1.
Baroque
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The style began around 1600 in Rome and Italy, and spread to most of Europe. The aristocracy viewed the dramatic style of Baroque art and architecture as a means of impressing visitors by projecting triumph, power, Baroque palaces are built around an entrance of courts, grand staircases, and reception rooms of sequentially increasing opulence. However, baroque has a resonance and application that extend beyond a reduction to either a style or period. It is also yields the Italian barocco and modern Spanish barroco, German Barock, Dutch Barok, others derive it from the mnemonic term Baroco, a supposedly laboured form of syllogism in logical Scholastica. The Latin root can be found in bis-roca, in informal usage, the word baroque can simply mean that something is elaborate, with many details, without reference to the Baroque styles of the 17th and 18th centuries. The word Baroque, like most periodic or stylistic designations, was invented by later critics rather than practitioners of the arts in the 17th, the term Baroque was initially used in a derogatory sense, to underline the excesses of its emphasis. In particular, the term was used to describe its eccentric redundancy and noisy abundance of details, although it was long thought that the word as a critical term was first applied to architecture, in fact it appears earlier in reference to music. Another hypothesis says that the word comes from precursors of the style, Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola and he did not make the distinctions between Mannerism and Baroque that modern writers do, and he ignored the later phase, the academic Baroque that lasted into the 18th century. Long despised, Baroque art and architecture became fashionable between the two World Wars, and has remained in critical favour. In painting the gradual rise in popular esteem of Caravaggio has been the best barometer of modern taste, William Watson describes a late phase of Shang-dynasty Chinese ritual bronzes of the 11th century BC as baroque. The term Baroque may still be used, usually pejoratively, describing works of art, craft, the appeal of Baroque style turned consciously from the witty, intellectual qualities of 16th-century Mannerist art to a visceral appeal aimed at the senses. It employed an iconography that was direct, simple, obvious, germinal ideas of the Baroque can also be found in the work of Michelangelo. Even more generalised parallels perceived by some experts in philosophy, prose style, see the Neapolitan palace of Caserta, a Baroque palace whose construction began in 1752. In paintings Baroque gestures are broader than Mannerist gestures, less ambiguous, less arcane and mysterious, more like the stage gestures of opera, Baroque poses depend on contrapposto, the tension within the figures that move the planes of shoulders and hips in counterdirections. Baroque is a style of unity imposed upon rich, heavy detail, Baroque style featured exaggerated lighting, intense emotions, release from restraint, and even a kind of artistic sensationalism. There were highly diverse strands of Italian baroque painting, from Caravaggio to Cortona, the most prominent Spanish painter of the Baroque was Diego Velázquez. The later Baroque style gradually gave way to a more decorative Rococo, while the Baroque nature of Rembrandts art is clear, the label is less often used for Vermeer and many other Dutch artists. Flemish Baroque painting shared a part in this trend, while continuing to produce the traditional categories
2.
History painting
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History painting is a genre in painting defined by its subject matter rather than artistic style. History paintings usually depict a moment in a story, rather than a specific and static subject. The term is derived from the senses of the word historia in Latin and Italian, meaning story or narrative. Most history paintings are not of scenes from history, especially paintings from before about 1850, History paintings almost always contain a number of figures, often a large number, and normally show some type of action that is a moment in a narrative. The genre includes depictions of moments in religious narratives, above all the Life of Christ, as well as scenes from mythology. These groups were for long the most frequently painted, works such as Michelangelos Sistine Chapel ceiling are therefore history paintings, History painting may be used interchangeably with historical painting, and was especially so used before the 20th century. Where a distinction is made historical painting is the painting of scenes from secular history, in the 19th century historical painting in this sense became a distinct genre. In phrases such as historical painting materials, historical means in use before about 1900 and he placed emphasis on the ability to depict the interactions between the figures by gesture and expression. This view remained general until the 19th century, when artistic movements began to struggle against the establishment institutions of academic art, which continued to adhere to it. Scenes from ancient history had been popular in the early Renaissance, and once again became common in the Baroque and Rococo periods, and still more so with the rise of Neoclassicism. In some 19th or 20th century contexts, the term may refer specifically to paintings of scenes from history, rather than those from religious narratives. Scenes from ancient history and mythology were also popular, artists continued for centuries to strive to make their reputation by producing such works, often neglecting genres to which their talents were better suited. The large works of Raphael were long considered, with those of Michelangelo, un Peintre qui ne fait que des portraits, na pas encore cette haute perfection de lArt, & ne peut prétendre à lhonneur que reçoivent les plus sçavans. He who produces perfect landscapes is above another who only produces fruit, a painter who only does portraits still does not have the highest perfection of his art, and cannot expect the honour due to the most skilled. By the late 18th century, with religious and mytholological painting in decline, there was an increased demand for paintings of scenes from history. Classical history remained popular, but scenes from national histories were often the best-received, the unheroic nature of modern dress was regarded as a serious difficulty. When, in 1770, Benjamin West proposed to paint The Death of General Wolfe in contemporary dress and he ignored these comments and showed the scene in modern dress. Although George III refused to purchase the work, West succeeded both in overcoming his critics objections and inaugurating a more historically accurate style in such paintings. M. W, conveniently their clothes had been worn away to classical-seeming rags by the point the painting depicts
3.
Allegory
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As a literary device, an allegory is a metaphor whose vehicle may be a character, place or event, representing real-world issues and occurrences. Many ancient religions are based on astrological allegories, that is, allegories of the movement of the sun, in classical literature two of the best-known allegories are the Cave in Platos Republic and the story of the stomach and its members in the speech of Menenius Agrippa. One of the examples of allegory, Platos Allegory of the Cave. In this allegory, Plato describes a group of people who have lived chained in an all of their lives. The people watch shadows projected on the wall by things passing in front of a fire behind them and begin to ascribe forms to these shadows, using language to identify their world. He tries to tell the people in the cave of his discovery, also allegorical is Ezekiel 16 and 17, wherein the capture of that same vine by the mighty Eagle represents Israels exile to Rome. Allegory has an ability to freeze the temporality of a story, Mediaeval thinking accepted allegory as having a reality underlying any rhetorical or fictional uses. The allegory was as true as the facts of surface appearances, if, then, the Greeks or others say that they were not committed to the care of Peter and his successors, they necessarily confess that they are not of the sheep of Christ. This text also demonstrates the frequent use of allegory in religious texts during the Mediaeval Period, following the tradition, since meaningful stories are nearly always applicable to larger issues, allegories may be read into many stories which the author may not have recognised. This is allegoresis, or the act of reading a story as an allegory. S, lewis and A Kingdom Far and Clear, The Complete Swan Lake Trilogy by Mark Helprin. The story of the apple falling onto Isaac Newtons head is another famous allegory and it simplified the idea of gravity by depicting a simple way it was supposedly discovered. It also made the scientific revelation well known by condensing the theory into a short tale. According to Henry Littlefields 1964 article, L. Yet, George MacDonald emphasised in 1893 that, A fairy tale is not an allegory, I much prefer history – true or feigned– with its varied applicability to the thought and experience of readers. I think that many confuse applicability with allegory, but the one resides in the freedom of the reader, and this further reinforces the idea of forced allegoresis, as allegory is often a matter of interpretation and only sometimes of original artistic intention. Like allegorical stories, allegorical poetry has two meanings – a literal meaning and a symbolic meaning, some unique specimens of allegory can be found in the following works, Edmund Spenser – The Faerie Queene, The several knights in the poem actually stand for several virtues. Nathaniel Hawthorne – Young Goodman Brown, The Devils Staff symbolises defiance of God, the characters names, such as Goodman and Faith, ironically serve as paradox in the conclusion of the story. Nathaniel Hawthorne – The Scarlet Letter, The scarlet letter symbolises many things, the characters, while developed with interiority, are allegorical in that they represent ways of seeing the world. George Orwell – Animal Farm, The pigs stand for political figures of the Russian Revolution, lászló Krasznahorkai - The Melancholy of Resistance and the film Werckmeister Harmonies, It uses a circus to describe an occupying dysfunctional government
4.
Genre art
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Genre art is the pictorial representation in any of various media of scenes or events from everyday life, such as markets, domestic settings, interiors, parties, inn scenes, and street scenes. Such representations may be realistic, imagined, or romanticized by the artist, some variations of the term genre art specify the medium or type of visual work, as in genre painting, genre prints, genre photographs, and so on. Rather confusingly, the meaning of genre, covering any particular combination of an artistic medium. Painting was divided into a hierarchy of genres, with painting at the top, as the most difficult and therefore prestigious. But history paintings are a genre in painting, not genre works, the following concentrates on painting, but genre motifs were also extremely popular in many forms of the decorative arts, especially from the Rococo of the early 18th century onwards. Single figures or small groups decorated a huge variety of such as porcelain, furniture, wallpaper. Genre painting, also called genre scene or petit genre, depicts aspects of life by portraying ordinary people engaged in common activities. A work would often be considered as a genre work even if it could be shown that the artist had used a known member of his family. In this case it would depend on whether the work was likely to have intended by the artist to be perceived as a portrait—sometimes a subjective question. The depictions can be realistic, imagined, or romanticized by the artist, because of their familiar and frequently sentimental subject matter, genre paintings have often proven popular with the bourgeoisie, or middle class. Genre themes appear in all art traditions. These were part of a pattern of Mannerist inversion in Antwerp painting, giving low elements previously in the background of images prominent emphasis. The generally small scale of these paintings was appropriate for their display in the homes of middle class purchasers. Often the subject of a painting was based on a popular emblem from an Emblem book. The merry company showed a group of figures at a party, other common types of scenes showed markets or fairs, village festivities, or soldiers in camp. In Italy, a school of painting was stimulated by the arrival in Rome of the Dutch painter Pieter van Laer in 1625. He acquired the nickname Il Bamboccio and his followers were called the Bamboccianti, whose works would inspire Giacomo Ceruti, Antonio Cifrondi, jean-Baptiste Greuze and others painted detailed and rather sentimental groups or individual portraits of peasants that were to be influential on 19th-century painting. Spain had a tradition predating The Book of Good Love of social observation and commentary based on the Old Roman Latin tradition, practiced by many of its painters and illuminators
5.
Portrait
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A portrait is a painting, photograph, sculpture, or other artistic representation of a person, in which the face and its expression is predominant. The intent is to display the likeness, personality, and even the mood of the person, for this reason, in photography a portrait is generally not a snapshot, but a composed image of a person in a still position. A portrait often shows a person looking directly at the painter or photographer, nonetheless, many subjects, such as Akhenaten and some other Egyptian pharaohs, can be recognised by their distinctive features. The 28 surviving rather small statues of Gudea, ruler of Lagash in Sumeria between c.2144 -2124 BC, show a consistent appearance with some individuality. Some of the earliest surviving painted portraits of people who were not rulers are the Greco-Roman funeral portraits that survived in the dry climate of Egypts Fayum district. These are almost the only paintings from the world that have survived, apart from frescos, though many sculptures. Although the appearance of the figures differs considerably, they are considerably idealized, the art of the portrait flourished in Ancient Greek and especially Roman sculpture, where sitters demanded individualized and realistic portraits, even unflattering ones. During the 4th century, the portrait began to retreat in favor of a symbol of what that person looked like. In the Europe of the Early Middle Ages representations of individuals are mostly generalized, true portraits of the outward appearance of individuals re-emerged in the late Middle Ages, in tomb monuments, donor portraits, miniatures in illuminated manuscripts and then panel paintings. Moche culture of Peru was one of the few ancient civilizations which produced portraits and these works accurately represent anatomical features in great detail. The individuals portrayed would have been recognizable without the need for other symbols or a reference to their names. The individuals portrayed were members of the elite, priests, warriors. They were represented during several stages of their lives, the faces of gods were also depicted. To date, no portraits of women have been found, there is particular emphasis on the representation of the details of headdresses, hairstyles, body adornment and face painting. One of the portraits in the Western world is Leonardo da Vincis painting titled Mona Lisa. What has been claimed as the worlds oldest known portrait was found in 2006 in the Vilhonneur grotto near Angoulême and is thought to be 27,000 years old. Profile view, full view, and three-quarter view, are three common designations for portraits, each referring to a particular orientation of the head of the individual depicted. Such terms would tend to have greater applicability to two-dimensional artwork such as photography, in the case of three-dimensional artwork, the viewer can usually alter their orientation to the artwork by moving around it
6.
Genoa
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Genoa is the capital of the Italian region of Liguria and the sixth-largest city in Italy. In 2015,594,733 people lived within the administrative limits. As of the 2011 Italian census, the Province of Genoa, over 1.5 million people live in the wider metropolitan area stretching along the Italian Riviera. Genoa has been nicknamed la Superba due to its glorious past, part of the old town of Genoa was inscribed on the World Heritage List in 2006. The citys rich history in notably its art, music. It is the birthplace of Christopher Columbus, Niccolò Paganini, Giuseppe Mazzini, Genoa, which forms the southern corner of the Milan-Turin-Genoa industrial triangle of north-west Italy, is one of the countrys major economic centres. The city has hosted massive shipyards and steelworks since the 19th century, the Bank of Saint George, founded in 1407, is among the oldest in the world and has played an important role in the citys prosperity since the middle of the 15th century. Today a number of leading Italian companies are based in the city, including Fincantieri, Selex ES, Ansaldo Energia, Ansaldo STS, Edoardo Raffinerie Garrone, Piaggio Aerospace, the Genoa area has been inhabited since the fifth or fourth millennium BC. In ancient times this area was frequented and inhabited by Ligures, Phoenicians, Phocaeans, Greeks, and Etruscans. The city cemetery, dating from the 6th and 5th centuries BC, testifies to the occupation of the site by the Greeks, but the fine harbour probably saw use much earlier, perhaps by the Etruscans. In the 5th century BC was founded the first oppidum at the foot of the today called the Castle Hill which now is inside the medieval old town. The ancient Ligurian city was known as Stalia, so referred to by Artemidorus Ephesius and Pomponius Mela, Ligurian Stalia was overshadowed by the powerful Marseille and Vada Sabatia, near modern Savona. Stalia had an alliance with Rome through a foedus aequum in the course of the Second Punic War, the Carthaginians accordingly destroyed it in 209 BC. The town was rebuilt and, after the Carthaginian Wars ended in 146 BC. it received municipal rights, the original castrum thenceforth expanded towards the current areas of Santa Maria di Castello and the San Lorenzo promontory. Trades included skins, wood, and honey, goods were shipped to the mainland, up to major cities like Tortona and Piacenza. Among the archeological remains from the Roman period, an amphitheatre was also found, another theory traces the name to the Etruscan word Kainua which means New City and still another from the Latin word ianua, related to the name of the God Janus, meaning door or passage. The latter is in reference to its position at the centre of the Ligurian coastal arch. The Latin name, oppidum Genua, is recorded by Pliny the Elder as part of the Augustean Regio IX Liguria, after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the Ostrogoths occupied Genoa
7.
Venice
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Venice is a city in northeastern Italy and the capital of the Veneto region. It is situated across a group of 118 small islands that are separated by canals and these are located in the shallow Venetian Lagoon, an enclosed bay that lies between the mouths of the Po and the Piave Rivers. Parts of Venice are renowned for the beauty of their settings, their architecture, the lagoon and a part of the city are listed as a World Heritage Site. In 2014,264,579 people resided in Comune di Venezia, together with Padua and Treviso, the city is included in the Padua-Treviso-Venice Metropolitan Area, with a total population of 2.6 million. PATREVE is a metropolitan area without any degree of autonomy. The name is derived from the ancient Veneti people who inhabited the region by the 10th century BC, the city was historically the capital of the Republic of Venice. Venice has been known as the La Dominante, Serenissima, Queen of the Adriatic, City of Water, City of Masks, City of Bridges, The Floating City, and City of Canals. The City State of Venice is considered to have been the first real international financial center which gradually emerged from the 9th century to its peak in the 14th century and this made Venice a wealthy city throughout most of its history. It is also known for its several important artistic movements, especially the Renaissance period, Venice has played an important role in the history of symphonic and operatic music, and it is the birthplace of Antonio Vivaldi. Venice has been ranked the most beautiful city in the world as of 2016, the name Venetia, however, derives from the Roman name for the people known as the Veneti, and called by the Greeks Eneti. The meaning of the word is uncertain, although there are other Indo-European tribes with similar-sounding names, such as the Celtic Veneti, Baltic Veneti, and the Slavic Wends. Linguists suggest that the name is based on an Indo-European root *wen, so that *wenetoi would mean beloved, lovable, a connection with the Latin word venetus, meaning the color sea-blue, is also possible. The alternative obsolete form is Vinegia, some late Roman sources reveal the existence of fishermen on the islands in the original marshy lagoons. They were referred to as incolae lacunae, the traditional founding is identified with the dedication of the first church, that of San Giacomo on the islet of Rialto — said to have taken place at the stroke of noon on 25 March 421. Beginning as early as AD166 to 168, the Quadi and Marcomanni destroyed the center in the area. The Roman defences were again overthrown in the early 5th century by the Visigoths and, some 50 years later, New ports were built, including those at Malamocco and Torcello in the Venetian lagoon. The tribuni maiores, the earliest central standing governing committee of the islands in the Lagoon, the traditional first doge of Venice, Paolo Lucio Anafesto, was actually Exarch Paul, and his successor, Marcello Tegalliano, was Pauls magister militum. In 726 the soldiers and citizens of the Exarchate rose in a rebellion over the controversy at the urging of Pope Gregory II
8.
Strozzi family
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Strozzi is the name of an ancient later noble Florentine family, who like their great rivals the Medici family, began in banking before moving into politics. This political and financial competition was the origin of the Strozzi-Medici rivalry, later, while the Medici ruled Florence, the Strozzi family ruled Siena, which Florence attacked, causing great animosity between the two families. Soon afterwards, the Strozzi married into the Medici family, essentially giving the Medici superiority and he played a leading part in forcing the exile of Cosimo de Medici in 1434, but after Cosimos pardon a year later, was himself exiled, and never returned. Filippo Strozzi il Vecchio, son of Matteo Strozzi and of Alessandra Macinghi, was exiled as a young man and became a successful banker in Naples. He was also a condottiero or leader of mercenary soldiers and after his reconciliation with the Medici and return in 1462, began the Palazzo Strozzi, Filippo II is probably the most well known member of the family. Michelangelos Doni Tondo was probably commissioned by Agnolo Doni to commemorate his marriage to Maddalena Strozzi, after the republic was overthrown in 1530 Alessandro de Medici attempted to win Filippo Strozzis support, but Strozzi declined and instead retired to Venice. He took part in the French siege of Calais, and died of wounds incurred in battle at Thionville, in Lorraine, a younger son Leone was a distinguished admiral in the service of France and fought against the Medici. He died of a wound received while attacking Sarlino in 1554, another son, Lorenzo Strozzi went into the Church, also in France, and ended as a cardinal and Archbishop of Siena from 1565. Senator Carlo Strozzi formed an important library and collected a valuable miscellany known as the Carte Strozziane and he was the author of a Storietta della città di Firenze dal 1219 al 1292 and a Storia della casa Barberini. It is unclear whether Bernardo Strozzi, a prominent and prolific Italian Baroque painter born and active mainly in Genoa, the composer Barbara Strozzi was adopted by the poet Giulio Strozzi, presumably her natural father. The Strozzi acquired by marriage the titles of Princes of Forano, a branch of the family moved to Vienna and built the Palais Strozzi there. The Palazzo Strozzi in Florence belonged to the family until 1937 when it was sold to the Istituto Nazionale delle Assicurazioni, from 1999 it became property of the Italian State. Today, Strozzi descendents are still living in Florence, America, the Villa Cusona is the Tuscan home of the family, operated as a vineyard by Prince Girolamo Strozzi and his family. British Prime Minister Tony Blair and his family were regular visitors to the Villa Cusona. In 2013, the villa was seized as part of a fraud investigation. Alessandra Macinghi Bardi, Filippo Strozzi Niccolini, Filippo Strozzi Guasti, pelican History of Art, Art and Architecture Italy, 1600–1750. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh. Womentalking. co. uk, Feature article on Strozzi Princesses
9.
Mannerism
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Mannerism is a style in European art that emerged in the later years of the Italian High Renaissance around 1520, lasting until about 1580 in Italy, when the Baroque style began to replace it. Northern Mannerism continued into the early 17th century, stylistically, Mannerism encompasses a variety of approaches influenced by, and reacting to, the harmonious ideals associated with artists such as Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, and early Michelangelo. Where High Renaissance art emphasizes proportion, balance, and ideal beauty, Mannerism exaggerates such qualities, Mannerism is notable for its intellectual sophistication as well as its artificial qualities. Mannerism favors compositional tension and instability rather than the balance and clarity of earlier Renaissance painting, Mannerism in literature and music is notable for its highly florid style and intellectual sophistication. The definition of Mannerism and the phases within it continue to be a subject of debate among art historians, for example, some scholars have applied the label to certain early modern forms of literature and music of the 16th and 17th centuries. The term is used to refer to some late Gothic painters working in northern Europe from about 1500 to 1530. Mannerism also has been applied by analogy to the Silver Age of Latin literature, the word mannerism derives from the Italian maniera, meaning style or manner. Like the English word style, maniera can either indicate a type of style or indicate an absolute that needs no qualification. Vasari was also a Mannerist artist, and he described the period in which he worked as la maniera moderna, james V. Mirollo describes how bella maniera poets attempted to surpass in virtuosity the sonnets of Petrarch. This notion of bella maniera suggests that artists thus inspired looked to copying and bettering their predecessors, in essence, bella maniera utilized the best from a number of source materials, synthesizing it into something new. As a stylistic label, Mannerism is not easily defined, “High Renaissance” connoted a period distinguished by harmony, grandeur and the revival of classical antiquity. The term Mannerist was redefined in 1967 by John Shearman following the exhibition of Mannerist paintings organised by Fritz Grossmann at Manchester City Art Gallery in 1965. The label “Mannerism” was used during the 16th century to comment on social behaviour, however, for later writers, such as the 17th-century Gian Pietro Bellori, la maniera was a derogatory term for the perceived decline of art after Raphael, especially in the 1530s and 1540s. From the late 19th century on, art historians have used the term to describe art that follows Renaissance classicism. By the end of the High Renaissance, young artists experienced a crisis, no more difficulties, technical or otherwise, remained to be solved. The young artists needed to find a new goal, and they sought new approaches, at this point Mannerism started to emerge. The new style developed between 1510 and 1520 either in Florence, or in Rome, or in both cities simultaneously and this period has been described as a natural extension of the art of Andrea del Sarto, Michelangelo, and Raphael. Michelangelo from an early age had developed a style of his own, one of the qualities most admired by his contemporaries was his terribilità, a sense of awe-inspiring grandeur, and subsequent artists attempted to imitate it
10.
Luca Cambiasi
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Luca Cambiasi, also known as Luca Cambiaso and Luca Cangiagio was an Italian painter and draftsman and the leading artist in Genoa in the 16th century. He is considered the founder of the Genoese school who established the tradition of historical fresco painting through his many decorations of Genoese churches and palaces. He produced a number of night scenes. He was a draughtsman who sometimes reduced figures to geometric forms. He was familiarly known as Lucchetto da Genova, Cambiasi was born in Moneglia, then part of the Republic of Genoa, the son of a painter named Giovanni Cambiasi. Cambiasi was precocious, and at the age of fifteen he painted, along with his father, some subjects from Ovids Metamorphoses on the facade of a house in Genoa. In 1544, at the age of seventeen, he was involved in the decoration of the Palazzo Doria, now the Prefettura, perhaps working with Marcantonio Calvi and he aided in the vault decoration of the church of San Matteo, in collaboration with Giovanni Battista Castello. His Resurrection and Transfiguration altarpieces for San Bartolomeo degli Armeni date from c, in 1563, he painted a Resurrection for San Giovanni Battista in Montalto Ligure. This was followed by frescoes for the Villa Imperiale at Genoa-Turalba with a Rape of the Sabines, in the Capella Lercari of the Duomo di San Lorenzo, Cambiasi frescoed a Presentation and Marriage of the Virgin in 1569, remainder of chapel by Castello. In the Escorial he executed a Paradise on the vaulting of the church, for this picture he received 2,000 ducats, probably the largest sum that had, up to that time, ever been given for a single work. His paintings in Spain, hew to strict religious thematic and his son Orazio Cambiasi became a painter. Other followers from Genoa include Giovanni Andrea Ansaldo, Simone Barabino, Giulio Benso, Battista and Bernardo Castello, Giovanni Battista Paggi, Francesco Spezzini, Cambiasi had an ardent fancy, and was a bold designer in a Raphaelesque mode. His main influences are said to have been Correggio and the Late Renaissance Venetian school and his extreme facility astonished the Spanish painters. The artist painted sometimes with a brush in hand. His fresco technique was spontaneous and he used small drawings to create full-size sketches on the walls without the aid of cartoons. Cambiasi is best represented in Genoa, in the church of San Giorgio is a canvas of the Martyrdom of San Giorgio, Santa Maria da Carignano houses a Pietà, containing his own portrait and that of his beloved sister-in-law. He painted notable nocturnes, including an Adoration of the Shepherds, the former painting appears inspired by Correggios Nativity. In his early drawings Cambiasi showed a preference for bold foreshortenings, in the mid-1560s he began to draw in a simplified, geometric style that may have been inspired by similar works by Albrecht Dürer and other German artists
11.
Pietro Sorri
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Pietro Sorri was an Italian painter active in Siena. He first studied under Arcangiolo Salimbeni, and afterwards under Cavaliere Domenico Passignani, several of his works are in Florence and other cities of Tuscany, particularly at Pisa, he painted landscapes and portraits as well as history. Among his pupils were Giovanni Stefano Rossi, Bernardo Strozzi, and he was also active in Lucca, Genoa, Milan, and Pavia. He painted an altarpiece for the church of San Ambrogio in Massa di Carrara
12.
Order of Friars Minor Capuchin
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The Order of Friars Minor Capuchin is an Order of friars in the Catholic Church, among the chief offshoots of the Franciscans. The worldwide head of the Order, called the Minister General, is currently Mauro Jöhri and he sought to return to the primitive way of life of solitude and penance as practiced by the founder of their Order. The popular name of their Order originates from this feature of their religious habit, in 1528, Friar Matteo obtained the approval of Pope Clement VII and was given permission to live as a hermit and to go about everywhere preaching to the poor. These permissions were not only for himself, but for all such as might join him in the attempt to restore the most literal observance possible of the Rule of St. Francis, Matteo and the original band were soon joined by others. The Observants, the branch of the Franciscan Order at that time. In 1529, they had four houses and held their first General Chapter, the eremitical idea was abandoned, but the life was to be one of extreme austerity, simplicity and poverty — in all things as near an approach to St Francis ideals as was practicable. Neither the monasteries nor the Province should possess anything, nor were any loopholes to be resorted to for evading this law, no large provision against temporal wants should be made, and the supplies in the house should never exceed what was necessary for a few days. Everything was to be obtained by begging, and the friars were not allowed even to touch money, the communities were to be small, eight being fixed as the normal number and twelve as the limit. In furniture and clothing extreme simplicity was enjoined and the friars were discalced, required to go bare-footed — without even sandals, like the Observants, the Capuchins wore a brown habit. By visual analogy, the Capuchin monkey and the style of coffee are both named after the shade of brown used for their habit. Besides the canonical choral celebration of the Divine Office, a portion of which was recited at midnight, the fasts and disciplines were rigorous and frequent. The great external work was preaching and spiritual ministrations among the poor, in theology the Capuchins abandoned the later Franciscan School of Scotus, and returned to the earlier school of St. Bonaventure. The movement at the outset of its history underwent a series of severe blows. Years later, claims that he had written in favor of polygamy and Unitarianism caused him to be exiled from that city and he fled again, first to Poland and then to Slovakia, where he died. As a result, the province came under the suspicion of heretical tendencies. He was dissuaded with difficulty, but the Capuchins were forbidden to preach, despite earlier setbacks, the authorities were eventually satisfied as to the soundness of the general body of Capuchin friars and the permission to preach was restored. They are said to have had at that time 1500 houses divided into fifty provinces, the activities of the Capuchins were not confined to Europe. From an early date they undertook missions to non-Catholics in America, Asia and Africa, due to this strong missionary thrust, a large number of Capuchins have suffered martyrdom over the centuries
13.
Monastery
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A monastery is a building or complex of buildings comprising the domestic quarters and workplaces of monastics, monks or nuns, whether living in communities or alone. A monastery generally includes a place reserved for prayer which may be a chapel, church or temple, a monastery complex typically comprises a number of buildings which include a church, dormitory, cloister, refectory, library, balneary and infirmary. These may include a hospice, a school and a range of agricultural and manufacturing such as a barn. In English usage, the monastery is generally used to denote the buildings of a community of monks. In modern usage, convent tends to be applied only to institutions of female monastics, historically, a convent denoted a house of friars, now more commonly called a friary. Various religions may apply these terms in specific ways. The earliest extant use of the term monastērion is by the 1st century AD Jewish philosopher Philo in On The Contemplative Life, in England the word monastery was also applied to the habitation of a bishop and the cathedral clergy who lived apart from the lay community. Most cathedrals were not monasteries, and were served by canons secular, however, some were run by monasteries orders, such as York Minster. Westminster Abbey was for a time a cathedral, and was a Benedictine monastery until the Reformation. They are also to be distinguished from collegiate churches, such as St Georges Chapel, in most of this article, the term monastery is used generically to refer to any of a number of types of religious community. In the Roman Catholic religion and to some extent in certain branches of Buddhism, there is a more specific definition of the term. Buddhist monasteries are generally called vihara, viharas may be occupied by males or females, and in keeping with common English usage, a vihara populated by females may often be called a nunnery or a convent. However, vihara can also refer to a temple, in Tibetan Buddhism, monasteries are often called gompa. In Thailand, Laos and Cambodia, a monastery is called a wat, in Burma, a monastery is called a kyaung. A Christian monastery may be an abbey, or a priory and it may be a community of men or of women. A charterhouse is any monastery belonging to the Carthusian order, in Eastern Christianity, a very small monastic community can be called a skete, and a very large or important monastery can be given the dignity of a lavra. The great communal life of a Christian monastery is called cenobitic, as opposed to the life of an anchorite. In Hinduism monasteries are called matha, mandir, koil, or most commonly an ashram, jains use the Buddhist term vihara
14.
Francis of Assisi
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Saint Francis of Assisi, born Giovanni di Pietro di Bernardone, informally named as Francesco, was an Italian Roman Catholic friar and preacher. He founded the mens Order of Friars Minor, the women’s Order of Saint Clare, the Third Order of Saint Francis, Francis is one of the most venerated religious figures in history. Pope Gregory IX canonized Francis on 16 July 1228, along with Saint Catherine of Siena, he was designated Patron saint of Italy. In 1219, he went to Egypt in an attempt to convert the Sultan to put an end to the conflict of the Crusades, by this point, the Franciscan Order had grown to such an extent that its primitive organizational structure was no longer sufficient. He returned to Italy to organize the Order, once his community was authorized by the Pope, he withdrew increasingly from external affairs. Francis is also known for his love of the Eucharist, in 1223, Francis arranged for the first Christmas live nativity scene. He died during the hours of 3 October 1226, while listening to a reading he had requested of Psalm 142. Pietro was in France on business when Francis was born in Assisi, upon his return to Assisi, Pietro took to calling his son Francesco, possibly in honor of his commercial success and enthusiasm for all things French. Since the child was renamed in infancy, the change can hardly have had anything to do with his aptitude for learning French, as some have thought. While going off to war in 1202, Francis had a vision that directed him back to Assisi, in 1205, Francis left for Apulia to enlist in the army of Walter III, Count of Brienne. Francis lived the high-spirited life typical of a young man. In 1201, he joined an expedition against Perugia and was taken as a prisoner at Collestrada. It is possible that his conversion was a gradual process rooted in this experience. Upon his return to Assisi in 1203, Francis returned to his carefree life, in 1204, a serious illness led him to a spiritual crisis. A strange vision made him return to Assisi, deepening his ecclesiastical awakening, on a pilgrimage to Rome, he joined the poor in begging at St. Peters Basilica, an experience that moved him to live in poverty. Francis returned home, began preaching on the streets, and soon gathered followers and his Order was authorized by Pope Innocent III in 1210. He then founded the Order of Poor Clares, which became a religious order for women. As a youth, Francesco became a devotee of troubadours and was fascinated with all things Transalpine, in this account, he was selling cloth and velvet in the marketplace on behalf of his father when a beggar came to him and asked for alms
15.
Doria (family)
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Documentary evidence refers to two members of that family, Martino and Genuardo, in 1110, they are called filii Auriae. The Doria had fiefs in Sardinia from the 12th century to the 15th century, although uncommon, Doria is also known as a female first name. Simon Doria lived in the late 12th century and was an admiral of the Genoese in the assault against Saint Jean dAcre. Percivalle Doria, who died in 1275 fighting for the Ghibelline, was an infamous warlord, also a poet, Simon Doria was podestà of Savona and Albenga. Tedisio Doria financed the expedition of Vadino and Ugolino Vivaldi in 1291, branca Doria is mentioned by Dante in the Divine Comedy because of his treacherous murder of Michele Zanche, his father-in-law, in 1275. Brancaleone Doria ruled the Giudicato of Arborea and nearly conquered the whole of Sardinia in the fourteenth century. Ottone Doria commanded the 5,000 or more Genoese crossbowmen hired by the French for the Battle of Crécy against the English, like many of his troops, he was killed in the battle, where the Genoese ended by being attacked by both sides. Heavy rain had made their bowstrings wet and useless so Ottone ordered a retreat, the French cavalry saw this as cowardice and attacked them, while others were slain by the English bowmen. The most remarkable member of the family is Admiral Andrea Doria, Prince of Melfi and his nephew was Giovanni Andrea Doria, another admiral, Giovanni Andreas son was Giovanni Doria, a cardinal of the Catholic Church. Other notable Dorias of the period include admiral Carlo Doria and art collector Giovanni Carlo Doria, the family had relationships with political entities both in and out of Europe. During the attempts by the Mongol ilkhanate ruler Abaqa to form a Franco-Mongol alliance, many male children of the Doria family were named after foreign rulers, such as Abaga, Casano, and Aitone, named after Hayton, or Hethum I, king of Cilician Armenia. Some members of the family became doge of Genoa, agnatic members of the family are marchesi al cognome, that is, bear the title of marquess attached to the family name as a courtesy title. Non-agnatic princely branches like the Colonna-Doria are still flourishing, there are also titled branches outside Italy, such as the Porrata Doria family in Spain, which rank as marquesses. The Doria clan helped finance the Portuguese and Spanish navigations in the late 15th and 16th centuries, francesco Doria, a banker at Seville, financed Christopher Columbuss expeditions, and his son Aleramo Doria was a banker to King John III of Portugal until 1556. Finally, Aleramos daughter Clemenza Doria was one of the earliest settlers in the 16th-century Portuguese colonization of Brazil, or João Agripino da Costa Doria III held a cabinet-level position in the José Sarney administration in Brazil. The genoese Lodisio Doria, knight of Christs Order, settled in the island of Madeira and their descendants are the Teixeira Doria, lords of Pena dAguia, and França Doria families, which also have as direct ancestor the Portuguese navigator Tristão Vaz. The França Doria branch is headed by the Count of Calçada, the name Doria was used in Cornelia Funkes Inkheart series for a semi-main character who eventually fell in love with the teenage heroine. Documentary sources at the Arquivo Nacional da Torre do Tombo, Lisbon Phillips, J. R. S
16.
Maquette
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A maquette is a small scale model or rough draft of an unfinished sculpture. An equivalent term is bozzetto, from the Italian word that means sketch and it is used to visualize and test shapes and ideas without incurring the cost and effort of producing a full-scale product. It is the analogue of the cartoon, modello, oil sketch or drawn sketch. For commissioned sculptures, especially monumental public sculptures, a maquette may be used to show the client how the work will fit in the proposed site. The term may refer to a prototype for a video game, film. Modello, unlike the terms, is also used for sketches for two-dimensional works such as paintings. Like oil sketches, these works in progress can be at least as much sought after as completed works by highly regarded artists, showing the process of developing an idea. Gian Lorenzo Bernini, a sculptor from the Baroque period, made his bozzetti from wax or baked terracotta to show his patrons how the piece was intended to look. Eleven of these bozzetti were displayed in an exhibition at the Art Institute of Chicago in 2004, some museums specialize in collections of maquettes, such as the Museo dei Bozzetti in Pietrasanta, Italy. The dictionary definition of maquette at Wiktionary Tate Gallery definition of maquette retained in The National Archives s recording of the Tate Gallerys glossary
17.
Doge of Venice
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The Doge of Venice, sometimes translated as Duke, was the chief magistrate and leader of the Most Serene Republic of Venice for 1,100 years. Doges of Venice were elected for life by the city-states aristocracy, commonly the man selected as Doge was the shrewdest elder in the city. The doge was neither a duke in the sense, nor the equivalent of a hereditary duke. The title doge was the title of the senior-most elected official of Venice and Genoa, a doge was referred to variously by the titles My Lord the Doge, Most Serene Prince, and His Serenity. After a deadlocked tie at the election of 1229, the number of electors was increased from forty to forty-one, new regulations for the elections of the doge introduced in 1268 remained in force until the end of the republic in 1797. Their object was to minimize as far as possible the influence of great families. Thirty members of the Great Council, chosen by lot, were reduced by lot to nine, the nine chose forty and the forty were reduced by lot to twelve, the twenty-five were reduced by lot to nine and the nine elected forty-five. Then the forty-five were once more reduced by lot to eleven, none could be elected but by at least twenty-five votes out of forty-one, nine votes out of eleven or twelve, or seven votes out of nine electors. A detailed description of this process, and the procession that followed, is preserved in Martin Da Canales work Les Estoires de Venise. This practice came to an end in 1423, after the election of Francesco Foscari, the doges normally ruled for life. After a doges death, a commission of inquisitori passed judgment upon his acts, the official income of the doge was never large, and from early times holders of the office remained engaged in trading ventures. These ventures kept them in touch with the requirements of the grandi, from 7 July 1268, during a vacancy in the office of doge, the state was headed ex officio, with the style vicedoge, by the senior consigliere ducale. One of the duties of the doge was to celebrate the symbolic marriage of Venice with the sea. This was done by casting a ring from the state barge, in its earlier form this ceremony was instituted to commemorate the conquest of Dalmatia by Doge Pietro II Orseolo in 1000, and was celebrated on Ascension Day. It took its later and more magnificent form after the visit of Pope Alexander III, on state occasions the Doge was surrounded by an increasing amount of ceremony, and in international relations he had the status of a sovereign prince. The doge took part in processions, which started in the Piazza San Marco. The doge would appear in the center of the procession, preceded by civil servants ranked in ascending order of prestige, from the 14th century onwards, the ceremonial crown and well-known symbol of the doge of Venice was called corno ducale, a unique kind of a ducal hat. Every Easter Monday the doge headed a procession from San Marco to the convent of San Zaccaria where the abbess presented him a new camauro crafted by the nuns, the Doges official costume also included golden robes, slippers and a sceptre for ceremonial duties
18.
Francesco Erizzo
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Francesco Erizzo was the 98th Doge of Venice, reigning from his election on April 10,1631 until his death fifteen years later. Francesco Erizzo was born into the Erizzo family, a family from Istria. Although he was not particularly rich, he nevertheless had a career in the service of Venice. He acted as Venetian ambassador to both Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor and Pope Urban VIII and he also served as provveditore of various Venetian possessions. He was elected by a vote of 40-1, although historian Claudio Rendina has pronounced this election fraudulent, in light of the bubonic plague then decimating the city, Erizzos election was not accompanied by the customary festivities. The plague finally subsided in November 1631, Erizzos predecessor, Nicolò Contarini, had taken a vow to build a church in honour of the Blessed Virgin Mary once the plague was over, which church was built and named Santa Maria della Salute. This tradition is observed in Venice to this day. The 1630s were a time of tranquility for the Republic of Venice. The Procuratie were expanded, and the Teatro San Cassiano, Europes first public house opened in 1637. The tranquility of the era was interrupted briefly by the First War of Castro, in which the Papal States claimed the Duchy of Castro, Venice intervened on Parmas side, and in 1644 a peace treaty was signed that saw Castro remain with Parma. In September 1644, the Knights of Malta captured a galleon of Turkish pilgrims bound for Mecca, ottoman Sultan Ibrahim I blamed Venice for the attack and determined to conquer Crete from Venice. The war originally went poorly for Venice, which led Erizzo to ask the Senate of Venice to appoint him captain-general, which they did, over the objection of future doge Giovanni Pesaro. Erizzo began assembling a fleet to sail against the Turks, but, at age 78, his health failed him and this article was based on this article on Italian Wikipedia
19.
Cardinal (Catholicism)
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A cardinal is a senior ecclesiastical leader, considered a Prince of the Church, and usually an ordained bishop of the Roman Catholic Church. The cardinals of the Church are collectively known as the College of Cardinals, the duties of the cardinals include attending the meetings of the College and making themselves available individually or in groups to the Pope as requested. Most have additional duties, such as leading a diocese or archdiocese or managing a department of the Roman Curia, a cardinals primary duty is electing the pope when the see becomes vacant. During the sede vacante, the governance of the Holy See is in the hands of the College of Cardinals. The right to enter the conclave of cardinals where the pope is elected is limited to those who have not reached the age of 80 years by the day the vacancy occurs. In 1059, the right of electing the pope was reserved to the clergy of Rome. The term was applied in this sense as early as the century to the priests of the tituli of the diocese of Rome. The Church of England retains an instance of this origin of the title, which is held by the two senior members of the College of Minor Canons of St Pauls Cathedral. In Rome the first persons to be called cardinals were the deacons of the seven regions of the city at the beginning of the 6th century, when the word began to mean principal, eminent, or superior. The name was given to the senior priest in each of the title churches of Rome. By the 8th century the Roman cardinals constituted a class among the Roman clergy. They took part in the administration of the church of Rome, by decree of a synod of 769, only a cardinal was eligible to become pope. In 1059, during the pontificate of Nicholas II, cardinals were given the right to elect the pope under the Papal Bull In nomine Domini. For a time this power was assigned exclusively to the cardinal bishops, Cardinals were granted the privilege of wearing the red hat by Pope Innocent IV in 1244. In cities other than Rome, the name began to be applied to certain church men as a mark of honour. This meaning of the word spread rapidly, and from the 9th century various episcopal cities had a class among the clergy known as cardinals. The use of the title was reserved for the cardinals of Rome in 1567 by Pius V, in the year 1563 the influential Ecumenical Council of Trent, headed by Pope Pius IV, wrote about the importance of selecting good Cardinals. The earlier influence of temporal rulers, notably the French kings, in early modern times, cardinals often had important roles in secular affairs
20.
Patriarch of Venice
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The Patriarch of Venice is the ordinary bishop of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Venice. The bishop is one of the few patriarchs in the Latin Church of the Catholic Church, presently, the only advantage of this purely formal title is the bishops place of honor in papal processions. In the case of Venice an additional privilege allows the patriarch, even if he is not a cardinal, the red biretta, however is still topped by a tuft, as is the custom with other bishops who are not cardinals. The diocese of Venice was created in 774 as suffragan of the Patriarchate of Grado and it was only in 1451 that, in consideration of the political influence of the city, its bishops were accorded the title of patriarch by the pope. By tradition, the Patriarch of Venice is created a cardinal at the following his appointment. A large number of the prelates holding this office have been elected pope, Three of these were in the 20th century alone, Pius X, John XXIII and John Paul I. The Venetian islands at first belonged to the diocese of Altino or of Padua, under jurisdiction of the Archbishop of Aquileia, during the Lombard invasion many bishops of the invaded mainland escaped under protection of the Byzantine fleet in the eastern lagoons. The archbishop himself took refuge in Grado, where he was claimed as patriarch, at the end of the invasion, many of the ancient dioceses of the mainland were restored by the Lombards, while the exiles supported the new sees in the lagoons. Two patriarchs emerged, the Patriarchate of Old Aquileia on the mainland, in 774 or 775, Pope Adrian I and John IV, Patriarch of Grado, authorized the establishment of an episcopal see on the island of Olivolo. The first bishop, Obelerius, was nominated, invested and enthroned by the doge, the dioceses cathedral was San Pietro di Castello. In 828 the body of Saint Mark the Evangelist was smuggled from Alexandria, Egypt, when the ship reached Olivolo island in Venice, the saint made signs showing he did not want to be placed in the custody of the bishop. Instead, he was taken to the chapel, and planning began to create a magnificent new temple, St Marks Basilica. The legend that St. Mark himself had preached the Gospel at Venice grew up in later times, in 1074, the Bishop of Olivolo began to be styled the Bishop of Castello. Enrico Contarini was the first to hold this title, in 1084 the Emperor Alexios I Komnenos in his Golden Bull recognized the full independence of Venice, along with freedom from tributes, trade restrictions and customs duties. The Republic of Venice began its Golden Age under the Doge Enrico Dandolo, the relationship between the bishop, the patriarch and the doge was complex. The bishops of Olivolo, and then Castello, were technically suffragans of the Patriarch of Grado. From the middle of the 11th century the patriarchs took up residence for most of the time at San Silvestro, Venice, an important role was played by the primicerio, based in Saint Marks, who represented the doge and the city government. The primicerio invested the bishops, abbots and patriarchs, thus Venice succeeded to the whole metropolitan jurisdiction of Grados eccelsiastical province, including the sees of Dalmatia
21.
Federico Baldissera Bartolomeo Cornaro
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Federico Baldissera Bartolomeo Cornaro was an Italian Catholic Cardinal and Patriarch of Venice. Cornaro was born in Venice on 16 November 1579, the son of Doge Giovanni Cornaro and Chiara Delfino and he was the brother of Doge Francesco Cornaro. He started his education under the tutelage of his Cardinal uncle, thereafter he returned to Venice and studied at the University of Padua. In 1602, he went to Rome and became a cleric of the Apostolic Chamber under Pope Clement VIII, in 1607, he was appointed Governor of Civitavecchia. In February 1623, he was elected Bishop of Bergamo, but retained the clericate of the Apostolic Chamber, three years later he was elevated to Cardinal by Pope Urban VIII and was installed as Cardinal-Priest of Santa Maria in Traspontina and appointed Bishop of Venice. His elevation was not without controversy, the Republic of Venice prohibited any son of a Doge from accepting a papal appointment, eventually, the Venetian senate approved the promotion but refused to approve his proposed appointments as Bishop of Vicenza or Bishop of Padua. Cornaro was appointed Cardinal-Priest of Santa Cecilia in Trastevere in 1627 and San Marco in 1629 before being promoted to Patriarch of Venice in June 1631, in the intervening period, he was appointed Camerlengo of the Sacred College of Cardinals from 1639 to 1641. In 1644, he resigned his patriarchate and participated in the Papal conclave of 1644 which elected Pope Innocent X, in 1646 he became Cardinal-Priest of Santa Maria in Trastevere. In 1652, he opted for the order of bishops to become Cardinal-Bishop of Albano, Cornaro died on 5 June 1653 in Rome and was buried at the Cornaro Chapel in the church of Santa Maria della Vittoria
22.
Grimani family
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The Grimani family were a prominent Venetian patrician family, including three Doges of Venice. They were active in trade, politics and later the ownership of theatres and opera-houses, notable members included, Domenico Grimani, owner of the Grimani Breviary. Vincenzo Grimani, Cardinal and opera librettist Morosina Morosini-Grimani dogaressa of Venice by marriage to Doge Marino Grimani Domenico Grimani, Marino Grimani, Marino Grimani, Doge 1595-1606. Edmund Grimani Hornby Chief Judge of the British Supreme Consular Court at Constantinople and British Supreme Court for China and it was produced in Ghent and Bruges ca 1515-1520 and by 1520 owned, though possibly not originally commissioned, by Cardinal Domenico Grimani. Several leading artists, including Simon Bening, the Master of James IV of Scotland, the Grimani were dominant, owning what is now called the Teatro Malibran, then called the Teatro San Giovanni Grisostomo, as well as the San Benedetto theatre, and other houses. The Veniers owned La Fenice, still the main opera house, however the Vendramin did not take their involvement as far as Vincenzo Grimani, who was a cardinal and opera librettist
23.
Claudio Monteverdi
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Claudio Giovanni Antonio Monteverdi was an Italian composer, gambist, singer, and Catholic priest. Monteverdi is considered a transitional figure between the Renaissance and the Baroque periods of music history. Monteverdi wrote one of the earliest operas, LOrfeo, which is the earliest surviving opera still regularly performed, Claudio Monteverdi was born in 1567 in Cremona, Duchy of Milan. His father was Baldassare Monteverdi, a doctor, apothecary and amateur surgeon and he was the oldest of five children. During his childhood, he was taught by MarcAntonio Ingegneri, the maestro di cappella at the Cathedral of Cremona, the Maestro’s job was to conduct important worship services in accordance with the liturgy of the Catholic Church. Monteverdi learned about music as a member of the cathedral choir and he also studied at the University of Cremona. His first music was written for publication, including some motets and sacred madrigals, in 1582 and 1583. His first five publications were, Sacrae cantiunculae,1582, Madrigali Spirituali,1583, Canzonette a tre voci,1584, and the five-part madrigals Book I,1587, and Book II,1590. He worked at the court of Vincenzo I of Gonzaga in Mantua as a vocalist and viol player, in 1602, he was working as the court conductor and Vincenzo appointed him master of music on the death of Benedetto Pallavicino. In 1599 Monteverdi married the court singer Claudia Cattaneo, who died in September 1607 and they had two sons and a daughter. Another daughter died shortly after birth, in 1610 he moved to Rome, arriving in secret, hoping to present his music to Pope Paul V. His Vespers were printed the year, but his planned meeting with the Pope never took place. In 1612 Vincenzo died and was succeeded by his eldest son Francesco, heavily in debt, due to the profligacy of his father, Francesco sacked Monteverdi and he spent a year in Mantua without any paid employment. His 1607 opera LOrfeo was dedicated to Francesco, the title page of the opera bears the dedication Al serenissimo signor D. Francesco Gonzaga, Prencipe di Mantoua, & di Monferato, &c. By 1613, he had moved to San Marco in Venice where and he quickly restored the musical standard of both the choir and the instrumentalists. The musical standard had declined due to the mismanagement of his predecessor. The managers of the basilica were relieved to have such a musician in charge. In 1632, he became a priest, Lincoronazione especially is considered a culminating point of Monteverdis work
24.
Barbara Strozzi
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Barbara Strozzi was an Italian singer and composer. Her Baroque compositions were published in her lifetime, Giulio Strozzi, a poet and librettist, recognised Barbara as his adopted daughter. She was most likely the daughter of Strozzi and Isabella Garzoni, his long-time servant. She was baptised in the church of Santa Sofia in the Cannaregio district of Venice, Giulio encouraged his daughters musical talent, even creating an academy in which Barbara’s performances could be validated and displayed publicly. He seemed to be interested in exhibiting her considerable talents to a wider audience. However, her singing was not her only talent and she was also compositionally gifted, and her father arranged for her to study with composer Francesco Cavalli. It is conceivable that Strozzi may have been a courtesan, however and she appears to have led a quiet, if not slightly unusual life, there is evidence that at least three of her four children were fathered by the same man, Giovanni Paolo Vidman. Vidman was a patron of the arts and supporter of early opera, after Vidmans death it is likely that Strozzi supported herself by means of her investments and by her compositions. He did not, apparently, leave anything to her or her children in his will, Strozzi died in Padua in 1677 aged 58. She is believed to have been buried at Eremitani, when she died without leaving a will, her son Giulio Pietro claimed her inheritance. Strozzi was said to be the most prolific composer – man or woman – of printed secular music in Venice in the Middle of the century. Her output is unique in that it only contains secular vocal music. She was renowned for her ability as well as her compositional talent. Her lyrics were often poetic and well-articulated, nearly three-quarters of her printed works were written for soprano, but she also published works for other voices. Her compositions are firmly rooted in the seconda pratica tradition, strozzi’s music evokes the spirit of Cavalli, heir of Monteverdi. However, her style is more lyrical, and more dependent on vocal sound. Many of the texts for her pieces were written by her father Giulio. Later texts were written by her fathers colleagues, and for many compositions she may have written her own texts, New light on the life and career of Barbara Strozzi
25.
Giulio Strozzi
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Giulio Strozzi was a Venitian poet and libretto writer. His libretti were put to music by composers like Claudio Monteverdi, Francesco Cavalli, Francesco Manelli and he sometimes used the pseudonym Luigi Zorzisto. Giuliio Strozzi was a bastard, and later legitimized, son of Roberto Strozzi, born in Venice in 1583, he first studied there before going to the University of Pisa to study law. He lived and worked in Rome, Padua and Urbino before returning to Venice in the 1620s and he was the adoptive father of composer Barbara Strozzi. He remained there until his death on 31 March 1652 and he wrote poetry and plays, but is best remembered as one of the first writers of libretti, the texts used for all kinds of musical plays but most specifically opera. His earliest known work was in 1609, an oration for the burial of Ferdinando I de Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, in 1621, he wrote his only epic poem, Venetia edificata. It was expanded and reprinted in 1624, celebrating the glory of the Republic of Venice, it was at the same time written in support of Galileo Galilei and his controversial scientific theories. He also wrote a translation of the Spanish Lazarillo de Tormes which remained unpublished, from 1627 on, he mostly dedicated himself to writing opera libretti, and he was probably the most important opera writer in Venice in the 1630s and 1640s. He wrote La finta pazza Licori for Claudio Monteverdi in 1627, the two had first met in 1621. The opera was never performed and it is unknown how much of the music for it had written before the project was abandoned. Both the music and the libretto are lost, in the 1630s and 1640s, Strozzi was one of the driving forces behind the successful growth of opera in Venice. He wrote the libretto for the opening of the Teatro Santi Giovanni e Paolo in 1639, in 1630 Strozzi wrote Proserpina Rapita. His last libretto, Veremonda, was written for Francesco Cavalli in 1652 and he was a member of the Accademia degli Incogniti in Venice. He was the founder of some cultural academies, gatherings of like-minded intellectuals, these included the Ordinati during his stay in Rome, in 1637 he founded the Accademia degli Unisoni, a gathering of musicians where his adopted daughter Barbara sang
26.
Tolentini, Venice
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The Chiesa di San Nicolò da Tolentino, commonly known as the Tolentini, is a church in the sestiere of Santa Croce in Venice, northern Italy. It lies in a Campo of the name and along the Rio dei Tolentini. Venice had been the home of the Theatines order in the city, the Theatines arrived in Venice in 1527 after the Sack of Rome. The church dedicated to Saint Nicholas of Tolentino was begun in 1590 by Vincenzo Scamozzi, the relationship between Scamozzi and his patrons was stormy, and the church was finally completed only in 1714. It is a church with a huge freestanding Corinthian portico. The Tolentini is a church of the Vicariate of San Polo-Santa Croce-Dorsoduro. The church contains the tomb of Doge Giovanni I Corner, Francesco Corner, Giovanni II Corner, the funereal monument of the Patriarch of Venice, Francesco Morosini in the chancel, was completed by the Genovese sculptor Filippo Parodi. The baroque organ was constructed by Pietro Nacchini in 1754, johann Liss (Inspiration of St Jerome to the left of chancel. Bernardo Strozzi High altar by Baldassare Longhena
27.
Tondo (art)
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A tondo is a Renaissance term for a circular work of art, either a painting or a sculpture. The word derives from the Italian rotondo, round, artists have created tondi since Greek antiquity. The circular paintings in the centre of painted vases of that period are known as tondi, the style was revived in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, particularly in Italy, where it may have developed from the smaller desco da parto or birthing tray. Since then it has been less common, in Ford Madox Browns painting The Last of England, the ships wire railing curving round the figures helps enclose the composition within its tondo shape. The background scene is consolidated or omitted, and to an extent, unimportant. While the background may be visible in paintings, in tondo relief carvings the background is not seen. Andrea della Robbia and other members of his family created glazed terracotta tondi that were framed in a wreath of fruit and leaves. In the sixteenth century the style of istoriato decoration for maiolica wares was applied to large circular dishes. The infrequently-encountered synonym rondo much more usually refers to a musical form, adoration of the Magi Taddei Tondo Doni Tondo Pitti Tondo Severan Tondo, Roman painting of c.200 AD Roberta J. M. Olson, The Florentine Tondo, Oxford 2000. Moritz Hauptmann, Der Tondo, Ursprung, Bedeutung und Geschichte des italienischen Rundbildes in Relief und Malerei, six tondi from the National Gallery, London
28.
Biblioteca Marciana
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The library is named after St. Mark, the patron saint of Venice. It is not to be confused with the State Archive of the Republic of Venice, the library was provided with a building designed by Jacopo Sansovino. The first sixteen arcaded bays of his design were constructed during 1537 to 1553, with work on frescoes, one of the early librarians, from 1530, was Pietro Bembo. However, the stock began to be collected before the construction of the building. The Marciana was enriched by the transfer in the eighteenth century of the collections accumulated in several monasteries. Giovanni e Paolo in Venice and S, major additions made to the collection include,1589, Melchiorre Guilandino of Marienburg,1595, Jacopo Contarini da S. The Library has since expanded back into its adjacent original quarters, today, besides about a million printed books, the Biblioteca Marciana contains about 13,000 manuscripts and 2883 incunabula and 24,055 works printed between 1500 and 1600. Among the irreplaceable treasures are unique scores of operas by Francesco Cavalli and sonatas by Domenico Scarlatti
29.
Giovanni Andrea de Ferrari
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Giovanni Andrea de Ferrari was an Italian painter of the Baroque period, active mainly in Genoa. A prolific easel painter who created many altarpieces, he was, together with Gioacchino Assereto and Orazio de Ferrari and he was a member of a prominent Genoese family. His father was Battista de Ferrari, after first dedicating himself to the study of literature he later decided to study art. He was first a pupil of Bernardo Castello and later of Bernardo Strozzi and he also studies the works of Antony van Dyck who had been a resident in Genoa before. Giovanni Andrea de Ferraris subject matter was almost exclusively religious and he was such a close follower of the style of his master Strozzi that some of his pictures have been confused with those of his master. His paintings also reveal an interest in painting and objects of everyday life. He collaborated on projects with Giovanni Andrea Ansaldo. Media related to Giovanni Andrea de Ferrari at Wikimedia Commons
30.
Caravaggio
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Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio was an Italian painter active in Rome, Naples, Malta, and Sicily between 1592 and 1610. His paintings, which combine a realistic observation of the human state, in scarcely a year or so’s sojourn in Naples, he rapidly established himself once more as the most prominent painter, exploiting high-ranking connections. It was not long before these connections gave him an opening to travel on in 1607 to Malta, governed by the Order of Knights Hospitallers, Caravaggio probably hoped that the Knights would provide a channel whereby he could obtain a pardon from the Papacy. Once more his talents made an instant impression, along with the support of noble patrons and his hopes dashed, he contrived to escape and flee once, which before the end of 1608 led to his cancellation from the rolls of the Order. He made for Syracuse in Sicily, where he was received as a guest by a friend from his Roman days, the painter’s face was disfigured and rumours started to circulate of his death. Various commentators have formulated opinions about his state from works supposedly executed at this period. In fact, Caravaggio’s end is shrouded in mystery, mystery that is rendered only denser by conflicting hypotheses, some speak of a natural death from a persistent fever, others of an assassination by emissaries of the Knights of Malta. The loss of the paintings put the deal and his future in doubt, there is evidence that dogged by a serious fever, he was tended by a local religious confraternity near Porto Ercole, then in the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, but succumbed. His death was certified by them as taking place on 18 July 1610, if the story to this point is exact, it is likely he was buried in a paupers’ common grave. As to the place, though this continues to be contested. Famous while he lived, Caravaggio was forgotten almost immediately after his death, despite this, his influence on the new Baroque style that eventually emerged from the ruins of Mannerism was profound. The 20th-century art historian André Berne-Joffroy claimed, What begins in the work of Caravaggio is, quite simply, modern painting. Caravaggio was born in Milan where his father, Fermo, was an administrator and architect-decorator to the Marchese of Caravaggio. His mother, Lucia Aratori, came from a family of the same district. In 1576 the family moved to Caravaggio to escape a plague which ravaged Milan, Caravaggios mother died in 1584, the same year he began his four-year apprenticeship to the Milanese painter Simone Peterzano, described in the contract of apprenticeship as a pupil of Titian. Following his initial training under Simone Peterzano, in 1592 Caravaggio left Milan for Rome, in flight after certain quarrels, in Rome, where there was a demand for paintings to fill the many huge new churches and palazzos being built at the time. It was also a period when the Church was searching for an alternative to Mannerism in religious art that was tasked to counter the threat of Protestantism. Caravaggios innovation was a radical naturalism that combined close observation with a dramatic, even theatrical
31.
Caravaggisti
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The Caravaggisti were stylistic followers of the 16th-century Italian Baroque painter Caravaggio. His influence on the new Baroque style that emerged from Mannerism was profound. Caravaggio never established a workshop as most other painters did, nor did he ever set out his underlying philosophical approach to art, the psychological realism which can only be deduced from his surviving work. But it can be directly or indirectly in the work of Rubens, Jusepe de Ribera, Bernini. Famous while he lived, Caravaggio himself was forgotten almost immediately after his death, many of his paintings were reascribed to his followers, such as The Taking of Christ, which was attributed to Honthorst until 1990. It was only in the 20th century that his importance to the development of Western art was rediscovered, in the 1920s Roberto Longhi once more placed him in the European tradition, Ribera, Vermeer, La Tour and Rembrandt could never have existed without him. And the art of Delacroix, Courbet and Manet would have utterly different. The influential Bernard Berenson stated, With the exception of Michelangelo, at the height of his popularity in Rome during the late 1590s and early 17th century, Caravaggios dramatic new style influenced many of his peers in the Roman art world. The first Caravaggisti included Mario Minniti, Giovanni Baglione, Leonello Spada, in the next generation there were Carlo Saraceni, Bartolomeo Manfredi and Orazio Borgianni. Gentileschi, despite being older, was the only one of these artists to live much beyond 1620. His daughter Artemisia Gentileschi was also close to Caravaggio, and one of the most gifted of the movement, yet in Rome and in Italy it was not Caravaggio, but the influence of Annibale Carracci, blending elements from the High Renaissance and Lombard realism, which ultimately triumphed. In May 1606 after the killing of Ranuccio Tomassoni, Caravaggio fled to Naples with a sentence on his head. While there he completed several commissions, two major ones being the Madonna of the Rosary, and The Seven Works of Mercy. The Caravaggisti movement there ended with an outbreak of plague in 1656, but at the time Naples was a possession of Spain. The Netherlands Institute for Art History lists 128 artists labelled Caravaggisten, in the early 17th century Catholic artists from the Netherlands travelled to Rome as students and were profoundly influenced by the work of Caravaggio. In the following generation the effects of Caravaggio, although attenuated, are to be seen in the work of Vermeer, Rembrandt, Rubens was likely one of the first Flemish artists to be influenced by Caravaggio. During the period 1600-1608, Rubens resided in Italy and he settled in Mantua at the court of Duke Vincenzo I Gonzaga but also spent time in Rome. During his stay in Rome in 1601 he became acquainted with Caravaggio’s work and he later made a copy of Caravagios Entombment of Christ and recommended his patron, the Duke of Mantua, to purchase The Death of the Virgin
32.
Orazio Gentileschi
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Orazio Lomi Gentileschi was an Italian painter. Born in Tuscany, he began his career in Rome, painting in a Mannerist style, after 1600, he came under the influence of the more naturalistic style of Caravaggio. He received important commissions in Fabriano and Genoa before moving to Paris to the court of Marie de Medici and he spent the last part of his life at the court of Charles I of England. He was the father of the painter Artemisia Gentileschi and he was born in Tuscany, the son of a Florentine goldsmith called Giovanni Battista Lomi, and baptised at Pisa on 9 July,1563. He later took the name Gentileschi from an uncle with whom he lived after moving to Rome in either 1576 or 1578, much of Gentileschis early work in Rome was collaborative in nature. He also worked in the churches of Santa Maria Maggiore, San Nicola in Carcere, Santa Maria della Pace, from around 1600, his style was transformed by his contact with Caravaggio – several years his junior – who was then in Rome. Caravaggios testimony during the trial as recorded in documents is one of the few insights into his thoughts about the subject of art. After Caravaggios flight from Rome, Gentileschi developed a more personal Tuscan lyricism, characterized by lighter colours and precision in detail, in 1611, he collaborated with Tassi again, on works including the decorations of the Casino delle Muse. However, their association ended due to a dispute over money, in 1612 he was again called to the Tribunal of Rome, this time to speak against Tassi, who was charged with the rape of his daughter Artemisia Gentileschi. Details of his practice during this period have been preserved in the records of Tassis trial. Following Caravaggios lead, he painted directly from models. One of the witnesses at the trial, Giovanni Molli, a 73-year-old pilgrim from Palermo, said that he had posed for pictures around 1610–11. Between around 1613 and 1619 he did much of his work for patrons in the Roman Marches, in the cities of Ancona, in 1621, he moved to Genoa, at the invitation of Giovanni Antonio Sauli, who had previously commissioned works from his brother, Aurelio Lomi. Gentileschis works for Sauli included a Magdalene, a Danäe and Lot, in the summer or autumn of 1624, Gentileschi left Genoa for Paris, and the court of the Queen Mother, Marie de Medici. In 1626, Gentileschi, accompanied by his three sons, left France for England, where he became part of the household of the Kings first minister, George Villiers and he was to remain in England for the rest of his life. One of his first major works there was a ceiling painting of Apollo. He had already received a degree of royal patronage by the time of Buckinghams murder in April 1628. He was a favourite artist of Queen Henrietta Maria, for whom he carried out the paintings at Queens House
33.
Orazio Borgianni
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Orazio Borgianni was an Italian painter and etcher of the Mannerist and early-Baroque periods. He was the stepbrother of the sculptor and architect Giulio Lasso, Borgianni was born in Rome, where he was documented in February 1604. He was instructed in the art of painting by his brother, Giulio Borgiani, the patronage by Philip II of Spain induced him to visit that Spain, where he signed an inventory in January 1605. He returned to Rome from Spain after April 1605 at the height of his career, in Spain, he signed a petition to begin an Italianate academy of painting and executed a series of nine paintings for the Convento de Portacoeli, Valladolid, where they remain. From his time in Spain, there two of his paintings in the Prado Museum, St Christopher and the Stigmatization of St Francis. On his return to Rome he was patronized by the Spanish ambassador, for whom he painted several pictures and he painted as late as 1630, after which he returned to Spain. He frescoed in the apse of the church of San Silvestro in Capite in Rome, a Martyrdom of S. Stefano I and his canvas of San Carlo Borromeo in the church of San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane is an eclectic and emotive synthesis of both Carracci and tenebrist styles. The influence of Caravaggio is also evident in a painting of the saint now in the Hermitage Museum. A lively self-portrait of an earnest, somewhat foppish Borgianni is in the Rome Galleria Nazionale dArte Antica and his early biographer was his contemporary, Giovanni Baglione, who leans heavily on anecdote. As an engraver he etched a Resurrection, a composition of many figures, marked two Marys and St. John, dated 1615. St. Christopher giving his hand to the Infant Jesus, St. Christopher carrying the Infant on his Shoulder. Fifty-two Bible histories, called Raphaels Bible, the dead Christ, in a foresbortened position,1615. Dictionary of Painters and Engravers, Biographical and Critical, York St. #4, Covent Garden, London, Original from Fogg Library, Digitized May 18,2007, George Bell and Sons. Liedtke, Walter A. Flemish paintings in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, new York, The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Media related to Orazio Borgianni at Wikimedia Commons Artnet biography from Grove encyclopedia of Art Paintings by Borgianni
34.
Bartolomeo Cavarozzi
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Bartolomeo Cavarozzi was an Italian caravaggisti painter of the Baroque period active in Spain, alongside his master Giovanni Battista Crescenzi. Bartolomeo Cavarozzi was born at Viterbo, he traveled to Spain with his teacher to help paint and he adopted the style of Cristofano Roncalli. He painted a St Ursula and Her Companions with Pope Ciriacus, a contemporary from Viterbo, Filippo Caparozzi, was a disciple of Giuseppe dArpino. St Ursula and Her Companions with Pope Ciriacus and St Catherine of Alexandria, guardian Angel Amintas Lament Saint Jerome and the Angels, size,116 x 173 cm. Holy Family Virgin and Child Holy Family with Saint Catherine, size,256 x 170 cm, virgen con el niño The Supper at Emmaus, attributed Young Violinist Young Violinist Visitation Saint Cecilia Saint Jerome, attributed Stirling-Maxwell, William. Annals of the Artists of Spain,14 King William St. #4, Strand, London, Original from Fogg Library, Digitized June 22,2007, John C. Pérez Sánchez, Alfonso E. Borgianni, Cavarozzi y Nardi en España, Madrid, Instituto Diego Velázquez, CSIC,1964, p.22 Daniele Sanguineti Bartolomeo Cavarozzi, sacre famiglie a confronto, kunstbetrieb und Malerei im frühen 17. Der Fall Giovan Battista Crescenzi und Bartolomeo Cavarozzi
35.
Worcester Art Museum
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The Worcester Art Museum, also known by its acronym WAM, houses over 35,000 works of art dating from antiquity to the present day, representing cultures from all over the world. The WAM opened in 1898 in Worcester, Massachusetts, and is the second largest art museum in New England, the WAM also has a café, museum shop, library, and a year-round roster of classes for children and adults. In September 1896, Stephen Salisbury III and a group of his friends gathered together to create the Art Museum Corporation, Salisbury then gave a tract of land, on what was once the Salisbury farm, as well as $100,000 USD to build an art museum. The museum was designed by Stephen C, Earle, a Worcester architect, and formally opened in 1898 with the Rev. Daniel Merriman as its first president. In 1905, Stephen Salisbury died and left the bulk of his five million-dollar estate to the museum, the WAM became the first museum in the United States to purchase works by Claude Monet as well as Paul Gauguin. The museum was also the first institution to transport a medieval building, between 1932 and 1939, the Worcester Art Museum joined a consortium of museums and institutions to sponsor expeditions to the archaeological sites where the city of Antioch once stood. The Antioch mosaics, as they are now known, were split up among the institutions The WAM received many mosaics including the Worcester Hunt, on May 17,1972, the museum suffered a major theft of artwork. Two men wearing masks entered the museum just before closing and shot a guard in the side. The two men stole The Brooding Woman and Head of a Woman by Paul Gauguin, Mother and Child by Pablo Picasso, and St. Bartholomew by Rembrandt, a collection of works worth over one million dollars. Four individuals were charged with the theft as well as the theft of seven artworks stolen from the Boyden Library at Deerfield Academy, beginning in the 1990s, the WAM began renovating all of its galleries. The renovation began with the European galleries and then the Chinese Decorative Arts Gallery, followed by the Early American Galleries, the Art Since the Mid-20th Century galleries had been closed for about a decade before they were reopened as part of this program. The renovation of two galleries cost $85,000 USD and included new flooring, lighting, wall refinishing. The Worcester Art Museum started as a small building, designed by Stephen Earle. Very little of the exterior of this building can be viewed due to the multiple expansions the museum has undertaken. In 1927, the purchased a 12th-century French chapter house that was originally part of the Benedictine Priory of St. John at Le Bas-Nueil near Poitiers. Installed in 1932, and linked to the museum in 1933 via the grand Renaissance Court, in 1933 alone, the Museum attracted 200,000 visitors. The Worcester Art Museum supported the excavation between 1932 and 1939 in partnership with universities and other museums, the museum building has expanded several times, in 1940,1970, and 1983. The Frances L. Hiatt Wing is designed for exhibitions, study and storage area for prints, drawings, and photographs
36.
Anthony van Dyck
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Sir Anthony van Dyck was a Flemish Baroque artist who became the leading court painter in England, after enjoying great success in Italy and Flanders. He also painted biblical and mythological subjects, displayed outstanding facility as a draughtsman, the Van Dyke beard is named after him. Antoon van Dyck was born to parents in Antwerp. By the age of fifteen he was already an accomplished artist, as his Self-portrait, 1613–14. He was admitted to the Antwerp painters Guild of Saint Luke as a master by February 1618. His influence on the young artist was immense, Rubens referred to the nineteen-year-old van Dyck as the best of my pupils. At the same time the dominance of Rubens in the small and declining city of Antwerp probably explains why, despite his periodic returns to the city, van Dyck spent most of his career abroad. In 1620, at the instigation of George Villiers, Marquess of Buckingham, van Dyck went to England for the first time where he worked for King James I of England, receiving £100. After about four months he returned to Flanders, but moved on in late 1621 to Italy and he was already presenting himself as a figure of consequence, annoying the rather bohemian Northern artists colony in Rome, says Giovan Pietro Bellori, by appearing with the pomp of Zeuxis. He was mostly based in Genoa, although he travelled extensively to other cities. In 1627, he went back to Antwerp where he remained for five years, a life-size group portrait of twenty-four City Councillors of Brussels he painted for the council-chamber was destroyed in 1695. He was evidently very charming to his patrons, and, like Rubens, well able to mix in aristocratic and court circles, by 1630 he was described as the court painter of the Habsburg Governor of Flanders, the Archduchess Isabella. In this period he produced many religious works, including large altarpieces. King Charles I was the most passionate and generous collector of art among the British monarchs, and saw art as a way of promoting his elevated view of the monarchy. In 1628, he bought the collection that the Gonzagas of Mantua were forced to dispose of. In 1626, he was able to persuade Orazio Gentileschi to settle in England, later to be joined by his daughter Artemisia and some of his sons. Rubens was a target, who eventually came on a diplomatic mission, which included painting, in 1630. He was very well-treated during his visit, during which he was knighted
37.
Peter Paul Rubens
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Sir Peter Paul Rubens was a Flemish/Netherlandish draughtsman and painter. He is widely considered as the most notable artist of Flemish Baroque art school, the catalogue of his works by Michael Jaffé lists 1,403 pieces, excluding numerous copies made in his workshop. His commissioned works were mostly history paintings, which included religious and mythological subjects and he painted portraits, especially of friends, and self-portraits, and in later life painted several landscapes. Rubens designed tapestries and prints, as well as his own house and he also oversaw the ephemeral decorations of the royal entry into Antwerp by the Cardinal-Infante Ferdinand in 1635. His drawings are mostly extremely forceful but not overly detailed and he also made great use of oil sketches as preparatory studies. For altarpieces he painted on slate to reduce reflection problems. Rubens was born in the city of Siegen to Jan Rubens and he was named in honour of Saint-Peter and Paul, because he was born on their solemnety. His father, a Calvinist, and mother fled Antwerp for Cologne in 1568, after increased religious turmoil and persecution of Protestants during the rule of the Spanish Netherlands by the Duke of Alba. Jan Rubens became the adviser of Anna of Saxony, the second wife of William I of Orange. Following Jan Rubens imprisonment for the affair, Peter Paul Rubens was born in 1577, the family returned to Cologne the next year. In 1589, two years after his fathers death, Rubens moved with his mother Maria Pypelincks to Antwerp, religion figured prominently in much of his work and Rubens later became one of the leading voices of the Catholic Counter-Reformation style of painting. In Antwerp, Rubens received a Renaissance humanist education, studying Latin, by fourteen he began his artistic apprenticeship with Tobias Verhaeght. Subsequently, he studied under two of the leading painters of the time, the late Mannerist artists Adam van Noort. Much of his earliest training involved copying earlier works, such as woodcuts by Hans Holbein the Younger. Rubens completed his education in 1598, at time he entered the Guild of St. Luke as an independent master. In 1600 Rubens travelled to Italy and he stopped first in Venice, where he saw paintings by Titian, Veronese, and Tintoretto, before settling in Mantua at the court of Duke Vincenzo I Gonzaga. The colouring and compositions of Veronese and Tintoretto had an effect on Rubenss painting. With financial support from the Duke, Rubens travelled to Rome by way of Florence in 1601, there, he studied classical Greek and Roman art and copied works of the Italian masters
38.
Saint Louis Art Museum
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The Saint Louis Art Museum is one of the principal U. S. art museums, with paintings, sculptures, cultural objects, and ancient masterpieces from all corners of the world. Its three-story building stands in Forest Park in St. Louis, Missouri, admission is free through a subsidy from the cultural tax district for St. Louis City and County. In addition to the exhibitions, the museum offers rotating exhibitions and installations. These include the Currents series, which features artists, as well as regular exhibitions of new media art. The museum was founded in 1881 as the Saint Louis School and Museum of Fine Arts, the school, led by directory Halsey C. Ives, educated two generations of St. Louis artists and craftspeople and offered studio and art history classes supported by a museum collection. After the school moved to Washington Universitys campus and the moved to Forest Park. The museum moved after the 1904 Worlds Fair, also known as the Louisiana Purchase Exposition, to the Palace of Fine Arts, the building was designed by architect Cass Gilbert, who took inspiration from the Baths of Caracalla in Rome, Italy. The Mildred Lane Kemper Art Museum remained part of Washington University, in 1908, the museums first director, Halsey Cooley Ives, arranged for a municipal tax to support the museum. The following year, the museum separated from Washington University and was renamed the City Art Museum, an organizing board was assigned to take control in 1912. During the 1950s, the added an extension to include an auditorium for films, concerts. In 1971, efforts to secure the financial future led voters in St. Louis City and County to approve the creation of the Metropolitan Zoological Park. This expanded the tax base for the 1908 tax to include St. Louis County, in 1972, the museum was again renamed, to the Saint Louis Art Museum. Today, the museum is supported financially by the tax, donations from individuals and public associations, sales in the Museum Shop, the St. Louis-based firm, Hellmuth, Obata, and Kassabaum was the architect of record to work with the construction team. On November 5,2007, museum officials released the plans to the public. A model of the new building was displayed in the museums Sculpture Hall throughout the construction project, in 2008, citing the declining state of the economy, the museum announced that it would delay the start of the expansion, whose cost was then estimated at $125 million. Construction began in 2009, the museum remained open, the expansion added more than 224,000 square feet of gallery space, including an underground garage, within the lease lines of the property. Money for the project was raised through private gifts to the campaign from individuals, foundations and corporations
39.
Impasto
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Impasto is a technique used in painting, where paint is laid on an area of the surface very thickly, usually thick enough that the brush or painting-knife strokes are visible. Paint can also be mixed right on the canvas, when dry, impasto provides texture, the paint appears to be coming out of the canvas. The word impasto is Italian in origin, in that language it means dough or mixture, Italian usage of impasto includes both a painting and a potting technique. According to Websters New World College Dictionary, the noun of impasto is pasta. Oil paint is the medium for impasto painting, due to its thickness. Acrylic paint can also be used for impasto by adding heavy body acrylic gels, Impasto is generally not possible in watercolour or tempera without the addition of thickening agent due to the inherent thinness of these media. An artist working in pastels can produce a limited impasto effect by pressing a soft pastel firmly against the paper, first, it makes the light reflect in a particular way, giving the artist additional control over the play of light on the painting. Second, it can add expressiveness to the painting, the viewer being able to notice the strength, third, impasto can push a painting into a three-dimensional sculptural rendering. The first objective was originally sought by such as Rembrandt, Titian. Much later, the French Impressionists created entire canvases of rich impasto textures, vincent van Gogh used it frequently for aesthetics and expression. Still more recently, Frank Auerbach has used such heavy impasto that some of his paintings become almost three-dimensional, because impasto gives texture to the painting, it can be opposed to flat, smooth, or blending techniques. Selected examples of paintings which make use of the impasto technique Media related to Impasto at Wikimedia Commons Lindberg. Alfred Currier, Impasto National Portrait Gallery, London
40.
Paolo Veronese
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Known as a supreme colorist, and after an early period with Mannerism, Paolo Veronese developed a naturalist style of painting, influenced by Titian. His most famous works are elaborate narrative cycles, executed in a dramatic and colorful style, full of architectural settings. Nonetheless, many of the greatest artists, may be counted among his admirers, including Rubens, Watteau, Tiepolo, Delacroix and Renoir. Veronese took his name from his birthplace of Verona, then the largest possession of Venice on the mainland. The census in Verona attests that Veronese was born sometime in 1528 to a stonecutter, or spezapreda, named Gabriele and it was common for surnames to be taken from a fathers profession, and thus Veronese was known as Paolo Spezapreda. He later changed his name to Paolo Caliari, because his mother was the daughter of a nobleman called Antonio Caliari. He was often called Paolo Veronese before the last century to him from another painter from Verona, Alessandro Veronese. By 1541, Veronese was apprenticed with Antonio Badile, who was later to become his father-in-law, although trained in the culture of Mannerism then popular in Parma, he soon developed his own preference for a more radiant palette. In 1552 Cardinal Ercole Gonzaga, great-uncle of the ruling Guglielmo Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua, commissioned an altarpiece for Mantua Cathedral and his panel of Jupiter Expelling the Vices for the former is now in the Louvre. He then painted a History of Esther in the ceiling for the church of San Sebastiano and it was these ceiling paintings and those of 1557 in the Marciana Library that established him as a master among his Venetian contemporaries. Already these works indicate Veroneses mastery in reflecting both the subtle foreshortening of the figures of Correggio and the heroism of those by Michelangelo. By 1556 Veronese was commissioned to paint the first of his monumental banquet scenes, the Feast in the House of Simon, owing to its scattered composition and lack of focus, however, it was not his most successful refectory mural. In the late 1550s, during a break in his work for San Sebastiano, Veronese decorated the Villa Barbaro in Maser, Veroneses decorations employed complex perspective and trompe loeil, and resulted in a luminescent and inspired visual poetry. The encounter between architect and artist was a triumph, the Wedding at Cana, painted in 1562–1563, was also collaboration with Palladio. It was commissioned by the Benedictine monks for the San Giorgio Maggiore Monastery, on an island across from Saint Marks. The contract insisted on the size, and that the quality of pigment. For example, the contract specified that the blues should contain the precious mineral lapis-lazuli, the contract also specified that the painting should include as many figures as possible. There are a number of portraits staged upon a canvas surface nearly ten meters wide
41.
Jan Lys
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Johann Liss was a leading German Baroque painter of the 17th century, active mainly in Venice. Liss was born in Oldenburg in Schleswig-Holstein, Germany, after an initial education in his home state, he continued his studies, according to Houbraken, with Hendrick Goltzius in Haarlem and Amsterdam. Around 1620 he travelled through Paris to Venice, Liss fled to Verona to escape the plague spreading in Venice, but succumbed there prematurely in 1629. According to Houbraken, he worked day and night on his paintings, so that Joachim von Sandrart felt that his health was at risk and his legacy is as a painter of both sensuous mythological and pious biblical subjects, a master of colors and Baroque painting. He was most influential to Venetian 18th-century painters like Sebastiano Ricci, Giovanni Battista Tiepolo, Joachim von Sandrart wrote in 1675 that because he fared well in Venice, he soon returned there. He died along with others during the plague that began in 1629. Lute Player Visitation of St Jerome Vision of Saint Jerome Peasants playing mora Death of Cleopatra Abel mourned by his parents Venus in front of mirror Death of Phaeton Cupid Wittkower, pelican History of Art, Art and Architecture Italy, 1600-1750
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