1.
Doctor Mellifluus
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In issuing it in anticipation of the eight centenary of Bernards death, Pius took the occasion to highlight Bernards contributions to practical spirituality. The encyclical Doctor Mellifluus of 24 May 1953 issued in commemoration of the eight centenary of the death of Bernard of Clairvaux, dom Sighard Kleiner, then Abbot-General of the Common Observance contributed to its drafting. Pope Pius XII makes use of the doctrine of St. Bernard to bring the highest spiritual perfection within reach of all Chrisians, the title Doctor Mellifluus refers to Bernard as one whose teaching is as sweet as honey. “His teaching was drawn, almost exclusively, from the pages of Sacred Scripture and from the Fathers, Pius noted that the teaching of the Doctor of Clairvaux on the mystical life seemed to be sometimes neglected and relegated to a secondary place, or forgotten by many. Pius quotes Bernards sermon In Cantica a number of times, in the first instance regarding the search for knowledge, for there are some who want knowledge for the sole purpose of knowing, and this is unseemly curiosity. But there are also those who seek knowledge in order to edify, and there are those who seek knowledge in order to be edified, and this is prudence. A significant theme of the encyclical is Bernards teachings on the love of God, Pius pointed out that Bernard taught that God wants to be loved by men rather than feared and honored, and touched upon his great reverence for the name of Jesus. Merton said of Doctor Mellifluus, I never saw anything so strong on the mystical life and it was a great inspiration to me. When the storms to temptation burst upon you, when you see yourself driven upon the rocks of tribulation, look at the star, when swallowed by pride or ambition, or hatred, or jealousy, look at the star, call upon Mary. Should anger, or avarice, or fleshly desire violently assail the frail vessel of your soul, look at the star, in dangers, in doubts, in difficulties, think of Mary, call upon Mary. Let not her name leave thy lips, never suffer it to leave your heart, Pius then invites all to be more devout to the loving Mother of God, and each in his respective state in life to strive to imitate her virtues. Encyclical Doctor Mellifluus on the Vatican website Encyclical Mystici Corporis Christi on the Vatican website Acta Apostolicae Sedis, official documents of the Pontificate of Pope Pius XII
2.
Clairvaux Abbey
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Clairvaux Abbey is a Cistercian monastery in Ville-sous-la-Ferté,15 km from Bar-sur-Aube, in the Aube department in northeastern France. The original building, founded in 1115 by St. Bernard, is now in ruins, Clairvaux Abbey was a good example of the general layout of a Cistercian monastery. The Abbey has been listed since 1926 as a monument by the French Ministry of Culture. The grounds are now occupied and used by Clairvaux Prison, a high-security prison, Cistercian monasteries were all arranged according to a set plan unless the circumstances of the locality forbade it. A strong wall, furnished at intervals with watchtowers and other defenses, beyond it a moat, artificially diverted from tributaries which flow through the precincts, completely or partially encircled the wall. This water furnished the monastery with an abundant supply of water for irrigation, sanitation, an additional wall, running from north to south, bisected the monastery into an inner and outer ward. The inner ward housed the buildings, while the agricultural. The precincts were entered by a gateway at the western extremity. Here the barns, granaries, stables, shambles, workshops, a single gatehouse afforded communication through the wall separating the outer from the inner ward. On passing through the gateway, monks and visitors entered the court of the inner ward. Immediately to the right of entrance was the residence, in close proximity to the guest-house. On the other side of the court were stables for the accommodation of the horses of the guests, the church occupied a central position, with the great cloister to the south, surrounded by the chief monastic buildings. Further to the east, the cloister contained the infirmary, novices lodgings. Beyond the smaller cloister, and separated from the buildings by a wall, lay the vegetable gardens. Large fish ponds were located in the area east of the monastic buildings. The ponds were an important feature of life, and much care was given by the monks to their construction. They often remain as one of the few traces of these vast monasteries. The church consists of a vast nave of eleven bays, entered by a narthex, with a transept, to the east of each limb of the transept are two square chapels, divided according to Cistercian rule by solid walls
3.
Anglican Church
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The Anglican Communion is an international association of autonomous churches consisting of the Church of England and national and regional Anglican churches in full communion with it. Full participation in the life of each church is available to all communicant Anglicans. The Archbishop of Canterbury, Primate of All England, has a place of honour among the bishops of the Anglican churches and he is recognised as primus inter pares. The archbishop does not exercise authority in the provinces outside England, the churches of the Anglican Communion considers themselves to be part of the nicos one, holy, catholic and apostolic church and to be both Catholic and Reformed. For some adherents, Anglicanism represents a non-papal Catholicism, for others a form of Protestantism though without a dominant guiding figure such as Luther, Knox, Calvin, for others, their self-identity represents some combination of the two. The communion encompasses a spectrum of belief and practice including evangelical, liberal. With a membership estimated at around 85 million members, the Anglican Communion is the third largest Christian communion in the world, after the Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church. Some of these churches are known as Anglican, such as the Anglican Church of Canada, some, for example the Church of Ireland, the Scottish and American Episcopal churches, and some other associated churches have a separate name. The Anglican Communion has no legal existence nor any governing structure which might exercise authority over the member churches. There is an Anglican Communion Office in London, under the aegis of the Archbishop of Canterbury, the Communion is held together by a shared history, expressed in its ecclesiology, polity and ethos and also by participation in international consultative bodies. Early in its development, Anglicanism developed a vernacular prayer book, unlike other traditions, Anglicanism has never been governed by a magisterium nor by appeal to one founding theologian, nor by an extra-credal summary of doctrine. Instead, Anglicans have typically appealed to the Book of Common Prayer and its offshoots as a guide to Anglican theology and this had the effect of inculcating the principle of Lex orandi, lex credendi as the foundation of Anglican identity and confession. These parameters were most clearly articulated in the rubrics of the successive prayer books. With the expansion of the British Empire, and hence the growth of Anglicanism outside Great Britain and Ireland, the first major expression of this were the Lambeth Conferences of the communions bishops, first convened by Archbishop of Canterbury Charles Longley in 1869. One of the influential early resolutions of the conference was the so-called Chicago-Lambeth Quadrilateral of 1888. Its intent was to provide the basis for discussions of reunion with the Roman Catholic and Orthodox Churches, the Apostles Creed, as the Baptismal Symbol, and the Nicene Creed, as the sufficient statement of the Christian faith. The two Sacraments ordained by Christ Himself - Baptism and the Supper of the Lord - ministered with unfailing use of Christs Words of Institution, and of the elements ordained by Him. The Historic Episcopate, locally adapted in the methods of its administration to the needs of the nations
4.
Lutheranism
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Lutheranism is a major branch of Protestant Christianity which identifies with the theology of Martin Luther, a German friar, ecclesiastical reformer and theologian. Luthers efforts to reform the theology and practice of the Catholic Church launched the Protestant Reformation in the German-speaking territories of the Holy Roman Empire. Lutheranism advocates a doctrine of justification by grace alone through faith alone on the basis of Scripture alone and this is in contrast to the belief of the Catholic Church, defined at the Council of Trent, concerning authority coming from both the Scriptures and Tradition. In addition, Lutheranism accepts the teachings of the first seven ecumenical councils of the undivided Christian Church, unlike Calvinism, Lutherans retain many of the liturgical practices and sacramental teachings of the pre-Reformation Church, with a particular emphasis on the Eucharist, or Lords Supper. Lutheran theology differs from Reformed theology in Christology, the purpose of Gods Law, the grace, the concept of perseverance of the saints. Today, Lutheranism is one of the largest denominations of Protestantism, with approximately 80 million adherents, it constitutes the third most common Protestant denomination after historically Pentecostal denominations and Anglicanism. The Lutheran World Federation, the largest communion of Lutheran churches, Other Lutheran organizations include the International Lutheran Council and the Confessional Evangelical Lutheran Conference, as well as independent churches. The name Lutheran originated as a term used against Luther by German Scholastic theologian Dr. Johann Maier von Eck during the Leipzig Debate in July 1519. Eck and other Catholics followed the practice of naming a heresy after its leader. Martin Luther always disliked the term Lutheran, preferring the term Evangelical, which was derived from euangelion, the followers of John Calvin, Huldrych Zwingli, and other theologians linked to the Reformed tradition also began to use that term. To distinguish the two groups, others began to refer to the two groups as Evangelical Lutheran and Evangelical Reformed. As time passed by, the word Evangelical was dropped, Lutherans themselves began to use the term Lutheran in the middle of the 16th century, in order to distinguish themselves from other groups such as the Philippists and Calvinists. In 1597, theologians in Wittenberg defined the title Lutheran as referring to the true church, Lutheranism has its roots in the work of Martin Luther, who sought to reform the Western Church to what he considered a more biblical foundation. Lutheranism spread through all of Scandinavia during the 16th century, as the monarch of Denmark–Norway, through Baltic-German and Swedish rule, Lutheranism also spread into Estonia and Latvia. Since 1520, regular Lutheran services have been held in Copenhagen, under the reign of Frederick I, Denmark-Norway remained officially Catholic. Although Frederick initially pledged to persecute Lutherans, he adopted a policy of protecting Lutheran preachers and reformers. During Fredericks reign, Lutheranism made significant inroads in Denmark, at an open meeting in Copenhagen attended by the king in 1536, the people shouted, We will stand by the holy Gospel, and do not want such bishops anymore. Fredericks son Christian was openly Lutheran, which prevented his election to the throne upon his fathers death, however, following his victory in the civil war that followed, in 1537 he became Christian III and advanced the Reformation in Denmark-Norway
5.
Canonization
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Originally, persons were recognized as saints without any formal process. Later, different processes were developed, such as used today in the Eastern Orthodox Church. The first persons honored as saints were the martyrs, pious legends of their deaths were considered affirmations of the truth of their faith in Christ. The Roman Rites Canon of the Mass contains only the names of martyrs, along with that of the Blessed Virgin Mary and, since 1962, that of St. Joseph her spouse. By the fourth century, however, confessors—people who had confessed their faith not by dying but by word, examples of such people are Saint Hilarion and Saint Ephrem the Syrian in the East, and Saint Martin of Tours and Saint Hilary of Poitiers in the West. Their names were inserted in the diptychs, the lists of saints venerated in the liturgy. Since the witness of their lives was not as unequivocal as that of the martyrs and this process is often referred to as local canonization. This approval was required even for veneration of a reputed martyr, and Saint Cyprian recommended that the utmost diligence be observed in investigating the claims of those who were said to have died for the faith. Evidence was sought from the records of the trials or from people who had been present at the trials. Saint Augustine of Hippo tells of the procedure which was followed in his day for the recognition of a martyr, the bishop of the diocese in which the martyrdom took place set up a canonical process for conducting the inquiry with the utmost severity. Other churches still use the older practice, in the Catholic Church, canonization is a decree that allows universal veneration of the saint in the liturgy of the Roman Rite. For permission to venerate merely locally, only beatification is needed, only acceptance of the cultus by the Pope made the cultus universal, because he alone can rule the universal Catholic Church. In the Medieval West, the Apostolic See was asked to intervene in the question of canonizations so as to more authoritative decisions. Swibert by Pope Leo III in 804, thereafter, recourse to the judgment of the Pope was had more frequently. Pope Urban II, Pope Calixtus II, and Pope Eugene III conformed to this discipline, a decree of Pope Alexander III1170 gave the prerogative to the ope thenceforth, so far as the Western Church was concerned. However, the procedure initiated by the decretal of Pope Alexander III was confirmed by a bull of Pope Innocent III issued on the occasion of the canonization of St. Cunegunda in 1200. The bull of Pope Innocent III resulted in increasingly elaborate inquiries to the Apostolic See concerning canonizations and he further regulated both of these acts by issuing his Decreta servanda in beatificatione et canonizatione Sanctorum on 12 March 1642. His work published from 1734-8 governed the proceedings until 1917, the article Beatification and canonization process in 1914 describes the procedures followed until the promulgation of the Codex of 1917
6.
Pope Alexander III
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Pope Alexander III, born Roland of Siena, was Pope from 7 September 1159 to his death in 1181. He also laid the stone for the Notre-Dame de Paris. Pope Alexander III was born in Siena, from 14th century he is referred to as a member of the aristocratic family of Bandinelli, although this has not been proven. Noonan and Rudolf Weigand have shown this to be another Rolandus and he probably studied at Bologna, where Robert of Torigni notes that he taught theology. In October 1150, Pope Eugene III created him Cardinal-Deacon of Santi Cosma e Damiano, later he became Cardinal-Priest of St Mark. In 1153, he became chancellor and was the leader of the cardinals opposed to German Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa. He negotiated the Treaty of Benevento, which restored peaceful relations between Rome and the Kingdom of Sicily, on 7 September 1159, he was chosen the successor of Pope Adrian IV. A minority of the cardinals, however, elected the cardinal priest Octavian and this meant that Alexanders legitimacy was gaining strength, as soon proved by the fact that other monarchs, such as the king of France and King Henry II of England, recognized his authority. Because of imperial strength in Italy, Alexander was forced to reside outside of Rome for a part of his pontificate. The first period he spent in France, the latter chiefly in Gaeta, Benevento, Anagni, Alexander III was the first pope known to have paid direct attention to missionary activities east of the Baltic Sea. The latter appointed a Benedictine monk Fulco as a bishop in Estonia, in 1171, Alexander became the first pope to address the situation of the Church in Finland, with Finns allegedly harassing priests and only relying on God in time of war. Besides checkmating Barbarossa, Alexander humbled King Henry II of England for the murder of Thomas Becket in 1170, to whom he was unusually close and this was the second English saint canonized by Alexander, the first being Edward the Confessor in 1161. Nonetheless, he confirmed the position of Henry as Lord of Ireland in 1172, even as a fugitive, Alexander enjoyed the favour and protection of Louis VII of France. In March 1179, Alexander III held the Third Council of the Lateran, one of the most important mediaeval church councils, the rule was altered slightly in 1996, but was restored in 2007. This synod marked the summit of Alexander IIIs power, by the judicious use of money, however, Alexander III got him into his power, so that he was deposed in January 1180. In 1181, Alexander III excommunicated King William I of Scotland and he died at Civita Castellana on 30 August 1181. Herbermann, Charles, ed. Pope Alexander III and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Alexander. Myriam Soria Audebert, Pontifical Propaganda during the Schisms, Alexander III to the reconquest of Church Unity, in Convaincre et persuader, poitiers, Université de Poitiers-centre détudes supérieures de civilisation médiévale,2007
7.
Shrine
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A shrine is a holy or sacred place, which is dedicated to a specific deity, ancestor, hero, martyr, saint, daemon, or similar figure of awe and respect, at which they are venerated or worshipped. Shrines often contain idols, relics, or other objects associated with the figure being venerated. A shrine at which offerings are made is called an altar. Shrines can be found in various settings, such as churches, temples, cemeteries, or in the home, a shrine may become a focus of a cult image. Many shrines are located buildings and in the temples designed specifically for worship, such as a church in Christianity. A shrine here is usually the centre of attention in the building, in such cases, adherents of the faith assemble within the building in order to venerate the deity at the shrine. In classical temple architecture, the shrine may be synonymous with the cella, historically, in Hinduism, Buddhism and Roman Catholicism, and also in modern faiths, such as Neopaganism, a shrine can commonly be found within the home or shop. This shrine is usually a structure or a setup of pictures and figurines dedicated to a deity that is part of the official religion. Small household shrines are common among the Chinese and people from South and Southeast Asia, whether Hindu. Usually a small lamp and small offerings are kept daily by the shrine, Buddhist household shrines must be on a shelf above the head, Chinese shrines must stand directly on the floor. Small outdoor yard shrines are found at the bottom of many gardens, following various religions, including historically. Shrines are found in most, though not all, religions, Shrines therefore attract the practice of pilgrimage. Shrines are found in many, though not all, forms of Christianity, Roman Catholicism, the largest denomination of Christianity, has many shrines, as do Orthodox Christianity and Anglicanism. For a shrine to be described as national, the approval of the Episcopal Conference is necessary, for it to be described as international, the approval of the Holy See is required. Another use of the shrine in colloquial Catholic terminology is a niche or alcove in most – especially larger – churches used by parishioners when praying privately in the church. They were also called Devotional Altars, since they could look like small Side Altars or bye-altars, Shrines were always centered on some image of Christ or a saint – for instance, a statue, painting, mural or mosaic, and may have had a reredos behind them. However, Mass would not be celebrated at them, they were used to aid or give a visual focus for prayers. Side altars, where Mass could actually be celebrated, were used in a way to shrines by parishioners
8.
Troyes Cathedral
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Troyes Cathedral is a Roman Catholic church located in the town of Troyes in Champagne, France. It is a monument and is the seat of the Bishop of Troyes. The site has been used for religious buildings since at least the 4th century, a cathedral was built in the 9th century, but was badly damaged by Norman invasions and was replaced in the 10th century, from about 940, when bishop Milo built a Romanesque cathedral. This building was the location of the Council of Troyes that opened on 13 January 1128/29, at which the Order of the Knights Templar was confirmed, the Romanesque cathedral was destroyed by fire in 1188. Construction of the present Gothic cathedral was ordered in about 1200 by bishop Garnier de Traînel, work continued until the 17th century. The cathedral only has one tower, St. Peters, St. Pauls tower to the south was never built, and the building is thus still in fact unfinished. A steeple, with a height of 110 metres, once stood over the crossing, it was ruined by a tornado in 1365, and struck by lightning in 1700, after which it was not rebuilt. The cathedral structure has suffered natural disasters, part of the choir was destroyed in a hurricane in 1228. The earliest part is the 13th century choir, the elaborate façade dates from the beginning of the 16th century. The three main portals are the work of the architect Martin Chambiges, the cathedral escaped destruction during the French Revolution, but was de-Christianised and turned into a Temple of Abundance for several years. Henry married Catherine of Valois, the French kings daughter, shortly afterwards in Troyes, either at the cathedral or the church of St Jean. In July 1429, Joan of Arc escorted the Dauphin to mass in the en route to proclaiming him Charles VII of France at Reims cathedral. Balcon, Sylvie, and Philippot, Jacques,2001, paris, Centre des monuments nationaux, Monum
9.
Calendar of saints
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The word feast in this context does not mean a large meal, typically a celebratory one, but instead an annual religious celebration, a day dedicated to a particular saint. In the Eastern Orthodox Church, a calendar of saints is called a Menologion, Menologion may also mean a set of icons on which saints are depicted in the order of the dates of their feasts, often made in two panels. As the number of recognized saints increased during Late Antiquity and the first half of the Middle Ages, eventually every day of the year had at least one saint who was commemorated on that date. To deal with this increase, some saints were moved to days in some traditions or completely removed. For example, St. Perpetua and Felicity died on 7 March, when the 1969 reform of the Catholic calendar moved him to 28 January, they were moved back to 7 March. Both days can thus be said to be their feast day, the Roman Catholic calendars of saints in their various forms, which list those saints celebrated in the entire church, contains only a selection of the saints for each of its days. A fuller list is found in the Roman Martyrology, and some of the saints there may be celebrated locally, Saint Martin of Tours is said to be the first or at least one of the first non-martyrs to be venerated as a saint. The title confessor was used for saints, who had confessed their faith in Christ by their lives rather than by their deaths. Martyrs are regarded as dying in the service of the Lord, a broader range of titles was used later, such as, Virgin, Pastor, Bishop, Monk, Priest, Founder, Abbot, Apostle, Doctor of the Church. Pope Pius XII added a common formula for Popes, the 1962 Roman Missal of Pope John XXIII omitted the common of Apostles, assigning a proper Mass to every feast day of an Apostle. The present Roman Missal has common formulas for the Dedication of Churches, the Blessed Virgin Mary, Martyrs, Pastors, Doctors of the Church, Virgins, some Christians continue the tradition of dating by saints days, their works may appear dated as The Feast of Saint Martin. Poets such as John Keats commemorate the importance of The Eve of Saint Agnes, as different Christian jurisdictions parted ways theologically, differing lists of saints began to develop. In the present ordinary form of the Roman Rite, feast days are ranked as solemnities and those who use even earlier forms of the Roman Rite rank feast days as Doubles, Semidoubles, and Simples. See Ranking of liturgical days in the Roman Rite, in the Eastern Orthodox Church the ranking of feasts varies from church to church. In the Russian Orthodox Church they are, Great Feasts, middle, each portion of such feasts may also be called feasts as follows, All-Night Vigils, Polyeleos, Great Doxology, Sextuple. There are also distinctions between Simple feasts and Double, in Double Feasts the order of hymns and readings for each feast are rigidly instructed in Typikon, the liturgy book. In the Church of England, there are Principal Feasts and Principal Holy Days, Festivals, Lesser Festivals, and Commemorations. com
10.
Saint symbolism
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Christianity has used symbolism from its very beginnings. Each saint has a story and a reason why he or she led an exemplary life, symbols have been used to tell these stories throughout the history of the Church. A number of Christian saints are traditionally represented by a symbol or iconic motif associated with their life, termed an attribute or emblem, the study of these forms part of iconography in art history. They were particularly used so that the illiterate could recognize a scene and they are often carried in the hand by the Saint. Attributes often vary with time or geography, especially between Eastern Christianity and the West. Orthodox images more often contained inscriptions with the names of saints, many of the most prominent saints, like Saint Peter and Saint John the Evangelist can also be recognised by a distinctive facial type – as can Christ. Some attributes are general, such as the palm frond carried by martyrs, the use of a symbol in a work of art depicting a Saint reminds people who is being shown and of their story. The following is a list of some of these attributes, a New Dictionary of Saints, East and West. Catholic Forum Patron Saints Index Saints Badges or Shields On the Canonizations of John Paul II
11.
Patron saint
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Catholics believe that patron saints, having already transcended to the metaphysical, are able to intercede effectively for the needs of their special charges. Historically, a practice has also occurred in many Islamic lands. With regard to the omnipresence of this belief, the late Martin Lings wrote. Traditionally, it has been understood that the saint of a particular place prays for that places wellbeing and for the health. Saints often become the patrons of places where they were born or had been active, professions sometimes have a patron saint owing to that individual being involved somewhat with it, although some of the connections were tenuous. Lacking such a saint, an occupation would have a patron whose acts or miracles in some way recall the profession and it is, however, generally discouraged in some Protestant branches such as Calvinism, where the practice is considered a form of idolatry. In Islam, the veneration or commemoration and recognition of saints is found in many branches of traditional Sunnism
12.
Cistercians
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A Cistercian is a member of the Cistercian Order (/sɪˈstɜːrʃən/, abbreviated as OCist or SOCist, a religious order of monks and nuns. They are variously called the Bernardines, after the highly influential St, the original emphasis of Cistercian life was on manual labour and self-sufficiency, and many abbeys have traditionally supported themselves through activities such as agriculture and brewing ales. Over the centuries, however, education and academic pursuits came to dominate the life of their monasteries, after that the followers of the older pattern of life became known as the Cistercians of the Original Observance. The term Cistercian, derives from Cistercium, the Latin name for the village of Cîteaux and it was in this village that a group of Benedictine monks from the monastery of Molesme founded Cîteaux Abbey in 1098, with the goal of following more closely the Rule of Saint Benedict. The best known of them were Robert of Molesme, Alberic of Cîteaux and the English monk Stephen Harding, Bernard of Clairvaux entered the monastery in the early 1110s with 30 companions and helped the rapid proliferation of the order. By the end of the 12th century, the order had spread throughout France and into England, Wales, Scotland, Ireland, Spain, Portugal, Italy, the keynote of Cistercian life was a return to literal observance of the Rule of St Benedict. The most striking feature in the reform was the return to manual labour, especially field-work, Cistercian architecture is considered one of the most beautiful styles of medieval architecture. Additionally, in relation to such as agriculture, hydraulic engineering and metallurgy. The monastery church of Cluny Abbey, the largest in Europe, had become wealthy from rents, tithes, feudal rights and pilgrims who passed through Cluniac houses on the Way of St. James. On March 21,1098, Roberts small group acquired a plot of marshland just south of Dijon called Cîteaux, during the first year, the monks set about constructing lodging areas and farming the lands of Cîteaux, making use of a nearby chapel for Mass. In Roberts absence from Molesme, however, the abbey had gone into decline, and Pope Urban II, the remaining monks of Cîteaux elected Alberic as their abbot, under whose leadership the abbey would find its grounding. Robert had been the idealist of the order, and Alberic was their builder, upon assuming the role of abbot, Alberic moved the site of the fledgling community near a brook a short distance away from the original site. Alberic discontinued the use of Benedictine black garments in the abbey and he returned the community to the original Benedictine ideal of manual work and prayer, dedicated to the ideal of charity and self sustenance. Alberic also forged an alliance with the Dukes of Burgundy, working out a deal with Duke Odo of Burgundy concerning the donation of a vineyard as well as stones with which they built their church. The church was consecrated and dedicated to the Virgin Mary on November 16,1106, on January 26,1108, Alberic died and was soon succeeded by Stephen Harding, the man responsible for carrying the order into its crucial phase. The order was fortunate that Stephen was an abbot of extraordinary gifts, and he framed the original version of the Cistercian Constitution or regulations, the Carta caritatis. Although this was revised on several occasions to meet needs, from the outset it emphasised a simple life of work, love, prayer. Cistercian abbeys also refused to admit children, allowing adults to choose their religious vocation for themselves – a practice later emulated by many of the older Benedictine houses
13.
Burgundy
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Burgundy is a historical territory and a former administrative region of east-central France, entities that trace their name from the Burgundians, a Germanic people. Historically, Burgundy has referred to political entities, including kingdoms. The first known inhabitants of the area that became Burgundy were Celts, during the 4th century, the Burgundians, a Germanic people, who may have originated in Bornholm, settled in the western Alps. They founded the Kingdom of the Burgundians, which was conquered in the 6th century by another Germanic tribe, under Frankish dominion, the Kingdom of Burgundy continued for several centuries. Later, the region was divided between the Duchy of Burgundy and the Free County of Burgundy, burgundys modern existence is rooted in the dissolution of the Frankish Empire. In the 880s, there were four Burgundies, which were the Kingdom of Upper and Lower Burgundy, the duchy, during the Middle Ages, Burgundy was the seat of some of the most important Western churches and monasteries, among them Cluny, Cîteaux, and Vézelay. During the Hundred Years War, King John II of France gave the duchy to his youngest son, the duchy soon became a major rival to the crown. The court in Dijon outshone the French court both economically and culturally, in 1477, at the battle of Nancy during the Burgundian Wars, the last duke Charles the Bold was killed in battle, and the Duchy itself was annexed by France and became a province. However the northern part of the empire was taken by the Austrian Habsburgs, with the French Revolution in the end of the 18th century, the administrative units of the provinces disappeared, but were reconstituted as regions during the Fifth Republic in the 1970s. The modern-day administrative region comprises most of the former duchy, as of he region of Burgundy is both larger than the old Duchy of Burgundy and smaller than the area ruled by the Dukes of Burgundy, from the modern Netherlands to the border of Auvergne. Today, Burgundy is made up of the old provinces, Burgundy, Côte-dOr, Saône-et-Loire and this corresponds to the old duchy of Burgundy. However, the old county of Burgundy is not included inside the Burgundy region, also, a small part of the duchy of Burgundy is now inside the Champagne-Ardenne region. Nivernais, now the department of Nièvre, the climate of this region is essentially oceanic, with a continental influence. The regional council of Burgundy is the legislative assembly, the council has been chaired by the Socialist François Patriat since 2004. The councils seat is in the capital city Dijon, at 17 boulevard de la Trémouille, Burgundy is one of Frances main wine producing areas. The region is divided into the Côte-dOr, where the most expensive and prized Burgundies are found, and Beaujolais, Chablis, with regard to cuisine, the region is famous for the Burgundian dishes coq au vin, beef bourguignon, and époisses de Bourgogne cheese. Earlier, the part of Burgundy was heavily industrial, with coal mines near Montceau-les-Mines and iron foundries. These industries declined in the half of the twentieth century
14.
Gibraltar
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Gibraltar is a British Overseas Territory located on the southern end of the Iberian Peninsula. It has an area of 6.7 km2 and shares its border with Spain. The Rock of Gibraltar is the landmark of the region. At its foot is a populated city area, home to over 30,000 Gibraltarians. An Anglo-Dutch force captured Gibraltar from Spain in 1704 during the War of the Spanish Succession on behalf of the Habsburg claim to the Spanish throne, the territory was subsequently ceded to Great Britain in perpetuity under the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713. Today Gibraltars economy is based largely on tourism, online gambling, financial services, the sovereignty of Gibraltar is a major point of contention in Anglo-Spanish relations as Spain asserts a claim to the territory. Gibraltarians overwhelmingly rejected proposals for Spanish sovereignty in a 1967 referendum, under the Gibraltar constitution of 2006, Gibraltar governs its own affairs, though some powers, such as defence and foreign relations, remain the responsibility of the British government. The name Gibraltar is the Spanish derivation of the Arabic name Jabal Ṭāriq, earlier, it was known as Mons Calpe, a name of Phoenician origin and one of the Pillars of Hercules. The pronunciation of the name in modern Spanish is, evidence of Neanderthal habitation in Gibraltar between 28,000 and 24,000 BP has been discovered at Gorhams Cave, making Gibraltar possibly the last known holdout of the Neanderthals. Within recorded history, the first inhabitants were the Phoenicians, around 950 BC, subsequently, Gibraltar became known as one of the Pillars of Hercules, after the Greek legend of the creation of the Strait of Gibraltar by Heracles. The Carthaginians and Romans also established semi-permanent settlements, after the collapse of the Roman Empire, Gibraltar came briefly under the control of the Vandals. The area later formed part of the Visigothic Kingdom of Hispania from 414 AD until the Islamic conquest of Iberia in 711 AD, in 1160, the Almohad Sultan Abd al-Mumin ordered that a permanent settlement, including a castle, be built. It received the name of Medinat al-Fath, on completion of the works in the town, the Sultan crossed the Strait to look at the works and stayed in Gibraltar for two months. The Tower of Homage of the Moorish Castle remains standing today, from 1274 onwards, the town was fought over and captured by the Nasrids of Granada, the Marinids of Morocco and the kings of Castile. In 1462, Gibraltar was finally captured by Juan Alonso de Guzmán, after the conquest, King Henry IV of Castile assumed the additional title of King of Gibraltar, establishing it as part of the comarca of the Campo Llano de Gibraltar. In 1501, Gibraltar passed back to the Spanish Crown, the occupation of the town by Alliance forces caused the exodus of the population to the surrounding area of the Campo de Gibraltar. As the Alliances campaign faltered, the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht was negotiated and ceded control of Gibraltar to Britain to secure Britains withdrawal from the war. Unsuccessful attempts by Spanish monarchs to regain Gibraltar were made with the siege of 1727 and again with the Great Siege of Gibraltar, during the American War of Independence
15.
Algeciras
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Algeciras is a port city in the south of Spain, and is the largest city on the Bay of Gibraltar. The Port of Algeciras is one of the largest ports in Europe and it is situated 20 km north-east of Tarifa on the Río de la Miel, which is the southernmost river of the Iberian peninsula and continental Europe. In 2015, it had a population of 118,920, the area of the city has been populated since prehistory, and the earliest remains belong to Neanderthal populations from the Paleolithic. Recently it has proposed that the site of Iulia Transducta was the Villa Vieja of Algeciras. After being destroyed by the Goths and their Vandal allies, the city was founded again in April 711 by the invading Moors, as the first city created by the Amazigh on the occupied Spanish soil. In the year 859 AD Viking troops on board 62 drekars and commanded by the leaders Hastein, after looting the houses of the rich, they burnt the Aljama mosque and the Banderas mosque. Reorganized near the medina, the managed to recover the city and make the invaders run away. It enjoyed a period of independence as a taifa state from 1035-1058. It was named al-Jazirah al-Khadra after the offshore Isla Verde, the name is derived from this original Arabic name. In 1278, Algeciras was besieged by the forces of the Kingdom of Castile under the command of Alfonso X of Castile and his son and this siege was the first of a series of attempts to take the city and ended in failure for the Castilian forces. An armada sent by Castile was also annihilated whilst trying to blockade the citys harbor, after many centuries of Muslim rule, the tide of the reconquista arrived at Algeciras. In July 1309 Ferdinand IV of Castile laid siege to Algeciras as well as Gibraltar, the latter fell into Christian hands, but Muslim Algeciras held on for the following three decades, until Alfonso XI of Castile resumed its siege. In March 1344, after years of siege, Algeciras surrendered. On winning the city, Alfonso XI made it the seat of a new diocese, established by Pope Clement VIs bull Gaudemus et exultamus of 30 April 1344, no longer a residential bishopric, Aliezira is today listed by the Catholic Church as a titular see. The city was retaken by the Moors in 1368 and it was destroyed on the orders of Muhammed V of Granada. The site was abandoned, but was refounded in 1704 by refugees from Gibraltar following the territorys capture by Anglo-Dutch forces in the War of the Spanish Succession. It was fortified to guard against British raids with installations such as the Fuerte de Isla Verde built to guard key points, the city was rebuilt on its present rectangular plan by Charles III of Spain in 1760. In July 1801, the French and Spanish navies fought the British Royal Navy offshore in the Battle of Algeciras, the city became the scene for settling a major international crisis as it hosted the Algeciras Conference in 1906
16.
Queens' College, Cambridge
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Queens College is a constituent college of the University of Cambridge, England. Queens is one of the oldest and largest colleges of the university, founded in 1448 by Margaret of Anjou, the college spans both sides of the river Cam, colloquially referred to as the light side and the dark side, with the world-famous Mathematical Bridge connecting the two. Its most famous matriculant is Desiderius Erasmus, who studied at the college during his trips to England between 1506 and 1515, the college has a financial endowment of £54.9 million The current President of the college is the senior economist and Labour Party adviser, Lord Eatwell. Past Presidents of the college include Saint John Fisher, Queens College was founded in 1448 by Margaret of Anjou, and refounded in 1465 by Elizabeth Woodville. In 1446 Andrew Dokett obtained a Charter from King Henry VI to found St Bernards College, a year later the charter was revoked and Dokett obtained a new charter from the king to found St Bernards College on the present site of Old Court and Cloister Court. In 1448 King Henry VI granted Margaret of Anjou the lands of St Bernards College to build a new college to be called Queens College of St Margaret and St Bernard. On 15 April 1448, Sir John Wenlock, Chamberlain to Queen Margaret, by 1460 the library, chapel, gatehouse and the Presidents lodge were completed and the chapel licensed for service. Between that time and the early 1600s many improvements were made and new buildings constructed, including the Walnut Tree Building, since then the college has refurbished most of its old building and steadily expanded. During the English civil war the college sent all its silver to help the King, as a result, the president and the fellows were ejected from their posts. In 1660 the president was restored, in 1777 a fire in the Walnut-Tree Building destroyed the upper floors which had to be rebuilt 1778-82. In February 1795 the College was badly flooded, reportedly waist-deep in the cloisters, in 1823 the spelling of the colleges name officially changed from Queens to Queens. The earliest known record of the college Boat Club dates from 1831, in 1862 the St Bernard Society, the debating club of the college was founded. In 1884 the first football match was played by the college team, in 1980, the college for the first time allowed females to matriculate as members of college, with the first female members of the college graduating in 1983. These arms are those of the first foundress Queen, Margaret of Anjou, the six quarters of these arms represent the six lordships which he claimed. The green border appears to be intended as a difference for Queens College and these arms are of interest because the third quarter uses gold on silver, a combination which is extremely rare in heraldry. The cross potent is a pun on the letters H and I. These are not the arms of the College, but, rather. The silver boars head was the badge of King Richard III of England, richards wife Anne Neville was the third Queen consort to be patroness of the College
17.
Speyer Cathedral
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The cathedral, which is dedicated to St. Mary, patron saint of Speyer and St. Stephen is generally known as Kaiserdom zu Speyer. Pope Pius XI raised Speyer Cathedral to the rank of a basilica of the Roman Catholic Church in 1925. As the burial site for Salian, Staufer and Habsburg emperors, with the Abbey of Cluny in ruins, it remains the largest Romanesque church. It is considered to be a point in European architecture, one of the most important architectural monuments of its time. In 1981, the cathedral was added to the UNESCO World Heritage List of culturally important sites as a monument of Romanesque art in the German Empire. In 1025, Conrad II ordered the construction of the Christian Western worlds largest church in Speyer which was supposed to be his last resting place. Construction began 1030 on the site of a basilica which stood on an elevated plateau right by the Rhine. Along with Santiago de Compostela, Cluny Abbey, and Durham Cathedral, neither Conrad II, nor his son Henry III, were to see the cathedral completed. Conrad II died in 1039 and was buried in the cathedral while it was still under construction, the graves were placed in the central aisle in front of the altar. Nearly completed, the cathedral was consecrated in 1061 and this phase of construction, called Speyer I, consists of a Westwerk, a nave with two aisles and an adjoining transept. The choir was flanked by two towers, the original apse was round inside but rectangular on the outside. The nave was covered with a wooden ceiling but the aisles were vaulted. Around 1090, Conrads grandson, Emperor Henry IV, conducted a reconstruction in order to enlarge the cathedral. He had the eastern sections demolished and the foundations enforced to a depth of up to eight metres, only the lower floors and the crypt of Speyer I remained intact. The nave was elevated by five metres and the wooden ceiling replaced with a groin vault of square bays. Each vault extends over two bays of the elevation, every second pier was enlarged by adding a broad pilaster or dosseret, which formed a system of interior buttressing. Engaged shafts had appeared around 1030 in buildings along the Loire from where the spread to Normandy. The only other example of such a bay system is in the church of San Vincente, Cardona
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Knights Templar
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The order was founded in 1119 and active from about 1129 to 1312. The order, which was among the wealthiest and most powerful, became a favoured charity throughout Christendom and grew rapidly in membership and they were prominent in Christian finance. Templar knights, in their distinctive white mantles with a red cross, were among the most skilled fighting units of the Crusades, the Templars were closely tied to the Crusades, when the Holy Land was lost, support for the order faded. Rumours about the Templars secret initiation ceremony created distrust, and King Philip IV of France – deeply in debt to the order – took advantage of the situation to control over them. In 1307, he had many of the members in France arrested, tortured into giving false confessions. Pope Clement V disbanded the order in 1312 under pressure from King Philip, the abrupt reduction in power of a significant group in European society gave rise to speculation, legend, and legacy through the ages. The re-use of their name for later organizations has kept the name Templar alive to the modern day, after Europeans in the First Crusade recovered Jerusalem in 1099, many Christians made pilgrimages to various sacred sites in the Holy Land. Although the city of Jerusalem was under relatively secure Christian control, in 1119, the French knight Hugues de Payens approached King Baldwin II of Jerusalem and Warmund, Patriarch of Jerusalem, and proposed creating a monastic order for the protection of these pilgrims. The Temple Mount had a mystique because it was above what was believed to be the ruins of the Temple of Solomon. The Crusaders therefore referred to the Al-Aqsa Mosque as Solomons Temple, and from this location the new order took the name of Poor Knights of Christ and the Temple of Solomon, or Templar knights. The order, with about nine knights including Godfrey de Saint-Omer and André de Montbard, had few financial resources and their emblem was of two knights riding on a single horse, emphasising the orders poverty. The impoverished status of the Templars did not last long, another major benefit came in 1139, when Pope Innocent IIs papal bull Omne Datum Optimum exempted the order from obedience to local laws. This ruling meant that the Templars could pass freely through all borders, were not required to pay any taxes, with its clear mission and ample resources, the order grew rapidly. One of their most famous victories was in 1177 during the Battle of Montgisard, although the primary mission of the order was military, relatively few members were combatants. The others acted in support positions to assist the knights and to manage the financial infrastructure, the Templar Order, though its members were sworn to individual poverty, was given control of wealth beyond direct donations. A nobleman who was interested in participating in the Crusades might place all his assets under Templar management while he was away, based on this mix of donations and business dealing, the Templars established financial networks across the whole of Christendom. The Order of the Knights Templar arguably qualifies as the worlds first multinational corporation, in the mid-12th century, the tide began to turn in the Crusades. The Muslim world had become united under effective leaders such as Saladin, and dissension arose amongst Christian factions in, and concerning
19.
Binangonan
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Binangonan is a first class urban municipality in the province of Rizal, Philippines. According to the 2015 census, it has a population of 282,474 people, a thriving fish port and fishing industry is found in Binangonan, having a long coast line facing the Laguna de Bay, including the western part of Talim Island. The plant of Rizal Cement and Grandspan are in Binangonan as well and their main livelihood are fishing and farming. With the continuous expansion of Metro Manila, the municipality is now part of Manilas conurbation which reaches Cardona in its easternmost part, Binangonan is politically subdivided into 40 barangays, of which 23 are on the mainland and 17 are island barangays. It is claimed that the binañgonan means “the first town established along the lake”, more likely however is that binañgonan refers to a place from where someone or something rose, which is precisely what binangunan in Filipino means. A first class municipality, Binangonan lies between the foothills of Sierra Madre and the shores of Laguna de Bay and it is composed of 23 mainland and 17 island barangays. This town was separated and became an independent parish in 1621 through the initiatives of the Franciscan missionaries, the town was established in 1737 and conquered by the Spaniards in 1763. It became a town in 1900 during the American colonial period, binangonan’s major historical landmark is the 200-year-old Santa Ursula Parish, located at the heart of the town. Binangonan is a supplier of freshwater fishes from Laguna de Bay like dulong, ayungin, biya, kanduli. Other sources of income come from manufacturing, commercial establishments, real estate, during World War II, Binangonan was one of the evacuation centers for the residents of Manila and neighboring suburbs. People hid in the mountains and in Talim Island, the war brought untold difficulties and sufferings. Schools were temporarily closed, professionals turned to fishing, buy, many died of starvation, malnutrition and diseases while others survived by eating camote tops, papaya, corn, coconut and vegetables. Several people were killed when the Japanese machine- gunned the Rizal Cement Factory, at that time, Col. Augustin Marking was recruiting members for his guerrilla unit. Thus, the became the local guerillas secretly affiliated with Marking’s group. Major Teofilo Cenido was appointed mayor of the provost marshal of military police, weapons available then were one Springfield Rifle and five Granadora from five USAFFE soldiers who escaped from Bataan. In 1942, Japanese troop, guided by two Filipinas, landed in Matikiw and inspected the Rizal Cement Factory, resisting local guerillas were killed by the invaders. Filipino reinforcement retaliated by wiping out the entire Japanese troop, dead soldiers, initially buried in the factory, were dug up and fed to the kiln. Even Japanese vessels were sunk in the lake to hide the massacre, because of this, the Japanese held sona or the screening of all males in the town
20.
Christian mysticism
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Christian mysticism refers to the development of mystical practices and theory within Christianity. It has often connected to mystical theology, especially in the Roman Catholic. The attributes and means by which Christian mysticism is studied and practiced are varied and they range from ecstatic visions of the souls mystical union with God to simple prayerful contemplation of Holy Scripture. Mysticism is derived from the Greek μυω, meaning to conceal, in the Hellenistic world, a mystikos was an initiate of a mystery religion. Mystical referred to religious rituals and use of the word lacked any direct references to the transcendental. In early Christianity the term referred to three dimensions, which soon became intertwined, namely the biblical, the liturgical and the spiritual or contemplative. The biblical dimension refers to hidden or allegorical interpretations of Scriptures, the liturgical dimension refers to the liturgical mystery of the Eucharist, the presence of Christ at the Eucharist. The third dimension is the contemplative or experiential knowledge of God, William James popularized the use of the term religious experience in his 1902 book The Varieties of Religious Experience. It has also influenced the understanding of mysticism as an experience which supplies knowledge. Wayne Proudfoot traces the roots of the notion of religious experience further back to the German theologian Friedrich Schleiermacher, the notion of religious experience was used by Schleiermacher to defend religion against the growing scientific and secular critique. It was adopted by scholars of religion, of which William James was the most influential. Other critics point out that the stress on experience is accompanied by favoring the atomic individual, transformation has particular importance in the theology of Origen. Mystical experience is not simply a matter between the mystic and God, but is shaped by cultural issues. Thus, the nature of experience could be tailored to the particular cultural and theological issues of the time. The link between mysticism and the vision of the Divine was introduced by the early Church Fathers, who used the term as an adjective, as in mystical theology, in Christian mysticism, Shekhinah became mystery, Daat became gnosis, and poverty became an important component of monasticism. The Alexandrian contribution to Christian mysticism centers on Origen and Clement of Alexandria, given the importance of reason, Clement stresses apatheia as a reasonable ordering of our passions in order to live within Gods love, which is seen as a form of truth. Alexandrian mysticism developed alongside Hermeticism and Neoplatonism and therefore some of the same ideas, images. In particular, Philo taught that allegorical interpretations of the Hebrew Scriptures provides access to the meanings of the texts
21.
Mystical theology
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Mystical Theology is the branch of theology that explains mystical practices and states, as induced by contemplative practices such as contemplative prayer. According to Origen and the Alexandrian theology, theoria is the knowledge of God in creation and of sensible things and this knowledge and contemplation leads to communion with God akin to Divine Providence. In the theological tradition of St. Macarius of Egypt, theoria is the point of interaction between God and the human in the heart of the person, manifesting spiritual gifts to the human heart. The highest form of contemplation originates in the heart, a form of contemplation than that of the intellect. The concept that theoria is allotted to each individual by their capacity to comprehend God is consistent. This is also the tradition of theoria, as taught by St. Symeon the New Theologian and this experience cultivates humility, meekness and the love of the human race that the Triune God has created. This invisible fire in the heart for humanity is manifest in absolute kindness and love for ones neighbor akin to selfless humility, agape or love, growing from mortification, kenosis and this agape, or holy fire, is the essence of Orthodoxy. In the Cappadocian school of thought, theoria is the experience of the highest or absolute truth and it is entering the Cloud of Unknowing, which is beyond rational understanding, and can be embraced only in love of God. The Cappadocian fathers went beyond the intellectual contemplation of the Alexandrian fathers and this was to begin with the seminal work Philokalia, which, through hesychasm, leads to Phronema and finally theosis, which is validated by theoria. One must move beyond gnosis to faith, through ignorance, one moves beyond knowledge and being, this contemplation being theoria. In this tradition, theoria means understanding that the Uncreated cannot be grasped by the logical or rational mind, but only by the whole person, at this point, one can commune with God just as Moses did. Gregory of Nyssa presented as the culmination of the Christian religion the contemplation of the divine Being, pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite, himself influenced by the Neoplatonic philosopher Proclus, had a strong impact on Christian thought and practice, both east and west. Theoria is the theme of Dionysius’ work called The Mystical Theology. In chapter 1, Dionysius says that God dwells in divine darkness i. e, God is unknowable through sense and reason. Therefore, a person must leave behind the activity of sense and reason, through spiritual union with God, the mystic is granted theoria and through this vision is ultimately given knowledge of God. In the tradition of Dionysus the Areopagite, theoria is the lifting up of the out of time, space and created being, while the Triune God reaches down, or descends. This process is known as ekstasis. While theoria is possible through prayer, it is attained in a way through the Eucharist
22.
Neoplatonism and Christianity
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Neoplatonism was a major influence on Christian theology throughout Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages in the West. Certain central tenets of Neoplatonism served as an interim for the Christian theologian Augustine of Hippo on his journey from dualistic Manichaeism to Christianity. As a Manichee, Augustine had held that evil has substantial being and that God is made of matter, as a Neoplatonist, and later a Christian, Augustine believed that evil is a privation of good and that God is not material. Perhaps more importantly, the emphasis on mystical contemplation as a means to directly encounter God or the One, found in the writings of Plotinus and Porphyry and he reports at least two mystical experiences in his Confessions which clearly follow the Neoplatonic model. Many other Christians were influenced by Neoplatonism, especially in their identifying the Neoplatonic One, or God, the most influential of these would be Origen, who potentially took classes from Ammonius Saccas, and the late 5th century author known as Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite. Neoplatonism also had links with Gnosticism, which Plotinus rebuked in his ninth tractate of the second Enneads, Against Those That Affirm The Creator of The Kosmos and The Kosmos Itself to Be Evil. Due to their belief being grounded in Platonic thought, the Neoplatonists rejected Gnosticisms vilification of Platos demiurge, Plotinus believed the followers of gnosticism had corrupted the original teachings of Plato. Despite the influence this philosophy had on Christianity, Justinian I would hurt later Neoplatonism by ordering the closure of the refounded Academy of Athens in 529, Pseudo-Dionysius proved significant for both the Byzantine and Roman branches of Christianity. His works were translated into Latin by John Scotus Eriugena in the 9th century, from the days of the Early Church until the present, the Orthodox Church has made positive selective use of ancient Greek philosophy, particularly Socrates, Plato, Aristotle and the Stoics. For example, the term originated with Heraclitus and meant reason or thought. In the Christian context, Logos takes on a deeper meaning, the writer and theologian Gregory Palamas gives four distinct meanings for the term ‘logos’. The most important principle to keep in mind is that early Christianity developed in a Greek milieu, however, the meanings of words sometimes evolved along different lines. In other cases, philosophical ideas and concepts were adapted and changed by Christian writers. Any exegetical endeavor trying to unravel the influence of Neo-Platonic thought on Christian theology needs to keep these principles in mind, One should also note that philosophy was used quite differently in the Eastern and Western theological traditions. The writings attributed to Dionysius the Areopagite are among the most enigmatic works of late antiquity, Byzantine scholars such as Gregory Palamas cited Dionysius especially in matters of Mystical Theology such as theoria, the divine energies and the unknowability of God. At present, modern theologians and philosophers are still debating whether Dionysius was a Neo-Platonist with Christian influences or a Christian writer with Neo-Platonic influences, among Orthodox scholars, the later view seems to be shared by such writers as Andrew Louth and Vladimir Lossky. However, other Orthodox scholars such as John Meyendorff believe that the Neo-Platonism of Dionysius exerted both positive and negative influences on Orthodox theology, Meyendorff maintains that Dionysius has led to some confusion in the areas of liturgical and ecclesiological formulations. Marsilio Ficino, who translated Plotinus, Proclus, as well as Platos complete works into Latin, was the figure of a major Neoplatonist revival in the Renaissance
23.
Henosis
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Henosis is the classical Greek word for mystical oneness, union, or unity. In Platonism, and especially Neoplatonism, the goal of henosis is union with what is fundamental in reality, the One, the Neoplatonic concept has precedents in the Greek mystery religions as well as parallels in Eastern philosophy. It is further developed in the Corpus Hermeticum, in Christian theology, soteriology, the term is relatively common in classical texts, and has the meaning of union or unity. Henosis, orprimordial unity, is rational and deterministic, emanating from indeterminism an uncaused cause, each individual as a microcosm reflects the gradual ordering of the universe referred to as the macrocosm. In mimicking the demiurge, one unites with The One or Monad, thus the process of unification, of The Being, and The One, is called Henosis. The culmination of Henosis is deification, Henosis for Plotinus was defined in his works as a reversing of the ontological process of consciousness via meditation toward no thought and no division within the individual. As is specified in the writings of Plotinus on Henology, one can reach a tabula rasa and this absolute simplicity means that the nous or the person is then dissolved, completely absorbed back into the Monad. Within the Enneads of Plotinus the Monad can be referred to as the Good above the demiurge, the Monad or dunamis is of one singular expression all is contained in the Monad and the Monad is all. All division is reconciled in the one, the stage before reaching singularity, called duality, is completely reconciled in the Monad. As the one, source or substance of all things the Monad is all encompassing, as infinite and indeterminate all is reconciled in the dunamis or one. It is the demiurge or second emanation that is the nous in Plotinus and it is the demiurge or nous that perceives and therefore causes the force to manifest as energy, or the dyad called the material world. Nous as being, being and perception manifest what is called soul, Plotinus words his teachings to reconcile not only Plato with Aristotle but also various World religions that he had personal contact with during his various travels. Plotinus works have a character in that they reject matter as an illusion. Matter was strictly treated as immanent, with matter as essential to its being, having no true or transcendential character or essence, substance or ousia and this approach is called philosophical Idealism. Within the works of Iamblichus of Chalcis, The One and reconciliation of division can be obtained through the process of theurgy, by mimicking the demiurge, the individual is returned to the cosmos to implement the will of the divine mind. One goes through a series of theurgy or rituals that unites the initiate to the Monad and these rituals mimic the ordering of the chaos of the Universe into the material world or cosmos. Thus one without conflict internal or external is united and is The One, in Eastern Orthodox Christianity, but also in western mysticism, henosis can be acquired by theoria, hesychasm and contemplative prayer. Yet, the concept of theosis, or deification, differs from henosis, since created beings cannot become God in His transcendent essence, nondualism Absolute Apotheosis Fana Form of the Good Moksha Monolatrism The All Theosis http, //www. goddess-athena. org/Encyclopedia/Friends/Iamblichus/index. htm
24.
Christian monasticism
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Christian monasticism is the devotional practice of individuals who live ascetic and typically cloistered lives that are dedicated to Christian worship. It has come to be regulated by rules and, in modern times. Those living the life are known by the generic terms monks. In modern English, they are known by the gender-neutral term monastics. The word monk originated from the Greek monachos monk, itself from monos meaning alone, monks did not live in monasteries at first, rather, they began by living alone, as the word monos might suggest. As more people took on the lives of monks, living alone in the wilderness, they started to come together, quickly, the monks formed communities to further their ability to observe an ascetic life. According to Christianity historian Robert Louis Wilken, By creating a social structure within the Church they laid the foundations for one of the most enduring Christian institutions. Monastics generally dwell in a monastery, whether they live there in community, the basic idea of monasticism in all its varieties is seclusion or withdrawal from the world or society. Monastic life is distinct from the religious orders such as the friars, canons regular, clerks regular, the latter have essentially some special work or aim, such as preaching, teaching, liberating captives, etc. which occupies a large place in their activities. While monks have undertaken labours of the most varied character, in case this work is extrinsic to the essence of the monastic state. Both ways of living out the Christian life are regulated by the church law of those Christian denominations that recognize it. Christian monastic life does not always involve communal living with like-minded Christians, Christian monasticism has varied greatly in its external forms, but, broadly speaking, it has two main types the eremitical or secluded, the cenobitical or city life. St. Anthony the Abbot may be called the founder of the first, the monastic life is based on Jesuss amen to be perfect, therefore, as your heavenly Father is perfect. This ideal, also called the state of perfection, can be seen, for example, in the Philokalia and their manner of self-renunciation has three elements corresponding to the three evangelical counsels, poverty, chastity and obedience. Monks and friars are two distinct roles, in the thirteenth century … new orders of friars were founded to teach the Christian faith, because monasteries had declined. First Century groups such as the Essenes and the Therapeutae followed lifestyles that could be seen as precursors to Christian monasticism, the Carmelites find inspiration in the old testament prophet Elijah. From the earliest times within the Christian Church, there were probably individual hermits who lived a life in isolation in imitation of Jesuss 40 days in the desert and they have left no confirmed archaeological traces and only hints in the written record. Communities of virgins who had consecrated themselves to Christ are found at least as far back as the 2nd century, eremitic monasticism, or solitary monasticism, is characterized by a complete withdrawal from society
25.
Asceticism
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Asceticism is a lifestyle characterized by abstinence from worldly pleasures, often for the purpose of pursuing spiritual goals. Asceticism is classified into two types, Asceticism has been historically observed in many religious traditions, including Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Jainism and Judaism. Mainstream Islam has lacked asceticism, except for its minority Sufi sect whose long tradition has included strict asceticism, the practitioners of these religions eschewed worldly pleasures and led an abstinent lifestyle, in the pursuit of redemption, salvation or spirituality. Asceticism is seen in the ancient theologies as a journey towards spiritual transformation, where the simple is sufficient, the bliss is within, the adjective ascetic derives from the ancient Greek term askēsis, which means training or exercise. The original usage did not refer to self-denial, but to the training required for athletic events. Its usage later extended to rigorous practices that are used in all religious traditions, in varying degrees to attain redemption. Asceticism has been classified into natural and unnatural forms of asceticism, natural asceticism is defined as a lifestyle where material aspects of life are reduced to utmost simplicity and minimum. This may include minimal, simple clothing, sleeping on floor or caves, natural asceticism, state Wimbush and Valantasis, does not include maiming the body or harsher austerities that make the body suffer. Self-discipline and abstinence in some form and degree are parts of religious practice within many religious, ascetic lifestyle is associated particularly with monks, nuns, fakirs in Abrahamic religions, and bhikkhus, munis, sannyasis, yogis in Indian religions. Christian authors of antiquity such as Origen, St. Jerome, St. Ignatius, John Chrysostom. Scriptural examples of asceticism could be found in the lives of John the Baptist, Jesus, the twelve apostles, the Dead Sea Scrolls revealed ascetic practices of the ancient Jewish sect of Essenes who took vows of abstinence to prepare for a holy war. An emphasis on a religious life was evident in both early Christian writings and practices. Other Christian practitioners of asceticism include individuals such as Simeon Stylites, Saint David of Wales, according to Richard Finn, much of early Christian asceticism has been traced to Judaism, but not to traditions within Greek asceticism. Some of the thoughts in Christianity nevertheless, Finn states, have roots in Greek moral thought. Virtuous living is not possible when an individual is craving bodily pleasures with desire, the deserts of the Middle East were at one time inhabited by thousands of Christian hermits including St. Anthony the Great, St. Mary of Egypt, and St. Simeon Stylites. In 963 CE, an association of monasteries called Lavra was formed on Mount Athos and this became the most important center of orthodox Christian ascetic groups in the centuries that followed. In the modern era, Mount Athos and Meteora have remained a significant center, sexual abstinence such as those of the Encratites sect of Christians was only one aspect of ascetic renunciation, and both natural and unnatural asceticism have been part of Christian asceticism. The natural ascetic practices have included simple living, begging, fasting and ethical practices such as humility, compassion, patience, such ascetic practices were linked to the Christian concepts of sin and redemption
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Christian meditation
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Christian meditation is a form of prayer in which a structured attempt is made to become aware of and reflect upon the revelations of God. The word meditation comes from the Latin word meditārī, which has a range of meanings including to reflect on, to study, Christian meditation is the process of deliberately focusing on specific thoughts and reflecting on their meaning in the context of the love of God. Christian meditation aims to heighten the relationship based on the love of God that marks Christian communion. Teachings in both the Eastern and Western Christian churches have emphasized the use of Christian meditation as an element in increasing knowledge of Christ. Christian meditation involves looking back on Jesus life, thanksgiving and adoration of God for his action in sending Jesus for human salvation. In her book The Interior Castle Saint Teresa of Avila defined Christian meditation as follows, By meditation I mean prolonged reasoning with the understanding, in this way. We begin by thinking of the favor which God bestowed upon us by giving us His only Son, building on that theme, E. P. Clowney explained that three dimensions of Christian meditation are crucial, not merely for showing its distinctiveness, but for guiding its practice. The first is that Christian meditation is grounded in the Bible, the second distinctive mark of Christian meditation is that it responds to the love of God, as in I John, We love, for he first loved us. The personal relationship based on the love of God that marks Christian communion is thus heightened in Christian meditation, the third dimension is that the revelations of the Bible and the love of God lead to the worship of God, making Christian meditation an exercise in praise. While Protestants view salvation in terms of faith and grace alone both Western and Eastern Christians see a role for meditation on the path to salvation and redemption, apostle Paul stated in Epistle to the Romans 9,16 that salvation only comes from God that hath mercy. The path to salvation in Christian meditation is not one of give and take, the Word of God directs meditations to show the two aspects of love that please God, obedience and adoration. The initiative in Christian salvation is with God, and one does not meditate or love God to gain his favor. In Western Christian teachings, meditation is believed to involve the inherent action of the Holy Spirit to help the meditating Christian understand the deeper meanings of the Word of God. In the 20th century, Hans Urs von Balthasar paraphrased this teaching as follows, how could we understand what is within God and is disclosed to us except through the Spirit of God who is communicated to us. As a biblical basis for teaching, von Balthasar referred to 1 Corinthians 2, 9-10. The Spirit searches all things, even the things of God. Christian meditation is different from the style of meditations performed in Eastern religions or in the context of the New Age, while other types of meditation may suggest approaches to disengage the mind, Christian meditation aims to fill the mind with thoughts related to Biblical passages or Christian devotions. Unlike eastern meditations, most styles of Christian meditations are intended to stimulate thought, Christian meditation aims to heighten the personal relationship based on the love of God that marks Christian communion
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Lectio Divina
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In Christianity, Lectio Divina is a traditional Benedictine practice of scriptural reading, meditation and prayer intended to promote communion with God and to increase the knowledge of Gods Word. It does not treat Scripture as texts to be studied, traditionally, Lectio Divina has four separate steps, read, meditate, pray, contemplate. First a passage of Scripture is read, then its meaning is reflected upon and this is followed by prayer and contemplation on the Word of God. The focus of Lectio Divina is not an analysis of biblical passages. In Lectio Divina, however, the practitioner enters and shares the peace of Christ rather than dissecting it, in some Christian teachings, this form of meditative prayer leads to an increased knowledge of Christ. The roots of Scriptural reflection and interpretation go back to Origen in the 3rd century, before the emergence of the Western monastic communities, a key contribution to the foundation of Lectio Divina came from Origen in the 3rd century, with his view of Scripture as a sacrament. In a letter to Gregory of Neocaesarea Origen wrote, hen you devote yourself to the divine reading, seek the meaning of divine words which is hidden from most people. Origen believed that The Word was incarnate in Scripture and could touch and teach readers and hearers. Origen taught that the reading of Scripture could help move beyond elementary thoughts, in Origens approach the major interpretive element of Scripture is Christ. In his view all Scriptural texts are secondary to Christ and are only revelations in as much as they refer to Christ as The Word of God, in this view, using Christ as the interpretive key unlocks the message in Scriptural texts. The primordial role of Origen in interpreting Scripture was acknowledged by Pope Benedict XVI, in the 4th century, as the Desert Fathers began to seek God in the deserts of Palestine and Egypt, they produced early models of Christian monastic life that persisted in the Eastern Church. These early communities gave rise to the tradition of a Christian life of constant prayer in a monastic setting. After Origen, Church Fathers such as St. Ambrose, St. Augustine, according to Jean Leclercq, OSB, the founders of the medieval tradition of Lectio Divina were Saint Benedict and Pope Gregory I. However, the methods that they employed had precedents in the period both in Hebrew and Greek. A text that combines these traditions is Romans 10, 8–10 where Apostle Paul refers to the presence of Gods word in the mouth or heart. It was the recitation of the text that provided the rationale for Lectio Divina. With the motto Ora et labora, daily life in a Benedictine monastery consisted of three elements, liturgical prayer, manual labor and Lectio Divina, a quiet prayerful reading of the Bible. This slow and thoughtful reading of Scripture, and the ensuing pondering of its meaning, was their meditation and this spiritual practice is called divine reading or spiritual reading – i. e. lectio divina
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Intercession of saints
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Intercession of the saints is a doctrine held by the Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox and Roman Catholic Churches. The practice of praying to saints can be found in Christian writings from the 3rd century onwards, the 4th-century Apostles Creed states belief in the communion of saints, which certain Christian churches interpret as supporting the intercession of saints. As in Christianity, this practice is controversial in Judaism and Islam, advocates of the doctrine say that Jesus parable of The Rich Man and Lazarus in Luke 16, 19–31 indicates the ability of the dead to pray for the living. Aquinas quotes Revelation 8,4, And the smoke of the incense of the prayers of the saints ascended up before God from the hand of the angel, both those for and against the intercession of saints quote Job 5,1. Roman Catholic Church doctrine supports intercessory prayer to saints, intercessory prayer to saints also plays an important role in the Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox churches. Also some Anglo-Catholics believe in saintly intercession and this practice is an application of the Catholic doctrine of the Communion of Saints. It is understood that some of the basis for this was the belief that martyrs passed immediately into the presence of God. A further reinforcement, of the idea, was derived from the cult of the angels. The Catholic doctrine of intercession and invocation is set forth by the Council of Trent, with the exception of a few early Protestant churches, most modern Protestant churches strongly reject all saintly intercession, which they believe is contrary to biblical teaching. However, the Thirty-Nine Articles condemn the invocation of saints as a thing, vainly invented, and grounded upon no warranty of Scripture. The bishop William Forbes termed the Anglican practice advocation of the saints, meaning asking for the saints to pray with them and on their behalf, however, they strongly reject invoking or asking help of saints. The Augsburg Confession emphasizes that Christ is the mediator between God and man, and that he is the one to address prayers to. Like the Lutheran churches, the Calvinist and other Reformed churches understand the communion of saints mentioned in the Apostles Creed to comprise all believers, invocation of saints is considered to be a transgression of the First Commandment. The Methodist Articles of Religion from 1784, in their XIV, in ancient Judaism, it was also popular to pray for intercession from Michael in spite of the rabbinical prohibition against appealing to angels as intermediaries between God and his people. There were two prayers written beseeching him as the prince of mercy to intercede in favor of Israel, one composed by Eliezer ha-Kalir, and those who oppose this practice feel that to God alone may prayers be offered. In modern times one of the greatest divisions in Jewish theology is over the issue of one can beseech the help of a tzadik – an extremely righteous individual. The main conflict is over a practice of beseeching a tzadik who has died to make intercession before the Almighty. This practice is mainly among Chasidic Jews, but also found in varying degrees among other usually Chareidi communities
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Christian contemplation
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Christian contemplation, from contemplatio, refers to several Christian practices which aim at looking at, gazing at, being aware of God or the Divine. It includes several practices and theological concepts, Christianity took up the use of both the Greek and Latin terminology to describe various forms of prayer and the process of coming to know God. Eastern and Western traditions of Christianity grew apart as they incorporated the notion of theoria into their respective teachings. It expressed the state of being a spectator, both Greek θεωρία and Latin contemplatio primarily meant looking at things, whether with the eyes or with the mind. Several scholars have demonstrated similarities between the Greek idea of theoria and the Indian idea of darśana, including Ian Rutherford, Binod Kumar Agarwala, Gregory Grieve, insight into being and becoming through the intuitive truth called faith, in God, leads to truth through our contemplative faculties. This theory, or speculation, as action in faith and love for God, is then expressed famously as Beauty shall Save the World and this expression comes from a mystical or gnosiological perspective, rather than a scientific, philosophical or cultural one. Philip of Opus viewed theoria as contemplation of the stars, with effects in everyday life similar to those that Plato saw as following from contemplation of the Forms. Aristotle, on the hand, separated the spectating of theoria from practical purposes, and saw it as an end in itself. Thomas Louis Schubeck says that, in Aristotles view, the knowledge that guides ethical political activity does not belong to theoria, leading a contemplative life can be considered Aristotles answer to the question what life humans ought to live. … The more humans engage in contemplation, the closer they are to their gods, Aristotles view that the best life would be a purely contemplative one was disputed by the Stoics and others, such as the Epicureans, who saw speculation as inferior to practical ethics. Contemplation is, then, knowledge, knowledge of reality itself, as opposed to knowing how, Augustine expressed this distinction by using scientia for the kind of knowledge attained by ratio, and sapientia, wisdom, for the kind of knowledge received by intellectus. Human intelligence operates at two levels, a basic level concerned with doing things, and another level concerned with simply beholding, contemplating, knowing reality, in the Enneads of Plotinus, a founder of Neoplatonism, everything is contemplation and everything is derived from contemplation. Knowledge of The One is achieved through experience of its power, Plotinus agreed with Aristotles systematic distinction between contemplation and practice, dedication to the superior life of theoria requires abstension from practical, active life. Plotinus explained, The point of action is contemplation, some Neoplatonic ideas were adopted by Christianity, among them the idea of contemplation, taken over by Gregory of Nyssa for example. Some make a distinction, within contemplation, between contemplation acquired by human effort and infused contemplation. Saint John Cassian recommended use of the phrase O God, make speed to save me, O Lord, another formula for repetition is the name of Jesus. Or the Jesus Prayer, which has called the mantra of the Orthodox Church. The author of The Cloud of Unknowing recommended use of a monosyllabic word, Theoria refers to a stage of illumination on the path to theosis
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Hesychasm
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Hesychasm is a mystical tradition of contemplative prayer in the Eastern Orthodox Church. Gregory Palamas, on which see Palamism, the origin of the term hesychasmos, and of the related terms hesychastes, hesychia and hesychazo, is not entirely certain. According to the entries in Lampes A Patristic Greek Lexicon, the basic terms hesychia and hesychazo appear as early as the 4th century in such fathers as St John Chrysostom and the Cappadocians. The terms also appear in the period in Evagrius Pontikos, who although he is writing in Egypt is out of the circle of the Cappadocians. In Egypt, the more often used are anchoretism. The term Hesychast was used in the 6th century in Palestine in the Lives of Cyril of Scythopolis, here, it should be noted that several of the saints about whom Cyril was writing, especially Euthymios and Savas, were in fact from Cappadocia. The laws of the Emperor Justinian I treat Hesychast and anchorite as synonyms and it is not known where either St John of Sinai or St Hesychios were born, nor where they received their monastic formation. Hesychasm itself is not recorded in Lampes Lexicon, which indicates that it is a later usage, and the term Jesus Prayer is not found in any of the Fathers of the Church. Saint John Cassian presents as the used in Egypt for repetitive prayer, not the Jesus Prayer. Most likely, the rise of the term Hesychasm reflects the coming to the fore of this practice as something concrete, Hesychastic practice involves acquiring an inner focus and blocking of the physical senses. In this, hesychasm shows its roots in Evagrius Ponticus and even in the Greek tradition of going back to Plato. This is the same prayer used by the Christian Hesychasts and is the reason that they were mocked by their opponents as navel gazers. This bodily position and the practice of rhythmically breathing while invoking a divine name seems to be common to both Jewish Merkabah mysticism and Christian Hesychasm, thus the practice may have origins in the ascetical practices of the biblical prophets. Daniel Boyarin notes that Pauls own account of experience would therefore be the earliest first person account of the mystical vision of a Merkabah adept. The Hesychast interprets Christs injunction in the Gospel of Matthew to go into your closet to pray to mean one should ignore the senses. Saint John of Sinai writes, Hesychasm is the enclosing of the bodiless primary Cognitive faculty of the soul in the house of the body. Theosis is obtained by engaging in contemplative prayer resulting from the cultivation of watchfulness, according to the standard ascetic formulation of this process, there are three stages, Katharsis or purification, Theoria or illumination, and Theosis or deification. The primary task of the Hesychast is to engage in mental ascesis, in solitude and retirement, the Hesychast repeats the Jesus Prayer, Lord Jesus Christ, son of God, have mercy on me, the sinner
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Quietism (Christian philosophy)
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Since the late seventeenth century, “Quietism” has functioned, as the shorthand for accounts which are perceived to fall foul of the same theological errors, and thus to be heretical. As such, the term has come to be applied to beliefs far outside its original context, the term quietism was not used until the 17th century, so some writers have dubbed the expression of such errors before this era as ‘pre-quietism’. Quietism is particularly associated with Miguel de Molinos, referred to by the Catholic Encyclopedia as the founder of Quietism, Molinos and the doctrines of quietism were finally condemned by Pope Innocent XI in the Bull Coelestis Pastor of 1687. Molinos was imprisoned in the Castel SantAngelo, where he died in 1696, Quietism spread among Roman Catholicism through small groups into France. Here it was influenced by the thought of François de Sales. Madame Guyon won an influential convert at the court of Louis XIV in Madame de Maintenon and she was also a spiritual counsellor to Archbishop Fénelon of Cambrai. A commission in France found most of Madame Guyon’s works intolerable, in 1699, after Fénelon’s spirited defense in a press war with Bossuet, Pope Innocent XII prohibited the circulation of Fénelon’s Maxims of the Saints, to which Fénelon submitted at once. The inquisitions proceedings against remaining quietists in Italy lasted until the eighteenth century and it is possible to isolate similar tendencies as those condemned in the seventeenth century “Quietist” controversy in earlier periods. The Cathars’ denial of the need for sacerdotal rites has been perceived as a form of quietism, likewise, the twelfth and thirteenth-century Brethren of the Free Spirit, Beguines and Beghards were all accused of holding beliefs with similarities to those condemned in the Quietist controversy. This may be a reference to the Cathars or Albigenses of southern France and Catalonia. Similar assertions of individual autonomy on the part of the Fraticelli led to their condemnation by John XXII in 1317, the condemnation of the errors of Meister Eckhart in 1329 may also be seen as an instance of an analogous concern in Christian history. In early sixteenth century Spain, concern over a set of beliefs held by those known as alumbrados raised similar concerns to those of Quietism and these concerns continued into the mid-sixteenth century, and the writings of Teresa of Avila and John of the Cross. Thus, their work was not condemned as heresy, being consistent with Church teaching, the Capuchin friar Benet Canfield, an English Catholic living in Belgium, espoused quietism in a tract called Way of Perfection, on deep prayer and meditation. Beguines and Beghards Christian mysticism Hesychasm Johannes Kelpius Religious Society of Friends Taoism Zen Buddhism Nondualism Dandelion, a Sociological Analysis of the Theology of Quakers, The Silent Revolution New York, Ontario & Lampeter, Edwin Mellen Press,1996. Renoux, Christian, Quietism, in The Papacy, An Encyclopedia, vol 3, edited by Philippe Levillain,3 vols, Miguel de Molinos, The Spiritual Guide, ed and trans by Robert P Baird, Bayley, Peter. Between Ambition and Quietism, the Socio-political Background of 1 Thessalonians 4, Revolution and Quietism, Two Political Attitudes in Theological Perspective. Quietism versus Enthusiasm, The Philadelphia Quakers and the Great Awakening, the Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography. Catholic Encyclopedia, Quietism as a false or exaggerated mysticism Columbia Encyclopedia on quietism More information Encyclopedia. com on quietism Encyclopædia Britannica1911, Quietism Informative
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Divinization (Christian)
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In Christian theology, divinization is the transforming effect of divine grace, the spirit of God, or the atonement of Christ. It literally means to become divine, or to become God. There were many varied references to divinization in the writings of the Church Fathers, in the second century, Irenaeus, bishop of Lyons said that God became what we are in order to make us what he is himself. Irenaeus also wrote, If the Word became a man, It was so men may become gods. He added, Do we cast blame on him because we were not made gods from the beginning, but were at first created merely as men, and then later as gods. For it was necessary at first that nature be exhibited, then after that what was mortal would be conquered and swallowed up in immortality. At about the time, Clement of Alexandria, wrote, Yea, I say. Clement further stated that f one knows himself, he will know God and his is beauty, true beauty, for it is God, and that man becomes a god, since God wills it. So Heraclitus was right when he said, Men are gods, Clement of Alexandria also stated that he who obeys the Lord and follows the prophecy given through him. Becomes a god while still moving about in the flesh, 100–165) insisted that in the beginning men were made like God, free from suffering and death, and that they are thus deemed worthy of becoming gods and of having power to become sons of the highest. Athanasius, bishop of Alexandria, stated his belief in literal deification, just as the Lord, putting on the body, became a man, so also we men are both deified through his flesh, and henceforth inherit everlasting life. Athanasius also observed, For the Son of God became man so that we might become God, Augustine of Hippo said, But he himself that justifies also deifies, for by justifying he makes sons of God. For he has given them power to become the sons of God, If then we have been made sons of god, we have also been made gods. To make human beings gods, Augustine said, He was made man who was God, Augustine goes on to write that are not born of His Substance, that they should be the same as He, but that by favour they should come to Him. Clement of Alexandria he Word of God became man, that thou mayest learn from man how man may become God. For if one knows himself, he will know God, and knowing God, he will be made like God is is beauty, the beauty, for it is God. Heraclitus, then, rightly said, Men are gods, and to be incorruptible is to participate in divinity. Theophilus of Antioch For if He had made him immortal from the beginning, again, if He had made him mortal, God would seem to be the cause of his death
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Catharsis
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Catharsis is the purification and purgation of emotions—especially pity and fear—through art or any extreme change in emotion that results in renewal and restoration. It is a metaphor used by Aristotle in the Poetics. Catharsis is a term in art that describes the effect of tragedy principally on the audience. Nowhere does Aristotle explain the meaning of catharsis as he is using that term in the definition of tragedy in the Poetics, for this reason, a number of diverse interpretations of the meaning of this term have arisen. The term is discussed along with Aristotles concept of anagnorisis. D. W. Lucas, in an edition of the Poetics, comprehensively covers the various nuances inherent in the meaning of the term in an Appendix devoted to Pity, Fear. Lucas himself does not accept any one of interpretations as his own. Purgation and purification, used in centuries, as the common interpretations of catharsis are still in wide use today. In his works prior to the Poetics, Aristotle had used the term catharsis purely in its medical sense, here, however, he employs it as a medical metaphor. F. L. Lucas maintains, therefore, that purification and cleansing are not proper translations for catharsis and it is the human soul that is purged of its excessive passions. Else made the argument against the purgation theory, It presupposes that we come to the tragic drama as patients to be cured, relieved, restored to psychic health. But there is not a word to support this in the Poetics, on the contrary it is evident in every line of the work that Aristotle is presupposing normal auditors, normal states of mind and feeling, normal emotional and aesthetic experience. Tragedy is then a corrective, through watching tragedy, the audience learns how to feel these emotions at proper levels. In the twentieth century a shift took place in the interpretation of catharsis with a number of scholars contributing to the argument in support of the intellectual clarification concept. It is generally understood that Aristotles theory of mimesis and catharsis are responses to Platos negative view of artistic mimesis on an audience. Aristotles concept of catharsis, in all of the major senses attributed to it, the following analysis by E. R. what fascinates us is the spectacle of a man freely choosing, from the highest motives a series of actions which lead to his own ruin. Oedipus might have left the plague to take its course, when Apollos word came back, he might still have left the murder of Laius uninvestigated, but piety and justice required him to act. He need not have forced the truth from the reluctant Theban herdsman, teiresias, Jocasta, the herdsman, each in turn tries to stop him, but in vain, he must read the last riddle, the riddle of his own life
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Theosis (Eastern Christian theology)
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Theosis or deification is a transformative process whose aim is likeness to or union with God, as taught by the Eastern Orthodox Church and Eastern Catholic Churches. As a process of transformation, theosis is brought about by the effects of catharsis, According to Eastern Christian teaching, theosis is very much the purpose of human life. It is considered achievable only through a synergy between human activity and Gods uncreated energies, Eastern Christians consider that no one who does not follow the path of union with God can be a theologian in the proper sense. Theology in Eastern Christianity is not treated primarily as an academic pursuit, St. Athanasius of Alexandria wrote, He was incarnate that we might be made god. His statement is an apt description of the doctrine, what would otherwise seem absurd—that fallen, sinful man may become holy as God is holy—has been made possible through Jesus Christ, who is God incarnate. Most specifically creatures, i. e. created beings, cannot become God in His transcendent essence, or ousia, such a concept would be the henosis, or absorption and fusion into God of Greek pagan philosophy. However, every being and reality itself is considered as composed of the immanent energy, or Energeia, as energy is the actuality of God, i. e. His immanence, from Gods being, it is also the Energeia or activity of God, thus the doctrine avoids pantheism while partially accepting Neoplatonisms terms and general concepts, but not its substance. Let us become the image of the one whole God, bearing nothing earthly in ourselves, so that we may consort with God and become gods, receiving from God our existence as gods. e. The created image of God, through their communion with Jesus Christ, God shares Himself with the race, in order to conform them to all that He is in knowledge, righteousness. As God became human, in all ways except sin, He will also make humans God, i. e. holy or saintly, in all ways except His Divine Essence, which is uncaused and uncreated. Some Eastern Christian theologians go so far as to say that Jesus would have become incarnate for this alone, even if Adam. All of humanity is fully restored to the potential of humanity because the Son of God took to himself a human nature to be born of a woman. In Christ the two natures of God and human are not two persons but one, thus a union is effected in Christ between all of humanity in principle and God, so the holy God and sinful humanity are reconciled in principle in the one sinless man, Jesus Christ. This reconciliation is made actual through the struggle to conform to the image of Christ, without the struggle, the praxis, there is no real faith, faith leads to action, without which it is dead. One must unite will, thought, and action to Gods will, his thoughts, a person must fashion his life to be a mirror, a true likeness of God. Thus the term describes the whole process and its objective. By means of purification a person comes to theoria and then to theosis, Theosis is the participation of the person in the life of God
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Religious ecstasy
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Although the experience is usually brief in time, there are records of such experiences lasting several days or even more, and of recurring experiences of ecstasy during ones lifetime. A persons sense of time and space disappear during a religious ecstasy forsaking any senses or physical cognizance in its duration. Among venerated Catholic saints who dabble in Christian mysticism, a physical stature, human sensory, or perception is completely detached to time. In Sufism, the term is referred to as wajd and the experience is referred to as either jazbah or majzoobiyat, the adjective religious means that the experience occurs in connection with religious activities or is interpreted in context of a religion. Thus we find experiences given such names as nature, religious, aesthetic, neo-platonic, ecstasies enjoyed by accepted religious mystics are usually called religious experiences no matter what the nature of the ecstasy or the trigger inducing it. Religious people may hold the view that true religious ecstasy occurs only in their religious context, an ecstatic experience may take place in occasion of contact with something or somebody perceived as extremely beautiful or holy. It may also happen without any known reason, the particular technique that an individual uses to induce ecstasy is usually one that is associated with that individuals particular religious and cultural traditions. As a result, an experience is usually interpreted within the particular individual religious context. Athletes may follow rituals in preparing for contests, which are dismissed as superstition, Yoga provides techniques to attain an ecstasy state called samādhi. According to practitioners, there are stages of ecstasy, the highest being Nirvikalpa Samadhi. Bhakti Yoga especially, places emphasis on ecstasy as being one of the fruits of its practice, in Buddhism, especially in the Pali Canon, there are eight states of trance also called absorption. The first four states are Rupa or, materially-oriented, the next four are Arupa or non-material. These eight states are preliminary trances which lead up to final saturation, in Visuddhimagga, great effort and years of sustained meditation are practiced to reach the first absorption, and that not all individuals are able to accomplish it at all. It is possible to experience the absorptions in a less intense state with much less practice, in the Dionysian Mysteries, initiates used intoxicants and other trance-inducing techniques to remove inhibitions and social constraints, liberating the individual to return to a natural state. In the monotheistic tradition, ecstasy is usually associated with communion, however, such experiences can also be personal mystical experiences with no significance to anyone but the person experiencing them. Some charismatic Christians practice ecstatic states and interpret these as given by the Holy Spirit, the firewalkers of Greece dance themselves into a state of ecstasy at the annual Anastenaria, when they believe themselves under the influence of Saint Constantine. In modern Pentecostal, charismatic and spirit-filled Christianity, numerous examples of religious ecstasy have transpired and these occurrences however, have changed significantly since the time of the Toronto Blessing phenomena and several other North American so-called revivals and outpourings from the mid 1990s. It is said to be a prophetic action bringing spiritual blessings from God into the world, many believe spiritual birthing to be highly demonic in nature and more occult-like than Christian
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Abstinence
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Abstinence is a self-enforced restraint from indulging in bodily activities that are widely experienced as giving pleasure. Most frequently, the term refers to sexual abstinence, or abstinence from alcohol or food, the practice can arise from religious prohibitions and practical considerations. Abstinence may also refer to drugs, for example, one can abstain from smoking. Commonly it refers to a temporary or partial abstinence from food, in the twelve-step program of Overeaters Anonymous abstinence is the term for refraining from compulsive eating, akin in meaning to sobriety for alcoholics. Because the regimen is intended to be an act, freely chosen to enhance life. The latter is a state, having unhealthy consequences. Freud termed the channeling of sexual energies into other more culturally or socially acceptable activities, Abstinence may arise from an ascetic over indulgent, hasidic point of view in natural ways of procreation, present in most faiths, or from a subjective need for spiritual discipline. In its religious context, abstinence is meant to elevate the believer beyond the life of desire, to a chosen ideal. Hindus observe fast once in a fightnight on the day of Ekadashi. This is done to please Lord Sri Krishna by keeping themselves busy in religious activities on this day, for Jews, the principal day of fast is Yom Kippur, the Day of Atonement. For Muslims, the period of fasting lasts during the month of Ramadan. Both Jews and Muslims abstain from pork in their regular diet, in both Christianity and Islam, amongst others, pre-marital sex is prohibited. Also, Catholic Christians abstain from food and drink for a prior to taking Holy Communion. Many Traditionalist Catholics abstain from eating meat all Fridays in the year, Catholics distinguish between fasting and abstinence, the former referring to the discipline of taking one full meal a day, and the latter signifying the discipline of eating no meat. Some Protestants, especially Methodists and Baptists, have preferred to abstain from drinking alcohol, mormons absstain from certain foods and drinks by combining spiritual discipline with health concerns. Mormons also fast one day a month, for spiritual and charitable reasons. The Seventh-day Adventist Church encourages the consumption of clean meats as specified in Leviticus and strongly discourages the consumption of alcohol, smoking. In India, Buddhists, Jains, Sikhs, and Hindus abstain from eating meat, total abstinence from feeding on the flesh of cows is a hallmark of Hinduism
Alphandéry, Paul D. (1911). "Henry of Lausanne". In Chisholm, Hugh. Encyclopædia Britannica. 13 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 298–299.
Alphandéry, Paul D. (1911). "
