1.
Magnetic tape
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Magnetic tape is a medium for magnetic recording, made of a thin, magnetizable coating on a long, narrow strip of plastic film. It was developed in Germany, based on magnetic wire recording, devices that record and play back audio and video using magnetic tape are tape recorders and video tape recorders. A device that stores data on magnetic tape is a tape drive. Magnetic tape revolutionized broadcast and recording, when all radio was live, it allowed programming to be recorded. At a time when gramophone records were recorded in one take, it allowed recordings to be made in multiple parts, which were then mixed and edited with tolerable loss in quality. It was a key technology in computer development, allowing unparalleled amounts of data to be mechanically created, stored for long periods. Nowadays, other technologies can perform the functions of magnetic tape, in many cases, these technologies are replacing tape. Despite this, innovation in the technology continues, and Sony, over years, magnetic tape made in the 1970s and 1980s can suffer from a type of deterioration called sticky-shed syndrome. Caused by hydrolysis of the binder of the tape, it can render the tape unusable, the oxide side of a tape is the surface that can be magnetically manipulated by a tape head. This is the side that stores the information, the side is simply a substrate to hold the tape together. The name originates from the fact that the side of most tapes is made of an oxide of iron. Magnetic tape was invented for recording sound by Fritz Pfleumer in 1928 in Germany, based on the invention of magnetic wire recording by Oberlin Smith in 1888, pfleumers invention used a ferric oxide powder coating on a long strip of paper. This invention was developed by the German electronics company AEG, which manufactured the recording machines and BASF. In 1933, working for AEG, Eduard Schuller developed the ring-shaped tape head, previous head designs were needle-shaped and tended to shred the tape. An important discovery made in this period was the technique of AC biasing, due to the escalating political tensions, and the outbreak of World War II, these developments were largely kept secret. A wide variety of recorders and formats have developed since, most significantly reel-to-reel, the practice of recording and editing audio using magnetic tape rapidly established itself as an obvious improvement over previous methods. Many saw the potential of making the same improvements in recording television, television signals are similar to audio signals. A major difference is that video signals use more bandwidth than audio signals, existing audio tape recorders could not practically capture a video signal
2.
Content format
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A content format is an encoded format for converting a specific type of data to displayable information. Content formats are used in recording and transmission to prepare data for observation or interpretation and this includes both analog and digitized content. Content formats may be recorded and read by either natural or manufactured tools, in addition to converting data to information, a content format may include the encryption and/or scrambling of that information. Multiple content formats may be contained within a section of a storage medium or transmitted via a single channel of a transmission medium. With multimedia, multiple tracks containing multiple content formats are presented simultaneously, content formats may either be recorded in secondary signal processing methods such as a software container format or recorded in the primary format. Observable data is known as raw data, or raw content. There has been a number of content formats throughout history
3.
NTSC
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The first NTSC standard was developed in 1941 and had no provision for color. In 1953 a second NTSC standard was adopted, which allowed for television broadcasting which was compatible with the existing stock of black-and-white receivers. NTSC was the first widely adopted broadcast color system and remained dominant until 1997, North America, parts of Central America, and South Korea are adopting or have adopted the ATSC standards, while other countries are adopting or have adopted other standards instead of ATSC. After nearly 70 years, the majority of over-the-air NTSC transmissions in the United States ceased on January 1,2010, the majority of NTSC transmissions ended in Japan on July 24,2011, with the Japanese prefectures of Iwate, Miyagi, and Fukushima ending the next year. In March 1941, the committee issued a standard for black-and-white television that built upon a 1936 recommendation made by the Radio Manufacturers Association. Technical advancements of the side band technique allowed for the opportunity to increase the image resolution. The NTSC selected 525 scan lines as a compromise between RCAs 441-scan line standard and Philcos and DuMonts desire to increase the number of lines to between 605 and 800. The standard recommended a frame rate of 30 frames per second, other standards in the final recommendation were an aspect ratio of 4,3, and frequency modulation for the sound signal. In January 1950, the committee was reconstituted to standardize color television, in December 1953, it unanimously approved what is now called the NTSC color television standard. The compatible color standard retained full backward compatibility with existing black-and-white television sets, Color information was added to the black-and-white image by introducing a color subcarrier of precisely 315/88 MHz. These changes amounted to 0.1 percent and were tolerated by existing television receivers. The FCC had briefly approved a different color standard, starting in October 1950. However, this standard was incompatible with black-and-white broadcasts and it used a rotating color wheel, reduced the number of scan lines from 525 to 405, and increased the field rate from 60 to 144, but had an effective frame rate of only 24 frames per second. CBS rescinded its system in March 1953, and the FCC replaced it on December 17,1953, with the NTSC color standard, later that year, the improved TK-41 became the standard camera used throughout much of the 1960s. The NTSC standard has been adopted by countries, including most of the Americas. With the advent of television, analog broadcasts are being phased out. Most US NTSC broadcasters were required by the FCC to shut down their analog transmitters in 2009, low-power stations, Class A stations and translators were required to shut down by 2015. NTSC color encoding is used with the System M television signal, each frame is composed of two fields, each consisting of 262.5 scan lines, for a total of 525 scan lines
4.
PAL
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Phase Alternating Line is a colour encoding system for analogue television used in broadcast television systems in most countries broadcasting at 625-line /50 field per second. Other common colour encoding systems are NTSC and SECAM, all the countries using PAL are currently in process of conversion or have already converted standards to DVB, ISDB or DTMB. This page primarily discusses the PAL colour encoding system, the articles on broadcast television systems and analogue television further describe frame rates, image resolution and audio modulation. To overcome NTSCs shortcomings, alternative standards were devised, resulting in the development of the PAL, the goal was to provide a colour TV standard for the European picture frequency of 50 fields per second, and finding a way to eliminate the problems with NTSC. PAL was developed by Walter Bruch at Telefunken in Hannover, Germany, with important input from Dr. Kruse, the format was patented by Telefunken in 1962, citing Bruch as inventor, and unveiled to members of the European Broadcasting Union on 3 January 1963. When asked, why the system was named PAL and not Bruch the inventor answered that a Bruch system would not have sold very well. The first broadcasts began in the United Kingdom in June 1967, the one BBC channel initially using the broadcast standard was BBC2, which had been the first UK TV service to introduce 625-lines in 1964. Telefunken PALcolor 708T was the first PAL commercial TV set and it was followed by Loewe-Farbfernseher S920 & F900. Telefunken was later bought by the French electronics manufacturer Thomson, Thomson also bought the Compagnie Générale de Télévision where Henri de France developed SECAM, the first European Standard for colour television. The term PAL was often used informally and somewhat imprecisely to refer to the 625-line/50 Hz television system in general, accordingly, DVDs were labelled as PAL or NTSC even though technically the discs do not carry either PAL or NTSC composite signal. CCIR 625/50 and EIA 525/60 are the names for these standards, PAL. Both the PAL and the NTSC system use a quadrature amplitude modulated subcarrier carrying the chrominance information added to the video signal to form a composite video baseband signal. The frequency of this subcarrier is 4.43361875 MHz for PAL and NTSC4.43, the SECAM system, on the other hand, uses a frequency modulation scheme on its two line alternate colour subcarriers 4.25000 and 4.40625 MHz. Early PAL receivers relied on the eye to do that cancelling, however. The effect is that phase errors result in changes, which are less objectionable than the equivalent hue changes of NTSC. In any case, NTSC, PAL, and SECAM all have chrominance bandwidth reduced greatly compared to the luminance signal. The 4.43361875 MHz frequency of the carrier is a result of 283.75 colour clock cycles per line plus a 25 Hz offset to avoid interferences. Since the line frequency is 15625 Hz, the carrier frequency calculates as follows,4.43361875 MHz =283.75 ×15625 Hz +25 Hz
5.
SECAM
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SECAM, also written SÉCAM, is an analogue colour television system first used in France. It was one of three major television standards, the others being the European PAL and North American NTSC. Development of SECAM began in 1956 by a led by Henri de France working at Compagnie Française de Télévision. The first SECAM broadcast was made in France in 1967, making it the first such standard to go live in Europe, the system was also selected as the standard for colour in the Soviet Union, who began broadcasts shortly after the French. The standard spread from these two countries to many client states and former colonies, SECAM remained a major standard into the 2000s. It is in the process of being phased out and replaced by DVB, work on SECAM began in 1956. The technology was ready by the end of the 1950s, a version of SECAM for the French 819-line television standard was devised and tested, but not introduced. The first proposed system was called SECAM I in 1961, followed by studies to improve compatibility. These improvements were called SECAM II and SECAM III, with the latter being presented at the 1965 CCIR General Assembly in Vienna, further improvements were SECAM III A followed by SECAM III B, the adopted system for general use in 1967. Soviet technicians were involved in the development of the standard, and created their own incompatible variant called NIR or SECAM IV, the team was working in Moscows Telecentrum under the direction of Professor Shmakov. The NIR designation comes from the name of the Nautchno-Issledovatelskiy Institut Radio, two standards were developed, Non-linear NIR, in which a process analogous to gamma correction is used, and Linear NIR or SECAM IV that omits this process. SECAM was inaugurated in France on 1 October 1967, on la deuxième chaîne, a group of four suited men—a presenter and three contributors to the systems development—were shown standing in a studio. Following a count from 10, at 2,15 pm the black-and-white image switched to color, in 1967, CLT of Lebanon became the third television station in the world, after the Soviet Union and France, to broadcast in color utilizing the French SECAM technology. The first color television sets cost 5000 Francs, color TV was not very popular initially, only about 1500 people watched the inaugural program in color. A year later, only 200,000 sets had been sold of an expected million and this pattern was similar to the earlier slow build-up of color television popularity in the US. SECAM was later adopted by former French and Belgian colonies, Greece, the Soviet Union and Eastern bloc countries, and Middle Eastern countries. However, with the fall of communism, and following a period when multi-standard TV sets became a commodity, other countries, notably the United Kingdom and Italy, briefly experimented with SECAM before opting for PAL. Since late 2000s, SECAM is in the process of being phased out, some have argued that the primary motivation for the development of SECAM in France was to protect French television equipment manufacturers
6.
Helical scan
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Helical scan is a method of recording high frequency signals on magnetic tape. It is used in video tape recorders, video cassette recorders, digital audio tape recorders. In a fixed tape head recording system, magnetic tape is drawn past the head at a constant speed. The head creates a magnetic field in response to the signal to be recorded. As the tape moves away, the magnetic particles carry an imprint of the signal in their magnetic orientation. If the tape moves too slowly, a frequency signal will not be imprinted. Thus the bandwidth capacity of the recorded signal can be seen to be related to tape speed, the faster the speed. Digital video and digital audio need considerably more bandwidth than analog audio and this is impractical, since tapes of immense length would be required. The generally adopted solution is to rotate the head against the tape at high speed, so that the velocity is high. To accomplish this, the head must be tilted so that at each rotation of the head, each segment of the signal is recorded as a diagonal stripe across the tape. This is known as a helical scan because the tape wraps around the drum at an angle. The difference between the writing speed and linear tape speed is vast, for example,13 mph versus 35 mm/s. The helical scan method of recording was first developed by Eduard Schüller, with the advent of television broadcasting in Japan in the early 1950s, they saw the need for magnetic television signal recording just as engineers in the United States and Europe did. Thus, when tape motion was stopped, only a segment of the picture recording was present at the playback heads. The motivation to overcome this limitation led, in part, to the development of the helical scan system, toshiba introduced helical scan technology to the television industry in 1959. During the 1960s and 1970s, helical scan recording machines were introduced by many manufacturers and these factors also made it possible eventually to bring video recording to users at home, in a cassette format. There were a number of problems to be overcome with this system, the high tape/head speed could lead to rapid wear of both the tape and the head, so both need to be highly polished, and the head made of a hard, wear resistant material. Most systems operate with an air bearing separating the heads from the surface of the drum, supplying signals to a rotating head is also problematic, This is usually accomplished by coupling the signal inductively through a rotary transformer
7.
International standard
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International standards are standards developed by international standards organizations. International standards are available for consideration and use worldwide, the most prominent organization is the International Organization for Standardization. International standards may be used either by application or by a process of modifying an international standard to suit local conditions. Technical barriers arise when different groups together, each with a large user base. Establishing international standards is one way of preventing or overcoming this problem, the implementation of standards in industry and commerce became highly important with the onset of the Industrial Revolution and the need for high-precision machine tools and interchangeable parts. Henry Maudslay developed the first industrially practical screw-cutting lathe in 1800, maudslays work, as well as the contributions of other engineers, accomplished a modest amount of industry standardization, some companies in-house standards spread a bit within their industries. Joseph Whitworths screw thread measurements were adopted as the first national standard by companies around the country in 1841 and it came to be known as the British Standard Whitworth, and was widely adopted in other countries. By the end of the 19th century differences in standards between companies were making trade increasingly difficult and strained, the Engineering Standards Committee was established in London in 1901 as the worlds first national standards body. After the First World War, similar national bodies were established in other countries, by the mid to late 19th century, efforts were being made to standardize electrical measurement. An important figure was R. E. B, Crompton, who became concerned by the large range of different standards and systems used by electrical engineering companies and scientists in the early 20th century. Many companies had entered the market in the 1890s and all chose their own settings for voltage, frequency, current, adjacent buildings would have totally incompatible electrical systems simply because they had been fitted out by different companies. Crompton could see the lack of efficiency in this system and began to consider proposals for a standard for electric engineering. In 1904, Crompton represented Britain at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition in Saint Louis as part of a delegation by the Institute of Electrical Engineers. He presented a paper on standardisation, which was so well received that he was asked to look into the formation of a commission to oversee the process. By 1906 his work was complete and he drew up a permanent constitution for the first international standards organization, the body held its first meeting that year in London, with representatives from 14 countries. In honour of his contribution to electrical standardisation, Lord Kelvin was elected as the bodys first President, the International Federation of the National Standardizing Associations was founded in 1926 with a broader remit to enhance international cooperation for all technical standards and specifications. The body was suspended in 1942 during World War II, after the war, ISA was approached by the recently formed United Nations Standards Coordinating Committee with a proposal to form a new global standards body. List of international common standards List of technical standard organisations Global Frameworks and standards organized along function lines, accessed 2014 ^ Cordova
8.
Interlaced video
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Interlaced video is a technique for doubling the perceived frame rate of a video display without consuming extra bandwidth. The interlaced signal contains two fields of a video frame captured at two different times and this enhances motion perception to the viewer, and reduces flicker by taking advantage of the phi phenomenon. This effectively doubles the resolution as compared to non-interlaced footage. Interlaced signals require a display that is capable of showing the individual fields in a sequential order. CRT displays and ALiS plasma displays are made for displaying interlaced signals, Interlaced scan refers to one of two common methods for painting a video image on an electronic display screen by scanning or displaying each line or row of pixels. This technique uses two fields to create a frame, one field contains all odd-numbered lines in the image, the other contains all even-numbered lines. A Phase Alternating Line -based television set display, for example, the two sets of 25 fields work together to create a full frame every 1/25 of a second, but with interlacing create a new half frame every 1/50 of a second. To display interlaced video on progressive displays, playback applies deinterlacing to the video signal. The European Broadcasting Union has argued against interlaced video in production and they recommend 720p 50 fps for the current production format—and are working with the industry to introduce 1080p 50 as a future-proof production standard. 1080p 50 offers higher vertical resolution, better quality at lower bitrates, despite arguments against it, television standards organizations continue to support interlacing. It is still included in digital video formats such as DV, DVB. Progressive scan captures, transmits, and displays an image in a similar to text on a page—line by line. The interlaced scan pattern in a CRT display also completes such a scan, the first pass displays the first and all odd numbered lines, from the top left corner to the bottom right corner. The second pass displays the second and all even numbered lines and this scan of alternate lines is called interlacing. A field is an image that contains only half of the lines needed to make a complete picture, persistence of vision makes the eye perceive the two fields as a continuous image. In the days of CRT displays, the afterglow of the displays phosphor aided this effect, interlacing provides full vertical detail with the same bandwidth that would be required for a full progressive scan of twice the perceived frame rate and refresh rate. To prevent flicker, all analog broadcast television systems used interlacing, format identifiers like 576i 50 and 720p 50 specify the frame rate for progressive scan formats, but for interlaced formats they typically specify the field rate. This can lead to confusion, because industry-standard SMPTE timecode formats always deal with frame rate, not field rate
9.
Sony
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Sony Corporation is a Japanese multinational conglomerate corporation that is headquartered in Kōnan, Minato, Tokyo. Its diversified business includes consumer and professional electronics, gaming, entertainment, the company is one of the leading manufacturers of electronic products for the consumer and professional markets. Sony was ranked 116th on the 2015 list of Fortune Global 500 and these make Sony one of the most comprehensive entertainment companies in the world. The group consists of Sony Corporation, Sony Pictures Entertainment, Sony Interactive Entertainment, Sony Music Entertainment, Sony Financial Holdings and others. Sony is among the Semiconductor sales leaders by year and as of 2013, the companys current slogan is BE MOVED. Their former slogans were make. believe, like. no. other, Sony has a weak tie to the SMFG keiretsu, the successor to the Mitsui keiretsu. Sony began in the wake of World War II, in 1946, Masaru Ibuka started an electronics shop in a department store building in Tokyo. The company had $530 in capital and a total of eight employees, in the following year he was joined by his colleague, Akio Morita, and they founded a company called Tokyo Tsushin Kogyo 東京通信工業. The company built Japans first tape recorder, called the Type-G, in 1958 the company changed its name to Sony. When Tokyo Tsushin Kogyo was looking for a name to use to market themselves, they strongly considered using their initials. The primary reason they did not is that the railway company Tokyo Kyuko was known as TTK, the company occasionally used the acronym Totsuko in Japan, but during his visit to the United States, Morita discovered that Americans had trouble pronouncing that name. Another early name that was tried out for a while was Tokyo Teletech until Akio Morita discovered that there was an American company already using Teletech as a brand name, the name Sony was chosen for the brand as a mix of two words. One was the Latin word sonus, which is the root of sonic and sound, and the other was sonny, a common slang term used in 1950s America to call a boy. In the 1950s Japan sonny boys, was a word into Japanese which connoted smart and presentable young men. The first Sony-branded product, the TR-55 transistor radio, appeared in 1955, at the time of the change, it was extremely unusual for a Japanese company to use Roman letters to spell its name instead of writing it in kanji. The move was not without opposition, TTKs principal bank at the time and they pushed for a name such as Sony Electronic Industries, or Sony Teletech. Akio Morita was firm, however, as he did not want the company tied to any particular industry. Eventually, both Ibuka and Mitsui Banks chairman gave their approval, according to Schiffer, Sonys TR-63 radio cracked open the U. S. market and launched the new industry of consumer microelectronics
10.
Home movies
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Originally, home movies were made on photographic film in formats that usually limited the movie-maker to about three minutes per roll of costly camera film. The popularity of the Internet, and wider availability of high-speed connections has provided new ways of sharing home movies, such as video weblogs, the development of home movie-making has depended critically on availability of equipment and media formats at prices affordable to consumers. Development of film formats suitable for amateur hobbyists began early in the history of cinematography, for example, the 17.5 mm Birtac format was patented by Birt Acres in 1898. This format split the standard 35 mm film into two strips half as wide and was able to be loaded into the camera in daylight. Since the frames were half the height of 35 mm frames. Since the camera doubled as a printer and projector, equipment costs were also reduced, another breakthrough in making film practical for home users was the introduction of safety film in the 1920s. Many competing film formats were introduced in the decades until 16 mm safety film was introduced by Eastman Kodak in 1923. In 1932, Kodak introduced another new format,8 mm, now called Standard 8 or Regular 8, the film usually came in 16 mm wide Double 8 form, which ran through the camera in two passes and was slit in half after processing. The Straight 8 variant came already cut to 8 mm width, in either case, the amount of film stock used per frame was again reduced by 75%. This finally brought home movies within the reach of the average family, the smaller format also made possible smaller and more portable cameras and projectors. The introduction of Kodachrome color reversal film for 16 mm in 1935, the original 8 mm format was largely superseded within a few years of Kodaks 1965 introduction of Super 8 film. The Super 8 format used the film width as standard 8 mm. In addition, Super 8 film came in cartridges for easier loading into the camera, single-8, a competing product from Fujifilm, was also introduced in 1965. It used the new format as Super 8 but on a thinner polyester base. The introduction of the Beta VCR in 1975 and VHS in 1976 heralded a revolution in the making of home movies, videocassettes were extremely inexpensive compared to film and they could even be erased. This had the effect of increasing the hours of footage of most family video libraries. The honeymoon video of Pamela Anderson and Tommy Lee from 1998 was the first highly publicized example, large parts of the incident were captured on the camera phone of another audience member and broadcast widely. Home movies have played important roles in controversial criminal investigations, the prime example is the Zapruder film of the 1963 assassination of U. S. President John F. Kennedy, accidentally captured on Kodachrome film with an 8 mm home movie camera
11.
Home video
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Home video is pre-recorded media that is either sold, rented or streamed for home entertainment. The home video business distributes films, telemovies and television series in the form of videos in various formats to the public and these are either bought or rented and then watched privately from the comfort of consumers homes. Most theatrically released films are now released on media, both optical and download-based, replacing the largely obsolete VHS medium. The VCD format remains popular in Asia, though DVDs are gradually gaining popularity, prior to the arrival of home video as a popular medium, most feature films were essentially inaccessible to the public after their original theatrical runs were over. During this era, it was also the norm that television programs could only be viewed at the time of broadcast, viewers were accustomed to the fact that there was no normal way to record TV shows at home and watch them whenever desired. It was possible to purchase a 16 mm or 8 mm film projector and rent or buy home-use prints of some cartoons, short comedies and brief highlights reels edited from feature films. In the case of the 16 mm format, most of these were available with an optical soundtrack,8 mm films almost never ran longer than ten minutes and only a few were available with a magnetic soundtrack late in the life of the format. The Super 8 film format, introduced in 1965, was marketed for making home movies, eventually, longer, edited-down versions of feature films were issued, increasingly with a magnetic soundtrack and in color. But, these were expensive and served only a small niche market of very dedicated or affluent film lovers. The Betamax and VHS home videocassette formats were introduced in 1975 and 1976 respectively, taking several years, film studios and video distributors assumed that consumers would not want to buy prerecorded videocassettes, just rent them. They also felt that all of the sales would be to video rental stores. The first company to duplicate and distribute home video was Magnetic Video in 1977, at that time, not many consumers owned a VCR, and those who did tended to rent rather than buy videos. Home video is a new area of opportunity for adventuresome publishers willing to produce new programs. Todays limitations within the marketplace may be gone tomorrow. More people are finding ways to create visually stimulating entertainment. It is a new form of publishing, a specialty line of products for vertical readership, six years ago, dog handling videos, back pain videos and cooking videos were suppositions on a drawing board. Three years ago these took life, now, along with golf and skiing tapes these S. I. videos are beginning to claim a marketshare. The wild part of new video publishing adventure is the wide diversity of support with which each product comes to the market
12.
Videocassette
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Videotape is magnetic tape used for storing video and usually sound in addition. Information stored can be in the form of either a signal or digital signal. Videotape is used in video tape recorders or, more commonly, videocassette recorders and camcorders. Videotapes are also used for storing scientific or medical data, such as the produced by an electrocardiogram. Tape is a method of storing information and thus imposes delays to access a portion of the tape that is not already under the heads. The early 2000s saw the introduction and rise to prominence of high quality video recording media such as hard disks. Since then, videotape has been relegated to archival and similar uses. The electronics division of entertainer Bing Crosbys production company, Bing Crosby Enterprises, overall the picture quality was still considered inferior to the best kinescope recordings on film. Bing Crosby Enterprises hoped to have a version available in 1954. The BBC experimented from 1952 to 1958 with a high-speed linear videotape system called VERA and it used half-inch tape traveling at 200 inches per second. RCA demonstrated the magnetic recording of both black-and-white and color television programs at its Princeton laboratories on December 1,1953. The high-speed longitudinal tape system, called Simplex, in development since 1951, could record, the color system used half-inch tape to record five tracks, one each for red, blue, green, synchronization, and audio. The black-and-white system used quarter-inch tape with two tracks, one for video and one for audio, both systems ran at 360 inches per second. RCA-owned NBC first used it on The Jonathan Winters Show on October 23,1956 when a song sequence by Dorothy Collins in color was included in the otherwise live television program. BCE demonstrated a color system in February 1955 using a longitudinal recording on half-inch tape. CBS, RCAs competitor, was about to order BCE machines when Ampex introduced the superior Quadruplex system, BCE was acquired by 3M Company in 1956. Quad employed a transverse four-head system on a tape. On January 22,1957, the NBC Television game show Truth or Consequences, produced in Hollywood, Ampex introduced a color videotape recorder in 1958 in a cross-licensing agreement with RCA, whose engineers had developed it from an Ampex black-and-white recorder
13.
Video
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Video is an electronic medium for the recording, copying, playback, broadcasting, and display of moving visual media. Video systems vary greatly in the resolution of the display and refresh rate, video can be carried on a variety of media, including radio broadcast, tapes, DVDs, computer files etc. Video was originally exclusively a live technology, charles Ginsburg led an Ampex research team developing one of the first practical video tape recorder. In 1951 the first video tape recorder captured live images from television cameras by converting the electrical impulses. Video recorders were sold for $50,000 in 1956, however, prices gradually dropped over the years, in 1971, Sony began selling videocassette recorder decks and tapes into the consumer market. The use of techniques in video created digital video, which allowed higher quality and, eventually. After the invention of the DVD in 1997 and Blu-ray Disc in 2006, sales of videotape, the advent of digital broadcasting and the subsequent digital television transition is in the process of relegating analog video to the status of a legacy technology in most parts of the world. PAL standards and SECAM specify 25 frame/s, while NTSC standards specify 29.97 frames, film is shot at the slower frame rate of 24 frames per second, which slightly complicates the process of transferring a cinematic motion picture to video. The minimum frame rate to achieve a comfortable illusion of an image is about sixteen frames per second. Video can be interlaced or progressive, analog display devices reproduce each frame in the same way, effectively doubling the frame rate as far as perceptible overall flicker is concerned. NTSC, PAL and SECAM are interlaced formats, abbreviated video resolution specifications often include an i to indicate interlacing. For example, PAL video format is specified as 576i50, where 576 indicates the total number of horizontal scan lines, i indicates interlacing. In progressive scan systems, each refresh period updates all scan lines in each frame in sequence, when displaying a natively progressive broadcast or recorded signal, the result is optimum spatial resolution of both the stationary and moving parts of the image. Deinterlacing cannot, however, produce video quality that is equivalent to true progressive scan source material, aspect ratio describes the dimensions of video screens and video picture elements. All popular video formats are rectilinear, and so can be described by a ratio between width and height, the screen aspect ratio of a traditional television screen is 4,3, or about 1.33,1. High definition televisions use a ratio of 16,9. The aspect ratio of a full 35 mm film frame with soundtrack is 1.375,1. Therefore, a 720 by 480 pixel NTSC DV image displayes with the 4,3 aspect ratio if the pixels are thin, the popularity of viewing video on mobile phones has led to the growth of vertical video
14.
Japan
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Japan is a sovereign island nation in Eastern Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies off the eastern coast of the Asia Mainland and stretches from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea, the kanji that make up Japans name mean sun origin. 日 can be read as ni and means sun while 本 can be read as hon, or pon, Japan is often referred to by the famous epithet Land of the Rising Sun in reference to its Japanese name. Japan is an archipelago consisting of about 6,852 islands. The four largest are Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu and Shikoku, the country is divided into 47 prefectures in eight regions. Hokkaido being the northernmost prefecture and Okinawa being the southernmost one, the population of 127 million is the worlds tenth largest. Japanese people make up 98. 5% of Japans total population, approximately 9.1 million people live in the city of Tokyo, the capital of Japan. Archaeological research indicates that Japan was inhabited as early as the Upper Paleolithic period, the first written mention of Japan is in Chinese history texts from the 1st century AD. Influence from other regions, mainly China, followed by periods of isolation, from the 12th century until 1868, Japan was ruled by successive feudal military shoguns who ruled in the name of the Emperor. Japan entered into a period of isolation in the early 17th century. The Second Sino-Japanese War of 1937 expanded into part of World War II in 1941, which came to an end in 1945 following the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Japan is a member of the UN, the OECD, the G7, the G8, the country has the worlds third-largest economy by nominal GDP and the worlds fourth-largest economy by purchasing power parity. It is also the worlds fourth-largest exporter and fourth-largest importer, although Japan has officially renounced its right to declare war, it maintains a modern military with the worlds eighth-largest military budget, used for self-defense and peacekeeping roles. Japan is a country with a very high standard of living. Its population enjoys the highest life expectancy and the third lowest infant mortality rate in the world, in ancient China, Japan was called Wo 倭. It was mentioned in the third century Chinese historical text Records of the Three Kingdoms in the section for the Wei kingdom, Wa became disliked because it has the connotation of the character 矮, meaning dwarf. The 倭 kanji has been replaced with the homophone Wa, meaning harmony, the Japanese word for Japan is 日本, which is pronounced Nippon or Nihon and literally means the origin of the sun. The earliest record of the name Nihon appears in the Chinese historical records of the Tang dynasty, at the start of the seventh century, a delegation from Japan introduced their country as Nihon
15.
Videotape
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Videotape is magnetic tape used for storing video and usually sound in addition. Information stored can be in the form of either a signal or digital signal. Videotape is used in video tape recorders or, more commonly, videocassette recorders and camcorders. Videotapes are also used for storing scientific or medical data, such as the produced by an electrocardiogram. Tape is a method of storing information and thus imposes delays to access a portion of the tape that is not already under the heads. The early 2000s saw the introduction and rise to prominence of high quality video recording media such as hard disks. Since then, videotape has been relegated to archival and similar uses. The electronics division of entertainer Bing Crosbys production company, Bing Crosby Enterprises, overall the picture quality was still considered inferior to the best kinescope recordings on film. Bing Crosby Enterprises hoped to have a version available in 1954. The BBC experimented from 1952 to 1958 with a high-speed linear videotape system called VERA and it used half-inch tape traveling at 200 inches per second. RCA demonstrated the magnetic recording of both black-and-white and color television programs at its Princeton laboratories on December 1,1953. The high-speed longitudinal tape system, called Simplex, in development since 1951, could record, the color system used half-inch tape to record five tracks, one each for red, blue, green, synchronization, and audio. The black-and-white system used quarter-inch tape with two tracks, one for video and one for audio, both systems ran at 360 inches per second. RCA-owned NBC first used it on The Jonathan Winters Show on October 23,1956 when a song sequence by Dorothy Collins in color was included in the otherwise live television program. BCE demonstrated a color system in February 1955 using a longitudinal recording on half-inch tape. CBS, RCAs competitor, was about to order BCE machines when Ampex introduced the superior Quadruplex system, BCE was acquired by 3M Company in 1956. Quad employed a transverse four-head system on a tape. On January 22,1957, the NBC Television game show Truth or Consequences, produced in Hollywood, Ampex introduced a color videotape recorder in 1958 in a cross-licensing agreement with RCA, whose engineers had developed it from an Ampex black-and-white recorder
16.
U-matic
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U-matic is an analogue recording videocassette format first shown by Sony in prototype in October 1969, and introduced to the market in September 1971. It was among the first video formats to contain the videotape inside a cassette, a locking mechanism integral to each cassette case secures the tape hubs during transportation to keep the tape wound tightly on the hubs. Once the cassette is taken off the case, the hubs are free to spin, accidental recording is prevented by the absence of a red plastic button fitted to a hole on the bottom surface of the tape, removal of the button disabled recording. As part of its development, in March 1970, Sony, victor Co. of Japan, and five non-Japanese companies reached agreement on unified standards. U-matic was named after the shape of the path when it was threaded around the helical scan video head drum. Betamax used a type of B-load as well. Recording time was limited to one hour, at the 1971 introduction of U-Matic, Sony originally intended it to be a videocassette format oriented at the consumer market. This proved to be something of a failure, because of the manufacturing cost. But the cost was affordable enough for industrial and institutional customers, as a result, Sony shifted U-Matics marketing to the industrial, professional, and educational sectors. This model ushered in the era of ENG, or Electronic News Gathering, film required developing which took time, compared to the instantly available playback of videotape, making faster breaking news possible. U-matic is also available in a smaller size, officially known as U-Matic S. To minimise weight and bulk in the field, portable recorders had an external AC power supply, the price point of the VO series was oriented toward educational, corporate and industrial fields, featured unbalanced audio connectors, and did not typically include SMPTE time code. The VO-3800 was largely metal, which made the unit heavy, the VO-4800 had the same functionality as the VO-3800, but at a greatly reduced weight and size, by replacing many components with plastic. The VO-6800 added the improvement of a long, thin battery standard that permitted storage of the batteries in a trouser pocket, common model numbers for these batteries were NP-1, NP-1A and NP-1B. The VO-8800 was the last of the portable VO series to be produced by Sony, the Sony BVU series added longitudinal and vertical interval SMPTE time code, balanced audio XLR connectors, and heavier-duty transport features. The BVU-50 enabled recording in the field but not playback, portable recorders were connected to the camera with a multi-conductor cable terminated with multi-pin connectors on each end. The cable carried bi-directional audio, video, synchronisation, record on/off control, early studio and all portable U-Matic VCRs had a drawer-type mechanism which required the tape to be inserted, followed by manual closure of the drawer. Later studio VCRs accepted the cassette from an opening and the cassette was pulled into
17.
Videotape format war
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VHS ultimately emerged as the preeminent format. The first video recorder to become available was the U-matic system. U-matic was designed for commercial or professional television production use, and was not affordable or user-friendly for home videos or home movies, the first consumer-grade VCR to be released was the Philips N1500 VCR format in 1972, followed in 1975 by Sonys Betamax. This was quickly followed by the competing VHS format from JVC, subsequently, the Betamax–VHS format war began in earnest. Other competitors, such as the Avco Cartrivision, Sanyos V-Cord, Sony had demonstrated a prototype videotape recording system it called Beta to the other electronics manufacturers in 1974, and expected that they would back a single format for the good of all. But JVC in particular decided to go with its own format, despite Sonys appeal to the Japanese Ministry of Trade and Industry, manufacturers also introduced other systems such as needle-based, record-style discs and Philips LaserDisc. None of these disc formats gained much ground as none was capable of recording, however. Contrary to popular misconception, pornographic movies market wasnt a key factor in the format war. Sony had met with Matsushita executives in late 1974 or early 1975 to discuss the forthcoming home video market, both had previously cooperated in the development and marketing of the U-Matic video cassette format. Sony brought along a Betamax prototype for Matsushitas engineers to evaluate, Sony at the time was unaware of JVCs work. While VHS machines lower retail price was a factor, the principal battleground proved to be recording time. JVCs VHS could manage 120 minutes, followed by RCAs entrance into the market with a 240-minute recorder and these challenges sparked a mini-war to see who could achieve the longest recording time. RCA had discussions with Sony, but RCA felt the time was too short. Sony engineers knew that the technology available to manufacture video heads wasnt up to the task yet, however, the picture quality would be degraded severely, and at that time Sony engineers felt the compromise was not worthwhile. Soon after, RCA met with execs at the Victor Corporation of Japan, but JVC also refused to compromise the picture quality of their format by allowing a four-hour mode. JVCs parent corporation, Matsushita, later met with RCA, RCA would go on to market four hours, $999, forcing a price war and also a tape length war. Betamax eventually achieved 5 hours at Beta-III speed on an ultra-thin L-830 cassette, slower tape speeds meant a degradation in picture quality, as adjacent video bands created crosstalk and noise in the decoded picture. When Betamax was introduced in Japan and the United States in 1975, however the introduction of Beta II speed,0.79 ips, to compete with VHS two-hour Standard Play mode reduced Betamaxs horizontal resolution to 240 lines
18.
VHS
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The Video Home System is a standard for consumer-level analog video recording on tape cassettes. Developed by Victor Company of Japan in the early 1970s, it was released in Japan in late 1976, from the 1950s, magnetic tape video recording became a major contributor to the television industry, via the first commercialized video tape recorders. At that time, the devices were used only in professional environments such as television studios. In the 1970s, videotape entered home use, creating the video industry and changing the economics of the television. The television industry viewed videocassette recorders as having the power to disrupt their business, in the 1980s and 1990s, at the peak of VHSs popularity, there were videotape format wars in the home video industry. Two of the formats, VHS and Betamax, received the most media exposure, VHS eventually won the war, dominating 60 percent of the North American market by 1980 and emerging as the dominant home video format throughout the tape media period. Optical disc formats later began to better quality than analog consumer video tape such as standard. The earliest of these formats, LaserDisc, was not widely adopted, however, after the introduction of the DVD format in 1997, VHSs market share began to decline. By 2008, DVD had replaced VHS as the preferred method of distribution. After several attempts by other companies, the first commercially successful VTR, at a price of US$50,000 in 1956, and US$300 for a 90-minute reel of tape, it was intended only for the professional market. Kenjiro Takayanagi, a broadcasting pioneer then working for JVC as its vice president, saw the need for his company to produce VTRs for the Japan market. In 1959, JVC developed a video tape recorder. In 1964, JVC released the DV220, which would be the companys standard VTR until the mid-1970s, in 1969 JVC collaborated with Sony Corporation and Matsushita Electric in building a video recording standard for the Japanese consumer. The effort produced the U-matic format in 1971, which was the first format to become a unified standard, U-matic was successful in business and some broadcast applications, but due to cost and limited recording time very few of the machines were sold for home use. Soon after, Sony and Matsushita broke away from the collaboration effort, Sony started working on Betamax, while Matsushita started working on VX. JVC released the CR-6060 in 1975, based on the U-matic format, Sony and Matsushita also produced U-matic systems of their own. In 1971, JVC engineers Yuma Shiraishi and Shizuo Takano put together a team to develop a consumer-based VTR, by the end of 1971 they created an internal diagram titled VHS Development Matrix, which established twelve objectives for JVCs new VTR. These included, The system must be compatible with any television set
19.
Beta (letter)
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Beta is the second letter of the Greek alphabet. In the system of Greek numerals it has a value of 2, in Ancient Greek, beta represented the voiced bilabial plosive /b/. In Modern Greek, it represents the voiced labiodental fricative /v/, letters that arose from beta include the Roman letter ⟨B⟩ and the Cyrillic letters ⟨Б⟩ and ⟨В⟩. Like the names of most other Greek letters, the name of beta was adopted from the name of the corresponding letter in Phoenician. In Greek, the name was βῆτα bêta, pronounced in Ancient Greek and it is spelled βήτα in modern monotonic orthography, and pronounced. In US English, the name is pronounced /ˈbeɪtə/, while in British English it is pronounced /ˈbiːtə/, the letter beta was derived from the Phoenician letter beth. The letter Β had the largest number of highly divergent local forms, besides the standard form, there were forms as varied as, and. In the system of Greek numerals, beta has a value of 2, such use is denoted by a number mark, Β′. In computing, the term beta is used as the last testing release in the release life cycle before the release version. Beta versions often have a number of the form 0. n. Typically it is the last version before a version of a software is released to all its actual customers. Beta is used in finance as a measure of investment portfolio risk, Beta in this context is calculated as the covariance of the portfolios returns with its benchmarks returns, divided by the variance of the benchmarks returns. A beta of 1.5 means that for every 1% change in the value of the benchmark, in the International Phonetic Alphabet, Greek minuscule beta denotes a voiced bilabial fricative. The name Beta was used as a name during the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season as Hurricane Beta, Beta is often used to denote a variable in mathematics and physics, where it often has specific meanings for certain applications. In physics a stream of unbound energetic electrons is referred to as beta radiation or beta rays. β is sometimes used as a placeholder for a number if α is already used. In spaceflight, beta angle describes the angle between the plane of a spacecraft or other body and the vector from the sun. The term beta refers to advice on how to complete a particular climbing route, boulder problem
20.
Sanyo
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Sanyo Electric Co. Ltd. is a Japanese major electronics company and formerly a member of the Fortune Global 500 whose headquarters was located in Moriguchi, Osaka prefecture, Japan. Sanyo had over 230 subsidiaries and affiliates, Sanyo was founded by Toshio Iue. On December 21,2009, Panasonic completed a 400 billion yen acquisition of a 50. 2% stake in Sanyo, in 2011, Sanyo became a wholly owned subsidiary of Panasonic Corporation. Sanyo utilizes an extensive socialization process for new employees, so that they will be acclimatized to Sanyos corporate culture, new employees take a five-month course during which they eat together and share company-provided sleeping accommodation. They learn everything from basic job requirements to company expectations for personal grooming, Sanyo was incorporated in 1949, in 1952 it made Japans first plastic radio and in 1954 Japans first pulsator-type washing machine. The companys name means three oceans in Japanese, referring to the ambition to sell their products worldwide, across the Atlantic, Pacific. Sanyo expanded their North American presence with the purchase of Whirlpool Corporations television business, Warwick Electronics, in 1982, Sanyo started selling the MBC-1000 series of CP/M computers. More recently, though, Sanyo decided against supporting Sonys format, the Blu-ray Disc and this was ultimately unsuccessful, however, as Sonys Blu-ray triumphed. In North America, Sanyo manufactured CDMA cellular phones exclusively for Sprints Sprint PCS brand in the United States, the 2004 Chūetsu earthquake severely damaged Sanyos semiconductor plant and as a result Sanyo recorded a huge financial loss for that year. The 2005 fiscal year financial results saw a 205 billion yen net income loss, Sanyo posted signs of recovery after the announcement of positive operating income of 2.6 billion yen. Sanyo remains the number one producer of rechargeable batteries. The Eneloop line competes against similar products such as Rayovacs Hybrid Rechargeable line, on 24 November 2006, Sanyo announced heavy losses and job cuts. Tomoyo Nonaka, a former NHK anchorwoman who was appointed Chairman of the company, the President, Toshimasa Iue, also stepped down in April of that year, Seiichiro Sano was appointed to head the company effective April 2007. On April 1,2008, they sold their cell phone division to Kyocera and they became a subsidiary of Panasonic on December 21,2009. In 2010, Sanyo sold its operations to ON Semiconductor. On July 29,2010, Panasonic reached an agreement to acquire the shares of Panasonic Electric Works. By March 2012, parent company Panasonic plans to terminate the Sanyo brand, the Sanyo HIT solar cell is composed of a mono thin crystalline silicon wafer surrounded by ultra-thin amorphous silicon layers. Sanyo Energy opened its solar module assembly plants in Hungary and in Mexico in 2004, in 2007, Sanyo completed a new unit at its solar module plant in Hungary that was to triple its annual capacity to 720,000 units in 2008
21.
Toshiba
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Toshiba Corporation, commonly known as Toshiba and stylized as TOSHIBA, is a Japanese multinational conglomerate headquartered in Tokyo, Japan. Toshiba was founded in 1938 as Tokyo Shibaura Electric K. K. through the merger of Shibaura Seisaku-sho, the company name was officially changed to Toshiba Corporation in 1978. Toshiba is organized into four groupings, the Digital Products Group, the Electronic Devices Group, the Home Appliances Group and the Social Infrastructure Group. It is listed on the Tokyo Stock Exchange, where it is a constituent of the Nikkei 225 and TOPIX indices, the Osaka Securities Exchange, Toshiba is the seventh largest semiconductor manufacturer in the world. Toshiba was founded in 1939 by the merger of Shibaura Seisakusho, Shibaura Seisakusho had been founded as Tanaka Seisakusho by Tanaka Hisashige in July 1875 as Japans first manufacturer of telegraph equipment. In 1904, it was renamed Shibaura Seisakusho, Tokyo Denki was founded as Hakunetsusha in 1890 and had been Japans first producer of incandescent electric lamps. It later diversified into the manufacture of consumer products and in 1899 had been renamed Tokyo Denki. The merger of Shibaura and Tokyo Denki created a new company called Tokyo Shibaura Denki and it was soon nicknamed Toshiba, but it was not until 1978 that the company was officially renamed Toshiba Corporation. The group expanded rapidly, driven by a combination of growth and by acquisitions, buying heavy engineering. In 1977, Toshiba acquired the Brazilian company Semp, subsequently forming Semp Toshiba through the combination of the two companies South American operations, the Toshiba-Kongsberg scandal involved a subsidiary of Toshiba and the Norwegian company Kongsberg Vaapenfabrikk. Senator John Heinz of Pennsylvania said What Toshiba and Kongsberg did was ransom the security of the United States for $517 million, the contract ended in 2008, ending seven years of OEM production with Orion. In December 2004, Toshiba quietly announced it would discontinue manufacturing traditional in-house cathode ray tube televisions, in 2006, Toshiba terminated production of in-house plasma TVs. To ensure its competitiveness in the flat-panel digital television and display market. Before World War II, Toshiba was a member of the Mitsui Group zaibatsu, today Toshiba is a member of the Mitsui keiretsu, and still has preferential arrangements with Mitsui Bank and the other members of the keiretsu. Membership in a keiretsu has traditionally meant loyalty, both corporate and private, to members of the keiretsu or allied keiretsu. This loyalty can extend as far as the beer the employees consume, in July 2005, BNFL confirmed it planned to sell Westinghouse Electric Company, then estimated to be worth $1.8 billion. In late 2007, Toshiba took over from Discover Card as the sponsor of the top-most screen of One Times Square in New York City and it displays the iconic 60-second New Years countdown on its screen, as well as messages, greetings, and advertisements for the company. In January 2009, Toshiba acquired the HDD business of Fujitsu, Toshiba announced on 16 May 2011, that it had agreed to acquire all of the shares of the Swiss-based advanced-power-meter maker Landis+Gyr for $2.3 billion
22.
Pioneer Corporation
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Pioneer Corporation commonly referred to as Pioneer, is a Japanese multinational corporation that specializes in digital entertainment products, based in Tokyo, Japan. The company was founded by Nozomu Matsumoto in 1938 in Tokyo as a radio and speaker repair shop, the company works with optical disc and display technology and software products and is also a manufacturer. In March 2010, Pioneer stopped producing televisions, announced on 12 February 2009, on June 25,2009, Sharp Corporation agreed to form a joint venture on their optical business to be called Pioneer Digital Design and Manufacturing Corporation. 1937, Pioneer’s founder, Nozomu Matsumoto develops the A-8 dynamic speaker, January 1938, Fukuin Shokai Denki Seisakusho is founded in Tokyo. May 1947, Fukuin Denki is incorporated, december 1953, Hi-Fi Speaker PE-8 introduced. June 1961, Company name changed to Pioneer Electronic Corporation, October 1961, Shares are listed on the Tokyo Stock Exchange Second Section. June 1962, Introduces the world’s first separate stereo system, March 1966, Establishes sales companies in Europe and the U. S. February 1968, Shares are listed on the Tokyo Stock Exchange First Section. April 1968, Shares are listed on the Osaka Securities Exchange, February 1969, Shares are listed on the Amsterdam Stock Exchange. U. S. GAAP consolidated financial reporting starts November 1975, december 1976, Shares are listed on the New York Stock Exchange. December 1977, Introduces the world’s first two-way addressable CATV system in the U. S.1978, Introduces SX-1980 receiver, February 1979, Introduces the industry-use Laserdisc player. June 1980, Introduces VP-1000 LD player for use in the U. S. October 1981. October 1982, Introduces the LD Karaoke system for business use, september 1984, Introduces the world’s first LD combination player compatible with CDs and LDs. October 1984, Releases the world’s first car CD player, december 1985, Introduces the 40-inch projection monitor. June 1990, Introduces the world’s first CD-based GPS automotive navigation system, June 1992, Pioneer Corporation established its regional subsidiary in Southeast Asia, Pioneer Electronics AsiaCentre Pte. Ltd. October 1992, Introduces the world’s first 4x CD-ROM changer, June 1996, Tokorozawa Plant earns ISO14001 certification. Pioneer inaugurates and launches Pioneer Karaoke Channel, an Astro satellite television channel for music video, december 1996, Introduces DVD/CD player and the world’s first DVD/LD/CD compatible player for home use. May 1997, Starts supplying digital satellite broadcast set-top boxes in Europe, June 1997, Introduces the world’s first DVD-based GPS automotive navigation system. October 1997, Introduces the world’s first DVD-R drive, November 1997, Introduces the world’s first OEL-equipped car audio product
23.
Murphy Radio
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Murphy Radio was a British manufacturer of radios and televisions based in Welwyn Garden City, England. Murphy Radio was founded in 1929 by Frank Murphy and E. J, power as a volume manufacturer of home radio sets. Its factories were based in the Hertfordshire town of Welwyn Garden City, England, after the war, Murphy used its military experience to design and build sets for Naval use, principally the B40 series for the British Commonwealth Navies. The company also produced the Larkspur era A41 VHF manpack transceiver for the British Army during the 1950s, Murphy himself left the company during 1937 and went on to found another company called, perhaps unwisely, FM Radio. He died aged 65, in 1955, although the company became well known for the manufacture of television sets, it was eventually amalgamated with Bush Radio in 1962. The name, Murphy has survived, but as a licensee for Far Eastern electronics, in 2012, It gained wide attention in India due to the movie Barfi. A vintage Murphy radio also appears in the opening of film Life of Pi. Murphy Radio - Fine Sets These Murphys
24.
Aiwa
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Aiwa, registered as Aiwa Corp. is a consumer electronics company owned by Chicago-based Joe Born since 2015. Aiwa was originally a Japanese company founded in 1951, and was once a globally well-regarded brand known for making quality audio products, such as speakers, boomboxes and it was the market leader in several product categories. Aiwa created the first Japanese cassette tape recorder in 1964, the company was listed on the Tokyo Stock Exchange from October 1961 until September 2002. The company went into the red in the late 1990s, and was bought by Sony in 2002. Aiwa was then rebranded as a new youth-focused division of Sony, but it was unsuccessful and the brand was discontinued by 2006. The company was founded on June 20,1951 as AIKO Denki Sangyo Co. Ltd. manufacturing microphones, mitsuo Ikejiri served as president until 1969. Nearly 86 percent of revenues were derived from such audio products. 12 percent came from such as televisions and VCRs. Aiwa marketed Japans first boombox, TPR-101, in 1968, as well as the first cassette deck, in 1980 Aiwa created the worlds first personal stereo recorder, TP-S30. Despite Sony being the major shareholder, healthy competition between the two brands was believed to be profitable, in 1990 Aiwa created the HP-J7 earbuds, designed to be vertically inserted into the ear. In 1993 the first CD+G-compatible portable CD player was made, XP-80G, apart from audio products, Aiwa also has been present in other industries. The company also made and sold products, such as VCRs, color televisions, DVD players. In 1995 they released a PHS mobile phone, PT-H50, for the DDI Pocket network in Japan and that same year an electric toothbrush, HA-C10, was released. Aiwa manufactured more than 89 percent of its output outside Japan, with a emphasis on the lower-cost southeast Asian nations of Singapore, Malaysia. Although not then officially a company of consumer electronics giant Sony Corporation, by 1982 Sony had a 54. 6% stake in the company. With growing competition throughout the late 1990s, the company slid towards bankruptcy, in March 2001 the company president Masayoshi Morimoto announced the halving of its workforce, following a second consecutive loss-making year. The troubled company was fully purchased by Sony Corporation. As of December 1,2002, Aiwa ceased to be a separate company, in January 2003, Sony announced the rebranding and relaunch of Aiwa as a youth focused, PC-centric electronics brand
25.
NEC Corporation
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NEC Corporation is a Japanese multinational provider of information technology services and products, headquartered in Minato, Tokyo, Japan. NEC provides IT and network solutions to enterprises, communications services providers and to government agencies. The company was known as the Nippon Electric Company, Limited and its NEC Semiconductors business unit was one of the worldwide top 20 semiconductor sales leaders before merging with Renesas Electronics. NEC is a member of the Sumitomo Group, kunihiko Iwadare and Takeshiro Maeda established Nippon Electric Limited Partnership on August 31,1898 by using facilities that they had bought from Miyoshi Electrical Manufacturing Company. Iwadare acted as the partner, Maeda handled company sales. Western Electric, which had an interest in the Japanese phone market, was represented by Walter Tenney Carleton, Carleton was also responsible for the renovation of the Miyoshi facilities. It was agreed that the partnership would be reorganized as a company when treaty would allow it. On July 17,1899, the treaty between Japan and the United States went into effect. Nippon Electric Company, Limited was organized the day with Western Electric Company to become the first Japanese joint-venture with foreign capital. Ernest Clement and Carleton were named as directors, Maeda and Mototeru Fujii were assigned to be auditors. Iwadare, Maeda and Carleton handled the overall management, the company started with the production, sales and maintenance of telephones and switches. NEC modernized the facilities with the construction of the Mita Plant in 1901 at Mita Shikokumachi. It was completed in December 1902, the Japanese Ministry of Communications adopted a new technology in 1903, the common battery switchboard supplied by NEC. The common battery switchboards powered the subscriber phone, eliminating the need for a permanent magnet generator in each subscribers phone, the switchboards were initially imported, but were manufactured locally by 1909. NEC started exporting telephone sets to China in 1904, in 1905, Iwadare visited Western Electric in the U. S. to see their management and production control. On his return to Japan he discontinued the system of sub-contracting and replaced it with a new system where managers. Inefficiency was also removed from the production process, the company paid higher salaries with incentives for efficiency. New accounting and cost controls were put in place, and time clocks installed, between 1899 and 1907 the number of telephone subscribers in Japan rose from 35,000 to 95,000
26.
Zenith Electronics Corporation
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Zenith Electronics LLC is an American brand of consumer electronics owned by South Korean company LG Electronics. It was previously an American company, a manufacturer of radio and television receivers and other consumer electronics, after a series of layoffs, the consolidated headquarters moved to Lincolnshire, Illinois. For many years, their famous slogan was The quality goes in before the name goes on, LG Electronics acquired a controlling share of Zenith in 1995, Zenith became a wholly owned subsidiary in 1999. Zenith was the inventor of television and the modern remote control. Zenith-branded products are sold in North America, Germany, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, India, the company was co-founded by Ralph Matthews and Karl Hassel in Chicago, Illinois as Chicago Radio Labs in 1918 as a small producer of amateur radio equipment. The name Zenith came from ZNth, a contraction of its founders ham radio call sign and they were joined in 1921 by Eugene F. McDonald, and Zenith Radio Company was formally incorporated in 1923. Zenith introduced the first portable radio in 1924, the first mass-produced AC radio in 1926 and it added automobile radios in the 1930s with its Model 460, promoting the fact that it needed no separate generator or battery, selling at US$59.95. The first Zenith television set appeared in 1939, with its first commercial sets sold to the public in 1948, the company is credited with having invented such things as the wireless remote control and FM multiplex stereo. In fact, Zenith established one of the very first FM stations in the country in 1940, the station was sold in the early 1970s and is now WUSN. They were also one of the first American manufacturers to market a home VCR, the 1962 Illinois Manufacturers Directory lists Zenith Radio Corporation as having a total of 11,000 employees of which at least 6,460 were employed in seven Chicago plants. The corporate office was in plant number 1 located at 6001 West Dickens Avenue where 2,500 workers made radio and television sets and Hi-Fi stereophonic phonographs. Plant number 2 was located at 1500 North Kostner Ave. where 2,100 employees made government electronics, radio and television components, transistors, plant number 3 was located at 5801 West Dickens Ave. where 300 employees made electronics and servicing. Plant number 4 was located at 3501 West Potomac Ave. where 60 employees performed warehousing, plant number 5 located at 6501 West Grand Ave. employed 500-600 workers who made government hi-fi equipment. A subsidiary of Zenith, the Rauland Corporation located at 4245 North Knox Ave. employed 850 workers who made television picture tubes. The other Zenith subsidiary in Chicago was Central Electronics, Incorporated located at 1247 West Belmont Ave. where 100 employees made amateur radio equipment and performed auditory training. In December,1970, National Union Electric sued most of the Japanese television manufacturers for violation of the Anti-Dumping Act, during the pendency of that suit, Zenith Radio Corporation encountered increasing financial difficulty as their marketing share progressively went to Japanese companies. Zenith joined two United States companies Sears, Roebuck and Co. and Motorola, Inc. as co-plaintiffs, the NUE suit was transferred to the Eastern District of Pennsylvania and the two suits were consolidated for pretrial proceedings and trial. The suit, styled In re Japanese Electric Products Antitrust Litigation, by the end of 1983, Zenith had spent millions of dollars in connection with the litigation
27.
Sears
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Sears, Roebuck & Company, also known simply as Sears, is an American chain of department stores founded by Richard Warren Sears and Alvah Curtis Roebuck in 1886. Formerly based at the Sears Tower in Chicago and currently headquartered in Hoffman Estates, Illinois, it began as a mail ordering catalog company and began opening retail locations in 1925. The company was bought by the American big box chain Kmart in 2005, in terms of domestic revenue, Sears was the largest retailer in the United States until October 1989, when Walmart surpassed the record. It is currently the fifth-largest American department store company by sales as of October 2013, Sears operates divisions in Canada and Mexico, as well as several other subsidiaries within its brand. Richard Warren Sears was a station agent in North Redwood, Minnesota. Sears purchased them, then sold the watches for a profit to other station agents. Soon he started a business selling watches through mail order catalogs, the next year, he moved to Chicago, Illinois, where he met Alvah C. Roebuck, who joined him in the business, farmers did business in small rural towns. Before the Sears catalog, farmers typically bought supplies from local general stores with narrow selections of goods, prices were negotiated, and depended on the storekeepers estimate of a customers creditworthiness. Sears took advantage of this by publishing catalogs offering customers a selection of products at clearly stated prices. The first Sears catalog was published in 1888, in 1893, Richard Sears and Alvah Roebuck renamed their watch company Sears, Roebuck & Company and began to diversify. By 1894, the Sears catalog had grown to 322 pages, featuring sewing machines, bicycles, sporting goods, automobiles, by 1895, the company was producing a 532-page catalog. Sales were greater than $400,000 in 1893 and more than $750,000 two years later, by 1896, dolls, stoves and groceries had been added to the catalog. The company had sales of $800,000 in 1895, but the national Panic of 1893—a full scale depression—caused a cash squeeze and large quantities of unsold merchandise. Sears offered Roebucks half of the company to Chicago businessman Aaron Nusbaum, in August 1895, they bought Roebucks half of the company for $75,000. The new Sears, Roebuck and Company was re-incorporated in Illinois with a stock of $150,000 in August 1895. The transaction was handled by Albert Henry Loeb of the Chicago Law Firm of Loeb & Adler, copies of the transaction documents are now displayed on the walls of the Law Firm. Sears and Rosenwald got along well with other, but not with Nusbaum
28.
Quelle (company)
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Arcandor AG is a holding company located in Essen, Germany, that oversaw a number of companies operating in the businesses of mail order and internet shopping, department stores and tourism services. It was formed in 1999 by the merger of Karstadt Warenhaus AG, founded in 1920, with Quelle AG, in 2005, the corporation had about 68,000 employees and annual sales of €15.5 billion. Its stocks were traded on the Mid Cap DAX until September 2009, the companys largest store was Kaufhaus des Westens in Berlin, and the largest store operated by Karstadt was in Frankfurt. Arcandor requested financial assistance from the German government, which was rejected by the European Commission on 3 June 2009, on 6 June 2009, the company announced it was no longer able to pay rent for its department stores, which the company had previously sold and leasebacked. Three days later, the company filed for bankruptcy, on 14 May 1881, Rudolph Karstadt founded his first store Tuch-, Manufaktur- und Konfektionsgeschäft Karstadt in Wismar. In 1884, a store was opened in Lübeck. Soon,24 stores had opened in all of Northern Germany. In 1920, the business was turned into a joint stock company, in 1984, Karstadt acquired the mail-order business Neckermann Versand. In 1994, it acquired the department store chain Hertie, to which KaDeWe belonged, in 1999 it merged with Quelle AG to become KarstadtQuelle AG. On 1 July 2007 the company was renamed Arcandor AG, on 5 June 2009, investigations started into possible breach of trust offenses by Arcandors former CEO Thomas Middelhoff. In June 2009, Arcandor filed for protection after its request for loan guarantees of up to €650 million was rejected by the German government. The German government subsequently agreed on 30 June to provide a €71 million loan to Quelle, the companys holding in the Thomas Cook Group was sold by Arcandors creditor banks in September 2009. The administrators of Arcandor chose in October 2009 to liquidate the Quelle mail order business, in September 2010 the American investor Nicolas Berggruen bought the Karstadt business to save it from insolvency. Most of this traffic was shoppers at online stores branded with the companys brick-and-mortar store brands or its mail-order catalog brands
29.
RadioShack
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General Wireless Operations Inc. was an American chain of wireless and electronics stores, founded in 1921 and since 2015 owned by the Standard General affiliate General Wireless. It is partnered with Sprint, and most stores are co-branded as Sprint at RadioShack though also selling RadioShack brand items, at its peak in 1999 it operated stores in the United States, Mexico, United Kingdom, Australia, and Canada. On February 5,2015, the company filed for Chapter 11 protection under United States bankruptcy law after 11 consecutive quarterly losses, by then it was operating only in the United States and Mexico. The company was started as Radio Shack in 1921 by two brothers, Theodore and Milton Deutschmann, who wanted to provide equipment for the then-nascent field of amateur, the brothers opened a one-store retail and mail-order operation in the heart of downtown Boston at 46 Brattle Street. They chose the name Radio Shack, which was the term for a small, the Deutschmanns thought the name was appropriate for a store that would supply the needs of radio officers aboard ships, as well as hams. The term was already in use — and is to this day — by hams when referring to the location of their stations, the company issued its first catalog in 1939 as it entered the high fidelity music market. In 1954, Radio Shack began selling its own products under the brand name Realist. After expanding to nine stores plus an extensive business, the company fell on hard times in the 1960s. Radio Shack was essentially bankrupt, but Charles D, Tandy saw the potential of Radio Shack and retail consumer electronics and bought the company for $300,000. The Tandy Corporation, a leather goods corporation, was looking for other hobbyist-related businesses into which it could expand, Tandy closed Radio Shacks unprofitable mail-order business, ended credit purchases and eliminated many top management positions, keeping the salespeople, merchandisers and advertisers. Private-label brands from lower-cost manufacturers displaced name brands to raise Radio Shack profit margins, customer data from the former Radio Shack mail-order business determined where Tandy would locate new stores. As an incentive for them to long hours and remain profitable. In markets too small to support a company-owned Radio Shack store, Charles D. Tandy, who had guided the firm through a period of growth in the 1960s and 1970s, died of a heart attack at age 60 in November 1978. In 1992, Tandy attempted to launch big-box electronics retailer Incredible Universe and its six profitable stores were sold to Frys Electronics in 1996, the others were closed. Tandy closed the McDuff stores and abandoned Incredible Universe in 1996, Len Roberts, president of the Radio Shack division since 1993, estimated that the new repair business could generate $500 million per year by 1999. Americas technology store was abandoned for the youve got questions, weve got answers slogan in 1994, in early summer 1995, the company launched a new logo, Radio Shack was spelled in CamelCase as RadioShack. In 1996, RadioShack successfully petitioned the US Federal Communications Commission to allocate frequencies for the Family Radio Service, from the 1960s until the early 1990s, Radio Shack promoted a battery of the month club, a free wallet-sized cardboard card offered one free Enercell a month in-store. Like the free tube testing offered in-store in the early 1970s, the cards also served as generic business cards for the salespeople
30.
Sony Corp. v. Universal City Studios
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Sony Corp. of America v. Universal City Studios, Inc.464 U. S. The Court also ruled that the manufacturers of home video recording devices, such as Betamax or other VCRs, the case was a boon to the home video market as it created a legal safe haven for the technology. The broader legal consequence of the Courts decision was its establishment of a general test for determining whether a device with copying or recording capabilities ran afoul of copyright law. This test has created some interpretative challenges to courts in applying the case to more recent file sharing technologies available for use on home computers, in the 1970s, Sony developed the Betamax video tape recording format. The complaint additionally included an unfair competition claim under the Lanham Act, however, this ruling was reversed in part by the Ninth Circuit Court, which held Sony liable for contributory infringement. The court also held Betamax was not an article because its main purpose was copying. It went on to suggest damages, injunctive relief, and compulsory licenses in lieu of other relief, after hearing oral arguments in the case, the Supreme Court was conflicted as to the outcome. The papers of Justice Thurgood Marshall, released nearly a decade later, Justice Harry Blackmun was assigned to write a majority opinion to that effect, while Justice John Paul Stevens drafted a dissenting opinion. Justice White, noting Brennans position, suggested that Stevens shift the basis of his opinion away from arguments about whether home-use was, in fact, an infringement. White pointed out that the issue need not be resolved, because the suit was not against home-users, Justice OConnor, also initially inclined to affirm the Ninth Circuit, had concerns about the potential to shift the burden of proving harm away from the plaintiff. Stevens therefore adjusted his draft to accommodate the positions taken by Brennan, in so doing, he shifted the vote of the Court from a 6-3 majority for affirming the Ninth Circuit to a 5-4 majority for reversing the Ninth Circuit. Indeed, it need merely be capable of noninfringing uses. The question is whether the Betamax is capable of commercially significant noninfringing uses. One potential use of the Betamax plainly satisfies this standard, however it is understood, private, if there are millions of owners of VTRs who make copies of televised sports events, religious broadcasts, and educational programs. When one considers the nature of a televised copyrighted audiovisual work, and that time-shifting merely enables a viewer to see such a work which he had been invited to witness in its entirety free of charge, the fact. That the entire work is reproduced, does not have its ordinary effect of militating against a finding of fair use. Combined with the noncommercial, nonprofit nature of time-shifting, he concluded that it was indeed a fair use, childrens television personality Mr. Rogers testimony supporting the manufacturers of VCRs before the District Court was taken into consideration for the decision. The Court stated that his views were a piece of evidence that many producers are willing to allow private time-shifting to continue
31.
Supreme Court of the United States
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The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest federal court of the United States. In the legal system of the United States, the Supreme Court is the interpreter of federal constitutional law. The Court normally consists of the Chief Justice of the United States and eight justices who are nominated by the President. Once appointed, justices have life tenure unless they resign, retire, in modern discourse, the justices are often categorized as having conservative, moderate, or liberal philosophies of law and of judicial interpretation. Each justice has one vote, and while many cases are decided unanimously, the Court meets in the Supreme Court Building in Washington, D. C. The Supreme Court is sometimes referred to as SCOTUS, in analogy to other acronyms such as POTUS. The ratification of the United States Constitution established the Supreme Court in 1789 and its powers are detailed in Article Three of the Constitution. The Supreme Court is the court specifically established by the Constitution. The Court first convened on February 2,1790, by which five of its six initial positions had been filled. According to historian Fergus Bordewich, in its first session, he Supreme Court convened for the first time at the Royal Exchange Building on Broad Street and they had no cases to consider. After a week of inactivity, they adjourned until September, the sixth member was not confirmed until May 12,1790. Because the full Court had only six members, every decision that it made by a majority was made by two-thirds. However, Congress has always allowed less than the Courts full membership to make decisions, under Chief Justices Jay, Rutledge, and Ellsworth, the Court heard few cases, its first decision was West v. Barnes, a case involving a procedural issue. The Courts power and prestige grew substantially during the Marshall Court, the Marshall Court also ended the practice of each justice issuing his opinion seriatim, a remnant of British tradition, and instead issuing a single majority opinion. Also during Marshalls tenure, although beyond the Courts control, the impeachment, the Taney Court made several important rulings, such as Sheldon v. Nevertheless, it is primarily remembered for its ruling in Dred Scott v. Sandford, which helped precipitate the Civil War. In the Reconstruction era, the Chase, Waite, and Fuller Courts interpreted the new Civil War amendments to the Constitution, during World War II, the Court continued to favor government power, upholding the internment of Japanese citizens and the mandatory pledge of allegiance. Nevertheless, Gobitis was soon repudiated, and the Steel Seizure Case restricted the pro-government trend, the Warren Court dramatically expanded the force of Constitutional civil liberties. It held that segregation in public schools violates equal protection and that traditional legislative district boundaries violated the right to vote
32.
MGM v. Grokster
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MGM Studios, Inc. v. Grokster, Ltd.545 U. S. The plaintiffs were a consortium of 28 of the largest entertainment companies, MGM wants makers of file sharing technology held liable for their users copyright infringements. In Sony, the court held that technology could not be barred if it was capable of noninfringing uses. Grokster came before the Supreme Court having already won in two previous courts, the United States District Court for the Central District of California originally dismissed the case in 2003, citing the Betamax decision. Then a higher court, the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals, upheld the courts decision after acknowledging that peer-to-peer software has legitimate. Sharman Networks Kazaa file sharing program was originally amongst the defendants, interestingly, Napster filed a brief in support of the petitioner copyright holders. Billionaire Mark Cuban partially financed Groksters fight before the Supreme Court, during oral argument, the Supreme Court justices appeared divided between the need to protect new technologies and the need to provide remedies against copyright infringement. Justice Antonin Scalia expressed concern that inventors would be chilled from entering the market by the threat of immediate lawsuits, Justice David Souter questioned how the interpretation of the law the plaintiffs argued for would affect devices like copy machines or the iPod. But I also know if I can get music without buying it, much of the Court, however, expressed skepticism that Groksters continuing enterprise could be severable from the consequences of those prior acts. Concurring opinions were written by Justice Ginsburg, who was joined by Chief Justice Rehnquist and Justice Kennedy, on the one hand, Justice Ginsburg, joined by Kennedy and Rehnquist, claim that his case differs markedly from Sony as there was insufficient evidence of uses which were non-infringing. These justices concur in the judgment on the ground of Groksters alleged inducement of its customers to use the product illegally. Roughly speaking, the Ginsburg concurrence suggests that Grokster would be liable even absent evidence of inducement, the Breyer concurrence, on the other hand, suggests that Grokster would be protected by Sony without evidence of inducement. The Souter opinion does not address whether or not Sony protects Grokster, thus, neither the view that Grokster is protected nor the view that Grokster is unprotected by Sony commanded a plurality of the Court. Thus the Betamax ruling was reviewed only as necessary to detail the issues involved in this case. Instead, a new and—as several critics have contended—ambiguous test has been developed to determine whether the software in question is not protected by the Sony ruling, in Footnote 12, however, Justice Souter notes that. Such a holding would tread too close to the Sony safe harbor, on November 7,2005 Grokster announced that it would no longer offer its peer-to-peer file sharing service. The notice on their website said, The United States Supreme Court unanimously confirmed that using this service to trade copyrighted material is illegal, copying copyrighted motion picture and music files using unauthorized peer-to-peer services is illegal and is prosecuted by copyright owners. As part of a lawsuit permitted by the MGM Studios v. Grokster Supreme Court decision, Grokster was forced to pay $50 million to the music, as of December 1,2016, visiting the Grokster website displays this message, Your IP address is and has been logged
33.
Peer-to-peer
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Peer-to-peer computing or networking is a distributed application architecture that partitions tasks or workloads between peers. Peers are equally privileged, equipotent participants in the application and they are said to form a peer-to-peer network of nodes. Peers are both suppliers and consumers of resources, in contrast to the traditional client-server model in which the consumption, while P2P systems had previously been used in many application domains, the architecture was popularized by the file sharing system Napster, originally released in 1999. The concept has inspired new structures and philosophies in many areas of human interaction, in such social contexts, peer-to-peer as a meme refers to the egalitarian social networking that has emerged throughout society, enabled by Internet technologies in general. While P2P systems had previously used in many application domains. The peer-to-peer movement allowed millions of Internet users to directly, forming groups and collaborating to become user-created search engines, virtual supercomputers. The basic concept of peer-to-peer computing was envisioned in earlier systems and networking discussions, reaching back to principles stated in the first Request for Comments. The early Internet was more open than present day, where two machines connected to the Internet could send packets to each other without firewalls and other security measures and this contrasts to the broadcasting-like structure of the web as it has developed over the years. As a precursor to the Internet, ARPANET was a successful client-server network where every participating node could request, however, ARPANET was not self-organized, and it lacked the ability to provide any means for context or content-based routing beyond simple address-based routing. Therefore, a messaging system that is often likened as an early peer-to-peer architecture was established. USENET was developed in 1979 and is a system that enforces a decentralized model of control, the basic model is a client-server model from the user or client perspective that offers a self-organizing approach to newsgroup servers. However, news servers communicate with one another as peers to propagate Usenet news articles over the group of network servers. In May 1999, with more people on the Internet, Shawn Fanning introduced the music. A peer-to-peer network is designed around the notion of equal peer nodes simultaneously functioning as both clients and servers to the nodes on the network. This model of network arrangement differs from the model where communication is usually to. Data is still exchanged directly over the underlying TCP/IP network, but at the application layer peers are able to communicate each other directly. Overlays are used for indexing and peer discovery, and make the P2P system independent from the network topology. Based on how the nodes are linked to each other within the overlay network, unstructured peer-to-peer networks do not impose a particular structure on the overlay network by design, but rather are formed by nodes that randomly form connections to each other
34.
Betacam
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Betacam is a family of half-inch professional videocassette products developed by Sony in 1982. In colloquial use, Betacam singly is often used to refer to a Betacam camcorder, a Betacam tape, the cassettes are available in two sizes, S and L. The Betacam camcorder can only load S magnetic tapes, while television studio sized video tape recorders designed for video editing can play both S and L tapes, the cassette shell and case for each Betacam cassette is colored differently depending on the format, allowing for easy visual identification. There is also a key, that allows a video tape recorder to identify which format has been inserted. The smaller S cassettes use the form factor as Betamax. The format supplanted the three-quarter-inch U-Matic format, which Sony had introduced in 1971, in addition to improvements in video quality, the Betacam configuration of an integrated professional video camera/recorder led to its rapid adoption by electronic news gathering organizations. DigiBeta, the name for Digital Betacam, went on to become the single most successful professional broadcast digital recording video tape format in history. The original Betacam format was launched on August 7,1982, a blank Betamax-branded tape will work on a Betacam deck, and a Betacam-branded tape can be used to record in a Betamax deck. However, in later years Sony discouraged this practice, suggesting, in particular, the guide rollers tend to be noisy. Another common point between Betamax and Betacam is the placement of the linear audio tracks. Also, some Betacam and Betamax portables share the same batteries, Betacam was initially introduced as a camera line along with a video cassette player. The first cameras were the BVP-3, which utilized three saticon tubes, and the BVP1, which used a single tri-stripe Trinicon tube, both these cameras could be operated standalone, or with their docking companion VTR, the BVV-1, to form the BVW-1 integrated camcorder. The only transport controls on the deck were Eject and Rewind, the docked cameras VTR button started and paused the tape recorder. Later the Betacam SP docking decks had full transport controls but tapes could not be played back except in the viewfinder in black-and-white only. Sony then came out with the Play Adapter, a portable unit that connected via a multi-pin cable and had a composite video out jack for color playback. At first color playback required the studio source deck, the BVW-10 and it was primarily designed as a feeder deck for A/B roll edit systems, usually for editing to a one-inch Type C or three-quarter-inch U-matic cassette edit master tape. There was also the BVW-20 field playback deck, which was a unit with DC power and a handle. Unlike the BVW-10, it did not have a built in Time Base Corrector, or TBC, with the popular success of the Betacam system as a news acquisition format, the line was soon extended to include the BVW-15 studio player, and the BVW-40 Studio Edit Recorder
35.
Electronic News Gathering
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The term was commonly used in the television news industry in the 1980s and 1990s, but it has since been less frequently used as the technology has become ubiquitous. The vehicle on which the equipment is fitted is called DSNG. The term ENG was created as television news departments moved from film-based news-gathering to electronic field production technology in the 1970s, Editing was done by hand on what was known as color reversal film, usually Kodak Ektachrome, meaning there were no negatives. Color reversal film had replaced black-and-white film as television itself evolved from black-and-white to color broadcasting, filmo cameras were most commonly used for silent filming, while Auricon cameras were used for filming with synchronized sound. Since editing required cutting the film segments and then splicing them together. News stories were often transferred to bulky 2-inch videotape for distribution and playback, by the mid-1980s, film had all but disappeared from use in television journalism. Coupled with live microwave and/or satellite trucks, reporters were able to live what was happening, bringing the audience into news events as they happened. CNN launched in October 1980, as ENG technologies were emerging, the technology was still in its developmental stages, and had yet to be integrated with satellites and microwave relays, which caused some problems with the networks early transmissions. However, ENG proved to be a development for all television news as news content recorded using videocassette recorders was easier to edit. Over time, as editing technology has become simpler and more accessible, video production processes have largely passed from broadcast engineers to producers and writers, however, initially the ENG cameras and recorders were heavier and bulkier than their film equivalents. This restricted the ability of camera operators from escaping danger or hurrying toward a news event, Editing equipment was expensive and each scene had to be searched out on the master recording. Using technology such as multicast or RTP over UDP, these systems achieve similar performance to high end-microwave, since the video stream is already encoded for IP, the video can be used for traditional television broadcast or Internet distribution without modification. As mobile broadband has developed, broadcast devices using this technology have appeared and these devices are often more compact than previous technology and can aggregate multiple mobile data lines to deliver a high definition-quality content live. The trend is toward lighter-weight equipment that can deliver more resolution at higher speeds, there has been an evolution from Film to Standard-definition television, High-definition television and now 4K. This monitor fits on the back of a broadcast video camera, outside broadcasts are when the editing and transmission of the news story are done outside of the stations headquarters. Use of ENG has made possible the use of outside broadcasts. At some of stations, the reporters sometimes even anchor the news and introduce the packages they have shot. Short-form news stories are local news reporters deliver to their stations
36.
Coercivity
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An analogous property, electric coercivity, is the ability of a ferroelectric material to withstand an external electric field without becoming depolarized. Thus coercivity measures the resistance of a material to becoming demagnetized. Coercivity is usually measured in oersted or ampere/meter units and is denoted HC and it can be measured using a B-H analyzer or magnetometer. Ferromagnetic materials with high coercivity are called magnetically hard materials, and are used to permanent magnets. Materials with low coercivity are said to be magnetically soft, the latter are used in transformer and inductor cores, recording heads, microwave devices, and magnetic shielding. Typically the coercivity of a material is determined by measurement of the magnetic hysteresis loop, also called the magnetization curve. The apparatus used to acquire the data is typically a vibrating-sample or alternating-gradient magnetometer, the applied field where the data line crosses zero is the coercivity. If an antiferromagnet is present in the sample, the coercivities measured in increasing and decreasing fields may be unequal as a result of the exchange bias effect, the coercivity of a material depends on the time scale over which a magnetization curve is measured. The magnetization of a material measured at an applied reversed field which is smaller than the coercivity may, over a long time scale. Relaxation occurs when reversal of magnetization by domain wall motion is thermally activated and is dominated by magnetic viscosity, at the coercive field, the vector component of the magnetization of a ferromagnet measured along the applied field direction is zero. There are two modes of magnetization reversal, single-domain rotation and domain wall motion. When the magnetization of a material reverses by rotation, the component along the applied field is zero because the vector points in a direction orthogonal to the applied field. When the magnetization reverses by domain wall motion, the net magnetization is small in every vector direction because the moments of all the individual domains sum to zero, magnetization curves dominated by rotation and magnetocrystalline anisotropy are found in relatively perfect magnetic materials used in fundamental research. The role of walls in determining coercivity is complicated since defects may pin domain walls in addition to nucleating them. The dynamics of domain walls in ferromagnets is similar to that of grain boundaries, common dissipative processes in magnetic materials include magnetostriction and domain wall motion. The coercivity is a measure of the degree of magnetic hysteresis, the squareness and coercivity are figures of merit for hard magnets although energy product is most commonly quoted. The 1980s saw the development of rare-earth magnets with high energy products, since the 1990s new exchange spring hard magnets with high coercivities have been developed. com
37.
U-Matic
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U-matic is an analogue recording videocassette format first shown by Sony in prototype in October 1969, and introduced to the market in September 1971. It was among the first video formats to contain the videotape inside a cassette, a locking mechanism integral to each cassette case secures the tape hubs during transportation to keep the tape wound tightly on the hubs. Once the cassette is taken off the case, the hubs are free to spin, accidental recording is prevented by the absence of a red plastic button fitted to a hole on the bottom surface of the tape, removal of the button disabled recording. As part of its development, in March 1970, Sony, victor Co. of Japan, and five non-Japanese companies reached agreement on unified standards. U-matic was named after the shape of the path when it was threaded around the helical scan video head drum. Betamax used a type of B-load as well. Recording time was limited to one hour, at the 1971 introduction of U-Matic, Sony originally intended it to be a videocassette format oriented at the consumer market. This proved to be something of a failure, because of the manufacturing cost. But the cost was affordable enough for industrial and institutional customers, as a result, Sony shifted U-Matics marketing to the industrial, professional, and educational sectors. This model ushered in the era of ENG, or Electronic News Gathering, film required developing which took time, compared to the instantly available playback of videotape, making faster breaking news possible. U-matic is also available in a smaller size, officially known as U-Matic S. To minimise weight and bulk in the field, portable recorders had an external AC power supply, the price point of the VO series was oriented toward educational, corporate and industrial fields, featured unbalanced audio connectors, and did not typically include SMPTE time code. The VO-3800 was largely metal, which made the unit heavy, the VO-4800 had the same functionality as the VO-3800, but at a greatly reduced weight and size, by replacing many components with plastic. The VO-6800 added the improvement of a long, thin battery standard that permitted storage of the batteries in a trouser pocket, common model numbers for these batteries were NP-1, NP-1A and NP-1B. The VO-8800 was the last of the portable VO series to be produced by Sony, the Sony BVU series added longitudinal and vertical interval SMPTE time code, balanced audio XLR connectors, and heavier-duty transport features. The BVU-50 enabled recording in the field but not playback, portable recorders were connected to the camera with a multi-conductor cable terminated with multi-pin connectors on each end. The cable carried bi-directional audio, video, synchronisation, record on/off control, early studio and all portable U-Matic VCRs had a drawer-type mechanism which required the tape to be inserted, followed by manual closure of the drawer. Later studio VCRs accepted the cassette from an opening and the cassette was pulled into
38.
Pulse-code modulation
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Pulse-code modulation is a method used to digitally represent sampled analog signals. It is the form of digital audio in computers, compact discs, digital telephony. In a PCM stream, the amplitude of the signal is sampled regularly at uniform intervals. Linear pulse-code modulation is a type of PCM where the quantization levels are linearly uniform. This is in contrast to PCM encodings where quantization levels vary as a function of amplitude, though PCM is a more general term, it is often used to describe data encoded as LPCM. Early electrical communications started to sample signals in order to interlace samples from multiple telegraphy sources, the American inventor Moses G. Farmer conveyed telegraph time-division multiplexing as early as 1853. Electrical engineer W. M. Miner, in 1903, used an electro-mechanical commutator for time-division multiplexing multiple telegraph signals and he obtained intelligible speech from channels sampled at a rate above 3500–4300 Hz, lower rates proved unsatisfactory. This was TDM, but pulse-amplitude modulation rather than PCM, in 1920 the Bartlane cable picture transmission system, named after its inventors Harry G. Bartholomew and Maynard D. In 1926, Paul M. Rainey of Western Electric patented a machine which transmitted its signal using 5-bit PCM. The machine did not go into production, british engineer Alec Reeves, unaware of previous work, conceived the use of PCM for voice communication in 1937 while working for International Telephone and Telegraph in France. He described the theory and advantages, but no practical application resulted, Reeves filed for a French patent in 1938, and his US patent was granted in 1943. By this time Reeves had started working at the Telecommunications Research Establishment, the first transmission of speech by digital techniques, the SIGSALY encryption equipment, conveyed high-level Allied communications during World War II. In 1943 the Bell Labs researchers who designed the SIGSALY system became aware of the use of PCM binary coding as already proposed by Alec Reeves. In 1949 for the Canadian Navys DATAR system, Ferranti Canada built a working PCM radio system that was able to transmit digitized radar data over long distances, PCM in the late 1940s and early 1950s used a cathode-ray coding tube with a plate electrode having encoding perforations. The plate collected or passed the beam, producing current variations in binary code, rather than natural binary, the grid of Goodalls later tube was perforated to produce a glitch-free Gray code, and produced all bits simultaneously by using a fan beam instead of a scanning beam. Patent 2,801,281 filed in 1946 and 1952, another patent by the same title was filed by John R. Pierce in 1945, and issued in 1948, U. S. The three of them published The Philosophy of PCM in 1948, PCM is the method of encoding generally used for uncompressed audio, although there are other methods such as pulse-density modulation. The 4ESS switch introduced time-division switching into the US telephone system in 1976, LPCM is used for the lossless encoding of audio data in the Compact disc Red Book standard, introduced in 1982
39.
Digital audio
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Digital audio is technology that can be used to record, store, generate, manipulate, and reproduce sound using audio signals that have been encoded in digital form. A microphone converts sound to an electrical signal, then an analog-to-digital converter —typically using pulse-code modulation—converts the analog signal into a digital signal. This digital signal can then be recorded, edited and modified using digital audio tools, digital audio systems may include compression, storage, processing and transmission components. Conversion to a digital format allows convenient manipulation, storage, transmission, modern online music distribution depends on digital recording and data compression. The availability of music as data files, rather than as objects, has significantly reduced the costs of distribution. Before digital audio, the music industry distributed and sold music by selling copies in the form of records. With digital audio and online distribution systems such as iTunes, companies sell digital files to consumers. This digital audio/Internet distribution model is less expensive than producing physical copies of recordings, packaging them. An analog audio system captures sounds, and converts their physical waveforms into electrical representations of those waveforms by use of a transducer, the sounds are then stored, as on tape, or transmitted. The process is reversed for playback, the signal is amplified. Analog audio retains its fundamental wave-like characteristics throughout its storage, transformation, duplication, analog audio signals are susceptible to noise and distortion, due to the innate characteristics of electronic circuits and associated devices. Disturbances in a system do not result in error unless the disturbance is so large as to result in a symbol being misinterpreted as another symbol or disturb the sequence of symbols. A digital audio signal may be encoded for correction of any errors that occur in the storage or transmission of the signal. This technique, known as channel coding, is essential for broadcast or recorded digital systems to maintain bit accuracy, the discrete time and level of the binary signal allow a decoder to recreate the analog signal upon replay. Eight to Fourteen Bit Modulation is a code used in the audio Compact Disc. A digital audio system starts with an ADC that converts a signal to a digital signal. The ADC runs at a sampling rate and converts at a known bit resolution. CD audio, for example, has a rate of 44.1 kHz
40.
Moviola
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A Moviola is a device that allows a film editor to view a film while editing. It was the first machine for motion picture editing when it was invented by Iwan Serrurier in 1924, the Moviola company is still in existence and is located in Hollywood where part of the facility is located on one of the original Moviola factory floors. Iwan Serruriers original 1917 concept for the Moviola was as a movie projector to be sold to the general public. The name was derived from the name Victrola since Serrurier thought his invention would do for home movie viewing what the Victrola did for home music listening, however, since the machine cost $600 in 1920, very few sold. An editor at Douglas Fairbanks Studios suggested that Iwan should adapt the device for use by film editors, Serrurier did this and the Moviola as an editing device was born in 1924 with the first Moviola being sold to Douglas Fairbanks himself. Ninety four years later, a copy of the original receipt still resides at Moviola. Many studios quickly adopted the Moviola including Universal Studios, Warner Brothers, Charles Chaplin Studios, Buster Keaton Productions, Mary Pickford, Mack Sennett, and Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. The advent of sound, 65mm and 70mm film, and the need for portable editing equipment during World War II greatly expanded the market for Moviolas products, Iwan Serruriers son, Mark Serrurier, took over his fathers company in 1946. In 1966, Mark sold Moviola Co. to Magnasync Corporation of North Hollywood for $3 million, combining the names, the new name was Magnasync/Moviola Corp. President L. S. Wayman instantly ordered a tripling of production, Wayman retired in 1981, and Moviola Co. was sold to J&R Film Co. Inc. in 1984. The Moviola allowed editors to study individual shots in their cutting rooms, the vertically oriented Moviolas were the standard for film editing in the United States until the 1970s, when horizontal flatbed editor systems became more common. Nevertheless, a few very high-profile filmmakers continue to prefer the Moviola, one such editor is Michael Kahn, who received an Academy Award nomination for Best Film Editing in 2005 for his work on Steven Spielbergs Munich, which he edited with a Moviola. Kahn eventually convinced Spielberg to use Avid for all his current film work, beginning with The Adventures of Tintin in 2011, Mark Serrurier accepted an Academy Award of Merit for himself and his father for the Moviola in 1979. To MARK SERRURIER for the development of the Moviola from the 1924 invention of his father, Iwan Serrurier. There is a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for Mark Serrurier because of the Moviolas contribution to Motion Pictures, flatbed editor Steenbeck Moviola. com – What is the Moviola story. City-net. com INDUSTRY MOURNS ENTREPRENEUR MARK SERRURIER, by Denise Abbott Biography of Mark Serrurier who took over the company from his father Iwan in 1945
41.
Degree (angle)
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A degree, usually denoted by °, is a measurement of a plane angle, defined so that a full rotation is 360 degrees. It is not an SI unit, as the SI unit of measure is the radian. Because a full rotation equals 2π radians, one degree is equivalent to π/180 radians, the original motivation for choosing the degree as a unit of rotations and angles is unknown. One theory states that it is related to the fact that 360 is approximately the number of days in a year. Ancient astronomers noticed that the sun, which follows through the path over the course of the year. Some ancient calendars, such as the Persian calendar, used 360 days for a year, the use of a calendar with 360 days may be related to the use of sexagesimal numbers. The earliest trigonometry, used by the Babylonian astronomers and their Greek successors, was based on chords of a circle, a chord of length equal to the radius made a natural base quantity. One sixtieth of this, using their standard sexagesimal divisions, was a degree, Aristarchus of Samos and Hipparchus seem to have been among the first Greek scientists to exploit Babylonian astronomical knowledge and techniques systematically. Timocharis, Aristarchus, Aristillus, Archimedes, and Hipparchus were the first Greeks known to divide the circle in 360 degrees of 60 arc minutes, eratosthenes used a simpler sexagesimal system dividing a circle into 60 parts. Furthermore, it is divisible by every number from 1 to 10 except 7 and this property has many useful applications, such as dividing the world into 24 time zones, each of which is nominally 15° of longitude, to correlate with the established 24-hour day convention. Finally, it may be the case more than one of these factors has come into play. For many practical purposes, a degree is a small enough angle that whole degrees provide sufficient precision. When this is not the case, as in astronomy or for geographic coordinates, degree measurements may be written using decimal degrees, with the symbol behind the decimals. Alternatively, the sexagesimal unit subdivisions can be used. One degree is divided into 60 minutes, and one minute into 60 seconds, use of degrees-minutes-seconds is also called DMS notation. These subdivisions, also called the arcminute and arcsecond, are represented by a single and double prime. For example,40. 1875° = 40° 11′ 15″, or, using quotation mark characters, additional precision can be provided using decimals for the arcseconds component. The older system of thirds, fourths, etc. which continues the sexagesimal unit subdivision, was used by al-Kashi and other ancient astronomers, but is rarely used today
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BetaCam
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Betacam is a family of half-inch professional videocassette products developed by Sony in 1982. In colloquial use, Betacam singly is often used to refer to a Betacam camcorder, a Betacam tape, the cassettes are available in two sizes, S and L. The Betacam camcorder can only load S magnetic tapes, while television studio sized video tape recorders designed for video editing can play both S and L tapes, the cassette shell and case for each Betacam cassette is colored differently depending on the format, allowing for easy visual identification. There is also a key, that allows a video tape recorder to identify which format has been inserted. The smaller S cassettes use the form factor as Betamax. The format supplanted the three-quarter-inch U-Matic format, which Sony had introduced in 1971, in addition to improvements in video quality, the Betacam configuration of an integrated professional video camera/recorder led to its rapid adoption by electronic news gathering organizations. DigiBeta, the name for Digital Betacam, went on to become the single most successful professional broadcast digital recording video tape format in history. The original Betacam format was launched on August 7,1982, a blank Betamax-branded tape will work on a Betacam deck, and a Betacam-branded tape can be used to record in a Betamax deck. However, in later years Sony discouraged this practice, suggesting, in particular, the guide rollers tend to be noisy. Another common point between Betamax and Betacam is the placement of the linear audio tracks. Also, some Betacam and Betamax portables share the same batteries, Betacam was initially introduced as a camera line along with a video cassette player. The first cameras were the BVP-3, which utilized three saticon tubes, and the BVP1, which used a single tri-stripe Trinicon tube, both these cameras could be operated standalone, or with their docking companion VTR, the BVV-1, to form the BVW-1 integrated camcorder. The only transport controls on the deck were Eject and Rewind, the docked cameras VTR button started and paused the tape recorder. Later the Betacam SP docking decks had full transport controls but tapes could not be played back except in the viewfinder in black-and-white only. Sony then came out with the Play Adapter, a portable unit that connected via a multi-pin cable and had a composite video out jack for color playback. At first color playback required the studio source deck, the BVW-10 and it was primarily designed as a feeder deck for A/B roll edit systems, usually for editing to a one-inch Type C or three-quarter-inch U-matic cassette edit master tape. There was also the BVW-20 field playback deck, which was a unit with DC power and a handle. Unlike the BVW-10, it did not have a built in Time Base Corrector, or TBC, with the popular success of the Betacam system as a news acquisition format, the line was soon extended to include the BVW-15 studio player, and the BVW-40 Studio Edit Recorder
