1.
Madagascar
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Madagascar, officially the Republic of Madagascar, and previously known as the Malagasy Republic, is an island country in the Indian Ocean, off the coast of Southeast Africa. The nation comprises the island of Madagascar, and numerous smaller peripheral islands, consequently, Madagascar is a biodiversity hotspot, over 90% of its wildlife is found nowhere else on Earth. The islands diverse ecosystems and unique wildlife are threatened by the encroachment of the growing human population. The first archaeological evidence for human foraging on Madagascar dates to 2000 BC, human settlement of Madagascar occurred between 350 BC and AD550 by Austronesian peoples arriving on outrigger canoes from Borneo. These were joined around AD1000 by Bantu migrants crossing the Mozambique Channel from East Africa, other groups continued to settle on Madagascar over time, each one making lasting contributions to Malagasy cultural life. The Malagasy ethnic group is divided into 18 or more sub-groups of which the largest are the Merina of the central highlands. Until the late 18th century, the island of Madagascar was ruled by an assortment of shifting sociopolitical alliances. Beginning in the early 19th century, most of the island was united and ruled as the Kingdom of Madagascar by a series of Merina nobles, the monarchy collapsed in 1897 when the island was absorbed into the French colonial empire, from which the island gained independence in 1960. The autonomous state of Madagascar has since undergone four major constitutional periods, since 1992, the nation has officially been governed as a constitutional democracy from its capital at Antananarivo. However, in an uprising in 2009, president Marc Ravalomanana was made to resign. Constitutional governance was restored in January 2014, when Hery Rajaonarimampianina was named president following a 2013 election deemed fair, Madagascar is a member of the United Nations, the Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie and the Southern African Development Community. Madagascar belongs to the group of least developed countries, according to the United Nations, Malagasy and French are both official languages of the state. The majority of the population adheres to traditional beliefs, Christianity, ecotourism and agriculture, paired with greater investments in education, health, and private enterprise, are key elements of Madagascars development strategy. As of 2017, the economy has been weakened by the 2009-2013 political crisis, in the Malagasy language, the island of Madagascar is called Madagasikara and its people are referred to as Malagasy. The islands appellation Madagascar is not of origin, but rather was popularized in the Middle Ages by Europeans. On St. Laurences Day in 1500, Portuguese explorer Diogo Dias landed on the island, polos name was preferred and popularized on Renaissance maps. At 592,800 square kilometres, Madagascar is the worlds 47th largest country, the country lies mostly between latitudes 12°S and 26°S, and longitudes 43°E and 51°E. Neighboring islands include the French territory of Réunion and the country of Mauritius to the east, as well as the state of Comoros, the nearest mainland state is Mozambique, located to the west
2.
Malagasy language
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Malagasy is an Austronesian language and the national language of Madagascar. Most people in Madagascar speak it as a first language as do some people of Malagasy descent elsewhere, the Malagasy language is the westernmost member of the Malayo-Polynesian branch of the Austronesian language family. Its distinctiveness from nearby African languages was noted in 1708 by the Dutch scholar Adriaan Reland and it is related to the Malayo-Polynesian languages of Indonesia, Malaysia, and the Philippines, and more closely to the East Barito languages spoken in Borneo except for its Polynesian morphophonemics. According to Roger Blench, the earliest form of language spoken on Madagascar could have had some non-Austronesian substrata, Madagascar was first settled by Austronesian peoples from Maritime Southeast Asia who had passed through Borneo. 1000, the original Austronesian settlers mixed with Bantus and Arabs, there is evidence that the predecessor of the Malagasy dialects first arrived in the southern stretch of the east coast of Madagascar. Malagasy has a tradition of arts and poetic histories and legends. The most well-known is the epic, Ibonia, about a Malagasy folk hero of the same name. The Malagasy language is the language spoken on the island of Madagascar. It is also spoken by Malagasy communities on neighboring Indian Ocean islands such as Réunion, large expatriate Malagasy communities speaking the language also exist in France, Québec, and to a lesser extent Belgium and Washington DC. The Merina dialect of Malagasy is considered the language of Madagascar. It is one of two official languages alongside French in the 2010 constitution putting in place the Fourth Republic, previously, under the 2007 constitution, Malagasy was one of three official languages alongside French and English. Ethnologue encodes a dozen varieties of Malagasy as distinct languages and they have about a 70% similarity in lexicon with Merina dialect. The two main dialects of Malagasy are easily distinguished by several phonological features, the language has a written literature going back presumably to the 15th century. When the French established Fort-Dauphin in the 17th century, they found an Arabico-Malagasy script in use and this Arabic Ajami script was mainly used for astrological and magical texts. The first bilingual renderings of religious texts are those by Étienne de Flacourt, who also published the first dictionary of the language. The Malagasy alphabet consists of 21 letters, a, b, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, p, r, s, t, v, y, z. The orthography maps rather straightforwardly to the phonemic inventory, the letters i and y both represent the /i/ sound, while o is pronounced /u/. The affricates /ʈʂ/ and /ɖʐ/ are written tr and dr, respectively, while /ts/ and /dz/ are written ts, the letter h is often silent
3.
Tsimihety people
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The Tsimihety are a Malagasy ethnic group who are found in the north-central region of Madagascar. Their name means those who never cut their hair, a behavior likely linked to their independence from Sakalava kingdom, located to their west and they are found in mountainous part of the island. They are one of the largest Malagasy ethnic groups and their population estimates range between 700,000 and over 1.2 million, soon afterward they accepted the rule of the Volafotsy, a clan associated with the Maroserana who had migrated north from Sakalava territory. They are thus not a tribe, because they lack tribal ties and their relationships are centered around biological family and kin. The anarchist system prevailed among the Tsimihety people before the 19th century, however, in 1823, Radama I, the Merina king, brought the entire island under one rule, including the Tsimihety, and abolished slavery. The French colonial rule absorbed the Tsimihety in 1896, as a part of French Madagascar, the Tsimihety have been an active part of Madagascar politics ever since. They are, in words, the anarchists of northwest Madagascar. Graeber states that ultimately, the Tsimihety were eventually gobbled up by the state, gave up the utopia, as they sought economic opportunities, the Tsimihety people are patrilineal, and kin relationships with the male ancestors and descendants are most important to both men and women. Their cultural conventions require extended exogamy, which coupled with high rates have led to their migration. The society is notable for the social roles expected by a Tsimihety family from a maternal uncle. The language of the Tsimihety people is a dialect of the Malagasy language, Tsimihety society and economy, as in much of Madagascar, is primarily focused on agriculture. Rice is the crop, and the Tsimihety raise cattle. Working on crop land on Tuesday is fady – a taboo – among the Tsimihety, the main economic center among the Tsimihety is in Mandritsara. Appiah, Anthony, Gates, Jr. Henry Louis, africana, The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience. Hainteny, The Traditional Poetry of Madagascar, the Ethical Condition, Essays on Action, Person, and Value. Ogot, Bethwell A. Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century, wilson, Peter J. Freedom by a Hairs Breadth, Tsimihety in Madagascar
4.
Demographics of Madagascar
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Madagascars population is predominantly of mixed Austronesian and East African origin. The problem with population estimation in Madagascar is that data is very old, the last population census was carried out in 1993, after an initial 1975 census. There was an attempt at a census in 2009, but this ultimately failed due to political instability. Therefore, the situation is inferred but reliability of any estimates from any source has a large margin of error. According to the 2010 revision of the World Population Prospects the total population was 20714000 in 2010, compared to only 4084000 in 1950. The proportion of children below the age of 15 in 2010 was 43. 1%,53. 8% was between 15 and 65 years of age, while 3. 1% was 65 years or older, structure of the population, Numbers are in thousands. UN medium variant projections 201523,852202027,365202531,217203035,333203539,643204044,132204548,782205053,561 Registration of vital events in Madagascar is not complete. The Population Department of the United Nations prepared the following estimates and this group is further subdivided a number of ethnic groups, often into the standard eighteen. More recent arrivals include Europeans and Chinese immigrants, Madagascar was probably uninhabited prior to Austronesian settlement in the early centuries AD. The largest coastal groups are the Betsimisaraka and the Tsimihety and Sakalava, Malagasy society has long been polarized between the politically and economically advantaged highlanders of the central plateaux and the people along the coast. Identity politics were also at the core of the civil unrest during 2002. Indians in Madagascar descend mostly from traders who arrived in the independent nation looking for better opportunities. The majority of them came from the west coast of India known as Karana, the majority speak Hindi or Gujarati, although some other Indian dialects are also spoken. Nowadays the younger generations speak at least three languages, including French, Gujarati and Malagasy, a large number of the Indians in Madagascar have a high level of education, particularly the younger generation. A sizeable number of Europeans also reside in Madagascar, mostly of French descent, about half the population of Madagascar practices traditional religions, which tend to emphasize links between the living and the dead. They believe that the dead join their ancestors in the ranks of divinity and this spiritual communion is celebrated by the Merina and Betsileo reburial practice of famadihana, or turning over the dead. In this ritual, relatives remains are removed from the tomb, rewrapped in new silk shrouds. In the festivities, they eat, drink, and literally dance with the dead, after one or two days of celebrating, they shower the body with gifts and re-bury it
5.
Merina people
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The Merina people, also known as the Imerina, Antimerina or Hova, are the largest ethnic group in Madagascar. They are the highlander Malagasy ethnic group of the African island and their origins are mixed, predominantly with Malayo-Indonesians arriving before the 5th century AD, then many centuries later by Arabs, Africans and other ethnic groups. They speak the Merina language, and one of their dialects is the official Malagasy language of Madagascar, the Merina people are most commonly found in the center of the island. The French fought two wars with the Merina people in 1883-1885 and in 1895, colonized Madagascar in 1895–96 and they built innovative and elaborate irrigation infrastructure and highly productive rice farms in high plateaus of Madagascar by the 18th century. Austronesian people started settling in Madagascar between 200 to 500 CE and they arrived by boats and were from various southeast Asian groups. Later Swahili-Arabs and Indian traders came to the northern regions. African slaves were brought to the coasts between the 13th and the 18th centuries. The Portuguese traders were the first Europeans to arrive in the 15th century and this influx of diverse people led to various Malagasy sub-ethnicities in the mid-2nd millennium. The Merina were probably the early arrivals, though this is uncertain, the Merina peoples culture likely mixed and merged with the Madagascar natives named Vazimba about whom little is known. They emerged as the dominant group and a wealthy kingdom towards the close of the 18th century. The capital of their remains the capital of contemporary Madagascar. Oral history traces the emergence of a kingdom in the central highlands of Madagascar – a region called Imerina – back to early 16th-century king Andriamanelo. The colonial British empire recognized the sovereignty of the Merina kingdom, Radama I welcomed European traders and allowed Christian missionaries to establish missions on Madagascar. After him, the Merina people were ruled by Queen Ranavolona I ruled from 1828 to 1861, Queen Rasoherina from 1863 to 1868, the Merina people called the Malagasy living along the coasts as Cotier. These operations and plantations were worked by the labor of imported slaves. The largest influx of slaves was brought in by the Umani Arabs, the Makua people from Mozambique were one of the major victims of this demand, slave capture and export that attempted to satisfy this demand. The slavery was abolished by the French administration in 1896, which impacted the fortunes of Merina and non-Merina operated slave-run plantations. The dominance of the Merina kingdom over all of Madagascar came to an end with the first Franco-Hova War of 1883 to 1885, the French declared Madagascar as a protectorate in 1894, which the then Merina Queen refused to sign to
6.
Malagasy people
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The Malagasy are the ethnic group that forms nearly the entire population of Madagascar. This division has its roots in historical patterns of settlement, sometime later, a large number of settlers arrived from East Africa and established kingdoms along the relatively unpopulated coastlines. The difference in ethnic origins remains somewhat evident between the highland and coastal regions, in addition to the ethnic distinction between highland and coastal Malagasy, one may speak of a political distinction as well. Merina monarchs in the late 18th and early 19th century, the people united the Merina principalities. They later extended Merina control over the majority of the areas as well. The military resistance and eventual defeat of most of the coastal communities assured their subordinate position vis-à-vis the Merina-Betsileo alliance, the number of such ethnic groups in Madagascar has been debated. The practices that distinguished many of groups are less prevalent in the 21st century than they were in the past. But, many Malagasy are proud to proclaim their association with one or several of these groups as part of their own cultural identity, three Malagasy populations, Temoro, Vezo, and Mikea, have approx. 70% African ancestry and 30% Asian ancestry, in a 2010 study, the Polynesian motif frequency occurs varied among three ethnic groups, 50% in Merina,22 % in Vezo, and 13% in Mikea. There are two additional mutations found in all Polynesian motif carriers of Madagascar, hence named the Malagasy motif, most likely scenario is that Madagascar was settled approximately 1200 years ago by a very small group, which consist of approx. 30 women, where 28 of them have Island Southeast Asian descent and 2 of them have African descent, the closest Asian parental population of the Malagasy are the Banjarese and other South Kalimantan Dayak people of south east Borneo. Some Malagasy were among peoples taken captive and sold as slaves in the Atlantic slave trade of the 18th and 19th centuries, the best-known community of descendants are in Morropón, a city in northern Peru, the Afro-Peruvians of Malagasy descent number about 7,000. They call themselves Mangaches or Malgaches and this section of Piura is called la Mangachería. Malagasy slaves were transported during slavery times to Brazil and the US, but their number. It is likely most of these descendants are not aware of their Malagasy ancestry, robert Reed Church, an African-American businessman in Memphis, Tennessee in the 19th century, was said to be of Malagasy descent through his enslaved mother. Memories of Madagascar and Slavery in the Black Atlantic by Wendy Wilson-Fall,2015, Ohio University Press—Malagasy diaspora Sandra Evers, Gwyn Campbell, contest for Land in Madagascar, Environment, Ancestors and Development
7.
Mananjary, Fianarantsoa
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Mananjary is a city located in Vatovavy-Fitovinany. The city had an population of 28,498 inhabitants in 2005. It contains a town of the name, situated on the southern part of the east coast. Theres a small port and an airport Mananjary Airport, the Canal des Pangalanes divides the town into two sections. Local industry focuses on vanilla, coffee, and pepper production and it is the seat of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Mananjary. The small Antambahoaka tribe holds a mass circumcision rite every seven years in the village. French international schools, École primaire française de Mananjary
8.
Radama I
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Radama I the Great was the first Malagasy sovereign to be recognized as King of Madagascar by a European state. He came to power at the age of 18 following the death of his father, under Radamas rule and at his invitation, the first Europeans entered his central highland Kingdom of Imerina and its capital at Antananarivo. Through aggressive military campaigns he successfully united two-thirds of the island under his rule, abuse of alcohol weakened his health and he died prematurely at age 35. He was succeeded by his wife, Ranavalona I. Radama was the son of Rambolamasoandro and King Andrianampoinimerina of Imerina, as a child, Radama was educated at court and learned to read the Malagasy language in the Sorabe Arabico-Malagasy script used by Antemoro ombiasy. As a young man he was described by a contemporary as about 54 and slim with broad shoulders, Radama was invited to join his father on a military expedition during his campaign to pacify the Betsileo, who had forsaken an oath sworn to Andrianampoinimerina. Their initial attempt to capture King Andriamanalina at the city of Fandanana west of Antsirabe was unsuccessful. Andrianampoinimerina ultimately captured and executed Andriamanalina, and together Radama and his also captured the strategic town of Kiririoka. On Andrianampoinimerinas deathbed, he told his son, The sea is the border of my rice field. Radama swore to his father that he would achieve this ambition, in 1810, at the age of 18, Radama succeeded his father as king of Imerina. This was followed by a commercial treaty, the British were invited to establish a diplomatic mission on the island, and in 1820 Hastie was appointed to the role of British resident. The import of slaves from the African mainland continued, however, Radama was inspired to introduce similar schools throughout Imerina and within a year had established 23 schools enrolling 2300 students, of whom a third were girls. He tasked the LMS missionaries to transcribe and teach the Malagasy language using the Latin alphabet, Radamas European contacts describe him as openly skeptical of many of the religious rituals and traditions that formed the legitimacy of the Merina monarchy over the past four centuries. In particular he was critical of the importance placed on the sampy. Many of the cultural and technological innovations Radama introduced during his reign were rejected by the population as a denial of the heritage of their ancestors. During this time and with the help of the British support, Radama reportedly admired Napoleon Bonaparte and drew upon European structure and tactics to modernize his army, which included French, British and Jamaican generals. In each newly conquered territory, administrative posts were built within fortified garrisons on the model of the original Rova of Antananarivo and these were staffed with Merina colonists called voanjo. Radamas territorial expansion began in 1817 with a campaign to the port town of Toamasina
9.
Merina Kingdom
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The Merina Kingdom was a pre-colonial state off the coast of Southeast Africa that, by the 19th century, dominated most of what is now Madagascar. The two peoples coexisted peacefully for several generations and are known to have intermarried, in this way, a reigning Vazimba queen married a Hova man named Manelobe. Ralambo was the first to assign the name of Imerina to the central highland territories where he ruled, imposing a capitation tax for the first time, he was able to establish the first standing Merina royal army and established units of blacksmiths and silversmiths to equip them. He famously repelled an invasion by an army of the powerful western coastal Betsimisaraka people. Upon succeeding his father, Andrianjaka led a military campaign to capture the final major Vazimba stronghold in the highlands on the hill of Analamanga. There he established the compound that would form the heart of his new capital city of Antananarivo. Upon his orders, the first structures within this compound were constructed, several traditional royal houses were built. These buildings took on a political and spiritual significance, ensuring their preservation until being destroyed by fire in 1995. Andrianjaka obtained a sizable cache of firearms and gunpowder, materials that helped to establish and preserve his dominance, political life on the island from the 16th century was characterised by sporadic conflict between the Merina and Sakalava kingdoms, originating with Sakalava slave-hunting incursions into Imerina. King Andriamasinavalona quartered the kingdom to be ruled by his four sons, producing persistent fragmentation. He extended the borders of the kingdom to their largest historical extent prior to the kingdoms fragmentation and it was from this context in 1787 that Prince Ramboasalama, nephew of King Andrianjafy of Ambohimanga expelled his uncle and took the throne under the name Andrianampoinimerina. The new king used both diplomacy and force to reunite Imerina with the intent to bring all of Madagascar under his rule and this objective was largely completed under his son, Radama I, who was the first to admit and regularly engage European missionaries and diplomats in Antananarivo. Her son and heir, King Radama II, signed the unpopular Lambert Charter giving French entrepreneur Joseph-François Lambert exclusive rights to many of the islands resources and his liberal policies angered the aristocracy, however, and Prime Minister Rainivoninahitriniony had the King strangled in a coup détat. This aristocratic revolution saw Rasoherina, the dowager, placed on the throne upon her acceptance of a constitutional monarchy that gave greater power to the Prime Minister. She replaced the incumbent Prime Minister with his brother, Rainilaiarivony, the next sovereign, Ranavalona II, converted the nation to Christianity and had all the sampy burnt in a public display. The last Merina sovereign, Queen Ranavalona III, acceded the throne at age 22 and was exiled to Réunion Island and later French Algeria following French colonisation of the island in 1896. Angry at the cancellation of the Lambert Charter and seeking to restore property taken from French citizens, at the war’s end, Madagascar ceded Antsiranana on the northern coast to France and paid 560,000 gold francs to the heirs of Joseph-François Lambert. The agreement augured ill for the monarchy of Madagascar
10.
Antananarivo
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Antananarivo, then temporarily French Tananarive, also known by its French colonial shorthand form Tana, is the capital and largest city of Madagascar. The larger urban area surrounding the city, known as Antananarivo-Renivohitra, is the capital of Analamanga region. The city is located 1,280 m above the sea level in the center of the island, all 18 Malagasy ethnic groups, as well as residents of Chinese, Indian, European and other origins, are well represented in the city. Antananarivo is the political, economic, educational and cultural heart of Madagascar, the Presidency, National Assembly, Senate and Supreme Court are located here, as are 21 diplomatic missions and the headquarters of many national and international businesses and NGOs. Antananarivo also hosts the largest number of universities, nightclubs, art venues, medical services, several national and local sports teams, including the championship-winning national rugby team, the Makis, and several basketball and football teams, are based in Antananarivo. Declaring it the site of his capital, Andrianjaka built a rova that expanded to become the palaces of the Kingdom of Imerina. The city served as the capital of the Kingdom of Imerina from its founding until 1710 and his diplomatic and military successes extended Imerina far beyond its traditional borders, bringing the lands of neighboring ethnic groups under Merina control. Antananarivo remained the capital after Madagascar was colonized by the French in 1897. This neighborhood was developed under French rule and continues to serve as the capitals economic heart. The city is managed by the Commune Urbaine dAntananarivo under the direction of its President of the Special Delegation, Ny Havana Andriamanjato, Antananarivo was originally the site of a town called Analamanga, meaning Blue Forest in the central highlands dialect of the Malagasy language. Analamanga was established by a community of Vazimba, the islands first occupants, Andrianjaka, king of the Merina people who migrated to the region from the southeast coast, seized the location as the site of his capital city. According to oral history, he deployed a garrison of 1,000 soldiers to successfully capture, the hill and its city retained the name Analamanga until the reign of King Andriamasinavalona, who renamed it Antananarivo in honor of Andrianjakas soldiers. Unlike most capital cities in southern Africa, Antananarivo was already a city before the colonial era. The city was established in around 1610 or 1625 according to varying accounts, early Merina kings used fanampoana to construct a massive system of irrigated paddy fields and dikes around the city to provide adequate rice for the growing population. These paddy fields, of which the largest is called the Betsimitatatra, successive Merina sovereigns ruled over the Kingdom of Imerina from Analamanga through King Andriamasinavalonas reign. Andriamasinavalona designated specific territories for the hova and each andriana subcaste, numerous fady, including injunctions against the construction of wooden houses by non-nobles and the presence of swine within the city limits, were imposed. Upon Andriamasinavalonas death in 1710, Imerina split into four warring quadrants, during the 77-year civil war that followed, the eastern districts capital at Ambohimanga rose in prominence. The last king of Ambohimanga, Andrianampoinimerina, successfully conquered Antananarivo in 1793, he reunited the provinces of Imerina and he moved the kingdoms political capital back to Antananarivo in 1794, and declared Ambohimanga the kingdoms spiritual capital, a role it still maintains
11.
French Madagascar
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The Colony of Madagascar and Dependencies was a French colony off the coast of Southeast Africa between 1897 and 1958. The Franco-Hova Wars resulted in the fall of the Merina Kingdom, nationalist sentiment against French colonial rule emerged among a group of Merina intellectuals. The group, based in Antananarivo, was led by a Malagasy Protestant clergyman, Pastor Ravelojoana, a secret society dedicated to affirming Malagasy cultural identity was formed in 1913, calling itself Iron and Stone Ramification. Although the VVS was brutally suppressed, its actions eventually led French authorities to provide the Malagasy with their first representative voice in government, Malagasy veterans of military service in France during World War I bolstered the embryonic nationalist movement. Throughout the 1920s, the nationalists stressed labor reform and equality of civil and political status for the Malagasy, a number of veterans who remained in France were exposed to French political thought, most notably the anti-colonial and pro-independence platforms of socialist parties. Jean Ralaimongo, for example, returned to Madagascar in 1924, among the first concessions to Malagasy equality was the formation in 1924 of two economic and financial delegations. One was composed of French settlers, the other of twenty-four Malagasy representatives elected by the Council of Notables in each of twenty-four districts, the two sections never met together, and neither had real decision-making authority. Only in the aftermath of World War II was France willing to accept a form of Malagasy self-rule under French tutelage, in the fall of 1945, separate French and Malagasy electoral colleges voted to elect representatives from Madagascar to the Constituent Assembly of the Fourth Republic in Paris. Several smaller MDRM rivals included the Party of the Malagasy Disinherited, the 1946 constitution of the French Fourth Republic made Madagascar a territoire doutre-mer within the French Union. It accorded full citizenship to all Malagasy parallel with that enjoyed by citizens in France, but the assimilationist policy inherent in its framework was incongruent with the MDRM goal of full independence for Madagascar, so Ravoahangy and Raseta abstained from voting. The two delegates also objected to the separate French and Malagasy electoral colleges, even though Madagascar was represented in the French National Assembly, the constitution divided Madagascar administratively into a number of provinces, each of which was to have a locally elected provincial assembly. Not long after, a National Representative Assembly was constituted at Antananarivo, in the first elections for the provincial assemblies, the MDRM won all seats or a majority of seats, except in Mahajanga Province. Despite these reforms, the scene in Madagascar remained unstable. Many of the veterans felt they had been well treated by France than had veterans from metropolitan France. The blend of fear, respect, and emulation on which Franco-Malagasy relations had been based seemed at an end, on March 29,1947, Malagasy nationalists revolted against the French. Although the uprising spread over one-third of the island, the French were able to restore order after reinforcements arrived from France. Casualties among the Malagasy were estimated in the 11,000 to 80,000 range, the group of leaders responsible for the uprising, which came to be referred to as the Revolt of 1947, never has been identified conclusively. Although the MDRM leadership consistently maintained its innocence, the French outlawed the party, French military courts tried the military leaders of the revolt and executed twenty of them
12.
Veneration of the dead
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The veneration of the dead, including ones ancestors, is based on love and respect for the deceased. In some cultures, it is related to beliefs that the dead have a continued existence, the social or non-religious function of ancestor veneration is to cultivate kinship values, such as filial piety, family loyalty, and continuity of the family lineage. Ancestor veneration occurs in societies with every degree of social, political, and technological complexity, ancestor reverence is not the same as the worship of a deity or deities. In some Afro-diasporic cultures, ancestors are seen as being able to intercede on behalf of the living, as spirits who were once human themselves, they are seen as being better able to understand human needs than would a divine being. In other cultures, the purpose of ancestor veneration is not to ask for favors, some cultures believe that their ancestors actually need to be provided for by their descendants, and their practices include offerings of food and other provisions. Others do not believe that the ancestors are even aware of what their descendants do for them, most cultures who practice ancestor veneration do not call it ancestor worship. In English, the word usually refers to the reverent love. However, in cultures, this act of worship does not confer any belief that the departed ancestors have become some kind of deity. Rather, the act is a way to respect, honor, in this regard, many cultures and religions have similar practices. Some may visit the graves of their parents or other ancestors, leave flowers and pray to them in order to honor and remember them, however, this would not be considered as worshipping them since the term worship shows no such meaning. This is consistent with the meaning of the veneration in English. Although there is no accepted theory concerning the origins of ancestor veneration. Although some historians claim that ancient Egyptian society was a “death cult” because of its tombs and mummification rituals. The philosophy that “this world is but a vale of tears” and this was not to say that they were unacquainted with the harshness of life, rather, their ethos included a sense of continuity between this life and the next. Tombs were housing in the Hereafter and so they were constructed and decorated. Mummification was a way to preserve the corpse so the ka of the deceased could return to receive offerings of the things s/he enjoyed while alive, if mummification was not affordable, a “ka-statue” in the likeness of the deceased was carved for this purpose. The Blessed Dead were collectively called the akhu, or “shining ones” and they were described as “shining as gold in the belly of Nut and were indeed depicted as golden stars on the roofs of many tombs and temples. If the heart was in balance with the Feather of Maat, at this point only was the ka deemed worthy to be venerated by the living through rites and offerings
13.
Famadihana
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Famadihana is a funerary tradition of the Malagasy people in Madagascar. Known as the turning of the bones, people bring forth the bodies of their ancestors from the crypts and rewrap them in fresh cloth. The custom is based upon a belief that the spirits of the dead join the world of the ancestors after the bodys complete decomposition and appropriate ceremonies. In Madagascar this became a ritual usually once every seven years. The practice of Famadihana is on the due to the expense of silk shrouds. Early missionaries discouraged the practice and Evangelical Christian Malagasy have abandoned the practice in increasing numbers, the Catholic Church, however, no longer objects to the practice because it regards Famadihana as purely cultural rather than religious. As one Malagasy man explained to the BBC, Its important because its our way of respecting the dead and it is also a chance for the whole family, from across the country, to come together. Dead Join the Living in a Family Celebration
14.
Taboo
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A taboo is a vehement prohibition of an action based on the belief that such behavior is either too sacred or too accursed for ordinary individuals to undertake. Such prohibitions are present in all societies. Breaking a taboo is usually considered objectionable by society in general, the term taboo comes from the Tongan tapu or Fijian tabu, related among others to the Maori tapu, Hawaiian kapu, Malagasy fady. Its English use dates to 1777 when the British explorer James Cook visited Tonga and he wrote, The term was translated to him as consecrated, inviolable, forbidden, unclean or cursed. In its current use on Tonga, the word tapu means sacred or holy, on the main island, the word is often appended to the end of Tonga as Tongatapu, here meaning Sacred South rather than Forbidden South. Sigmund Freud posited that incest and patricide were the only two universal taboos and formed the basis of civilization, however, although cannibalism, in-group murder, and incest are taboo in the majority of societies, marriages between brothers and sisters occurred in Roman Egypt. Modern Western societies, however, do not condone such relationships and these familial sexual activities are criminalised, even if all parties are consenting adults. Through an analysis of the language surrounding these laws, it can be seen how the policy makers, and society as a whole, find these acts to be immoral. Common taboos involve restrictions or ritual regulation of killing and hunting, sex and sexual relationships, reproduction, in Madagascar, a strong code of taboos, known as fady, constantly change and are formed from new experiences. Each region, village or tribe may have its own fady, taboos often extend to cover discussion of taboo topics such as profanity, resulting in euphemisms and replacement of taboo words. The word taboo gained popularity at times, with some looking for ways to apply it where other English words had previously been applied. For example, J. M. Albert Schweitzer wrote a chapter about taboos of the people of Gabon, as an example, it was considered a misfortune for twins to be born, and they would be subject to many rules not incumbent on other people. Communist and materialist theorists have argued that taboos can be used to reveal the histories of societies when other records are lacking, marvin Harris particularly endeavored to explain taboos as a consequence of ecologic and economic conditions. Some argue that contemporary multicultural societies have taboos against tribalisms and prejudices, incest itself has been pulled both ways, with some seeking to normalize consensual adult relationships regardless of the degree of kinship and others expanding the degrees of prohibited contact. Among other reasons, this taboo may come from concern that comments may be out of the appropriate context
15.
Sakalava people
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The Sakalava are an ethnic group of Madagascar. They are found on the western and northwest region of the island, the Sakalava are one of the smaller ethnic groups, constituting about 6.2 percent of the total population, that is over 1,210,000 in 2014. Their name means people of the long valleys and they occupy the western edge of the island from Toliara in the south to Sambirano in the north. The Sakalava denominate a number of ethnic groups that once comprised an empire. The origin of the word Sakalava itself is subject to controversy. The most common explanation is the modern Malagasy translation of Sakalava meaning long ravines, another theory is that the word is possibly from the Arabic saqaliba, which is in turn derived from Late Latin sclavus, meaning slave. Austronesian people started settling in Madagascar between 200 and 500 CE and they arrived by boats and were from various southeast Asian groups. Later Swahili-Arabs and Indian traders came to the northern regions. African slaves were brought to the island in increasing numbers between the 15th and the 18th centuries, particularly to the region where Sakalava people now live and this influx of diverse people led to various Malagasy sub-ethnicities in the mid-2nd millennium. The Portuguese traders were the first Europeans to arrive in the 15th century, the founder of Sakalava legacy was 15th century Andriamisara. His descendant Andriandahifotsy, after 1610, then extended his authority northwards, past the Mangoky River and his two sons, Andriamanetiarivo and Andriamandisoarivo extended gains further up to the Tsongay region. The chiefs of the different coastal settlements on the island began to extend their power to control trade, the first significant Sakalava kingdoms were formed about the 1650s. They dominated the western of northwestern regions of Madagascar during the 1700s, the Sakalava chiefdoms of the Menabe, centred in what was then known as Andakabe, now the town of Morondava, were principal among them. The influence of the Sakalava extended across what is now the provinces of Antsiranana, Mahajanga, the Sakalava kingdom reached its peak geographic spread between 1730-1760, under King Andrianinevenarivo. According to local tradition, the founders of the Sakalava kingdom were Maroseraña princes and they may also be descended from the Zafiraminia clans from the southwestern part of the island, possibly from Arab origin. Initially the Arabs exclusively supplied weapons to the Sakalava in exchange for slaves and these slaves were obtained from slave raids to Comoros and other coastal settlements of Madagascar, as well as from merchant ships arriving from the Swahili coast of Africa. The Sakalava kingdom quickly subjugated the neighbouring territories in the Mahafaly area, the Merina oral histories and documents in Comoros mention series of annual expeditions by Sakalava slave raiders against their villages through the end of the 18th century. These expeditions were aided by guns obtained from the Arabs, a weapon that both Comoros and Merina people lacked, the largest and one of most favored ports for slave trade on Madagascar was the Sakalava coastal town of Mahajanga
16.
Toamasina
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Toamasina, meaning like salt or salty, unofficially and in French also Tamatave, is the capital of the Atsinanana region on the east coast of Madagascar on the Indian Ocean. The city is the seaport of the country, situated 215 km northeast of its capital and biggest city Antananarivo. According to the 2013 official estimate, Toamasina had a population of 274,667, the city is served by Toamasina Airport. Toamasina owes its importance to the existence of a reef which forms a spacious and fairly commodious harbour. The city center is built on a peninsula which projects at right angles from the general coastline. On this are crowded together a number of houses, with shops. The city has wide palm tree-lined avenues and a selection of hotels. The beaches in this area are famously beautiful, although sharks and pollution often prevent swimming, bazary Be is a famous colorful street market, specializing in exotic spices and locally made handicrafts. The central market in the heart of the city is one of the most popular sites in the city. Under French domination, Toamasina was the seat of several consuls, as well as of numerous French officials, and was the chief port for the capital. Imports consisted principally of piece-goods, farinaceous foods and iron and steel goods, main exports were gold dust, raffia, hides, caoutchouc and live animals. Communication with Europe was maintained by steamers of the Messageries Maritimes and the Havraise companies, and also with Mauritius, after 1895 the native population was removed from the town and settled in a new village to the north-west. Gervais Rakotomanana is the president of the city by special delegation since 30 May 2007, the former mayor, Roland Ratsiraka, was suspended after a decision in the municipal council in early 2007. Toamasinas St.05.25 of the former Apostolic Prefecture of Vatomandry to Apostolic Vicariate of Tamatave, JIRAMA manages the municipal water service in Tamatave. Much of the population relies on privately owned pitcher pumps on wells for water access, the town is the railhead for the line to the capital. Pousse-pousse, tuk-tuk, and taxis are available throughout Toamasina to get around the city, Toamasina is the northern end of the Canal des Pangalanes. Toamasina features a tropical rainforest climate under the Köppen climate classification, while Toamasina has no true dry season month where less than 60 millimetres of precipitation falls, the seaport has noticeably wetter and drier periods of the year. September–November is the driest period of the year, while February–April is the wettest time of the year, Toamasina averages roughly 3,368.2 millimetres of precipitation annually
17.
Fenoarivo Atsinanana
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Fenoarivo Atsinanana is a city in Madagascar. It is the capital of the Analanjirofo region and of the Fenoarivo Atsinanana District, the city is located on the east coast about 103 km north of the city of Toamasina. The region around Fénérive is one of the most important clove growing areas of Madagascar, the city is also one of the most important sea resorts at the East coast. In the 17th century it was a privateers harbour, ratsimilaho, the first king of the Betsimisaraka, was the son of a pirate and a local princess. He is buried on the island Nosy Hely, a former pirates stronghold that can be visited today, theres a Catholic Diocese in Fénérive
18.
Maroansetra
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Maroantsetra is a market town and domestic seaport in Analanjirofo Region, Madagascar, at the northern end of the Bay of Antongil. Maroantsetra is the point of access to Masoala National Park and the Nosy Mangabe special reserve. Access to the town is mainly by air, with connections to Toamasina. While Route Nationale 5 runs south along the coast to Mananara Nord and Toamasina, it is more than a forest track for much of its length. There are no roads into the town from the north or west
19.
Antongil Bay
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Helodranon Antongila, more commonly called Antongil Bay in English, is the largest bay in Madagascar. It is at the end of the east coast of the island. The bay is about 60 kilometres long and 30 kilometres wide, at the northern end of the bay is the island of Nosy Mangabe and the town of Maroantsetra. In the southern end of the bay is found the town of Mananara Avaratra and the mouth of the Mananara River
20.
Mascarene Islands
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The Mascarene Islands is a group of islands in the Indian Ocean east of Madagascar consisting of Mauritius, Réunion and Rodrigues. The collective title is derived from the Portuguese navigator Pedro Mascarenhas, the islands share a common geologic origin in the volcanism of the Réunion hotspot beneath the Mascarene Plateau and form a distinct ecoregion with a unique flora and fauna. The terrain includes a variety of reefs, atolls, and small islands and they present various topographical and edaphic regions. On the largest islands these gave rise to unusual biodiversity, the climate is oceanic and tropical. The youngest islands to form were Mauritius, the oldest of the existing islands, the islands of Rodrigues and Réunion were created in the last two million years. Réunion is the largest of the islands, followed by Mauritius, eventually Saya de Malha, Nazareth and Soudan were completely submerged, Cargados Carajos remaining as a coral atoll. The Réunion hotspot was beginning to cool and Rodrigues came out as a tiny island, Réunion is home to the highest peaks in the Mascarenes, the shield volcanoes Piton des Neiges and Piton de la Fournaise. Piton de la Fournaise, on the corner of Réunion, is one of the most active volcanoes in the world. Piton de la Petite Rivière Noire is the highest peak on Mauritius, the Mascarene Plateau is an undersea plateau that extends approximately 2000 km, from the Seychelles to Réunion. The plateau covers an area of over 115,000 km2 of shallow water, with depths ranging from 8 to 150 meters, plunging to 4000 m to the abyssal plain at its edges. The southern part of the plateau, including the Saya de Malha Bank, Nazareth Bank, Soudan Banks and Cargados Carajos Shoals, was formed by the Réunion hotspot. These were once islands, much like Mauritius and Réunion. The Saya de Malha Bank formed 35 million years ago, and the Nazareth Bank, limestone banks found on the plateau are the remnants of coral reefs, indicating that the plateau was a succession of islands. Some of the banks may have been islands as recently as 18, 000–6,000 years ago, the habitats of the islands differ in size, topography, age, and in proximity to the nearest major land mass, namely. As is common among remote islands, the Mascarene fauna and flora display a degree of endemism. In prehistoric times the islands were covered in a range of tropical moist broadleaf forest. The freshwater biota includes coastal wetlands and swamp forests, grading into rainforest to windward, dryland areas include palm savannas, montane deciduous forests and heathlands on the highest peaks of Réunion. The dry lowland forests range from sea level to elevations of some 200 metres and they occur in regions with less than 1000 mm average annual rainfall
21.
Antsiranana
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Antsiranana, named Diego-Suarez prior to 1975, is a city in the far north of Madagascar. Antsiranana is the capital of Diana Region and it had an estimated population of 115,015 in 2013. Arrachart Airport provides communication primarily with other parts of Madagascar, the bay and city originally used the name Diego Suarez, named after Diogo Soares, a Portuguese navigator who visited the bay in 1543. In the 1880s, the bay was coveted by France, which desired it as a station for steamships. The colonys administration was subsumed into that of Madagascar in 1896, the Second Pacific Squadron of Imperial Russia anchored and was resupplied at Diego-Suarez on its way to the Battle of Tsushima in 1905. In 1942, Diego Suárez was the objective of Operation Ironclad. Diego Suarez, with its harbor and a concentration of government officials, was selected as the initial invasion point. The Japanese responded with an attack by submarines on the British naval forces in the harbor, damaging Battleship HMS Ramillies. France continued to use the city as a base after Malagasy independence in 1960. Lycée Français Diego Suarez, or Lycée Français Sadi-Carnot, is a French international school in Antsiranana, historically it was the Collège français Sadi Carnot. The climactic scenes of the history novel The Madagaskar Plan are set in the city. Antsiranana Bay Atlantis Loved Kilimanjaro Diego Suarez review Media related to Antsiranana at Wikimedia Commons
22.
Piracy
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Piracy is an act of robbery or criminal violence by ship- or boat-borne attackers upon another ship or a coastal area, typically with the goal of stealing cargo and other valuable items or properties. Those who engage in acts of piracy are called pirates, the earliest documented instances of piracy were in the 14th century BC, when the Sea Peoples, a group of ocean raiders, attacked the ships of the Aegean and Mediterranean civilizations. Narrow channels which funnel shipping into predictable routes have long created opportunities for piracy, as well as for privateering and commerce raiding. Historic examples include the waters of Gibraltar, the Strait of Malacca, Madagascar, the Gulf of Aden, a land-based parallel is the ambushing of travelers by bandits and brigands in highways and mountain passes. While the term can include acts committed in the air, on land, or in major bodies of water or on a shore. It does not normally include crimes committed against people traveling on the vessel as the perpetrator. Piracy or pirating is the name of a crime under customary international law. They also use larger vessels, known as ships, to supply the smaller motorboats. The international community is facing challenges in bringing modern pirates to justice. In the 2000s, a number of nations have used their naval forces to protect ships from pirate attacks. The English pirate is derived from the Latin term pirata and that from Greek πειρατής, brigand, in turn from πειράομαι, I attempt, from πεῖρα, attempt, the meaning of the Greek word peiratēs literally is one who attacks. The word is cognate to peril. The term is first attested to c, spelling was not standardised until the eighteenth century, and spellings such as pirrot, pyrate and pyrat were used until this period. It may be reasonable to assume that piracy has existed for as long as the oceans were plied for commerce, the earliest documented instances of piracy are the exploits of the Sea Peoples who threatened the ships sailing in the Aegean and Mediterranean waters in the 14th century BC. In classical antiquity, the Phoenicians, Illyrians and Tyrrhenians were known as pirates, the ancient Greeks condoned piracy as a viable profession, it apparently was widespread and regarded as an entirely honourable way of making a living. References are made to its perfectly normal occurrence many texts including in Homers Iliad and Odyssey, by the era of Classical Greece, piracy was looked upon as a disgrace to have as a profession. In the 3rd century BC, pirate attacks on Olympos brought impoverishment, among some of the most famous ancient pirateering peoples were the Illyrians, a people populating the western Balkan peninsula. Constantly raiding the Adriatic Sea, the Illyrians caused many conflicts with the Roman Republic and it was not until 229 BC when the Romans finally decisively beat the Illyrian fleets that their threat was ended
23.
Bezanozano
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Their name means those of many small plaits in reference to their traditional hairstyle, and like the Merina they practice the famadihana reburial ceremony. There were around 100,000 Bezanozano living in Madagascar in 2013 and they were initially forced into vassalage by king Andrianampoinimerina of the Kingdom of Imerina in the late 18th century and then fully subdued and colonized in 1817 by his son, King Radama I. The name Bezanozano became synonymous with slave, today agriculture remains the primary livelihood of Bezanozano villagers. The Bezanozano were only briefly an organized polity and do not share a strong internal cohesive identity and their name means those of many small plaits in reference to their traditional hairstyle. The center of the Bezanozano community at its height in the late 18th century was the town of Ambatondrazaka, there were around 100,000 Bezanozano living in Madagascar in 2013. The Bezanozano inhabited the forested land between the plains of Imerina to the west and the lowland coastal rainforest to the east in an area historically called Ankay. They lived in fortified villages governed by local chiefs and their original source of unified identity was the worship of 11 protective sampy said to have been brought from Sakalava territory. According to popular belief, the Bezanozano may be descendants of the islands earliest inhabitants, oral history relates that the Bezanozano historically lived in small communities governed collectively by village elders. Matters of justice were handled collectively through public deliberation to reach consensus, occasionally Bezanozano villagers would negotiate directly with French traders, some of these were captured and sold into slavery themselves. This intermediary trading role allowed the Bezanozano to amass wealth in slaves. Some of this wealth was gained by engaging in raids in the communities in the neighboring Kingdom of Imerina. The town of Moramanga became a hub of Bezanozano trade. The population of slaves owned by the Bezanozano had grown so large by the century that in 1768 a slave rebellion erupted. To further strengthen their position, the Bezanozano entered into an alliance with the powerful Betsimisaraka Kingdom to the east. They were in regular enough economic relations with Europeans that they were able to offer Spanish piastres in addition to slaves in exchange for the guns provided by European traders, the first and only Bezanozano king, Randrianjomoina, emerged around this time. The Bezanozano actively resisted Andrianampoinimerinas authority throughout his reign and refused to observe mourning customs upon his death, with the death of the Merina king, other Bezanozano communities actively rebelled against the authority of the Imerina Kingdom. His son and successor, Radama I, retaliated by burning a major Bezanozano town, Radama and his army of 30,000 soldiers successfully colonized Bezanozano territory in 1817 en route to Toamasina, where he further extended his authority over the Betsimisaraka. Radama I opened a major road from his capital at Antananarivo that ran through Bezanozano territory to the coastal port at Toamasina
24.
Maurice Benyovszky
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Móric Ágost Count de Benyovszky, in Polish Maurycy Beniowski, was a nobleman from the Kingdom of Hungary. He was an explorer, writer, the self-declared King of Madagascar, and he is considered a national hero in Hungary, Slovakia and Poland. Benyovszky was born and raised in Verbó, Kingdom of Hungary and his parents - Sámuel Benyovszki and Baroness Rozália Révay. Surviving family documents and letters reveal that they wrote and talked with each other and his career began as an officer of the Habsburg army in the Seven Years War during the reign of Empress Maria Theresia. In 1768 he joined the Bar Confederation, a Polish national movement against Russian intervention and he was captured by the Russians, interned in Kazan, and later exiled in Kamchatka. Subsequently, he escaped and returned to Europe via Macau and Madagascar, in 1772 Benyovszky arrived in Paris where he met King Louis XV of France and was offered the privilege to act on behalf of France to colonize Madagascar. After establishing the settlement of Louisburg, in 1776 Benyovszky was elected by a group of tribal chiefs as their Ampanjakabe. In 1779 Benyovszky came to America, where he tried to support for a proposal to use Madagascar as a base against the British in aid of the American War of Independence. He died in 1786 while fighting against the French on Madagascar and his father, Count Samuel Benyovszky, was born in Turóc County of the Kingdom of Hungary as heir of the House of Benyovszky and served as a general in the Hussars of the Austrian army. In the 16th century, after the Battle of Mohács, in which Benyovszkys ancestors fought, in 1396, the Barons de Benyó returned to Hungary and fought in the Battle of Nicopolis. Emperor Sigismund rewarded his service by giving him land in the Váh region and he spent his childhood in the Benyovszkys mansion in Verbó and studied from 1759 to 1760 at the Piarist College in Szentgyörgy, a suburb of Pressburg. Benyovszkys father, Sámuel Benyovszky de Benyo, was a descendent of the noble House of Benyovszky, at the time of Mórics birth, Samuel was an Austrian colonel in the Hussars. Sámuels ancestry was mixed, with origins in Slovakia, Hungary, after being widowed by her first husband, Rozália remarried to Benyovszkys father, Sámuel. The marriage between Sámuel and Rozália produced four children, including one daughter named Márta and three boys, Maurice, Ferenc and Emanuel, two years later he entered the army where he served as a military officer during the Seven Years War. After a short service he deserted his position to settle in Szepes and he was consequently accused of desertion in 1764 and called before a military tribunal, where he was also accused of apostasy for his rebellious attitudes toward the Catholic church. In 1765 Benyovszky occupied his mothers property in Hrusó near Verbó and this action led his mothers family to file a criminal complaint against him, and he was recalled to a legal tribunal to stand trial in Nyitra. This violated a legal edict forbidding him to leave the country and he was arrested in July 1768 in Szepesszombat, a suburb of Poprád in the house of a German butcher named Hönsch for trying to organize a Confederation of Bar militia. Benyovszky would go on to marry the daughter of this butcher, shortly after his arrest, Benyovszky was briefly imprisoned in the nearby Stará Ľubovňa castle and was released shortly afterward, when he returned to Szepesszombat to be married
25.
Ranavalona I
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Ranavalona I, also known as Ramavo and Ranavalo-Manjaka I, was sovereign of the Kingdom of Madagascar from 1828 to 1861. The combination of warfare, disease, difficult forced labor and harsh measures of justice resulted in a high mortality rate among soldiers. Although greatly obstructed by Ranavalonas policies, French and British political interests in Madagascar remained undiminished and these plans were never successful, however, and Radama II was not to take the throne until 1861, when Ranavalona died aged 83. Ranavalonas European contemporaries generally condemned her policies and characterized her as a tyrant at best and these negative characterizations persisted in foreign scholarly literature until the mid-1970s. Princess Ramavo was born in 1778 at the residence at Ambatomanoina, about 16 kilometers east of Antananarivo, to Prince Andriantsalamanjaka. In return for saving his life, Andrianampoinimerina betrothed Ramavo to his son, Prince Radama and he furthermore declared that any child from this union would be first in the line of succession after Radama. Despite her elevated rank among the wives, Ramavo was not the preferred wife of Radama. These visits established a friendship between Ramavo and Griffiths that would endure for three decades. When Radama died without leaving any descendants on July 27,1828, according to custom, the rightful heir was Rakotobe. An intelligent and amiable man, Rakotobe was the first pupil to have studied at the first school established by the London Missionary Society in Antananarivo on the grounds of the royal palace. Radama died in the company of two trusted courtiers who were favorable to the succession of Rakotobe and these officers hid Ramavo and one of her friends in a safe location, then secured the support of several influential power brokers, including judges and the keepers of the sampy. Her coronation ceremony took place on June 12,1829, by succeeding her husband, Ranavalona became the first female sovereign of the Kingdom of Imerina since its founding in 1540. Her rise to power occurred in a milieu that favored men over women in the political sphere. In the traditional culture of Imerina, rulers were specially endowed with the power to innovate in circumvention of established norms and customs, sovereigns often mobilized innovation through the creation of new forms of kinship, the traditional basis of the political order. Women, however, were associated with the household, a rigid kinship unit in opposition to the role and power of the sovereign. These policies were enacted in a context of increasing European influence within her kingdom and competing French and these statistics have contributed to a strongly unfavorable view of Ranavalonas rule in historical accounts. In the tradition of many of her royal Merina predecessors, the queen ruled from the royal Rova compound in Antananarivo, between 1839 and 1842, Jean Laborde built the queen a new residence called Manjakamiadana, which became the largest structure on the Rova grounds. The residence was made entirely from wood and bore most of the features of a home of the Merina andriana
26.
Tangena
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The use of ritual poison in Madagascar was abolished in 1863 by King Radama II, but its use persisted for at least several decades after being officially banned. The precise dates and origins of the ordeal on Madagascar are unknown. The 19th century transcription of Merina oral history, Tantara ny Andriana eto Madagasikara, references the use of tangena by the Merina king Andrianjaka, describing changes in its practice. By Andrianjakas time, the ordeal was already a well-established and respected form of traditional justice, in the early 19th century, tangena constituted one of the chief measures by which Queen Ranavalona maintained order within her realm. A poison was extracted from the nut of the native tangena shrub and ingested and those who died were declared sorcerers. Residents of Madagascar could accuse one another of various crimes, including theft, Christianity and especially witchcraft, on average, an estimated 20 to 50 percent of those who underwent the ordeal died. In the 1820s, the tangena ordeal caused about 1,000 deaths annually and this average rose to around 3,000 annual deaths between 1828 and 1861. In 1838, it was estimated that as many as 100,000 people in Imerina died as a result of the tangena ordeal, the tangena ordeal was outlawed in 1863 by Radama II. Furthermore, Radama decreed that those who had died from the ordeal would no longer be considered guilty of sorcery. This decree was hailed with joy and prompted mass re-interments, as nearly every family in mid-19th century Imerina had lost at least one member in a tangena ordeal. Despite this royal decree, the practice continued secretly in Imerina, chapus, G. S. Mondain, G. Un homme d’etat malgache, Rainilaiarivony. Madagascar of to-day, A sketch of the island, with chapters on its past, in, Bourin, F. Histoire du poison. Madagascar, An Historical and Descriptive Account of the Island and its Former Dependencies, Madagascar, An historical and descriptive account of the island and its former dependencies
27.
Radama II
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Radama II was the son and heir of Queen Ranavalona I and ruled from 1861 to 1863 over the Kingdom of Madagascar, which controlled virtually the entire island. Radamas rule, although brief, was a period in the history of the Kingdom of Madagascar. Under the unyielding and often harsh 33-year rule of his mother, Queen Ranavalona I, Madagascar had successfully preserved its cultural and political independence from French, rejecting the queens policy of isolationism and Christian persecution, Radama II permitted religious freedom and re-opened Madagascar to European influence. This agreement, which was revoked by Prime Minister Rainilaiarivony, was key to establishing Frances claim over Madagascar as a protectorate and, in 1896. The dramatic contrast between Ranavalonas isolationism and her sons pro-European stance represented a reversal of policy that threatened the traditional sociopolitical order. Radamas absolutism in pursuing dramatic reforms in disregard of the advice of his ministers ultimately turned them against him, in a coup led by his Prime Minister, Rainivoninahitriniony, Radama II was strangled on May 12,1863. The public was informed that Radama had committed suicide and that his body had been interred in a tomb in Ilafy. However, there soon emerged rumors – believed by prominent foreigners Jean Laborde, Radama II was born Prince Rakoto on September 23,1829 in the Imasoandro building on the compound of the Rova of Antananarivo. He was officially recognized as the son of King Radama I and his widow Queen Ranavalona I, after his mother succeeded Radama I on the throne, she instituted an increasingly regressive regime that attempted to restore traditional values and contain or eliminate westernization. Prior to Queen Ranavalonas death, the conservative and progressive factions within the Merina court waged a tactical power struggle to secure a successor favorable to their own political agenda. The latter successfully obtained key strategic allies within the court that enabled Radama to seize the throne without violence following his mothers death. Ramboasalama was obliged to swear an oath of allegiance to Radama. Prince Rakoto acceded to the throne on August 16,1861 upon the death of his mother, Queen Ranavalona I. His coronation ceremony was held the year on September 23,1862. Once upon the throne, he initiated a rapid and dramatic reversal of many of his mothers traditionalist policies. He reopened the country to foreign powers and concluded treaties of friendship with Britain, the Lambert Charter opened up business possibilities for French investors. Freedom of religion was declared, persecution of Christians ceased, missionaries returned to the island, the sampy were dispersed to the sacred villages where they had originated under 16th-century Merina king Ralambo and other early monarchs. Significantly, Radama freed numerous political prisoners captured under Ranavalona I during provincial wars of subjugation and this pardon was reciprocated by many of the beneficiary ethnic groups around the island, and good will between the coasts and central administration at Antananarivo improved significantly
28.
Menalamba rebellion
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The Menalamba rebellion was a rebellion that emerged in central Madagascar in response to the French capture of the royal palace in the capital city of Antananarivo in September 1895. Following a successful campaign under General Jacques Duchesne, France officially annexed Madagascar on January 1,1896 and that August, the French declared Madagascar to be their colony and exiled Malagasy Prime Minister Rainilaiarivony to Algiers where he died the following year. Queen Ranavalona III and much of her administration remained but were afforded no real political power, a civil governor, Hippolyte Laroche, was initially appointed to administer the territory. In December 1895, two months after the French capture of Antananarivo, popular resistance to French rule emerged in the form of the menalamba uprising, the resistance movement gained ground until it was effectively put down by the French military at the end of 1897. Members of Ranavalonas court were accused of encouraging the rebels and many leading figures were executed, including the queens uncle Ratsimamanga and her Minister of War, ramisindrazana, the queens aunt, was exiled to Reunion because the French were reluctant to execute a woman. The resistance led the government of France to replace the islands civil governor with a military governor and it was also a principal factor in the decision to exile Ranavalona to Reunion Island later that same year. A Jesuit priest, Jacques Berthieu, was executed by the rebellion and he was declared a martyr and saint of the Catholic Church in 2012. Société et luttes anticoloniales à Madagascar, de 1896 à1946, Madagascar et loeuvre du Général Galliéni
29.
Malagasy Uprising
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The Malagasy Uprising was a Malagasy nationalist rebellion against French colonial rule in Madagascar, lasting from March 1947 to December 1948. By May 1947 the French began to counter the nationalists, the French tripled the number of troops on the island to 18,000, primarily by transferring soldiers from French colonies elsewhere in Africa. The colonial authorities sought to fight on the physical and psychological fronts, the estimated number of Malagasy casualties varies from a low of 11,000 to a high of over 100,000. By August 1948, the majority of the nationalist leaders were killed or captured, the violent repression of the nationalist insurgency left deep scars in Malagasy society. A generation of the class was wiped out, creating challenges for the country when it achieved independence in 1960. Madagascars first three deputies were arrested, tortured and kept in prison until they were given amnesty in 1958, several Malagasy directors have set films in the period of the Uprising. In 1967 the Malagasy government declared 29 March an annual holiday, by the close of the 19th century, Madagascar was largely under the control of the Kingdom of Imerina, with its royal palaces at its capital in Antananarivo. Queen Ranavalona III was allowed to remain as a figurehead until the emergence of an uprising, termed the Menalamba rebellion. The rebellion was crushed and the queen was exiled in 1897. Secret nationalist societies began to form in the 1910s, conscription of Malagasy soldiers to fight for France in World War I strengthened resentment of foreign rule, and in the interwar period these nationalist organizations proliferated. Despite the partial implementation of reforms, forced labor on French-owned plantations. The nationalist secret society Panama was founded in 1941, followed in 1943 by another called Jiny after a type of local red bird, both organizations, which sought to achieve independence by force if necessary, saw their membership swell during this period. Following the end of the Second World War, several key Malagasy nationalist leaders attempted to achieve independence for Madagascar through legal means, all three leaders were the descendents of Hova who had been politically prominent in the former Merina royal court. The movement was pacifist, and while it sought independence for Madagascar, it embraced the French vision of the island as part of the global Francophone economic, the Malagasy deputies submitted a bill to liberate Madagascar from French rule, but French deputies rejected it. The deputies attracted the disapproval of Frances Socialist Prime Minister, Paul Ramadier, Moutet responded stridently, declaring a war against the Malagasy autonomy movement. It also radicalized the leadership of the militant nationalist groups in Madagascar, the Malagasy Uprising began on the evening of 29 March 1947, the evening before Palm Sunday. Researchers have documented reports of nationalists whose member organizations joined the conflict upon commands issued by the police, British nationals, and French settlers living in Madagascar. Despite the role of the militants in leading the uprising, the authorities immediately held MDRM responsible for the movement
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Democratic Republic of Madagascar
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The Democratic Republic of Madagascar was a socialist state that existed on the island of Madagascar from 1975 until 1992. Didier Ratsiraka was elected to a term as president in a national referendum on December 21,1975, confirming the mandate for consensus. The guiding principle of Ratsirakas administration was the need for a socialist revolution from above, the socialist revolution, explains the Red Book, is the only choice possible for us in order to achieve rapid economic and cultural development in an autonomous, humane, and harmonious manner. Several early policies collectively decided by Ratsiraka and other members of the SRC set the tone of the revolution from above, the first major SRC decision was to bring the French-held sectors of the economy under government control. This economic decolonization was welcomed by nationalists, who long had clamored for economic, the government also lifted martial law but retained rigid press censorship. Finally, the SRC ordered the closure of a satellite tracking station operated by the United States as part of its commitment to nonaligned foreign relations. Political consolidation proceeded apace following the addition of ten civilians to the SRC in January 1976 and this act constituted the beginning of a civil-military partnership in that the SRC became more representative of the countrys major political tendencies and ethnic communities. In March the Vanguard of the Malagasy Revolution was founded as the government party, membership in the FNDR, necessary for participation in the electoral process, was preconditioned on party endorsement of the revolutionary principles and programs contained in the Red Book. Ratsiraka and Arema clearly dominated the political system, in the fokonolona elections held in March 1977, for example, Arema captured 90 percent of 73,000 contested seats in 11,400 assemblies. In June 1977, Arema won 220 out of a total of 232 seats in elections for six provincial general assemblies and this trend toward consolidation was most vividly demonstrated by Rasirakas announcement of his 1977 cabinet in which Arema members held sixteen of eighteen ministerial posts. Yet, less than three years after taking power, Ratsirakas regime was confronted with growing popular disenchantment, as early as September 1977, anti-government demonstrations erupted in Antananarivo because of severe shortages in foodstuffs and essential commodities. Ratsiraka defiantly adopted authoritarian tactics in response to the opposition, sending in the armed forces to stifle dissent. The results of elections within the de facto one-party framework that prevailed throughout the Second Republic clearly demonstrated Ratsirakas declining political fortunes. Massive demonstrations against Ratsirakas inauguration led to violent clashes in Antananarivo that, according to figures, left seventy-five dead. Ratsiraka already faced an economy crippled by a strike that had begun in May, as well as a divided. When the Presidential Guard opened fire on the marchers and killed and wounded hundreds, Madagascar History of Madagascar This article incorporates public domain material from the Library of Congress Country Studies website http, //lcweb2. loc. gov/frd/cs/
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Didier Ratsiraka
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Vice Admiral Didier Ratsiraka is a Malagasy politician who was President of Madagascar from 1975 to 1993 and from 1997 to 2002. Born in Vatomandry, Atsinanana Region, Ratsiraka served as Minister of Foreign Affairs under Gabriel Ramanantsoa from 1972 until 1975. Known as the Red Admiral, he was head of state, as President of the Supreme Revolutionary Council. The political party Vanguard of the Malagasy Revolution was founded, in 1989 its name was changed to AREMA, in the midst of a poor economic situation, Ratsiraka began to abandon socialist policies after a few years in power and implemented reforms recommended by the International Monetary Fund. He was re-elected as President with 80% of the vote in 1982, the latter election was condemned as fraudulent by the opposition, which protested, and at least 75 people were killed in the resulting violence. Ratsiraka faced intense opposition to his rule in 1991, on August 10,1991, about 400,000 people marched on the Presidential Palace, and the Presidential Guard attacked the demonstrators with gunfire and grenades. The government placed the toll at 11, although other reports placed the toll much higher. Ratsiraka ran in the multiparty November 1992 presidential election, placing second behind Zafy in the first round, in the second round, held in February 1993, Ratsiraka lost to Zafy, taking about one-third of the vote, and left office on March 27. He came in first place in the first round with 36. 6% of the vote and he narrowly defeated Zafy in the runoff with 50. 7% of the vote and took office again on February 9,1997. The impeachment motion also accused him of perjury, nepotism, and failing to act as arbiter of disputes. In the National Assembly vote on February 4,60 deputies voted for the impeachment motion and it also provided for decentralization, with the provinces gaining autonomy. By 2001, however, Ratsiraka had become widely unpopular again and he announced on June 26,2001 that he would be a candidate for the presidential election to be held in December of that year. In the election, he took place, according to the government. Because, according to the results, no candidate won a majority, a runoff was to take place. Ravalomanana claimed to have won over 50 percent of the vote, Ravalomanana was sworn in as President by his supporters on February 22,2002, and the two governments fought for control of the country. However, within a few months Ravalomanana had gained the hand in a struggle. In mid-June Ratsiraka went to France, leading many to believe he had fled into exile and lowering the morale of his supporters and he did return to Madagascar after more than a week, but his position was continuing to weaken militarily. On July 5, Ratsiraka fled Toamasina, taking a flight to the nearby Seychelles, two days later he arrived in France
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Third Republic of Madagascar
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The Third Republic of Madagascar refers to the 18-year-long period in Malagasy history after the dissolution of the socialist regime in 1992. A new draft constitution was approved by 75 percent of voting in a national referendum on August 19,1992. The first round of presidential elections followed on November 25, the remaining votes were split among a variety of other candidates. Because neither candidate obtained a majority of the votes cast, a round of elections between the two frontrunners was held on February 10,1993. Zafy emerged victorious with nearly 67 percent of the popular vote, the Third Republic officially was inaugurated on March 27,1993, when Zafy was sworn in as president. The victory of the Forces Vives was further consolidated in elections held on June 13,1993, voters turned out in low numbers because they were being called upon to vote for the fourth time in less than a year. The Forces Vives and other allied parties won seventy-five seats and this coalition gave Zafy a clear majority and enabled him to choose Francisque Ravony of the Forces Vives as prime minister. Adding to these woes was the minor but nonetheless embarrassing political problem of Ratsirakas refusal to vacate the Presidents Palace. In short, the Zafy regime faced the dilemma of using relatively untested political structures and rules of the game to resolve issues of governance. Albert Zafy was consequently impeached in 1996, and an interim president, didier Ratsiraka was then voted back into power on a platform of decentralization and economic reforms for a second term which lasted from 1996 to 2001. National GDP grew at a rate of 7 percent per year under his administration. In the later half of his term, Ravalomanana was criticised by domestic and international observers who accused him of increasing authoritarianism. In 2010, a new constitution was adopted by referendum, establishing a Fourth Republic, Madagascar History of Madagascar This article incorporates public domain material from the Library of Congress Country Studies website http, //lcweb2. loc. gov/frd/cs/
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Malagasy presidential election, 2001
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Presidential elections were held in Madagascar on 16 December 2001. Initial results suggested a second round was necessary, as neither incumbent President Didier Ratsiraka nor Marc Ravalomanana, however, Ravalomanana rejected the results and declared himself President in February 2002, resulting in violence breaking out between supporters of the two candidates. A recount was held, after which Ravalomanana was awarded 51. 46% of the votes, although Ratsiraka rejected the verdict, the United States recognised Ravalomanana as President in June, and the following month Ratsiraka fled to France
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Marc Ravalomanana
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Marc Ravalomanana, GCSK is a Malagasy politician who was the President of Madagascar from 2002 to 2009. He entered politics upon founding the Tiako Iarivo political party in 1999 and successfully ran for the position of mayor of Antananarivo, as mayor he improved sanitary and security conditions in the city. In August 2001 he announced his candidacy as an independent in the December 2001 presidential election and he then took office as President in 2002 amidst a dispute over election results in which he successfully pressed his claim to have won a majority in the first round. He was re-elected in December 2006, again with a majority in the first round, during Ravalomananas presidency, Madagascar made significant advances toward development targets and experienced an average of seven per cent growth per year. His administration oversaw the construction of thousands of new schools and health clinics, road rehabilitation aided in improving rural farmers access to markets. The establishment of the independent anti-corruption agency BIANCO, and the adoption of diverse supporting policies resulted in a decline in government corruption, the acreage of natural areas under protection expanded in fulfillment of Ravalomananas Madagascar Naturally development program. Opposition members criticized Ravalomanana in the period of his presidency, accusing him of increasing authoritarianism. In addition, the benefits of the countrys growth were not evenly spread, leading to increased wealth inequality, inflation, in December 2012 he declared he would not present himself as a candidate, then a precondition to the elections being viewed as legitimate by the international community. TGV candidate Hery Rajaonarimampianina was elected president in January 2014, defeating Jean-Louis Robinson, upon attempting to return to Madagascar in October 2014 he was arrested, having been sentenced in absentia to lifelong hard labour for abuses of power by the Rajoelina administration. After his sentence was lifted and he was freed from house arrest in May 2015, Ravalomananas parents worked as peddlers before opening a small shop in a rural village in Tamatave Province. Anticipating the regional violence that erupted during the 1947 Malagasy Uprising against French colonial rule, once resettled in the highlands, Ravalomananas mother worked as a seamstress in addition to assisting her husband with farming their land. Ravalomananas family origins are Merina, the islands largest and most politically prominent ethnic group and his later entry into the political sphere has made the question of his caste background one of popular interest and ongoing debate among the Malagasy public and press. Biographer Vivier maintains that the Ravalomanana family is andriana in origin, from a young age he regularly attended the Church of Jesus Christ in Madagascar, a Reformed Protestant church and, with 2.5 million adherents, the most important religious association in Madagascar. As a youth he sang in the choir and later taught catechism, from age five he began attending Anjeva public primary school, located 4 kilometres from Imerinkasinina. He walked this distance daily, often departing early with baskets of watercress to sell to passengers at the nearby station. He completed his primary schooling at the Protestant missionary-run Vinet private school in Ambohimalaza. After completing his studies he attended the Swedish missionary-run technical secondary school in Ambatomanga. He lived with one of his brothers and began producing and selling yogurt in individual serving pots to local villagers, during this time he met his future wife, Lalao Rakotonirainy, a classmate at the secondary school
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Christianity in Madagascar
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Christianity in Madagascar is practiced by just under half the population of the island, often in syncretic form with traditional religious practices. This prompted widespread popular conversion to Protestantism throughout the highlands in the late 1800s, practitioners of Protestantism slightly outnumber adherents to Catholicism. Approximately half of the population practice traditional religion, which attributes all of creation to a single god. In addition, it tends to emphasize links between the living and the razana, the first formal European-style school was established in 1818 on the east coast of Madagascar at Toamasina by members of the London Missionary Society. This first school, known as the Palace School, was established by LMS missionary David Jones on 8 December 1820 within Besakana, a Rova building of great historic and cultural significance. Within months, due to the increase in the number interested in studying there, classes were transferred to a larger. Beginning in December 1820, LMS missionaries established workshops in Antananarivo to teach trades and technical skills, by 1822, LMS missionaries had successfully transcribed the Merina dialect of the Malagasy language using the Latin alphabet. This dialect, spoken in the highlands around Antananarivo, was declared the official version of the Malagasy language that year – a status that the highlands dialect has retained ever since. The Bible, which was translated into this dialect and printed on a press, was the first book printed in the Malagasy language. Convinced that Western schooling was vital to developing Madagascars political and economic strength, schools were constructed in larger towns throughout the central highlands and staffed with teachers from the LMS and other missionary organizations. An additional 600 students received training under Scottish missionary James Cameron. Despite high attendance at the schools, the LMS were initially unsuccessful in converting pupils to Christianity, near the end of Radamas reign, the king perceived the few Malagasy who had been converted as irreverent toward royal authority. He forbade Malagasy people from being baptized or attending Christian services, Radama died in 1828 and was succeeded by his widow, Ranavalona I. Her succession initially resulted in a relaxation of control over Christianity. The islands first printing press, which was imported by LMS missionaries at the end of Radamas reign, was effectively put into operation in 1828. The press was in heaviest use during the first several years of Ranavalonas reign, translation of the New Testament was completed in the second year of her reign, and 3,000 copies were printed and distributed between 1829 and 1830. From the beginning of her reign, Ranavalona forbade the distribution of books within the military to prevent subversion and she allowed missionaries free rein in operating the printing press, however, and exempted from military service all Malagasy personnel trained to operate the press. In 1835, translation of the Old Testament was completed and the first copies were printed, in 1831 Ranavalona authorized Malagasy attendance at church services, administration of the sacrament, and baptism of her subjects
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Sega (genre)
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Sega is one of the major music genres of Mauritius, the others being its fusion genre Seggae and Bhojpuri songs. It has origins in the music of slaves on the island, the musics traditional form was largely improvised and intensely emotional and expressed the tribulations of a subjugated, initially enslaved, people. It is primarily dance music but was used for dirges. Traditional instruments include, the maravanne moutia the goatskin drum ravanne triangle, there is also the tantam which a stringed instrument consisting of a gourd with a bow attached played in time to the drum. Nowadays, electric guitars and keyboards are used, the lyrics of sega music usually relate to the lives of the inhabitants, they do not usually relate to the musicians ancestral homeland. Sega is danced without the feet leaving the ground. Instead, the rest of the body moves, Sega music originated among the slave populations of Mauritius, it then appeared in Réunion and later spread throughout the Seychelles. It is usually in 6/8 tempo and has a dance form. Segas exact origins outside the islands are unknown, however, it is understood to have Afro-Malagasy roots and be a fusion of African or Malagasy music with European music. The European influence includes folk dance music like polka, waltz, gatan Benoit suggested that sega came from Madagascar and Boswell notes there may be a link between sega and famadihana, a Merina death ritual. Arago instead identifies it with chéga from Mozambique and he states that it is similar to the fandango and chica from Brazil whose origins are in African music from Mozambique and Angola. It was termed African by sega musician Jacques Cantin, Sega was for long looked down upon because it was the music of slaves. It was also looked down upon by the Catholic Church, which was not keen on its association with sexuality, until the Mauritian Ti Frère became popular in the 1960s, sega was only played in private places. A particularly big turning point was his performance at the Night of the Sega at Mount Le Morne on 30 October 1964 and it is now considered the national music of Mauritius and not restricted by ethnicity. Sega is now popular across the islands of Mauritius, Réunion, Seychelles, Comoros, Mayotte and Rodrigues, in its modern form, sega is combined with genres like jazz, zouk, and its fusion genre with reggae known as Seggae. Elements of African music have been added to sega since the 1980s, Santé engagé is a genre of Mauritian music which consists of singing protest songs. It is a way to protest against injustices through music, the genre mixes traditional Mauritian sega with Indian influences. Seggae is a fusion of sega with reggae, a kind of Jamaican popular music that is popular across segas range
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Antandroy
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The Antandroy are a traditionally nomadic ethnic group of Madagascar inhabiting the arid southern part of the island called Androy. They are particularly known for their dances, cotton woven clothing, elaborately decorated tombs. The herding of zebu remains the economic activity of the Antandroy. The name Tandroy means people of the thorns in reference to the thickets of endemic plants that characterize the southwestern region of Madagascar. They tend to bear stronger East African than Austronesian features, the Antandroy trace their ancestry back to the Sakalava people. There are around 600,000 Antandroy as of 2013 and they constitute the fifth largest ethnic group on the island. The inhabitants of the Tandroy region identify with one of two distinct traditions, the oral history of the Karimbola clan inhabiting the western portion of Tandroy does not describe a migration into the area, but rather implies the inhabitants were always present. In the early 18th century, the westernmost portion of Tandroy was conquered by the Menarandra dynasty of the neighboring Mahafaly people, in the eastern portion of Tandroy, the original population of the Mahandrovato clan was gradually outnumbered by Antanosy and Bara refugees. By the early 18th century a centralized confederation emerged to unite all those living between the Menarandra and Mendare rivers and this confederation was ruled by a dynasty of Zafimanara, a sub-group of the Mahandrovato clan, which gave the region and its people the name Antandroy. Zafimanara power waned around 1790 when significant flooding and the consequent ecological upheaval prompted them to flee to the Manombo plateau, throughout French colonization of Madagascar, the Antandroy - alongside the Mahafaly - were viewed as the most uncivilized of the islands ethnic groups. This perception spread among fellow Malagasy, establishing a stereotype that characterized the Antandroy as half-clothed savages, the toppling of the Tsiranana presidency and end of the First Republic in 1972 was sparked by the armed protest of Antandroy peasants in Toliara against corruption in tax collection. The Antandroy are a nomadic ethnic group of Madagascar inhabiting the arid southern part of the island called Androy. Antandroy families are patriarchal and women are expected to be subordinate to the males in their family, circumcision is an important ritual for male Antandroy, and among some communities the foreskin is shot from the barrel of a gun in celebration. The Antandroy share the common Malagasy beliefs in a god and the eternal life and power of the ancestors, who intervene in the affairs of the living. The Antandroy commune with and can be possessed by the ancestors by entering a state called bilo. Crocodiles are commonly feared among the Antandroy, and members of the Zafindravoay clan believe they are the descendants of a union between a Tandroy woman and a crocodile. In addition, the spirit is believed to be able to exert positive or negative influence over events in the life of a Tandroy. Mpisoro soothsayers are a feature of Antandroy village society and are a respected authority in traditional communities
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Malayo-Polynesian languages
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The Malayo-Polynesian languages are a subgroup of the Austronesian languages, with approximately 385.5 million speakers. The Malayo-Polynesian languages are spoken by the Austronesian people of the nations of Southeast Asia. Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam serve as the northwest geographic outlier, on the northern most geographical outlier does not pass beyond the north of Pattani, which is located in southern Thailand. Malagasy is spoken in the island of Madagascar located off the eastern coast of Africa in the Indian Ocean, two morphological characteristics of the Malayo-Polynesian languages are a system of affixation and the reduplication to form new words. Like other Austronesian languages they have small phonemic inventories, thus a text has few, the majority also lack consonant clusters. Most also have only a set of vowels, five being a common number. The Philippine languages are spoken by around 100 million people and include Tagalog, Cebuano, Ilokano, Hiligaynon, Central Bikol, Waray, in Northern Borneo, the most widely spoken language is Kadazan-Dusun, with over 200, 000+ speakers. However, it does not align with any one branch, a 2008 analysis of the Austronesian Basic Vocabulary Database suggests the closest connection is with Paiwan, though it only assigns that connection a 75% confidence level. Malayo-Polynesian consists of a number of small local language clusters, with the one exception being Oceanic. All other large groups within Malayo-Polynesian are disputed, the family has traditionally been divided into Western, Central, and Eastern branches. Although Nuclear MP was defined using syntactic data, it finds support from lexical data
