1.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
2.
U.S. state
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A U. S. state is a constituent political entity of the United States of America. There are 50 states, which are together in a union with each other. Each state holds administrative jurisdiction over a geographic territory. Due to the shared sovereignty between each state and the government, Americans are citizens of both the federal republic and of the state in which they reside. State citizenship and residency are flexible, and no government approval is required to move between states, except for persons covered by certain types of court orders. States range in population from just under 600,000 to over 39 million, four states use the term commonwealth rather than state in their full official names. States are divided into counties or county-equivalents, which may be assigned some local authority but are not sovereign. County or county-equivalent structure varies widely by state, State governments are allocated power by the people through their individual constitutions. All are grounded in principles, and each provides for a government. States possess a number of powers and rights under the United States Constitution, Constitution has been amended, and the interpretation and application of its provisions have changed. The general tendency has been toward centralization and incorporation, with the government playing a much larger role than it once did. There is a debate over states rights, which concerns the extent and nature of the states powers and sovereignty in relation to the federal government. States and their residents are represented in the federal Congress, a legislature consisting of the Senate. Each state is represented in the Senate by two senators, and is guaranteed at least one Representative in the House, members of the House are elected from single-member districts. Representatives are distributed among the states in proportion to the most recent constitutionally mandated decennial census, the Constitution grants to Congress the authority to admit new states into the Union. Since the establishment of the United States in 1776, the number of states has expanded from the original 13 to 50, alaska and Hawaii are the most recent states admitted, both in 1959. The Constitution is silent on the question of states have the power to secede from the Union. Shortly after the Civil War, the U. S. Supreme Court, in Texas v. White, as a result, while the governments of the various states share many similar features, they often vary greatly with regard to form and substance
3.
Pennsylvania
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Pennsylvania /ˌpɛnsᵻlˈveɪnjə/, officially the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, is a state located in the northeastern and Mid-Atlantic regions of the United States. The Appalachian Mountains run through its middle, Pennsylvania is the 33rd largest, the 5th most populous, and the 9th most densely populated of the 50 United States. The states five most populous cities are Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Allentown, Erie, the state capital, and its ninth-largest city, is Harrisburg. Pennsylvania has 140 miles of shoreline along Lake Erie and the Delaware Estuary. The state is one of the 13 original founding states of the United States, it came into being in 1681 as a result of a land grant to William Penn. Part of Pennsylvania, together with the present State of Delaware, had earlier been organized as the Colony of New Sweden and it was the second state to ratify the United States Constitution, on December 12,1787. Independence Hall, where the United States Declaration of Independence and United States Constitution were drafted, is located in the states largest city of Philadelphia, during the American Civil War, the Battle of Gettysburg, was fought in the south central region of the state. Valley Forge near Philadelphia was General Washingtons headquarters during the winter of 1777–78. Pennsylvania is 170 miles north to south and 283 miles east to west, of a total 46,055 square miles,44,817 square miles are land,490 square miles are inland waters, and 749 square miles are waters in Lake Erie. It is the 33rd largest state in the United States, Pennsylvania has 51 miles of coastline along Lake Erie and 57 miles of shoreline along the Delaware Estuary. Cities include Philadelphia, Reading, Lebanon and Lancaster in the southeast, Pittsburgh in the southwest, the tri-cities of Allentown, Bethlehem, the northeast includes the former anthracite coal mining communities of Scranton, Wilkes-Barre, Pittston City, and Hazleton. Erie is located in the northwest, the state has 5 regions, namely the Allegheny Plateau, Ridge and Valley, Atlantic Coastal Plain, Piedmont, and the Erie Plain. Straddling two major zones, the majority of the state, with the exception of the corner, has a humid continental climate. The largest city, Philadelphia, has characteristics of the humid subtropical climate that covers much of Delaware. Moving toward the interior of the state, the winter climate becomes colder, the number of cloudy days increase. Western areas of the state, particularly locations near Lake Erie, can receive over 100 inches of snowfall annually, the state may be subject to severe weather from spring through summer into fall. Tornadoes occur annually in the state, sometimes in large numbers, the Tuscarora Nation took up temporary residence in the central portion of Pennsylvania ca. Both the Dutch and the English claimed both sides of the Delaware River as part of their lands in America
4.
Lehigh County, Pennsylvania
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Lehigh County is a county located in the Lehigh Valley region of the U. S. state of Pennsylvania. As of the 2010 census, the population was 349,497 and its county seat is Allentown, the states third largest city behind Philadelphia and Pittsburgh. The county, which was first settled around 1730, was formed in 1812 with the division of Northampton County into two counties and it is named after the Lehigh River, whose name is derived from the Delaware Indian term Lechauweki or Lechauwekink, meaning where there are forks. It is currently the fastest growing county in Pennsylvania and among the fastest growing nationwide, ranking in the 79th percentile overall for the 2010 to 2012 time period. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 348 square miles. The highest point in Lehigh County is Bake Oven Knob, a mass of Tuscarora conglomeratic rocks that rise about 100 feet above the ridge of the Blue Mountain in northwestern Heidelberg Township. Lehigh County is in the Delaware River watershed, berks County Bucks County Carbon County Montgomery County Northampton County Schuylkill County Most of the countys climate is considered to fall in the humid continental climate zone. Summers are typically hot and muggy, fall and spring are generally mild, precipitation is almost uniformly distributed throughout the year. For the city of Allentown, January lows average −6 °C, the lowest officially recorded temperature was −26.7 °C in 1912. July lows average 17.6 °C and highs average 29.2 °C, the highest temperature on record was 40.6 °C in 1966. Early fall and mid winter are generally driest, with October being the driest month with only 74.7 mm of average precipitation, snowfall is variable, with some winters bringing light snow and others bringing numerous significant snowstorms. Average snowfall is 82.3 centimetres per year, with the months of January and February receiving the highest at just over 22.86 centimetres each. Rainfall is generally spread throughout the year, with eight to twelve wet days per month,18. 8% of the population were of Hispanic or Latino ancestry. As of the census of 2000, there were 312,090 people,121,906 households, the population density was 900 people per square mile. There were 128,910 housing units at a density of 372 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 87. 02% White,3. 56% Black or African American,0. 18% Native American,2. 10% Asian,0. 04% Pacific Islander,5. 28% from other races, and 1. 83% from two or more races. 10. 22% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race,27. 1% were of German,7. 9% Italian,7. 7% Irish,6. 2% Pennsylvania German and 5. 6% American ancestry according to Census 2000. 85. 0% spoke English,8. 4% Spanish and 1. 2% Arabic as their first language,27. 10% of all households were made up of individuals and 11. 20% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older
5.
Northampton County, Pennsylvania
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Northampton County is a county located in the U. S. state of Pennsylvania. As of the 2010 census, the population was 297,735, the county was formed in 1752 from parts of Bucks County. Its namesake was Northamptonshire and the county seat of Easton is named for the country house Easton Neston, Northampton County is included in the Allentown-Bethlehem-Easton, PA-NJ Metropolitan Statistical Area, which is also included in the New York-Newark, NY-NJ-CT-PA Combined Statistical Area. Its northern edge borders The Poconos, and its eastern section borders the Delaware River, the county is industrially-oriented, producing anthracite coal, cement, and other industrial products. Bethlehem Steel, once one of the worlds largest manufacturers of steel, was located prior to its closing in 2003. 10. 5% of the population were of Hispanic or Latino ancestry, as of the census of 2000, there were 267,066 people,101,541 households, and 71,078 families residing in the county. The population density was 714 people per square mile, there were 106,710 housing units at an average density of 286 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 91. 23% White,2. 77% Black or African American,0. 15% Native American,1. 37% Asian,0. 03% Pacific Islander,3. 06% from other races, and 1. 39% from two or more races. 6. 69% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race,24. 0% were of German,14. 0% Italian,8. 8% Irish,5. 1% English and 5. 1% American ancestry according to Census 2000. 89. 3% spoke English and 5. 5% Spanish as their first language,24. 70% of all households were made up of individuals and 11. 20% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.53 and the family size was 3.02. In the county, the population was out with 23. 30% under the age of 18,9. 20% from 18 to 24,28. 30% from 25 to 44,23. 40% from 45 to 64. The median age was 38 years, for every 100 females there were 94.80 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 91.70 males, Northampton is one of the six counties in Pennsylvania which has adopted a home rule charter. Instead of being run by a Board of Commissioners and several Row Officers, voters elect an Executive, a nine-person Council, a Controller, the Executive, Controller and District Attorney are elected by all voters in the County, as are five members of the Council. The other four Councilmen are elected by districts, the Row Officers are nominated by the county executive and approved by county council. The Democratic Party has been dominant most of the time in politics in recent decades. In 2016, Donald Trump ended that streak when he became the first Republican presidential candidate to win Northampton County since 1988, Northampton County Area Community College, Bethlehem Township
6.
2010 United States Census
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The 2010 United States Census, is the twenty-third and currently most recent United States national census. National Census Day, the day used for the census, was April 1,2010. As part of a drive to increase the accuracy,635,000 temporary enumerators were hired. The population of the United States was counted as 308,745,538, as required by the United States Constitution, the U. S. census has been conducted every 10 years since 1790. The 2000 U. S. Census was the previous census completed, participation in the U. S. Census is required by law in Title 13 of the United States Code. On January 25,2010, Census Bureau Director Robert Groves personally inaugurated the 2010 Census enumeration by counting World War II veteran Clifton Jackson, more than 120 million census forms were delivered by the U. S. Post Office beginning March 15,2010, the number of forms mailed out or hand-delivered by the Census Bureau was approximately 134 million on April 1,2010. The 2010 Census national mail participation rate was 74%, from April through July 2010, census takers visited households that did not return a form, an operation called non-response follow-up. In December 2010, the Census Bureau delivered population information to the president for apportionment, personally identifiable information will be available in 2082. The Census Bureau did not use a form for the 2010 Census. In several previous censuses, one in six households received this long form, the 2010 Census used only a short form asking ten basic questions, How many people were living or staying in this house, apartment, or mobile home on April 1,2010. Were there any additional people staying here on April 1,2010 that you did not include in Question 1, mark all that apply, Is this house, apartment, or mobile home – What is your telephone number. What is Person 1s age and Person 1s date of birth, is Person 1 of Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin. Does Person 1 sometimes live or stay somewhere else, the form included space to repeat some or all of these questions for up to twelve residents total. In contrast to the 2000 census, an Internet response option was not offered, detailed socioeconomic information collected during past censuses will continue to be collected through the American Community Survey. The survey provides data about communities in the United States on a 1-year or 3-year cycle, depending on the size of the community, rather than once every 10 years. A small percentage of the population on a basis will receive the survey each year. In June 2009, the U. S. Census Bureau announced that it would count same-sex married couples, however, the final form did not contain a separate same-sex married couple option
7.
Metropolitan area
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As social, economic and political institutions have changed, metropolitan areas have become key economic and political regions. The Greater São Paulo is a term for one of the multiple definitions the large metropolitan area located in the São Paulo state in Brazil. A metropolitan area combines an urban agglomeration with zones not necessarily urban in character and these outlying zones are sometimes known as a commuter belt, and may extend well beyond the urban zone, to other political entities. For example, El Monte, California is considered part of the Los Angeles metro area in the United States, in practice, the parameters of metropolitan areas, in both official and unofficial usage, are not consistent. Population figures given for one area can vary by millions. A polycentric metropolitan area is one not connected by continuous development or conurbation, in defining a metropolitan area, it is sufficient that a city or cities form a nucleus that other areas have a high degree of integration with. The Australian Bureau of Statistics defines statistical divisions as areas under the influence of one or more major towns or a major city. However, this definition has become obsolete with the conurbation of several statistical divisions into a larger metropolitan areas. In Brazil, metropolitan areas are called metropolitan regions, each State defines its own legislation for the creation, definition and organization of a metropolitan region. The creation of a region is not intended for any statistical purpose, although the Brazilian Institute of Geography. Their main purpose is to allow for a management of public policies of common interest to all cities involved. They dont have political, electoral or jurisdictional power whatsoever, so living in a metropolitan region do not elect representatives for them. Statistics Canada defines a metropolitan area as an area consisting of one or more adjacent municipalities situated around a major urban core. To form a CMA, the area must have a population of at least 100,000. To be included in the CMA, adjacent municipalities must have a degree of integration with the core. As of the Canada 2011 Census, there were 33 CMAs in Canada, including six with a population over one million—Toronto, Montreal, Vancouver, Ottawa, Calgary and Edmonton. In Denmark the only area is Greater Copenhagen, consisting of the Capital Region of Denmark along with the neighboring regions Region Zealand. Greater Copenhagen has an population of 1.25 million people
8.
Eastern Time Zone
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Places that use Eastern Standard Time when observing standard time are 5 hours behind Coordinated Universal Time. Eastern Daylight Time, when observing daylight saving time DST is 4 hours behind Coordinated Universal Time, in the northern parts of the time zone, on the second Sunday in March, at 2,00 a. m. EST, clocks are advanced to 3,00 a. m. EDT leaving a one-hour gap, on the first Sunday in November, at 2,00 a. m. EDT, clocks are moved back to 1,00 a. m, southern parts of the zone do not observe daylight saving time. The Uniform Time Act of 1966 ruled that daylight saving time would run from the last Sunday of April until the last Sunday in October in the United States, the act was amended to make the first Sunday in April the beginning of daylight saving time as of 1987. The Energy Policy Act of 2005 extended daylight saving time in the United States beginning in 2007. So local times change at 2,00 a. m. EST to 3,00 a. m. EDT on the second Sunday in March, in Canada, the time changes as it does in the United States. However, a handful of communities unofficially observe Eastern Time because they are part of the Columbus, Georgia metropolitan area – Phenix City, Smiths Station, Lanett, and Valley. Florida, All of Florida is in the Eastern Time zone except for the portion of the Florida Panhandle west of the Apalachicola River, as the Eastern–Central zone boundary approaches the Gulf of Mexico, it follows the Bay/Gulf county line. Indiana, All of Indiana observes Eastern Time except for six counties in the Chicago metropolitan area. Kentucky, Roughly, the half of the state, including all of metropolitan Louisville, is in the Eastern Time Zone. Historically the entire state observed Central Time, when daylight saving time was first introduced, the Lower Peninsula remained on DST after it formally ended, effectively re-aligning itself into the Eastern Time Zone. The Upper Peninsula continued to observe Central Time until 1972, when all, Tennessee, Most of the eastern third of Tennessee is legally on Eastern Time. Eastern Time is also used somewhat as a de facto official time for all of the United States, since it includes the capital and the largest city. Major professional sports leagues also post all game times in Eastern time, for example, a game time between two teams from Pacific Time Zone will still be posted in Eastern time. Most cable television and national broadcast networks advertise airing times in Eastern time, national broadcast networks generally have two primary feeds, an eastern feed for Eastern and Central time zones, and a tape-delayed western feed for the Pacific Time Zone. The prime time is set on Eastern and Pacific at 8,00 p. m. with the Central time zone stations receiving the eastern feed at 7,00 p. m. local time. Mountain Time Zone stations receive a separate feed at 7,00 p. m. local time, as Arizona does not observe daylight saving time, during the summer months, it has its own feed at 7,00 p. m. local time
9.
UTC-5
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UTC−05,00 is a time offset that subtracts five hours from Coordinated Universal Time. In North America, it is observed in the Eastern Time Zone during standard time, the western Caribbean uses it year round. The southwestern and northwestern portions of Indiana Mexico – Central Zone Central, in most of Mexico, daylight time starts a few weeks after the United States. Communities on the U. S. border that observe Central Time follow the U. S. daylight time schedule
10.
Daylight saving time
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Daylight saving time is the practice of advancing clocks during summer months by one hour so that evening daylight lasts an hour longer, while sacrificing normal sunrise times. Typically, regions that use Daylight Savings Time adjust clocks forward one hour close to the start of spring, American inventor and politician Benjamin Franklin proposed a form of daylight time in 1784. New Zealander George Hudson proposed the idea of saving in 1895. The German Empire and Austria-Hungary organized the first nationwide implementation, starting on April 30,1916, many countries have used it at various times since then, particularly since the energy crisis of the 1970s. The practice has both advocates and critics, DST clock shifts sometimes complicate timekeeping and can disrupt travel, billing, record keeping, medical devices, heavy equipment, and sleep patterns. Computer software often adjusts clocks automatically, but policy changes by various jurisdictions of DST dates, industrialized societies generally follow a clock-based schedule for daily activities that do not change throughout the course of the year. The time of day that individuals begin and end work or school, North and south of the tropics daylight lasts longer in summer and shorter in winter, with the effect becoming greater as one moves away from the tropics. However, they will have one hour of daylight at the start of each day. Supporters have also argued that DST decreases energy consumption by reducing the need for lighting and heating, DST is also of little use for locations near the equator, because these regions see only a small variation in daylight in the course of the year. After ancient times, equal-length civil hours eventually supplanted unequal, so civil time no longer varies by season, unequal hours are still used in a few traditional settings, such as some monasteries of Mount Athos and all Jewish ceremonies. This 1784 satire proposed taxing window shutters, rationing candles, and waking the public by ringing church bells, despite common misconception, Franklin did not actually propose DST, 18th-century Europe did not even keep precise schedules. However, this changed as rail transport and communication networks came to require a standardization of time unknown in Franklins day. Modern DST was first proposed by the New Zealand entomologist George Hudson, whose shift work job gave him time to collect insects. An avid golfer, he also disliked cutting short his round at dusk and his solution was to advance the clock during the summer months, a proposal he published two years later. The proposal was taken up by the Liberal Member of Parliament Robert Pearce, a select committee was set up to examine the issue, but Pearces bill did not become law, and several other bills failed in the following years. Willett lobbied for the proposal in the UK until his death in 1915, william Sword Frost, mayor of Orillia, Ontario, introduced daylight saving time in the municipality during his tenure from 1911 to 1912. Starting on April 30,1916, the German Empire and its World War I ally Austria-Hungary were the first to use DST as a way to conserve coal during wartime, Britain, most of its allies, and many European neutrals soon followed suit. Russia and a few other countries waited until the year
11.
ZIP Code
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ZIP Codes are a system of postal codes used by the United States Postal Service since 1963. The term ZIP, an acronym for Zone Improvement Plan, was chosen to suggest that the travels more efficiently, and therefore more quickly. The basic format consists of five numerical digits, an extended ZIP+4 code, introduced in 1983, includes the five digits of the ZIP Code, a hyphen, and four additional digits that determine a more specific location within a given ZIP Code. The term ZIP Code was originally registered as a servicemark by the U. S. Postal Service, USPS style for ZIP is all caps and the c in code is also capitalized, although style sheets for some publications use sentence case or lowercase. The early history and context of postal codes began with postal district/zone numbers, the United States Post Office Department implemented postal zones for numerous large cities in 1943. For example, Mr. John Smith 3256 Epiphenomenal Avenue Minneapolis 16, by the early 1960s a more organized system was needed, and on July 1,1963, non-mandatory five-digit ZIP Codes were introduced nationwide. Three months later, on October 1,1963, the U. S, an earlier list in June had proposed capitalized abbreviations ranging from two to five letters. The abbreviations have remained unchanged, with one exception, according to the historian of the U. S. Robert Moon, an employee of the post office, is considered the father of the ZIP Code, he submitted his proposal in 1944 while working as a postal inspector. The post office gives credit to Moon only for the first three digits of the ZIP Code, which describe the sectional center facility or sec center, an SCF is a central mail processing facility with those three digits. The SCF sorts mail to all post offices with those first three digits in their ZIP Codes, the mail is sorted according to the final two digits of the ZIP Code and sent to the corresponding post offices in the early morning. Sectional centers do not deliver mail and are not open to the public, Mail picked up at post offices is sent to their own SCF in the afternoon, where the mail is sorted overnight. The United States Post Office used a character, which it called Mr. ZIP. He was often depicted with a such as USE ZIP CODE in the selvage of panes of stamps or on labels contained in, or the covers of. In 1983, the U. S. Postal Service introduced an expanded ZIP Code system that it called ZIP+4, often called plus-four codes, add-on codes, or add ons. But initial attempts to promote use of the new format met with public resistance. For Post Office Boxes, the rule is that each box has its own ZIP+4 code. However, there is no rule, so the ZIP+4 Code must be looked up individually for each box. It is common to use add-on code 9998 for mail addressed to the postmaster,9999 for general delivery, for a unique ZIP Code, the add-on code is typically 0001
12.
Area codes 610 and 484
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Area codes 610 and 484 are telephone area codes which serve the eastern and southeastern regions of Pennsylvania. The area includes areas to the west of Philadelphia, along with the cities of Allentown, Bethlehem and it includes much of the Delaware Valley, including almost all of Delaware County and most of the Philadelphia Main Line. It was Pennsylvanias first new area code since the implementation of the area code system in 1947, three exchanges which would have switched to 610 were instead switched to 717, the area code for most of the eastern half of the state outside of the Delaware and Lehigh Valleys. They were 267 at Denver,445 at Terre Hill, and 484 at Adamstown and these exchanges were all served by non-Bell telephone companies which sought to consolidate their eastern Pennsylvania customers into one area code, and would have had to change area codes anyway. The implementation of 484 was hastened because the state of Delaware is part of the Philadelphia LATA. The Commission formally withdrew plans for the new code on June 23,2005, Area code 610 holds the distinction of being the last area code number to be assigned that had a 1 for its middle digit. When area codes were introduced in 1947, all followed the pattern N0X or N1X. By 1994, area code 610 was the last remaining number in this group, the next new area codes after 610 to be assigned were the first to have numbers other than 0 or 1 for their middle digits. Bucks County - Northeastern portion served by the Coopersburg, Springtown, chester County - All but the extreme western portion. Delaware County - All Lancaster County - Far southeastern portion of the county only, rest of county uses the 717 area code. Lebanon County - Newmanstown is the only Lebanon County municipality to use 610 as its area code, Lehigh County - All but extreme southwestern portion, served by the Pennsburg exchange in the 215/267 overlay. Montgomery County - Southern and western portions, other areas are served by the 215/267 area codes, the western end of the county, including Lansford and Summit Hill may use 610/484 for mobile and digital numbers while retaining 570-645 for conventional phone numbers. Most of the N10 area codes were used prior to 1981 by AT&T for their TWX, or TeletypeWriter eXchange network. Area code 510 was reassigned to Oakland, California in 1991,710 went to the US federal government in 1983,810 and 910 were given to Flint, Michigan and Wilmington, North Carolina in 1993. This left 610 as the last teletypewriter area code, which outlived the others because it was controlled by Bell Canada, the +1-610 code was replaced by non-geographic Canadian area code 600 in 1992, liberating the numbers for reassignment to plain old telephone service. This leaves 610 as the last geographic area code to follow the pattern of a 1 or 0 in the middle digit. Codes assigned from 1995 onward break this pattern, requiring every long-distance call to be dialed with all eleven digits. com,484 Area Code List of exchanges from AreaCodeDownload. com,610 Area Code
13.
Lehigh Valley
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The Lehigh Valleys largest city, with a population of 119,104, is Allentown. The Lehigh Valley is the fastest growing and third most populous region in the state of Pennsylvania with a population of 821,623 residents as of the 2010 U. S. Census. It is eclipsed in total population in Pennsylvania only by the areas of Philadelphia. It is the 64th most populated area in the United States. The core population centers are located in southern and central Lehigh and Northampton counties along U. S. Route 22 and Interstate 78. The Lehigh Valley is proximate to two of the nations largest cities, New York City, which is 90 miles to its east, and Philadelphia, which is 60 miles to its southeast. In March 2014, the Lehigh Valley was recognized by Site Selection Magazine as the second-best performing region of its size for economic development in the United States. In the charter of March 20,1818 for the Lehigh Navigation Company and these transportation improvements overcame the countrys first energy crises due to deforestation in the early 19th century. The Lehigh Valleys principal cities are Allentown, Bethlehem and Easton, the Lehigh Valley is located approximately 60 mi north of Philadelphia,80 mi northeast of Harrisburg, and 90 mi west of New York City, the countrys largest city. The area is home to more than 820,000 people as of the 2010 U. S. Census. The Lehigh Valley is geologically and geographically part of the Great Appalachian Valley, the Lehigh Valley is so named because it is composed of an actual valley that lies between two mountain ranges, Blue Mountain to the north and South Mountain to the south. Lehigh Valley also is considered part of the historic Pennsylvania Dutch Country, the United States Office of Management and Budget has designated the Lehigh Valley area of Pennsylvania as the Allentown–Bethlehem–Easton, PA Metropolitan Statistical Area. The three counties in the Metropolitan area are Carbon, Lehigh and Northampton, as of the 2010 United States Census the Metro area had a population of 821,173. The Lehigh Valley ranks as the third most populous areas in the state of Pennsylvania. The United States Office of Management and Budget also has designated the Lehigh Valley area of Pennsylvania as part of the larger New York metropolitan area. As of the 2010 US Census, the population of the CSA was 23,076,664, the Lehigh Valley has four distinct seasons, which typically include humid summers, cold winters, and very short and mild springs and falls. At the 2008 American Community Survey conducted by the U. S. Census Bureau, hispanics and Latinos of any race made up 11. 3% of the population. The Lehigh Valley has seen an influx of residents coming from New Jersey, the population of the area is expected to increase by 227,000 people by 2040
14.
Philadelphia
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In 1682, William Penn, an English Quaker, founded the city to serve as capital of the Pennsylvania Colony. Philadelphia was one of the capitals in the Revolutionary War. In the 19th century, Philadelphia became an industrial center. It became a destination for African-Americans in the Great Migration. The areas many universities and colleges make Philadelphia a top international study destination, as the city has evolved into an educational, with a gross domestic product of $388 billion, Philadelphia ranks ninth among world cities and fourth in the nation. Philadelphia is the center of activity in Pennsylvania and is home to seven Fortune 1000 companies. The Philadelphia skyline is growing, with a market of almost 81,900 commercial properties in 2016 including several prominent skyscrapers. The city is known for its arts, culture, and rich history, Philadelphia has more outdoor sculptures and murals than any other American city. Fairmount Park, when combined with the adjacent Wissahickon Valley Park in the watershed, is one of the largest contiguous urban park areas in the United States. The 67 National Historic Landmarks in the city helped account for the $10 billion generated by tourism, Philadelphia is the only World Heritage City in the United States. Before Europeans arrived, the Philadelphia area was home to the Lenape Indians in the village of Shackamaxon, the Lenape are a Native American tribe and First Nations band government. They are also called Delaware Indians and their territory was along the Delaware River watershed, western Long Island. Most Lenape were pushed out of their Delaware homeland during the 18th century by expanding European colonies, Lenape communities were weakened by newly introduced diseases, mainly smallpox, and violent conflict with Europeans. Iroquois people occasionally fought the Lenape, surviving Lenape moved west into the upper Ohio River basin. The American Revolutionary War and United States independence pushed them further west, in the 1860s, the United States government sent most Lenape remaining in the eastern United States to the Indian Territory under the Indian removal policy. In the 21st century, most Lenape now reside in the US state of Oklahoma, with communities living also in Wisconsin, Ontario. The Dutch considered the entire Delaware River valley to be part of their New Netherland colony, in 1638, Swedish settlers led by renegade Dutch established the colony of New Sweden at Fort Christina and quickly spread out in the valley. In 1644, New Sweden supported the Susquehannocks in their defeat of the English colony of Maryland
15.
Pittsburgh
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Pittsburgh is a city in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania in the United States, and is the county seat of Allegheny County. The city proper has a population of 304,391. The metropolitan population of 2,353,045 is the largest in both the Ohio Valley and Appalachia, the second-largest in Pennsylvania, and the 26th-largest in the U. S. The city features 30 skyscrapers, two inclines, a fortification and the Point State Park at the confluence of the rivers. Aside from steel, Pittsburgh has led in manufacturing of aluminum, glass, shipbuilding, petroleum, foods, sports, transportation, computing, autos, and electronics. For part of the 20th century, Pittsburgh was behind only New York and Chicago in corporate headquarters employment, Americas 1980s deindustrialization laid off area blue-collar workers and thousands of downtown white-collar workers when the longtime Pittsburgh-based world headquarters moved out. The area has served also as the federal agency headquarters for cyber defense, software engineering, robotics, energy research. The area is home to 68 colleges and universities, including research and development leaders Carnegie Mellon University, the region is a hub for Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design, sustainable energy, and energy extraction. Pittsburgh was named in 1758 by General John Forbes, in honor of British statesman William Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham. The current pronunciation, which is unusual in English speaking countries, is almost certainly a result of a printing error in some copies of the City Charter of March 18,1816. The error was repeated commonly enough throughout the rest of the 19th century that the pronunciation was lost. After a public campaign the original spelling was restored by the United States Board on Geographic Names in 1911. The area of the Ohio headwaters was long inhabited by the Shawnee, the first known European to enter the region was the French explorer/trader Robert de La Salle from Quebec during his 1669 expedition down the Ohio River. European pioneers, primarily Dutch, followed in the early 18th century, Michael Bezallion was the first to describe the forks of the Ohio in a 1717 manuscript, and later that year European fur traders established area posts and settlements. In 1749, French soldiers from Quebec launched an expedition to the forks to unite Canada with French Louisiana via the rivers, during 1753–54, the British hastily built Fort Prince George before a larger French force drove them off. The French built Fort Duquesne based on LaSalles 1669 claims, the French and Indian War, the North American front of the Seven Years War, began with the future Pittsburgh as its center. British General Edward Braddock was dispatched with Major George Washington as his aide to take Fort Duquesne, the British and colonial force were defeated at Braddocks Field. General John Forbes finally took the forks in 1758, Forbes began construction on Fort Pitt, named after William Pitt the Elder while the settlement was named Pittsborough
16.
Allentown, Pennsylvania
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Allentown is a city located in Lehigh County, Pennsylvania, United States. It is Pennsylvanias third most populous city and the 224th largest city in the United States, as of the 2010 census, the city had a total population of 118,032 and is currently the fastest growing city in all of Pennsylvania. It is the largest city in the area known as the Lehigh Valley. Allentown constitutes a portion of the New York City Metropolitan Area and is the county seat of Lehigh County, in 2012, the city celebrated the 250th anniversary of its founding in 1762. Located on the Lehigh River, Allentown is the largest of three adjacent cities, in Northampton and Lehigh counties, that make up a region of eastern Pennsylvania known as the Lehigh Valley, the Norfolk Southern Railways Lehigh Line, runs through Allentown heading east across the Delaware River. The Norfolk Southern Railways Reading Line runs through Allentown heading west to Reading, the price for this tract included shoes and buckles, hats, shirts, knives, scissors, combs, needles, looking glasses, rum, and pipes. The land was surveyed on November 23,1736. Used primarily as a hunting and fishing lodge, here Allen entertained prominent guests including his brother-in-law, James Hamilton and it is likely that a certain amount of rivalry with the Penns prompted Judge Allen to decide to start a town of his own in 1762. Ten years before, in 1752, Northampton and Berks counties had been formed, each with a county seat, Easton and Reading, respectively. It is recorded that, in 1763, the year after the founding of Allentown. To this effort William Allen lent all his influence as Chief Justice, the influence of the Penns, however, prevailed, and Easton was retained as the county seat of all that vast area which the notorious Walking Purchase had opened up. The town was located between present-day Fourth and Tenth Streets, and Union and Liberty Streets, many streets on the original plan were named for Allens children, Margaret, William, James, Ann and John. Allen Street was named for Allen himself, and was the main thoroughfare, Hamilton Street was named for James Hamilton. Gordon Street was named for Sir Patrick Gordon, Deputy Governor of Colonial Pennsylvania from 1726–1736, Chew Street was named for Benjamin Chew, and Turner Street was named for Allens business partner, Joseph Turner. Allen gave the property to his son James in 1767, three years later, in 1770, James built a summer residence, Trout Hall, in the new town, near the site of his fathers former hunting lodge. On March 18,1811, the town was incorporated as the borough of Northampton Town. On March 6,1812, Lehigh County was formed from the half of Northampton County. The town was officially renamed Allentown on April 16,1838, Allentown was formally incorporated as a city on March 12,1867
17.
Erie, Pennsylvania
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Erie /ˈɪəri/ is a city in and the county seat of Erie County, Pennsylvania, United States. Named for the lake and the Native American tribe that resided along its shore, Erie is the fourth-largest city in Pennsylvania. With a population of 101,786 at the 2010 census, the estimated population in 2016 had decreased to 100,055. The Erie metropolitan area, equivalent to all of Erie County, Erie is situated between Buffalo, Cleveland, and Pittsburgh. Eries manufacturing sector remains prominent in the economy, though health care, higher education, technology, service industries. Erie is known as the Flagship City because of its status as the port of Oliver Hazard Perrys flagship Niagara. The city has also called the Gem City because of the sparkling lake. Cultures of indigenous peoples occupied the shoreline and bluffs in this area for thousands of years, the historic Iroquoian-speaking Erie Nation occupied this area before being defeated by the five nations of the Iroquois Confederacy in the 17th century during the Beaver Wars. The Iroquois tribes had developed and five nations formed a league in the 1500s. The Erie area became controlled by the Seneca, keeper of the door of the Iroquois. The name of the fort refers to the peninsula that juts into Lake Erie, the French term presque-isle means peninsula. When the fort was abandoned by the French in 1760 during the French and Indian War, the British established a garrison at the fort at Presque Isle that same year, three years before the end of the French and Indian War.25 in Continental currency. The Iroquois released the land to Pennsylvania in January 1789 for payments of $2,000 from Pennsylvania, the Seneca Nation separately settled land claims against Pennsylvania in February 1791 for the sum of $800. The General Assembly of Pennsylvania commissioned the surveying of land near Presque Isle through an act passed on April 18,1795, initial settlement of the area began that year. Lt. Colonel Seth Reed and his moved to the Erie area from Geneva, New York, they were Yankees from Uxbridge. They became the first European-American settlers of Erie, settling at what became known as Presque Isle, president James Madison began the construction of a naval fleet during the War of 1812 to gain control of the Great Lakes from the British. Daniel Dobbins of Erie and Noah Brown of Boston were notable shipbuilders who led construction of four schooner−rigged gunboats, commodore Oliver Hazard Perry arrived from Rhode Island and led the squadron to success in the historic Battle of Lake Erie. Erie was an important shipbuilding, fishing, and railroad hub during the mid-19th century, the city was the site where three sets of track gauges met
18.
Reading, Pennsylvania
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Reading, is the county seat of Berks County and with a population of 98,653 is the fifth-largest city in Pennsylvania. Located in southeastern Pennsylvania, it is the city of the Greater Reading Area. Reading Railroad is one of the four properties in the classic United States version of the Monopoly board game. Reading was one of the first localities where outlet shopping became a tourist industry and it has been known as The Pretzel City, because of numerous local pretzel bakeries. Currently, Bachman, Dieffenbach, Tom Sturgis, and Unique Pretzel bakeries call the Reading area home, according to the 2010 census, Reading has the highest share of citizens living in poverty in the nation. In recent years, the Reading area has become a destination for cyclists, with more than 125 miles of trails in five major preserves, it is an International Mountain Bicycling Association Ride Center and it annually hosts the Reading 120 international road cycling race. In April 2017, it was announced that an indoor velodrome, or cycling track, will be built in Reading as the first of its kind on the East Coast and it will also serve as the Cycling Leagues world headquarters. Lenni Lenape people, also known as Delaware Indians, were the inhabitants of the Reading area. The Colony of Pennsylvania was a 1680 land grant from King Charles II of England to William Penn, comprising more than 45,000 square miles, it was named for his father, Sir William Penn. In 1743, Richard and Thomas Penn mapped out the town of Reading with Conrad Weiser, taking its name from Reading, Berkshire, England, the town was established in 1748. Upon the creation of Berks County in 1752, Reading became the county seat, the region was settled by emigrants from southern and western Germany, who bought land from the Penns. The first Amish community in the New World was established in Greater Reading, the Pennsylvanian German dialect was spoken in the area well into the 1950s and later. During the French and Indian War, Reading was a base for a chain of forts along the Blue Mountain. By the time of the American Revolution, the iron industry had a total production which exceeded Englands. That output that would help supply George Washingtons troops with cannons, rifles, during the early period of the conflict, Reading was again a depot for military supply. Hessian prisoners from the Battle of Trenton were also detained here, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania was the capital of the United States at the time of the Yellow Fever Epidemic of 1793. President Washington traveled to Reading, and considered making it the national capital. Susanna Cox was tried and convicted for infanticide in Reading in 1809 and her case attracted tremendous sympathy,20,000 viewers came to view her hanging, swamping the 3,000 inhabitants
19.
Scranton, Pennsylvania
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Scranton is the sixth-largest city in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania behind Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Allentown, Erie and Reading. It is the county seat of Lackawanna County in Northeastern Pennsylvanias Wyoming Valley, with a population of 77,118, it is the largest city in the Scranton–Wilkes-Barre–Hazleton, PA Metropolitan Statistical Area, which has a population of about 570,000. Scranton was incorporated on February 14,1856, as a borough in Luzerne County and it became a major industrial city, a center of mining and railroads, and attracted thousands of new immigrants. It was the site of the Scranton General Strike in 1877, people in northern Luzerne County began to seek a new county in 1839 but the Wilkes-Barre area resisted losing its assets. Lackawanna County did not gain independent status until 1878, under legislation allowing the issue to be voted by residents of the proposed territory, voters favored the new county by a proportion of 6 to 1, with Scranton residents providing the major support. The city was designated as the county seat when Lackawanna County was established in 1878, the city took its first step toward earning its reputation as the Electric City when electric lights were introduced in 1880 at Dickson Locomotive Works. Six years later, the nations first streetcars powered exclusively by electricity began operating in the city, rev. David Spencer, a local Baptist minister, later proclaimed Scranton as the Electric City. Present-day Scranton and its area had been long inhabited by the native Lenape tribe. In 1778, Isaac Tripp, the areas first known European-American settler, built his home here, it stands in North Scranton. More settlers from Connecticut came to the area in the late 18th and early 19th centuries after the American Revolutionary War and they gradually established mills and other small businesses in a village that became known as Slocum Hollow. People in the village during this time carried the traits and the accent of their New England settlers, though anthracite coal was being mined in Carbondale to the north and Wilkes-Barre to the south, the industries that precipitated the citys early rapid growth were iron and steel. It initially started producing nails, but that venture failed due to low-quality iron. The Erie Railroads construction in New York State was delayed by its having to iron rails as imports from England. The Scrantons firm decided to focus to producing T-rails for the Erie. In 1851, the Scrantons built the Lackawanna and Western Railroad northward, with recent Irish immigrants supplying most of the labor, to meet the Erie Railroad in Great Bend, thus they could transport manufactured rails from the Lackawanna Valley to New York and the Midwest. They also invested in mining operations in the city to fuel their steel operations. In 1856, they expanded the railroad eastward as the Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad and this railroad, with its hub in Scranton, would be Scrantons largest employer for almost one hundred years. The Pennsylvania Coal Company built a gravity railroad in the 1850s through the city for the purpose of transporting coal, the gravity railroad was replaced by a steam railroad built in 1886 by the Erie and Wyoming Valley Railroad
20.
Easton, Pennsylvania
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Easton is a city in and the county seat of Northampton County, Pennsylvania, United States. The citys population was 26,800 as of the 2010 census, Easton is located at the confluence of the Delaware River and the Lehigh River, roughly 55 miles north of Philadelphia and 70 miles west of the city of New York. Easton is the easternmost city in the Lehigh Valley, a region of 731 square miles that is home to more than 800,000 people. Easton is the smallest of the three Lehigh Valley cities, with approximately one-fourth of the population of the largest Lehigh Valley city, in turn, this metropolitan area comprises Pennsylvanias third-largest metropolitan area and the states largest and most populous contribution to the greater New York City metropolitan area. The boroughs of Wilson, West Easton, and Glendon are also adjacent to the city. The greater Easton area consists of the city, three townships, and three boroughs, centre Square, the town square of the citys Downtown neighborhood, is home to the Soldiers & Sailors Monument, a memorial for Easton area veterans killed during the American Civil War. The Peace Candle, a structure, is assembled and disassembled every year atop the Civil War monument for the Christmas season. The Norfolk Southern Railways Lehigh Line, runs through Easton on its way to Bethlehem and Allentown heading west and to Phillipsburg, the Lenape Native Americans originally referred to the area as Lechauwitank, or The Place at the Forks. The site of the city was part of the land obtained from the Delawares by the Walking Purchase. Thomas Penn set aside a 1,000 acres tract of land at the confluence of the Lehigh, as Northampton County was being formed at this time, Easton was selected as its county seat. Easton was an important military center during the American Revolutionary War, during the Revolutionary War, Easton had a military hospital. On 18 June 1779, General John Sullivan led 2,500 Continentals from Easton to engage British Indian allies on the frontier, Easton was one of the first three places the Declaration of Independence was publicly read. It is claimed that the Easton flag was flown during that reading, making it one of the first Stars and this flag was used by a militia company during the War of 1812, and currently serves as Eastons municipal flag. The Delaware Canal, was built soon after the lower Lehigh Canal became effective in regularly and reliably delivering much needed anthracite coal. The LVRR, known as the Black Diamond Line would boast the twice daily Black Diamond Express daily passenger trains to and from New York City and Buffalo, New York via Easton. Canal transportation was replaced by railroads in the mid-19th century with Easton being a hub for five railroads including the Jersey Central, Lehigh Valley Railroad. Easton lost its prominence in passenger transportation with the rise of the automobile in the mid-20th century, the development of improved logistics, transfer and handling methods lead to other regions profiting from freight transportation rather than Easton. Like the Pennsylvania Dutch region to the southwest, Easton has a strong German heritage, the Pennsylvania Argus, a German-language newspaper, was published in Easton until 1917
21.
Carbon County, Pennsylvania
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Carbon County is a county located in the U. S. state of Pennsylvania. As of the 2010 census, the population was 65,249, in the 1830s The first blast furnaces in Northampton County were built by the LC&N in an attempt to make anthracite iron, the foundation of the early industrial revolution in America. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 387 square miles. Blue Mountain forms the boundary of Carbon. The northeast area of the county is located in the Pocono Mountains, the Lehigh cuts a gorge between Jim Thorpe and White Haven which hosts the Lehigh Gorge State Park. The first settlement in Carbon County was the Moravian mission Gnadenhutten, located where Lehighton now stands, Gnadenhutten exemplified communal simplicity. The mission was a scene of quiet, humble and unobtrusive heroism, although the wilderness of Carbon County was quite treacherous, the Moravians traveled in the wilds of Carbon County undaunted. By 1752, increased hostility put Gnadenhutten at risk for attack, the frankness and earnestness of the simple Moravians had won respect with the many tribes of Pennsylvania Indians, and they lived without incident until 1755. At that point an Amerindian uprising drove settlements away from the Lehigh Gap, in 1791, a homesteader, Phillip Ginter hunting on Sharp Mountain along Pisgah Ridge found a black stone coal outcropping, and conveyed a chunk of it to Weissport, PA. Lehigh Coal Mine Company operations had managed to fell many trees and this area became known as Lausanne, or Lausanne Landing, after the Inn & Tavern built there called the Landing Tavern. Today, PA93 follows this route in the main, save where modern road building capabilities allowed improved positioning and this road cut off 90–100 miles from a trip from Philadelphia to the Wyoming Valley and the northern sections of the Coal Region. Carbon County is the location of the trials and executions of the controversial Molly Maguires, Carbon County has a rich history. Some interesting people have passed through her mountains, including the Moravian mystic Count Zinzendorf, Benjamin Gilbert, John James Audubon, Benjamin Franklin, blessed with a unique geography, Carbon County dazzled the adventurous travelers of the Victorian era, just as it attracts adventurers today. Home of the Lehigh Gorge State Park, Carbon County is a place for hikers, cyclists, history buffs. As of the census of 2000, there were 58,802 people,23,701 households, the population density was 154 people per square mile. There were 30,492 housing units at a density of 80 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 97. 82% White,0. 60% Black or African American,0. 16% Native American,0. 31% Asian,0. 03% Pacific Islander,0. 32% from other races, and 0. 76% from two or more races. 1. 46% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race
22.
Warren County, New Jersey
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Warren County is a county located in the U. S. state of New Jersey. It is part of the Allentown-Bethlehem-Easton, PA-NJ metropolitan area and is considered the eastern border of the Lehigh Valley. The most populous place was Phillipsburg, with 14,950 residents at the time of the 2010 Census, while Hardwick Township, covered 37.92 square miles, the largest total area of any municipality. Warren County was incorporated by an act of the New Jersey Legislature on November 20,1824, at its creation, the county consisted of the townships of Greenwich, Independence, Knowlton, Mansfield, Oxford, and Pahaquarry. The county was named for Joseph Warren, an American hero of the Battle of Bunker Hill. According to the 2010 Census, the county had an area of 362.86 square miles. Warren County has rolling hills, with the Kittatinny Ridge in the west, Allamuchy Mountain and Jenny Jump Mountain are part of the New York – New Jersey Highlands, also known as the Reading Prong. Around 450 million years ago, a chain of volcanic islands collided with proto North America, the chain of islands went over the North American plate, thus the Highlands were created from the island rock and so was the Great Appalachian Valley. The Highlands is Allamuchy Mountains and the Jenny Jump Mountains, around 400 million years ago a small continent that was long and thin collided with proto North America. This created the Kittatinny Mountains, as the land was compressed from the collision, the quartzite that was lying in a shallow sea over top of the Martinsburg shale, folded and faulted due to pressure and heat. The quartzite lifted, thus the Kittatinny Mountain was born, the final collision was when the African plate collided with the North American plate. This was the episode of the building of the Appalachian Mountains. Then the African plate tore away from North America, then the Wisconsin Glacier covered the northern part of the county from 21,000 to 13,000 BC. This glacier covered the top of Kittatinny Mountain and carved the terrain in the part of the county. The terminal moraine runs from north of Belvidere to south of Great Meadows to north of Hackettstown, Blairstown Township, Hope Township, half of Independence Township, part of White Township, and all of Allamuchy Township was covered by the Glacier. When the glacier melted, a lake was formed at Great Meadows, slowly the lake drained leaving a large flat area filled with organic material. The county is drained by three rivers, all three rivers are shallow and narrow. They are fresh water rivers that are excellent for fishing, the Paulins Kill drains the western portion of the county
23.
New Jersey
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New Jersey is a state in the Northeastern and mid-Atlantic regions of the United States. It is bordered on the north and east by New York, on the southeast and south by the Atlantic Ocean, on the west by Pennsylvania, New Jersey is the fourth-smallest state but the 11th-most populous and the most densely populated of the 50 United States. New Jersey lies entirely within the statistical areas of New York City. New Jersey was inhabited by Native Americans for more than 2,800 years, in the early 17th century, the Dutch and the Swedes made the first European settlements. New Jersey was the site of decisive battles during the American Revolutionary War in the 18th century. In the 19th century, factories in cities such as Camden, Paterson, Newark, Trenton, around 180 million years ago, during the Jurassic Period, New Jersey bordered North Africa. The pressure of the collision between North America and Africa gave rise to the Appalachian Mountains, around 18,000 years ago, the Ice Age resulted in glaciers that reached New Jersey. As the glaciers retreated, they left behind Lake Passaic, as well as rivers, swamps. New Jersey was originally settled by Native Americans, with the Lenni-Lenape being dominant at the time of contact, scheyichbi is the Lenape name for the land that is now New Jersey. The Lenape society was divided into clans that were based upon common female ancestors. These clans were organized into three distinct phratries identified by their animal sign, Turtle, Turkey, and Wolf and they first encountered the Dutch in the early 17th century, and their primary relationship with the Europeans was through fur trade. The Dutch became the first Europeans to lay claim to lands in New Jersey, the Dutch colony of New Netherland consisted of parts of modern Middle Atlantic states. Although the European principle of ownership was not recognized by the Lenape. The first to do so was Michiel Pauw who established a patronship called Pavonia in 1630 along the North River which eventually became the Bergen, peter Minuits purchase of lands along the Delaware River established the colony of New Sweden. During the English Civil War, the Channel Island of Jersey remained loyal to the British Crown and it was from the Royal Square in St. Helier that Charles II of England was proclaimed King in 1649, following the execution of his father, Charles I. The North American lands were divided by Charles II, who gave his brother, the Duke of York, the region between New England and Maryland as a proprietary colony. James then granted the land between the Hudson River and the Delaware River to two friends who had remained loyal through the English Civil War, Sir George Carteret and Lord Berkeley of Stratton, the area was named the Province of New Jersey. Since the states inception, New Jersey has been characterized by ethnic, New England Congregationalists settled alongside Scots Presbyterians and Dutch Reformed migrants
24.
New York metropolitan area
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The New York metropolitan area continues to be the premier gateway for legal immigration to the United States, with the largest foreign-born population of any metropolitan region in the world. The MSA covers 6,720 sq mi, while the CSA area is 13,318 sq mi, encompassing an ethnically and geographically diverse region. In 2012, the New York metropolitan area was home to seven of the 25 wealthiest counties in the United States by median household income. According to Forbes, in 2014, the New York City metropolitan area was home to eight of the top ten ZIP codes in the United States by median housing price, with six in Manhattan alone. The U. S. Office of Management and Budget utilizes two definitions of the area, the Metropolitan Statistical Area and the Combined Statistical Area, the MSA is further subdivided into four metropolitan divisions. The 25-county metropolitan area includes 12 counties in New York State,12 counties in Northern and Central New Jersey, the largest urbanized area in the United States is at the heart of the metropolitan area, the New York–Newark, NY–NJ–CT Urbanized Area. The New York-Newark, NY-NJ-CT-PA Combined Statistical Area had an population of 23.7 million as of 2014. About one out of every fifteen Americans resides in this region, which includes seven counties in New York, New Jersey. This area, less the Pennsylvania portion, is referred to as the Tri-State Area. The New York City television designated market area includes Pike County, Pennsylvania, for instance, Long Island can be divided into its South and North Shores and the East End. The Hudson Valley and Connecticut are sometimes grouped together and referred to as the Northern Suburbs, the geographical, cultural, and economic center of the metropolitan area is New York City, which consists of five boroughs, each of which is also a county of New York State. The five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, the Bronx, with a Census-estimated population of 8,550,405 in 2015, distributed over a land area of just 305 square miles, New York is the most densely populated major city in the United States. Long Island is a located just off the northeast coast of the United States. Stretching east-northeast from New York Harbor into the Atlantic Ocean, the island comprises four counties, Kings and Queens to the west, then Nassau, North of the island is Long Island Sound, across which are the states of Connecticut and Rhode Island. Its population density is 5,571 inhabitants per square mile, Queens is the most ethnically diverse urban area in the world. Long Island is the most populated island in the United States, known especially for recreation, boating and miles of public beaches, including numerous town, county and state parks and Fire Island National Seashore. The East End of Long Island boasts open spaces for farmland, passenger rail access is provided by the Metropolitan Transportation Authority Long Island Rail Road, one of the largest commuter railroads in the United States. Air travel needs are served by several airports – most notably Farmingdale-Republic Airport and Islip-MacArthur Airport, within Queens, it is home to John F. Kennedy International Airport and LaGuardia Airport, two of the three major airline hubs serving the New York City area
25.
National Register of Historic Places
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The National Register of Historic Places is the United States federal governments official list of districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects deemed worthy of preservation. The passage of the National Historic Preservation Act in 1966 established the National Register, of the more than one million properties on the National Register,80,000 are listed individually. The remainder are contributing resources within historic districts, each year approximately 30,000 properties are added to the National Register as part of districts or by individual listings. For most of its history the National Register has been administered by the National Park Service and its goals are to help property owners and interest groups, such as the National Trust for Historic Preservation, coordinate, identify, and protect historic sites in the United States. While National Register listings are mostly symbolic, their recognition of significance provides some financial incentive to owners of listed properties, protection of the property is not guaranteed. During the nomination process, the property is evaluated in terms of the four criteria for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places, the application of those criteria has been the subject of criticism by academics of history and preservation, as well as the public and politicians. Occasionally, historic sites outside the proper, but associated with the United States are also listed. Properties can be nominated in a variety of forms, including individual properties, historic districts, the Register categorizes general listings into one of five types of properties, district, site, structure, building, or object. National Register Historic Districts are defined geographical areas consisting of contributing and non-contributing properties, some properties are added automatically to the National Register when they become administered by the National Park Service. These include National Historic Landmarks, National Historic Sites, National Historical Parks, National Military Parks/Battlefields, National Memorials, on October 15,1966, the Historic Preservation Act created the National Register of Historic Places and the corresponding State Historic Preservation Offices. Initially, the National Register consisted of the National Historic Landmarks designated before the Registers creation, approval of the act, which was amended in 1980 and 1992, represented the first time the United States had a broad-based historic preservation policy. To administer the newly created National Register of Historic Places, the National Park Service of the U. S. Department of the Interior, hartzog, Jr. established an administrative division named the Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation. Hartzog charged OAHP with creating the National Register program mandated by the 1966 law, ernest Connally was the Offices first director. Within OAHP new divisions were created to deal with the National Register, the first official Keeper of the Register was William J. Murtagh, an architectural historian. During the Registers earliest years in the late 1960s and early 1970s, organization was lax and SHPOs were small, understaffed, and underfunded. A few years later in 1979, the NPS history programs affiliated with both the U. S. National Parks system and the National Register were categorized formally into two Assistant Directorates. Established were the Assistant Directorate for Archeology and Historic Preservation and the Assistant Directorate for Park Historic Preservation, from 1978 until 1981, the main agency for the National Register was the Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service of the United States Department of the Interior. In February 1983, the two assistant directorates were merged to promote efficiency and recognize the interdependency of their programs, jerry L. Rogers was selected to direct this newly merged associate directorate
26.
Hanover Township, Northampton County, Pennsylvania
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Hanover Township is a township in Northampton County, Pennsylvania, United States. Hanover Township is located in the Lehigh Valley region of the state, the population of Hanover Township was 10,866 at the 2010 census. According to the United States Census Bureau, the township has an area of 6.7 square miles. It is drained by Monocacy Creek and Catasauqua Creek into the Lehigh River and its villages include Hanoverville, Schoenersville, Stoke Park, and Westgate Hills. Its numbered roads include the east-to-west Highway 22 and north-to-south Routes 512 and 987, other local roads of note include east-to-west Hanoverville Road, Macada Road, and Stoke Park Road and north-to-south Jacksonville Road and Township Line Road. Hanover Township is a suburb of the city of Bethlehem which lies just to the north of the city, officially has never been considered as a section of the city of Bethlehem, rather just a neighboring community with a strong connection to its large municipal neighbor to the south. The population density was 1,634.9 people per square mile, there were 4,245 housing units at an average density of 638. 7/sq mi. The racial makeup of the township was 87. 12% White,2. 74% African American,0. 05% Native American,6. 53% Asian,1. 44% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 4. 83% of the population. 20. 3% of all households were made up of individuals, the average household size was 2.59 and the average family size was 3.01. In the township the population was out, with 24. 7% under the age of 18,4. 5% from 18 to 24,26. 3% from 25 to 44,27. 0% from 45 to 64. The median age was 44.5 years, for every 100 females there were 94.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 91.6 males, the median income for a household in the township was $64,889, and the median income for a family was $72,661. Males had an income of $53,158 versus $33,569 for females. The per capita income for the township was $29,370, about 2. 0% of families and 2. 2% of the population were below the poverty line, including 1. 9% of those under age 18 and 2. 9% of those age 65 or over. Hanover is represented in the Pennsylvania House of Representatives as part of the 138th Legislative District. The 138th District consists of the townships of Bethlehem, Bushkill, East Allen, Hanover, Lower Nazareth, Moore and Plainfield, the township is represented in the Pennsylvania Senate as part of the 40th District, which includes parts of Monroe and Northampton Counties. The township is patrolled by the Colonial Regional Police Department, on the national level, Hanover is a part of Pennsylvania’s 15th congressional district, and is currently represented by Charles W. Dent. The states senior member of the United States Senate, is Bob Casey, the junior Senator, elected in 2010, is Patrick J. Toomey
27.
Norfolk Southern Railway
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The Norfolk Southern Railway is a Class I railroad in the United States. NS is responsible for maintaining 29,000 miles, with the remainder being operated under trackage rights from other parties responsible for maintenance, the common commodity hauled on the railroad is coal from mines in Indiana, Kentucky, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Virginia, and West Virginia. The railroad also offers the largest intermodal network in eastern North America, NS is a major transporter of domestic and export coal. In Pennsylvania, NS also receives coal through interchange with R. J, corman Railroad/Pennsylvania Lines at Cresson, Pennsylvania, originating in the Clearfield Cluster. Coal transported by NS is thus exported to steel mills and power plants around the world, the company is also a major transporter of auto parts and completed vehicles. It operates intermodal container and TOFC trains, some in conjunction with other railroads, NS was the first railway to employ roadrailers, which are highway truck trailers with interchangeable wheel sets. The Norfolk Southern Railways parent Norfolk Southern Corporation is a Norfolk, Norfolk Southern Corporation was incorporated on July 23,1980 in the Commonwealth of Virginia and is publicly traded on the New York Stock Exchange under the symbols NSC. As of October 1,2014 Norfolk Southern Corporations total public stock value was slightly over $34.5 billion, the system began in 1982 with the creation of the Norfolk Southern Corporation, a holding company for the Southern Railway and Norfolk & Western Railway. The new company was given the name of the Norfolk Southern Railway, a line, acquired by SOU in 1974, that served primarily North Carolina. Headquarters for the new NS were established in Norfolk, Virginia, the company suffered a slight embarrassment when the marble headpiece at the buildings entrance was unveiled, which read Norfolk Southern Railway. A new headpiece replaced the erroneous one several weeks later, NS aimed to compete in the eastern United States with CSX Transportation, formed after the Interstate Commerce Commissions 1980 approval of the merger of the Chessie System and the Seaboard System. Norfolk Southerns predecessor railroads date to the early 19th century, the SRs earliest predecessor line was the South Carolina Canal & Rail Road. Chartered in 1827, the South Carolina Canal & Rail Road Company became the first to regularly scheduled passenger train service with the inaugural run of the Best Friend of Charleston in 1830. Another early predecessor, the Richmond & Danville Railroad, was formed in 1847, the R&D ultimately fell on hard times and in 1894, it became a major portion of the new Southern Railway. Financier J. P. Morgan selected veteran railroader Samuel Spencer as president, profitable and innovative, Southern became in 1953 the first major U. S. railroad to completely switch to diesel-electric locomotives from steam. It was acquired by the South Side Railroad in 1854, in the second half of the 20th century, the N&W acquired the Virginian Railway, the Wabash Railway, and the Nickel Plate Road, among others. In 1990, the two merged and formed Norfolk Southern Railway. The system grew with the acquisition of half of Conrail
28.
Lehigh Line (Norfolk Southern)
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The Lehigh Line is a railroad line in central New Jersey and northeastern Pennsylvania. It is owned and operated by the Norfolk Southern Railway, the line runs west from the vicinity of the Port of New York and New Jersey to the Susquehanna River valley at the south end of the Wyoming Valley Coal Region. Administratively it is part of Norfolk Southerns Harrisburg Division and is part of the Crescent Corridor. As of 2016 the line is freight-only, although there are proposals to restore passenger service over all or part of the line. The Lehigh Line hosts approximately twenty-five trains per day, the line runs from Port Reading Junction in Manville, New Jersey to Penn Haven Junction in Lehigh Township, Carbon County, Pennsylvania. At Port Reading Junction it meets the Trenton Subdivision and it crosses the Delaware River at Phillipsburg, New Jersey. Most of the traffic along the line consists of intermodal and general merchandise trains going to such as Oak Island Yard in Newark. It connects with regional and short line railroads such as the Reading Blue Mountain and Northern Railroad, the Black River and Western Railroad, the majority of the line was once the main line of the Lehigh Valley Railroad. The first segment, between Easton and Allentown, opened in September 1855, later extensions and corporate acquisitions would carry to the Lehigh Valley main line to Buffalo, New York to the west and Perth Amboy, New Jersey to the east. Some portions of the line were constructed by the Lehigh and Susquehanna Railroad, conceived as a competitor to the Lehigh Valley, the L&S constructed a parallel line on the north side of the Lehigh River. The line opened in 1868 and was leased by the Central Railroad of New Jersey. Passenger service ended on the Lehigh Valley in 1961, the Lehigh Valley assumed the lease of the L&S from the CNJ in 1972 when the latter abandoned operations in Pennsylvania. Both the Lehigh Valley and CNJ were merged into Conrail in 1976, Conrail retained the ex-Lehigh Valley main line and named it the Lehigh Line. Conrail combined the Bethlehem–Allentown portion of the Lehigh Valley main line with the ex-Reading Company Reading Line, in the 1980s Conrail abandoned the ex-Lehigh Valley bridge over the Delaware River at Phillipsburg in favor of the L&S/CNJ bridge. The Norfolk Southern acquired the Lehigh Line in 1999 in the Conrail split with CSX Transportation, the section from Manville, New Jersey to Newark, New Jersey was spun off into Conrail Shared Assets Operations Lehigh Line, allowing for equal competition between Norfolk Southern and CSX. The Delaware, Lehigh, Schuylkill and Susquehanna Railroad Company incorporated on April 21,1846. Funding problems delayed the growth, and it was not until late 1852 that the company, under newly appointed chief engineer Robert H. Sayre. The company changed its name to the Lehigh Valley Railroad on January 7,1853, the line opened between Easton, Pennsylvania and Allentown, Pennsylvania on June 11,1855, and west to Mauch Chunk on September 12
29.
Lehigh Valley Railroad
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The Lehigh Valley Railroad was one of a number of railroads built in the northeastern United States primarily to haul anthracite coal. On January 7,1853, the name was changed to Lehigh Valley Railroad. It was sometimes known as the Route of the Black Diamond, at the time, anthracite was transported by boat down the Lehigh River, the railroad was meant to be faster transportation. The railroad ended operations in 1976 and merged into Conrail along with several railroads that same year. During its existence, the Lehigh Valley Railroad used a line that later became known as the Lehigh Line in order for it to operate. The line was known as the Lehigh Valley Mainline during the majority of its time under the ownership of the Lehigh Valley Railroad, Conrail shortened the line by abandoning most of its route to Buffalo. The Lehigh Line still exists and retains its original route but it now also doesnt reach close to New York City, the Lehigh Line is now owned by the Norfolk Southern Railway and has lost its trackage miles between Manville, New Jersey and Newark, New Jersey. As of 31 Dec 1925,1363.7 miles of road,3533.3 miles of track, the Lehigh Valley Railroad was authorized on April 21,1846 for freight and transportation of passengers, goods, wares, merchandise and minerals in Lehigh Valley, Pennsylvania. The route was surveyed and grading started in 1850, but progress was slow, the railroad began to survey a route from Mauch Chunk to Easton, Pennsylvania and the route was to be double tracked. The survey was conducted by Robert H. Sayre, the railroads Chief Engineer, with a rail of not less than 55 lb to the yard, and aiding along the line not less than four miles additional. Asa Packer wanted thorough rock cuts throughout the length of the line and doubled tracked bridge over the Delaware River into Phillipsburg. The railroads growth occurred after Asa Packer invested in the company in 1852, on January 7,1853, the railroad was renamed to the Lehigh Valley Railroad. Sayre, the chief engineer, the lines route to Mauch Chunk was delayed. At Easton, the LVRR constructed a bridge across the Delaware River for connections to the CNJ. From Easton to Allentown, the LVRR ran two trains daily from its opening date until September 11,1855, during this time, the LVRR was finishing construction of an extension of the line from Allentown to Mauch Chunk. After October 1,1855, the LVRR added more services to the Allentown-Mauch Chunk route. Through a connection with the Central Railroad of New Jersey, LVRR passengers had a route to Newark, New Jersey, Jersey City, New Jersey, a daily freight train was put into operation leaving Easton in the morning and returning in the evening. In the early part of October 1855, a contract was made with Howard & Co of Philadelphia to do the business of the railroad
30.
Phillipsburg, New Jersey
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Phillipsburg is a town in Warren County, New Jersey, in the United States. Phillipsburg was incorporated as a town by an act of the New Jersey Legislature on March 8,1861, the town was named for William Phillips, an early settler of the area. The town is located in western New Jersey, on the border of Pennsylvania, the Norfolk Southern Railways Lehigh Line, runs through Phillipsburg on its way cross river to Easton, Pennsylvania. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town had an area of 3.311 square miles. Unincorporated communities, localities and place names located partially or completely within the town include Andover Furnace, Delaware Park, Lopatcong Heights, Shirmers, Pohatcong Mountain is a ridge, approximately 6 mi long, in the Appalachian Mountains that extends from Phillipsburg northeast approximately to Washington. The Towns economic data is calculated by the US Census Bureau as part of the Allentown-Bethlehem-Easton, as of the census of 2010, there were 14,950 people,5,925 households, and 3,786 families residing in the town. The population density was 4,682.1 per square mile, there were 6,607 housing units at an average density of 2,069.2 per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 83. 44% White,7. 49% Black or African American,0. 17% Native American,1. 53% Asian,0. 05% Pacific Islander,3. 92% from other races, and 3. 39% from two or more races. [[Hispanic |Hispanic or Latino of any race were 11. 82% of the population,29. 9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 12. 2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.51 and the family size was 3.12. In the town, the population was out with 25. 8% under the age of 18,9. 3% from 18 to 24,25. 9% from 25 to 44,25. 8% from 45 to 64. The median age was 37.1 years, for every 100 females there were 92.7 males. For every 100 females ages 18 and old there were 87.0 males, the Census Bureaus 2006-2010 American Community Survey showed that median household income was $42,825 and the median family income was $51,334. Males had an income of $44,311 versus $37,673 for females. The per capita income for the borough was $21,291, about 16. 5% of families and 18. 5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 31. 1% of those under age 18 and 6. 5% of those age 65 or over. As of the 2000 United States Census there were 15,166 people,6,044 households, the population density was 4,703.6 people per square mile. There were 6,651 housing units at a density of 2,062.8 per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 91. 84% White,3. 47% African American,0. 12% Native American,0. 83% Asian,0. 01% Pacific Islander,2. 02% from other races, and 1. 71% from two or more races
31.
Reading Line
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The Reading Line is a main freight line in Pennsylvania owned and operated by Norfolk Southern Railway. It streches from the Harrisburg Line at Wyomissing Junction in Wyomissing, Pennsylvania to a junction with the Lehigh Line in Bethlehem, the line sees about 35 trains a day, mostly trains running from Northern New Jersey and Allentown, Pennsylvania to points west. The line, for the most part, is double-track, with the area of single track between CP Blandon and CP West Laurel. The line opened as the East Pennsylvania Railroad on May 11,1859 and this railroad became part of the Reading Railroad, and carried traffic from the Allentown area to their main line. In 1976, The Reading Railroad was acquired by Conrail, which continued to use the line as a conduit between North Jersey and the rest of the country, when Conrail was split in 1999, Norfolk Southern was assigned the line
32.
Money (magazine)
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Money is a magazine that is published by Time Inc. Its first issue was published in October 1972 and its articles cover the gamut of personal finance topics ranging from investing, saving, retirement and taxes to family finance issues like paying for college, credit, career and home improvement. It is well known for its annual list of Americas Best Places to Live, the magazine, along with Fortune, was a partner with sister cable network CNN in CNNMoney. com, an arrangement made after the discontinuation of the CNNfn business news channel in 2004. In 2014, following the spin-off of Time Inc. the magazines publisher, from CNN parent Time Warner, Money launched its own website, top Editor Is Leaving Money Magazine
33.
Indigenous peoples
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Groups are usually described as indigenous when they maintain traditions or other aspects of an early culture that is associated with a given region. Not all indigenous peoples share such characteristics, Indigenous societies are found in every inhabited climate zone and continent of the world. Estimates put the population of indigenous peoples from 220 million to 350 million. The adjective indigenous is derived from the Latin word indigena, which is based on the root gen- to be born with a form of the prefix in in. Any given people, ethnic group or community may be described as indigenous in reference to some particular region or location that they see as their tribal land claim. Other terms used to refer to indigenous populations are aboriginal, native, original, james Anaya, former Special Rapporteur on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, has defined indigenous peoples as living descendants of pre-invasion inhabitants of lands now dominated by others. They are culturally distinct groups that find themselves engulfed by other settler societies born of forces of empire, throughout history, different states designate the groups within their boundaries that are recognized as indigenous peoples according to international or national legislation by different terms. Their ability to influence and participate in the policies that may exercise jurisdiction over their traditional lands. The presence of external laws, claims and cultural mores either potentially or actually act to constrain the practices and observances of an indigenous society. These constraints can be observed even when the society is regulated largely by its own tradition. They may be imposed, or arise as unintended consequence of trans-cultural interaction. They may have an effect, even where countered by other external influences. This definition has some limitations, because the definition applies mainly to pre-colonial populations, the primary impetus in considering indigenous identity comes from the post-colonial movements and considering the historical impacts on populations by the European imperialism. Greek sources of the Classical period acknowledge the existence of indigenous people. These peoples inhabited lands surrounding the Aegean Sea before the subsequent migrations of the Hellenic ancestors claimed by these authors, the disposition and precise identity of this former group is elusive, and sources such as Homer, Hesiod and Herodotus give varying, partially mythological accounts. However, it is clear that cultures existed whose indigenous characteristics were distinguished by the subsequent Hellenic cultures, greco-Roman society flourished between 250 BC and 480 AD and commanded successive waves of conquests that gripped more than half of the globe. The rapid and extensive spread of the various European powers from the early 15th century onwards had an impact upon many of the indigenous cultures with whom they came into contact. The Canary Islands had an indigenous population called the Guanches whose origin is still the subject of discussion among historians, the United Nations estimates that there are over 370 million indigenous people living in over 70 countries worldwide
34.
Algonquian languages
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The Algonquian languages are a subfamily of Native American languages which includes most of the languages in the Algic language family. The term Algonquin has been suggested to derive from the Maliseet word elakómkwik, a number of Algonquian languages, like many of the Iroquoian languages of the hereditary enemies of the Algonquian peoples, have already become extinct. Speakers of Algonquian languages stretch from the east coast of North America to the Rocky Mountains, the proto-language from which all of the languages of the family descend, Proto-Algonquian, was spoken around 2,500 to 3,000 years ago. There is no consensus about where this language was spoken. This subfamily of around 30 languages is divided into three groups according to geography, Plains, Central, and Eastern Algonquian, only Eastern Algonquian constitutes a true genetic subgroup. The languages are listed below, following the classifications of Goddard, extinct languages are marked with †, and endangered languages are noted as such. For dialects and subdialects, consult the separate articles for each of the three divisions. Shinnecock Eastern Algonquian is a true genetic subgrouping, the Plains Algonquian and the Central Algonquian groups are not genetic groupings but rather areal groupings. However, these groups often do share linguistic features. Paul Proulx has argued that this view is incorrect. However, this scheme has failed to gain acceptance from other specialists in the Algonquian languages. Instead, the commonly accepted subgrouping scheme is that proposed by Ives Goddard, by this scenario, Blackfoot was the first language to branch off, which coincides well with its being the most divergent language of Algonquian. In west-to-east order, the subsequent branchings were, Arapaho-Gros Ventre, Cree-Montagnais, Menominee, and Cheyenne, then the core Great Lakes languages, and finally, Proto-Eastern Algonquian. Goddard also points out there is clear evidence for pre-historical contact between Eastern Algonquian and Cree-Montagnais, as well as between Cheyenne and Arapaho-Gros Ventre. There has long been especially extensive back-and-forth influence between Cree and Ojibwe and they share certain intriguing lexical and phonological innovations. But, this theory has not yet been fully fleshed out and is still considered conjectural, linguistic evidence is scarce and poorly recorded however, and it is unlikely that reliable evidence of a connection can be found. The Algonquian language family is known for its complex polysynthetic morphology, statements that take many words to say in English can be expressed with a single word. Ex, paehtāwāēwesew He is heard by higher powers or kāstāhikoyahk it frightens us and these languages have been extensively studied by Leonard Bloomfield, Ives Goddard, and others
35.
Lenape
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The Leni Lenape or Lenape, or the Delaware people in older references, are a Native American tribe and, in Canada, a recognized First Nations band government. Subsequently, the Lenape became subjugated and made tributary to first the Susquehannocks, then the Iroquois, iroquoian peoples occasionally fought the Lenape. As the 1700s progressed, many surviving Lenape moved west —into the upper Ohio River basin, during the decades of the 18th century most Lenape were pushed out of their homeland by expanding European colonies, exacerbated by losses from intertribal conflicts. The divisions and troubles of the American Revolutionary War and United States independence pushed them farther west, in the 1860s, the United States government sent most Lenape remaining in the eastern United States to the Indian Territory under the Indian removal policy. In the 21st century, most Lenape now reside in the US state of Oklahoma, with communities living also in Wisconsin, Ontario. Lenape kinship system has matrilineal clans, that is, children belong to their mothers clan, from which they gain social status, the mothers eldest brother was more significant as a mentor to the male children than was their father, who was generally of another clan. Hereditary leadership passed through the line, and women elders could remove leaders of whom they disapproved. Agricultural land was managed by women and allotted according to the needs of their extended families. Families were matrilocal, newlywed couples would live with the brides family, lenni-Lenape comes from their autonym, Lenni, which may mean genuine, pure, real, original, and Lenape, meaning Indian or man. Alternately, lënu may be translated as man, the tribes other name, Delaware, is not of Native American origin. English colonists named the Delaware River for the first governor of the Province of Virginia, Thomas West, 3rd Baron De La Warr, the English then began to call the Lenape the Delaware Indians because of where they lived. Swedes also settled in the area, and early Swedish sources listed the Lenape as the Renappi, traditional Lenape lands, the Lenapehoking, was a large territory that encompassed the Delaware Valley of eastern Pennsylvania. The Swedes and Dutch at New Castle, a Lenâpé-English Dictionary, From An Anonymous In The Archives Of The Moravian Church At Bethlehem. David Zeisbergers History of Northern American Indians, grammar of the Language of the Lenni Lenape or Delaware Indians. The Diary of David Zeisberger, A Moravian Missionary Among the Ohio Indians, the Diary of David Zeisberger, A Moravian Missionary Among the Ohio Indians, Volume 2. Zeisberger’s Indian Dictionary, English, German, Iroquois—The Onondaga and Algonquin—The Delaware, “The Delaware that Zeisberger translated was Munsee, and not Unami. Adams, Richard Calmit, The Delaware Indians, a history, Hope Farm Press Bierhorst. The White Deer and Other Stories Told by the Lenape, ISBN 0-688-12900-5 Brown, James W. and Rita T. Kohn, eds
36.
Unalachtigo Lenape
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The Unalachtigo were a purported division of the Lenape, a Native American tribe whose homeland Lenapehoking was in what is today the Northeastern United States. They were part of the Forks Indians, the name was a Munsee language term for the Unami-speakers of west-central New Jersey. Moravian missionaries called the Lenape people of the Forks region near Easton, Pennsylvania Unami, and it is debated whether Unalachtigo constituted a distinct dialect of Unami. Unalachtigo words were recorded in 17th-century vocabulary drawn from the Sankhikan band of Lenape in New Jersey, the Sankhikan band were enemies of the Manhattan people, who spoke Munsee Unalachtigo probably came from the term wə̆nálâhtko·w, which according to Ives Goddard has an unknown translation. Some sources translate unalachtigo as meaning people who live near the ocean, other spellings include Unalâchtigo and Wunalàchtigo. Linguist Ives Goddard has determined that the Unalachtigo had their origins around the Lehigh Valley of Pennsylvania and they spoke a Northern Unami or Unalimi dialect of Lenape. The group unsuccessfully filed for recognition with the Bureau of Indian Affairs on 1 Feb 2002. Their complaint was dismissed by the Superior Court of New Jersey, bruce G. Trigger, vol. ed. Handbook of North American Indians, Volume 15, Northwest. Washington DC, Smithsonian Institution,1978, 70–77, bruce G. Trigger, vol. ed. Handbook of North American Indians, Volume 15, Northwest. Washington DC, Smithsonian Institution,1978, 213–239, on Records, Delaware Indians, Colonists, and the Media of History and Memory. Lincoln, University of Nebraska Press,2012, Unalachtigo Band of the Naticoke-Lenni Lenape v. State of New Jersey
37.
David Nitschmann der Bischof
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He landed at Philadelphia, in 1741 and was instrumental in the founding of Bethlehem, PA where he died in 1772. (Papers of David Nitschmann Klaus-Gunther Wesseling, zinzendorf und Pottendorf, Nikolaus Ludwig Reichsgraf und Herr von. The Moravians in Georgia, Chapter 6 http, //web. archive. org/web/20091027152737/http, //www. geocities. com/janet_ariciu/Linebaugh. html
38.
Nicolaus Zinzendorf
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Nikolaus Ludwig, Reichsgraf von Zinzendorf und Pottendorf was a German religious and social reformer, bishop of the Moravian Church and founder of the Herrnhuter Brüdergemeine. He was called Ludwig or Brother Ludwig by his intimates and he was a major figure of the 18th century Protestantism, notable for providing shelter for the German-speaking Moravian exiles at Herrnhut. This settlement was influenced by his Pietist ideas from the Lutheran faith he was brought up in, nowadays, the Moravian Church remains heavily shaped by Zinzendorf, in addition to its Hussite origin. Born at Dresden, Zinzendorf was often influenced by strong and vehement feelings and he was a natural orator, and though his dress was simple his personal appearance gave an impression of distinction and force. In 1736, he was banished from Saxony, but in 1749 the government rescinded its decree, the Zinzendorf family belonged to one of the most ancient of noble families in Lower Austria. They were feudal lords over many places in the Wachau area of the Danube Valley and their seat was in Karlstetten, Lower Austria. Family members occupied many important positions in the household, at the Reformation they became Lutherans. Among the Zinzendorf ancestors was the Emperor Maximillian I, Zinzendorfs great grandfather was made an Imperial Count. His son Erasmus Maximillian von Zinzendorf chose to sell his Austrian possessions and his children entered the service of the Electors of Brandenburg and of Saxony Zinzendorfs father was in the service of the Saxon Elector at Dresden at the time of his youngest sons birth. He died six weeks later and the child was sent to live with his maternal grandmother and his parents were engaged in Pietist circles and had Philipp Jakob Spener appointed as his godfather. His school days were spent at Halle where Pietism was strong, on his return he visited the branches of his family settled at Oberbürg near Nürnberg and at Castell. He seems to have considered this disappointment as a call to some work for God. He wanted to demonstrate practical application of Speners Pietist ideals and their printing-house at Ebersdorf printed large quantities of inexpensive Bibles, catechisms, hymnals and religious tracts. A French translation of Johann Arndts True Christianity was also published and he began to think that true Christianity could be best promoted by free associations of Christians, which in the course of time might grow into churches with no state connection. These thoughts took a turn from his connection with remnants of the Bohemian Brethren. In 1722, Zinzendorf offered an asylum to a number of persecuted wanderers from Moravia and Bohemia, as the village grew it became known as a place of religious freedom, and attracted individuals from a variety of persecuted groups, including the Schwenkfelders. The concentration of differing beliefs in the village produced intense conflict, the village fell into disarray and severe conflict. Some, including village founder Christian David, got caught up in apocalyptic fanaticism, referring to Zinzendorf as the Beast of the Apocalypse, and Rothe as the False Prophet
39.
Moravian Church
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The modern Unitas Fratrum, with about 750,000 members worldwide, continues to draw on traditions established during the eighteenth century. The Moravians continue their tradition of missionary work, for example in the Caribbean. This is reflected in their global distribution. The Church places a value on ecumenism, personal piety, missions. The Church’s emblem is the Lamb of God with the flag of victory, surrounded by the Latin inscription, Vicit agnus noster, eum sequamur. The Hussite movement that was to become the Moravian Church was started by Jan Hus in early 15th century Bohemia, since these actions predate the Protestant Reformation by a century, some historians claim the Moravian Church was the first Protestant church. The movement gained support in the Crown of Bohemia, however, Hus was summoned to attend the Council of Constance, which decided that he was a heretic and had him burned at the stake on 6 July 1415. In 1434, an army of Utraquists and Catholics defeated the Taborites at the Battle of Lipany, the Utraquists signed the Compacts of Basel on 5 July 1436. Within fifty years of Hus death, a contingent of his followers had become independently organised as the Bohemian Brethren or Unity of the Brethren, a brother known as Gregory the Patriarch was very influential in forming the group, as well as the teachings of Peter Chelcicky. This group held to a strict obedience to the Sermon on the Mount, which included non-swearing of oaths, non-resistance, because of this, they considered themselves separate from the majority Hussites that did not hold those teachings. They received episcopal ordination through the Waldensians in 1467 and these were some of the earliest Protestants, rebelling against Rome some fifty years before Martin Luther. By the middle of the 16th century as many as 90 per cent of the inhabitants of the Bohemian Crown were Protestant, the majority of nobility was Protestant, the schools and printing-shops established by the Moravian Church were flourishing. Protestantism had an influence to the education of the population. Even in the middle of the 16th century there was not a town without a Protestant school in the Bohemian crown lands. With the University of Prague also firmly in hands of Protestants, therefore, the Jesuits were invited, with the backing of the Catholic Habsburg rulers, to come to the Bohemian Crown and establish a number of Catholic educational institutions. One of these is the university in the Moravian capital of Olomouc, in 1582 they forced closure of local Protestant schools. The Revolt started by unplanned second Defenestrations of Prague and was defeated in 1620 in the Battle of White Mountain near Prague, as consequence the local Protestant noblemen were either executed or expelled from the country while the Habsburgs placed Catholic nobility in their place. The war, plague, and subsequent disruption led to a decline in the population from over 3 million to some 800,000 people, by 1622 the entire education system was in the hands of Jesuits and all Protestant schools were closed
40.
Christian mission
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A Christian mission is an organized effort to spread Christianity. Missions often involve sending individuals and groups, called missionaries, across boundaries, most commonly geographical boundaries and this involves evangelism, and humanitarian work, especially among the poor and disadvantaged. There are a few different kinds of trips, short-term, long-term, relational. Some might choose to dedicate their lives to missions as well. Missionaries have the authority to preach the Christian faith, and provide work to improve economic development, literacy, education, health care. Christian doctrines permit the provision of aid without requiring religious conversion, the earliest examples of Christian missionary activity are those recorded in writings that would eventually come to form the New Testament. Early writings include the letters of Apostle Paul, written in the course of his activity in Asia Minor. His activities were preceded by an expansion of Christianity from the first followers of Jesus in Jerusalem throughout Syro-Palestine and this is also described in the Acts of the Apostles. The earliest Christian mission, then, the Great Commission and Dispersion of the Apostles, was active within Second Temple Judaism, as Christianity had not yet split from Judaism. Whether a Jewish proselytism existed or not that would have served as a model for the early Christians is unclear, soon, the expansion of the Christian mission beyond Judaism to those who were not Jewish became a contested issue, notably at the Council of Jerusalem. The Apostle Paul was a proponent of this expansion, and contextualized the Christian message for the Greek and Roman cultures, permitting it to reach beyond its Hebrew. From Late Antiquity onward, much activity was carried out by members of religious orders. Monasteries followed disciplines and supported missions, libraries, and practical research, all of which were perceived as works to reduce human misery and suffering, for example, Nestorian communities evangelized parts of Central Asia, as well as Tibet, China, and India. Cistercians evangelized much of Northern Europe, as well as developing most of European agricultures classic techniques, st Patrick evangelized many in Ireland. St David was active in Wales, during the Middle Ages, Ramon Llull advanced the concept of preaching to Muslims and converting them to Christianity by means of non-violent argument. A vision for mission to Muslims would die with him. Additional events can be found at the timeline of Christian missions, during the Middle Ages Christian monasteries and missionaries such as Saint Patrick, and Adalbert of Prague propagated learning and religion beyond the boundaries of the old Roman Empire. In the seventh century Gregory the Great sent missionaries, including Augustine of Canterbury, the Hiberno-Scottish mission began in 563
41.
Monocacy Creek (Lehigh River)
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Monocacy Creek is a tributary of the Lehigh River in Northampton County, Pennsylvania in the United States. One of only 56 limestone streams in the state of Pennsylvania, from Chapman, the Monocacy follows a 20. 3-mile course through the limestone Lehigh Valley, to its confluence with the Lehigh River in the city of Bethlehem. Monocacy Creek is not connected to the Monocacy River in Maryland, list of rivers of Pennsylvania U. S. Geological Survey, PA stream gaging stations
42.
Lehigh River
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The Lehigh River, a tributary of the Delaware River, is a 109-mile-long river located in eastern Pennsylvania, in the United States. Part of the Lehigh, along with a number of its tributaries, is designated a Pennsylvania Scenic River by the states Department of Conservation, Lehigh is an Anglicization of the Lenape name for the river, Lechewuekink, meaning where there are forks. The river flows in a winding course through valleys between ridges of the Appalachian Mountains. Its upper course is characterized by numerous whitewater rapids and supports a range of recreational pursuits including whitewater rafting, kayaking and canoeing. Its lower course forms the heart of the Lehigh Valley, an important anthracite coal. The river rises in the Pocono Mountains of northeastern Pennsylvania, in ponds in Lehigh Township, Wayne County. It flows initially southwest, through southern Lackawanna County, through Francis E. Walter Reservoir, near White Haven it turns south, following a zigzag whitewater course through Lehigh Gorge State Park to Jim Thorpe, then southeast, past Lehighton. Southeast of Lehighton, it passes through Blue Mountain in an opening called the Lehigh Gap. The PA Gazetteer of Streams shows that the Lehigh River begins as the outflow of Pocono Peak Lake, flowing south from the south end of the lake it turns west after a mile and receives water from many lakes and ponds as it flows past the borough of Gouldsboro. The Lehigh River holds many species of fish, such as Trout, Smallmouth Bass, Largemouth Bass, Pickerel, Panfish, Carp, Catfish and the fish of 10,000 casts, the notorious Muskellunge. Trout, both rainbow and brown in the 18-20 range are average while some have been caught into the mid to upper 20 range, Smallmouth Bass are large in numbers but are of smaller size with most between 8-14 with an occasional fish from the 18-21 range. There is a number of muskie being reported within the 30-52 range. There are both pure and tiger Muskie, the sterile, hybrid offspring of the true muskellunge. The Lehigh River is a white water river with Class I, II, the most popular section of the Lehigh River for white water rafting, kayaking, and canoeing is through the Lehigh Gorge State Park. The Lehigh Gorge State Park begins at the Francis E. Walter Dam and ends in the town of Jim Thorpe, several white water outfitters operate guided white water rafting trips in various sections of the river. The first rafting outfitter on the Lehigh River was Whitewater Challengers, water releases from the Francis E. Walter Dam provide enough water to make the river deep enough for boating
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Murska Sobota, Slovenia
Tondabayashi, Osaka Prefecture, Japan
Schwäbisch Gmünd, Germany
Corfu, Greece[47]
"Bethlehem, a borough of Northampton and Lehigh counties, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911.
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Bethlehem
