1.
India
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India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
2.
Gujarat
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Gujarat is a state in Western India, sometimes referred to as the Jewel of Western India. It has an area of 196,024 km2 with a coastline of 1,600 km, most of which lies on the Kathiawar peninsula, and a population in excess of 60 million. The state is bordered by Rajasthan to the north, Maharashtra to the south, Madhya Pradesh to the east, and the Arabian Sea and its capital city is Gandhinagar, while its largest city is Ahmedabad. Gujarat is home to the Gujarati-speaking people of India, the state encompasses some sites of the ancient Indus Valley Civilization, such as Lothal and Dholavira. Lothal is believed to be one of the worlds first seaports, Gujarat was known to the ancient Greeks, and was familiar in other Western centres of civilisation through the end of the European Middle Ages. Modern-day Gujarat is derived from Sanskrit term Gurjaradesa, the Gurjar nation, parts of modern Rajasthan and Gujarat have been known as Gurjaratra or Gurjarabhumi for centuries before the Mughal period. Gujarat was one of the centres of the Indus Valley Civilization. It contains ancient metropolitan cities from the Indus Valley such as Lothal, Dholavira, the ancient city of Lothal was where Indias first port was established. The ancient city of Dholavira is one of the largest and most prominent archaeological sites in India, the most recent discovery was Gola Dhoro. Altogether, about 50 Indus Valley settlement ruins have been discovered in Gujarat, the ancient history of Gujarat was enriched by the commercial activities of its inhabitants. There is clear evidence of trade and commerce ties with Egypt, Bahrain. The early history of Gujarat reflects the grandeur of Chandragupta Maurya who conquered a number of earlier states in what is now Gujarat. Pushyagupta, a Vaishya, was appointed governor of Saurashtra by the Mauryan regime and he ruled Giringer and built a dam on the Sudarshan lake. Between the decline of Mauryan power and Saurashtra coming under the sway of the Samprati Mauryas of Ujjain, in the first half of the 1st century AD there is the story of a merchant of King Gondaphares landing in Gujarat with Apostle Thomas. The incident of the cup-bearer killed by a lion might indicate that the city described is in Gujarat. For nearly 300 years from the start of the 1st century AD, the weather-beaten rock at Junagadh gives a glimpse of the ruler Rudradaman I of the Saka satraps known as Western Satraps, or Kshatraps. Mahakshatrap Rudradaman I founded the Kardamaka dynasty which ruled from Anupa on the banks of the Narmada up to the Aparanta region which bordered Punjab, in Gujarat several battles were fought between the south Indian Satavahana dynasty and the Western Satraps. The greatest ruler of the Satavahana Dynasty was Gautamiputra Satakarni who defeated the Western Satraps, the Kshatrapa dynasty was replaced by the Gupta Empire with the conquest of Gujarat by Chandragupta Vikramaditya
3.
Veraval
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Veraval is a municipality and the headquarters of Gir Somnath district in the Indian state of Gujarat. Veraval was founded in 13th or 14th century by Rao Veravalji Vadher, Veraval was once a fortified port town of the royal family of Junagadh. It was a part of the Kingdom of Junagadh till 1947 when Junagadh was merged with India, the city still bears some remnants of the old Nawabi heritage, the beautiful Nawabi summer palace being among them. There are ruins of the old Nawabi fort and Nawabi Gates in, the old walls of the port are now ruined, but the impressive Junagadh gate and the Patan gate are still seen, but are in a very bad state. The Nawabi Palace with Gothic features which is one of the main attractions and it is popularly known as Somnath College. At present it is the building of a Sanskrit university, the town is often known as the gateway to the magnificent temple of Somnath and the pilgrimage centres of Prabhas Patan and Bhalkha. Veraval is also the nearest town to the Gir National Park, before the rise of Surat, Veraval was the major seaport for pilgrims to Mecca. Its importance now is as a port, one of the largest in India. Seafaring dhows and wooden fishing boats are built by the fishermen without the use of any modern technology. Traditional skills are passed down from father to son, about 25 km from Veraval is the historic Savani village. Veraval is located at 20. 9°N70. 37°E /20.9,70.37 and it has an average elevation of 0 metres. As of the 2011 India census, Veraval had a population of 153,696, males constitute 51% of the population and females 49%. Veraval has an literacy rate of 62%, higher than the national average of 59. 5%, male literacy is 71%. In Veraval, 14% of the population is under 6 years of age, Veraval has a hot semi-arid climate with warm to hot temperatures throughout the year. Almost all precipitation falls during the monsoon season from June to September. Hospitals, I G Memorial Hospital, Opp, Rayon factory, near woodland hotel, Veraval. Veraval has a predominant Gujarati population, amongst Gujaratis, Jains, the sonis, the Kharwa, Ahir brahma smaj and the Kolis Turks, Rajwadi bhois, Hadi, Lohanas, Maleks, Memons, Patnis and Raykas. There is also a sizable population Sindhis, Gujarati and Hindi are the most common languages in the town
4.
Krishna
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Krishna is a major Hindu deity. He is one of the most widely revered and popular Indian divinities, worshipped as the incarnation of the Hindu god Vishnu. Krishnas birthday is celebrated every year by Hindus on Janmashtami according to the lunisolar Hindu calendar, Krishna is also known by numerous names, such as Govinda, Mukunda, Madhusudhana, Vasudeva and Makhan chor in affection. The anecdotes and narratives of Krishnas life are generally titled as Krishna Leela and he is a central character in the Bhagavata Purana, the Bhagavad Gita, and is mentioned in many Hindu philosophical, theological and mythological texts. They portray him in various perspectives, a god-child, a prankster, a lover, a divine hero. The synonyms of Krishna have been traced to 1st millennium BCE literature, worship of Krishna as Svayam Bhagavan, sometimes referred to as Krishnaism, arose in the Middle Ages in the context of the Bhakti movement. Krishna-related literature has inspired performance arts such as Bharatnatyam, Kathakali, Kuchipudi, Odissi. Since the 1960s, the worship of Krishna has also spread to the Western world, the name originates from the Sanskrit word Kṛṣṇa, which is primarily an adjective meaning black, dark or dark blue. The waning moon is called Krishna Paksha, relating to the adjective meaning darkening, the name is also interpreted sometimes as all attractive. As a name of Vishnu, Krishna is listed as the 57th name in the Vishnu Sahasranama, based on his name, Krishna is often depicted in idols as black or blue-skinned. Krishna is also known by other names, epithets and titles. Among the most common names are Mohan enchanter, Govinda meaning chief herdsman, Gopala, some of the distinct names may be regionally important—for instance, Jagannatha, a popular incarnation of Puri, Odisha in eastern India. Krishna is represented in the Indian traditions in many ways, with common features. His iconography typically depicts him as black or dark reflecting his name, however ancient and medieval reliefs and stone-based arts depict him in the natural color of the material he is made from, both in India and in southeast Asia. In some texts, his skin is described as the color of Jambul. Krishna is often depicted wearing a peacock feather wreathe or crown, in this form, he usually stands with one leg bent in front of the other in the Tribhanga posture. He is sometimes accompanied by cows or a calf, symbolism for the divine herdsman Govinda, alternatively, he is shown as an amorous man with the gopis, often making music or playing pranks. In other icons, he is a part of the scene on the battlefield of the epic Mahabharata
5.
Saurashtra (region)
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Saurashtra is a peninsular region of western India, located on the Arabian Sea coast. It covers about a third of Gujarat state, notably 11 districts of Gujarat, Saurashtra peninsula is bounded on the south and south-west by the Arabian sea, on the north-west by the Gulf of Kutch and on the east by the Gulf of Khambhat. The peninsula is referred to as Kathiawar after the Kathi Darbar who once ruled part of the region. Sorath forms the southern portion of the peninsula, the region also historically encompassed the Diu district of the Daman and Diu union territory. Prior to it, during the rule of Ashoka, the region was under Yavana Tushaspa, Vrajlal Sapovadia noted from literature and Tamil Nadu Government record that around AD1000, weaver community left Saurashtra region to South India and are known as Saurashtra people. For long period of time, the name Sorath referred to this region, from the 9th to 14th century Chudasama Rajput ruled Sorath with their capitals Vanthali and Junagadh alternatively. The Chudasama Rajputs ruled Sorath longer than any others, until the Sorath area came under Muslim-rule, Sorath, a Muslim corruption of Saurashtra, was initially one of ten prants, but by the colonial age it was one of only four surviving ones, the others being absorbed. The salute state Junagadh, founded during British rule, and its states were controlled by the Western India States Agency. In 1947, Junagadhs Muslim ruler desired to accede his territory to Pakistan, after Indias independence in 1947,217 princely states of Kathiawar, including the former Junagadh State, were merged to form the state of Saurashtra on 15 February 1948. Initially, it was named United State of Kathiawar which was renamed to Saurashtra State in November 1948, the exercise took up a lot of Shri Vallabhbhai Patels time to convince the local princes and petty subas. The capital of Saurashtra was Rajkot, uchharangray Navalshankar Dhebar, who later went on to become President of the Indian National Congress between 1955 and 59, became Saurashtras first Chief Minister. He was succeeded by Rasiklal Umedchand Parikh on 19 December 1954, on 1 November 1956, Saurashtra was merged into Bombay state. In 1960 Bombay state was divided along linguistic lines into the new states of Gujarat, the territory of Saurashtra, including Junagadh and all Sorath, became part of the state of Gujarat. Saurashtra is also the name of an Indo-Aryan language of Kathiawar-Saurashtra, the script of this language is derived from the Devanagari Script and shares similarities with modern-day Gujarati. The first postage stamps of the state were issued for Princely State of Junagadh in 1864 and they consisted of three lines of Hindi script in colourless letters on black, and were produced by hand-stamping with watercolor ink. A second issue, in 1868 used coloured letters, printed in black or red on several colours of paper. The issue of 1877 was the first to include Latin letters, the design included the inscription SORUTH POSTAGE at the top. Some of these were surcharged in 1913–14, followed by redesigned stamps in 1914, a set of eight stamps in 1929 including pictures of Junagadh, the Gir lion, and the Kathi horse in addition to the nawab
6.
Puranas
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The word Puranas literally means ancient, old, and it is a vast genre of Indian literature about a wide range of topics, particularly myths, legends and other traditional lore. Composed primarily in Sanskrit, but also in languages, several of these texts are named after major Hindu deities such as Vishnu, Shiva. The Puranas genre of literature is found in both Hinduism and Jainism, the content is highly inconsistent across the Puranas, and each Purana has survived in numerous manuscripts which are themselves inconsistent. The Hindu Puranas are anonymous texts and likely the work of authors over the centuries, in contrast, most Jaina Puranas can be dated. There are 18 Maha Puranas and 18 Upa Puranas, with over 400,000 verses, the first versions of the various Puranas were likely composed between the 3rd- and 10th-century CE. The Puranas do not enjoy the authority of a scripture in Hinduism and they have been influential in the Hindu culture, inspiring major national and regional annual festivals of Hinduism. The religious practices included in them are considered Vaidika, because they do not preach initiation into Tantra, the Bhagavata Purana has been among the most celebrated and popular text in the Puranic genre, and is of non-dualistic tenor. The Puranic literature wove with the Bhakti movement in India, vyasa, the narrator of the Mahabharata, is hagiographically credited as the compiler of the Puranas. The date of the production of the written texts does not define the date of origin of the Puranas and they existed in an oral form before being written down, and were incrementally modified well into the 16th century. An early occurrence of the term purana is found in the Chandogya Upanishad, translated by Patrick Olivelle as the corpus of histories, importantly, the most famous form of itihāsapurāṇaṃ is the Mahabharata. The term also appears in the Atharvaveda 11.7.24, the extant Puranas, states Coburn, are not identical to the original Puranas. In the 19th century, F. E. Pargiter believed the original Purana may date to the time of the redaction of the Vedas. Wendy Doniger, based on her study of indologists, assigns approximate dates to the various Puranas and she dates Markandeya Purana to c.250 CE, Matsya Purana to c. 250–500 CE, Vayu Purana to c.350 CE, Harivamsa and Vishnu Purana to c.450 CE, 350–950 CE, Vamana Purana to c. 450–900 CE, Kurma Purana to c, 550–850 CE, and Linga Purana to c. Of the many texts designated Puranas the most important are the Mahāpurāṇas or the major Puranas and these are said to be eighteen in number, divided into three groups of six, though they are not always counted in the same way. The difference between Upapuranas and Mahapuranas has been explained by Rajendra Hazra as, a Mahapurana is well known, the Upapuranas are eighteen in number, with disagreement as to which canonical titles belong in that list of eighteen. The Ganesha and Mudgala Puranas are devoted to Ganesha, the Devi-Bhagavata Purana, which extols the goddess Durga, has become a basic text for Devi worshipers
7.
Mahabharata
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The Mahābhārata is one of the two major Sanskrit epics of ancient India, the other being the Rāmāyaṇa. The Mahābhārata is a narrative of the Kurukṣetra War and the fates of the Kaurava. It also contains philosophical and devotional material, such as a discussion of the four goals of life or puruṣārtha, traditionally, the authorship of the Mahābhārata is attributed to Vyāsa. There have been attempts to unravel its historical growth and compositional layers. The oldest preserved parts of the text are thought to be not much older than around 400 BCE, the text probably reached its final form by the early Gupta period. The title may be translated as the tale of the Bhārata dynasty. According to the Mahābhārata itself, the tale is extended from a version of 24,000 verses called simply Bhārata. The Mahābhārata is the longest known epic poem and has described as the longest poem ever written. Its longest version consists of over 100,000 śloka or over 200,000 individual verse lines, and long prose passages. About 1.8 million words in total, the Mahābhārata is roughly ten times the length of the Iliad and the Odyssey combined, or about four times the length of the Rāmāyaṇa. W. J. Johnson has compared the importance of the Mahābhārata in the context of civilization to that of the Bible, the works of Shakespeare. The epic is traditionally ascribed to the sage Vyāsa, who is also a character in the epic. Vyāsa described it as being itihāsa and he also describes the Guru-shishya parampara, which traces all great teachers and their students of the Vedic times. The first section of the Mahābhārata states that it was Gaṇeśa who wrote down the text to Vyasas dictation, the epic employs the story within a story structure, otherwise known as frametales, popular in many Indian religious and non-religious works. It is recited by the sage Vaiśampāyana, a disciple of Vyāsa, the text has been described by some early 20th-century western Indologists as unstructured and chaotic. Hermann Oldenberg supposed that the poem must once have carried an immense tragic force. Moritz Winternitz considered that only unpoetical theologists and clumsy scribes could have lumped the parts of disparate origin into an unordered whole, Research on the Mahābhārata has put an enormous effort into recognizing and dating layers within the text. Some elements of the present Mahābhārata can be traced back to Vedic times, the background to the Mahābhārata suggests the origin of the epic occurs after the very early Vedic period and before the first Indian empire was to rise in the third century B. C
8.
Kurukshetra War
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The Kurukshetra War, also called the Mahabharata War, is a war described in the Indian epic Mahabharata. The conflict arose from a succession struggle between two groups of cousins, the Kauravas and Pandavas, for the throne of Hastinapura in an Indian kingdom called Kuru. It involved a number of ancient kingdoms participating as allies of the rival groups, the location of the battle is described as having occurred in Kurukshetra in the modern state of Haryana. The narrative describes individual battles and deaths of heroes of both sides, military formations, war diplomacy, meetings and discussions among the characters. The chapters dealing with the war are considered amongst the oldest in the entire Mahabharata, the historicity of the war remains subject to scholarly discussions. Attempts have been made to assign a date to the Kurukshetra War. Popular tradition holds that the war marks the transition to Kaliyuga, Mahabharata, one of the most important Hindu epics, is an account of the life and deeds of several generations of a ruling dynasty called the Kuru clan. Central to the epic is an account of a war took place between two rival families belonging to this clan. Kurukshetra, was the battleground on which war, known as the Kurukshetra War, was fought. Kurukshetra was also known as Dharmakshetra, or field of righteousness, Mahabharata tells that this site was chosen because a sin committed on this land was forgiven on account of the sanctity of this land. The Kuru territories were divided into two and were ruled by Dhritarashtra and Yudhishthira of the Pandavas, ramachandran state that the Divergence of views regarding the Mahabharata war is due to the absence of reliable history of the ancient period. This is also true of the period, where also there is no unanimity of opinion on innumerable issues. The historicity of the Kurukshetra War is subject to scholarly discussion, the existing text of the Mahabharata went through many layers of development, and mostly belongs to the period between c.500 BCE and 400 CE. According to Professor Alf Hiltebeitel, the Mahabharata is essentially mythological, Indian historian Upinder Singh has written that, Whether a bitter war between the Pandavas and the Kauravas ever happened cannot be proved or disproved. It is possible there was a small-scale conflict, transformed into a gigantic epic war by bards. Some historians and archaeologists have argued that conflict may have occurred in about 1000 BCE. Despite the inconclusiveness of the data, attempts have been made to assign a date to the Kurukshetra War. Popular tradition holds that the war marks the transition to Kaliyuga, a number of other proposals have been put forward, P. V. Vartak calculates a date of October 16,5561 BCE using planetary positions
9.
Duryodhana
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Duryodhana is a major character in the Hindu epic Mahabharata and was the eldest of the Kauravas, the hundred sons of blind king Dhritarashtra and Queen Gandhari. His resultant animosity towards his cousins renders Duryodhana the chief antagonist of the epic, Karna was the closest friend of Duryodhana. When Gandharis pregnancy continued for a long period of time. This caused a mass of grey-coloured flesh to issue from her womb. She implored Vyasa, the sage who had blessed her with one hundred sons. Vyasa divided the ball of flesh into one hundred and one equal pieces, and put them in pots of ghee, at the end of the second year, the first pot was opened, and Duryodhana emerged. Although loved by his family, Duryodhana and most of his brothers are not seen on the level as the Pandavas in their adherence to virtue, duty. Duryodhana is mentored by his maternal uncle Shakuni, who masterminded most of Duryodhanas plots to humiliate, Duryodhanas hatred for the Pandavas stems from his sincere belief that he—being the son of the eldest brother—is the heir apparent to the throne of Hastinapura. Because of his blindness, his father had to renounce the throne in favor of the younger Pandu, Duryodhana deeply believed that what was rightfully his was being given away to his older cousin Yudhishthira. He also felt that the Pandavas were sons of Kunti and Gods and he never believed that their divine origin alone proved their superiority, on many occasions questioning their merits, and always calling them the Kaunteya. He also bore a deep hatred of Bhima, who was his age and dominated his brothers in sport and skill with his physical power. When they were young, Bhimas bullying and taunting were a constant source of pain for Duryodhana, Balarama described Duryodhanas body to be lightning made flesh. He is revered by his brothers, especially Dushasana. Learning martial skills from his gurus, Kripacharya and Dronacharya, he proved to be skilled with the mace. He then went to specialize in fighting under Balarama and went on to become his favorite pupil. During their childhood Bhima used his strength to inflict injuries on the Kaurava brothers. Duryodhana then participated in a plot by Shakuni to burn the Pandavas at Varnavat, however, when the princes come of age, Yudhishthira is named as the crown prince due to his superior merits. After the Pandavas reveal that they have survived the wax house, with a new wife to boot, Yudhishthira is given half the kingdom and made king of Khandavprastha, so as to avoid a clash with the Kaurava princes over the whole Kuru Kingdom
10.
Yadava
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The Yadavas were an ancient Indian people who believed themselves to be descended from Yadu, a mythical king. The community was formed of four clans, being the Abhira, Andhaka, Vrishni, and Satvatas. They are listed in ancient Indian literature as the segments of the lineage of Yadu, the Mahabharata and the Puranas mention that the Yadus or Yadavas, a confederacy comprising numerous clans were the rulers of the Mathura region. These five clans are Vitihotra, Sharyata, Bhoja, Avanti, the five Haihaya clans called themselves the Talajanghas According to the Puranas, Haihaya was the grandson of Sahasrajit, son of Yadu. Kautilya in his Arthaśāstra mentioned about the Haihayas, in the Puranas, Arjuna Kartavirya was mentioned as the most significant Haihaya king. He was called a Samrat and Chakravartin and his name is found in the Rig Veda. He conquered Mahishmati from Karkotaka Naga and made it his capital, later, the Haihayas were also known by the name of the most dominant clan amongst them — the Vitihotras. According to the Puranas, Vitihotra was the great-grandson of Arjuna Kartavirya, ripunjaya, the last Vitihotra ruler of Ujjayini was overthrown by his amatya Pulika, who placed his son, Pradyota on the throne. The Mahagovindasuttanta of the Dighanikaya mentions about an Avanti king Vessabhu, probably he was a Vitihotra ruler. In the Balakanda of the Ramayana, the Shashabindus are mentioned along with the Haihayas, the Shashabindus or Shashabindavas are believed as the descendants of Shashabindu, a Chakravartin and son of Chitraratha, great-great-grandson of Kroshtu. The Chedis or Chaidyas were an ancient Yadava clan, whose territory was conquered by a Kuru king Vasu, According to the Puranas, the Chedis were descendants of Chidi, son of Kaishika, grandson of Vidarbha, a descendant of Kroshta. The Rigveda mentions a king named Kashu Chaidya, According to the Puranas, the Vidarbhas or Vaidarbhas were descendants of Vidarbha, son of Jyamagha, a descendant of Kroshtu. Most well known Vidarbha king was Bhishmaka, father of Rukmin, in the Matsya Purana and the Vayu Purana, the Vaidarbhas are described as the inhabitants of Deccan. According to the Aitareya Brahmana, the Satvatas were a southern people held in subjection by the Bhojas, the Satapatha Brahmana mentions that Bharata seized the sacrificial horse of the Satvatas. According to a tradition, found in the Harivamsa, Satvata was a descendant of the Yadava king Madhu, Bhima recovered the city of Mathura from the Ikshvakus after the death of Rama and his brothers. Andhaka, son of Bhima Satvata was contemporary with Kusha, son of Rama and he succeeded his father to the throne of Mathura. The Andhakas, the Vrishnis, the Kukuras, the Bhojas and the Shainyas are believed to have descended from Satvata and these clans were also known as the Satvata clans. According to the Ashtadhyayi of Panini, the Andhakas were of the Kshatriya gotra, having a form of government In the Drona Parva of the Mahabharata
11.
Balarama
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Balarama, also known as Baladeva, Balabhadra and Halayudha, is the elder brother of Krishna and is regarded generally as an avatar of Shesha. He is also considered as the Sankarshana form of Vishnu. He may have originated in Vedic times as a deity of agriculture, in Jainism, he is known as Baladeva. He is often depicted with a cup, pitcher, shield. The evil king Kansa, the brother of Devaki, was intent upon killing the children of his sister because of a prediction that he would die at the hands of her eighth son. Vishnu then impregnated the belly of Devaki with two strands of hair, one black, one white, to ensure their safety, their essence was transferred before birth to Rohini, who also desired a child. At birth, Krishna had a darker complexion, while Balarama was born fair, the other name of Balarama is Sankarshana, meaning a spirit transferred between two wombs. According to Bhagavata Purana, the name Sankarshana means, one who brings together two different families of King Yadus and Nanda Babas dynasties and he was named Rama, but because of his great strength he was called Balarama, Baladeva, or Balabhadra, meaning Strong Rama. He was born under Shravana nakshatra on Shraavana Purnima or Raksha Bandhan, one day, Nanda requested the presence of Sage Gargamuni, his priest, to name the newborn Krishna and Balarama. When the Garga arrived, Nanda, received him well and requested the naming ceremony, Gargamuni then reminded Nanda that Kamsa was looking for the son of Devaki and if he performed the ceremony in opulence, it would come to his attention. He attracts the Yadus to follow his instructions and therefore his name is Sankarshana, Balarama spent his childhood as a cow herder with his brother Krishna. He killed Dhenuka, an asura sent by Kansa, as well as Pralamba, after the evil king died, Balarama and Krishna went to the ashrama of sage Sandipani at Ujjain for study. He later married Revati, daughter of King Kakudmi, ruler of Kushasthali or Anarta Balarama taught both Duryodhana of the Kauravas and Bhima of the Pandavas the art of fighting with a mace. When war broke between the Kauravas and the Pandavas, Balarama cared for both sides and so remained neutral, when Bhima defeated Duryodhana by striking him in the groin with his mace, Balarama threatened to kill Bhima. This was prevented when Krishna reminded Balarama of the vow of Bhima—to kill Duryodhana by crushing the thigh he had exposed to Bhimas wife Draupadi, some scriptures describe a great white snake that left the mouth of Balarama, in reference to his identity as Ananta-Sesha. The place where he departed is situated near Somnath Temple in Gujarat, the local people of Veraval believe that in the cave near the temple place, the white snake who came out of Balaramas mouth got into that cave and went back to Paatal Lok. Narratives of Balarama are found in Mahabharata, Harivamsha, Bhagavata Purana, Krishna Charit Manas and he is classified in the Vyuha avatar Sankarshana where in Adishesha and Lakshmana are part of. Vyasa Mahabharata states that after Balaramas death, he turned into a white snake, so it can be concluded that Balarama is an avatar of Adishesha in Dwaparayuga, as Lakshmana was in Tretayuga and Patanjali in Kaliyuga
12.
Yoga
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Yoga is a group of physical, mental, and spiritual practices or disciplines which originated in ancient India. There is a variety of Yoga schools, practices, and goals in Hinduism, Buddhism. Among the most well-known types of yoga are Hatha yoga and Rāja yoga, the chronology of earliest texts describing yoga-practices is unclear, varyingly credited to Hindu Upanishads. The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali date from the first half of the 1st millennium CE, Hatha yoga texts emerged around the 11th century with origins in tantra. Yoga gurus from India later introduced yoga to the west, following the success of Swami Vivekananda in the late 19th, in the 1980s, yoga became popular as a system of physical exercise across the Western world. Yoga in Indian traditions, however, is more physical exercise, it has a meditative. One of the six orthodox schools of Hinduism is also called Yoga, which has its own epistemology and metaphysics. Many studies have tried to determine the effectiveness of yoga as an intervention for cancer, schizophrenia, asthma. On December 1,2016, Yoga was listed as UNESCO’s Intangible cultural heritage, in Sanskrit, the word yoga comes from the root yuj which means to add, to join, to unite, or to attach in its most common senses. By figurative extension from the yoking or harnessing of oxen or horses, all further developments of the sense of this word are post-Vedic. More prosaic moods such as exertion, endeavour, zeal, there are very many compound words containing yoga in Sanskrit. Yoga can take on such as connection, contact, union, method, application, addition. In simpler words, Yoga also means combined, thus, bhaktiyoga means devoted attachment in the monotheistic Bhakti movement. The term kriyāyoga has a sense, meaning connection with a verb. But the same compound is given a technical meaning in the Yoga Sutras, designating the practical aspects of the philosophy. In the context of the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, the root yuj samādhau is considered by commentators as the correct etymology. In accordance with Pāṇini, Vyasa who wrote the first commentary on the Yoga Sutras, according to Dasgupta, the term yoga can be derived from either of two roots, yujir yoga or yuj samādhau. Someone who practices yoga or follows the philosophy with a high level of commitment is called a yogi or yogini
India
