on the salt trade, in subsequent centuries, the city state established a thalassocracy. It dominated trade on the Mediterranean Sea, including commerce between Asia, Europe and North Africa, the Venetian navy was used in the Crusades. Venice achieved territorial conquests along the Adriatic Sea, the city became home to an extremely wealthy merchant class, who patronized renowned art and architecture along the citys lagoons. Venetian merchants were influential financiers in Europe, the city was also the birthplace of great European explorers, including Marco Polo, as well as the classical music composer Vivaldi. The republic was ruled by the Doge, who was elected by members of the Great Council of Venice, the ruling class was an oligarchy of merchants and aristocrats. Venice and other Italian maritime republics played a key role in fostering capitalism, Venetian citizens generally supported the system of governance. The city-state enforced strict laws and employed ruthless tactics in its prisons, the opening of new trade routes to the Americas and the East Indies via the Atlantic Ocean marked the beginning of Venices decline as a maritime republic. The city state suffered defeats from the navy of the Ottoman Empire, in 1797, the country was colonized by Austria and France, following an invasion by Napoleon Bonaparte. Venice became a part of a unified Italy in the 19th century and it was formally known as the Most Serene Republic of Venice and is often referred to as La Serenissima, in reference to its title as one of the Most Serene Republics. He was the first historical Doge of Venice, whichever the case, the first doges had their power base in Heraclea. Ursuss successor, Deusdedit, moved his seat from Heraclea to Malamocco in the 740s and he was the son of Ursus and represented the attempt of his father to establish a dynasty. Such attempts were more commonplace among the doges of the first few centuries of Venetian history. They desired to remain well-connected to the Empire, another faction, republican in nature, believed in continuing along a course towards practical independence. The other main faction was pro-Frankish, supported mostly by clergy, they looked towards the new Carolingian king of the Franks, Pepin the Short, as the best provider of defence against the Lombards. A minor, pro-Lombard faction was opposed to close ties with any of these further-off powers, the successors of Obelerio inherited a united Venice. By the Pax Nicephori, the two emperors had recognised that Venice belonged to the Byzantine sphere of influence, many centuries later, the Venetians claimed that the treaty had recognised Venetian de facto independence, but the truth of this claim is doubted by modern scholars
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