1.
Bible
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The Bible is a collection of sacred texts or scriptures that Jews and Christians consider to be a product of divine inspiration and a record of the relationship between God and humans. Many different authors contributed to the Bible, what is regarded as canonical text differs depending on traditions and groups, a number of Bible canons have evolved, with overlapping and diverging contents. The Christian Old Testament overlaps with the Hebrew Bible and the Greek Septuagint, the New Testament is a collection of writings by early Christians, believed to be mostly Jewish disciples of Christ, written in first-century Koine Greek. These early Christian Greek writings consist of narratives, letters, among Christian denominations there is some disagreement about the contents of the canon, primarily the Apocrypha, a list of works that are regarded with varying levels of respect. Attitudes towards the Bible also differ amongst Christian groups and this concept arose during the Protestant Reformation, and many denominations today support the use of the Bible as the only source of Christian teaching. With estimated total sales of over 5 billion copies, the Bible is widely considered to be the book of all time. It has estimated sales of 100 million copies, and has been a major influence on literature and history, especially in the West. The English word Bible is from the Latin biblia, from the word in Medieval Latin and Late Latin. Medieval Latin biblia is short for biblia sacra holy book, while biblia in Greek and it gradually came to be regarded as a feminine singular noun in medieval Latin, and so the word was loaned as a singular into the vernaculars of Western Europe. Latin biblia sacra holy books translates Greek τὰ βιβλία τὰ ἅγια ta biblia ta hagia, the word βιβλίον itself had the literal meaning of paper or scroll and came to be used as the ordinary word for book. It is the diminutive of βύβλος byblos, Egyptian papyrus, possibly so called from the name of the Phoenician sea port Byblos from whence Egyptian papyrus was exported to Greece, the Greek ta biblia was an expression Hellenistic Jews used to describe their sacred books. Christian use of the term can be traced to c.223 CE, bruce notes that Chrysostom appears to be the first writer to use the Greek phrase ta biblia to describe both the Old and New Testaments together. The division of the Hebrew Bible into verses is based on the sof passuk cantillation mark used by the 10th-century Masoretes to record the verse divisions used in oral traditions. The oldest extant copy of a complete Bible is an early 4th-century parchment book preserved in the Vatican Library, the oldest copy of the Tanakh in Hebrew and Aramaic dates from the 10th century CE. The oldest copy of a complete Latin Bible is the Codex Amiatinus and he states that it is not a magical book, nor was it literally written by God and passed to mankind. In Christian Bibles, the New Testament Gospels were derived from traditions in the second half of the first century CE. Riches says that, Scholars have attempted to reconstruct something of the history of the oral traditions behind the Gospels, the period of transmission is short, less than 40 years passed between the death of Jesus and the writing of Marks Gospel. This means that there was time for oral traditions to assume fixed form
2.
Welsh language
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Welsh is a member of the Brittonic branch of the Celtic languages. It is spoken natively in Wales, by some in England, historically it has also been known in English as the British tongue, Cambrian, Cambric and Cymric. The United Kingdom Census 2011 counted 3.1 million residents of Wales, 27% of whom had been born outside Wales, and 73% of whom reported having no Welsh language skills. Of residents of Wales aged three and over, 19% reported being able to speak Welsh, and 77% of these were able to speak, read and this can be compared with the 2001 Census, in which 20. 8% of the population reported being able to speak Welsh. 787,854 of residents in Wales aged three and over had one or more skills in Welsh, in surveys carried out between 2004 and 2006, 57% of Welsh speakers described themselves as fluent in the written language. An estimated 110,000 to 150,000 people speak Welsh in England, Welsh emerged in the 6th century from Common Brittonic, the common ancestor of Welsh, Breton, Cornish and the extinct language known as Cumbric. The Middle Welsh period is considered to have lasted from then until the 14th century, when the Modern Welsh period began, the name Welsh originated as an exonym given to its speakers by the Anglo-Saxons, meaning foreign speech. The native term for the language is Cymraeg, and for the name of the country of Wales it is Cymru, Welsh evolved from Common Brittonic, the Celtic language spoken by the ancient Celtic Britons. Classified as Insular Celtic, the British language probably arrived in Britain during the Bronze Age or Iron Age and was spoken throughout the island south of the Firth of Forth. During the Early Middle Ages the British language began to fragment due to increased dialect differentiation, evolving into Welsh and it is not clear when Welsh became distinct. Kenneth H. Jackson suggested that the evolution in syllabic structure and sound pattern was complete by around 550, Jackson, however, believed that the two varieties were already distinct by that time. The earliest Welsh poetry – that attributed to the Cynfeirdd or Early Poets – is generally considered to date to the Primitive Welsh period. However, much of this poetry was composed in the Hen Ogledd, raising further questions about the dating of the material. An 8th century inscription in Tywyn shows the language already dropping inflections in the declension of nouns, the next main period, somewhat better attested, is Old Welsh, poetry from both Wales and Scotland has been preserved in this form of the language. Both the works of Aneirin and the Book of Taliesin were in this era, Middle Welsh is the label attached to the Welsh of the 12th to 14th centuries, of which much more remains than for any earlier period. This is the language of all surviving early manuscripts of the Mabinogion. It is also the language of the existing Welsh law manuscripts, Middle Welsh is reasonably intelligible, albeit with some work, to a modern-day Welsh speaker. The famous cleric Gerald of Wales tells, in his Descriptio Cambriae, during one of the Kings many raids in the 12th century, Henry asked an old man of Pencader, Carmarthenshire whether the Welsh people could resist his army
3.
William Morgan (Bible translator)
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William Morgan was Bishop of Llandaff and of St Asaph, and the translator of the first version of the whole Bible into Welsh from Greek and Hebrew. Morgan was born in 1545 at Tŷ Mawr Wybrnant, in the parish of Penmachno, near Betws-y-Coed, as his father was a tenant of the Gwydir estate, he was probably educated at Gwydir Castle, near Llanrwst, along with the children of the Wynn family. Morgan then attended St Johns College, Cambridge where he studied a range of subjects including philosophy, mathematics and he graduated BD in 1578 and DD in 1583. At Cambridge he was a contemporary of the Welsh poet Edmwnd Prys, in addition to his scholarly pursuits, Morgan was a clergyman of the Church of England, having been ordained in 1568 by the Bishop of Ely. In 1579 he became rector of Llanfyllin, which he held concurrently with being vicar of nearby Llanrhaeadr-ym-Mochnant, Morgan was still at Cambridge when William Salesbury published his Welsh New Testament in 1567. While he was pleased that this work was available, Morgan firmly believed in the importance of having the Old Testament translated into Welsh as well. He began work on his own translation of the Old Testament in the early 1580s and published this, together with a revision of Salesburys New Testament, following the publication of his Bible, Morgan worked on a revision of the Book of Common Prayer, published in 1599. He also began work on a revision of the 1588 Bible and this work was continued after Morgans death by Bishop Richard Parry and Dr John Davies, and a revised version of the Bible was published in 1620. William Morgan was appointed Bishop of Llandaff in 1595 and moved to the bishopric of St Asaph in 1601 and he died on 10 September 1604. He married twice, first to Ellen Salesbury, before going to Cambridge and he had one son, Evan, who became vicar of his fathers old parish of Llanrhaeadr-ym-Mochnant. A slate plaque close to the gates of the Parish Church of St Dogfan in Llanrhaeadr-ym-Mochnant commemorates Morgan and it was while at this church that he made his historic translations. There is a memorial in St Johns College Chapel, Cambridge, life and times of Bishop William Morgan, the translator of the Bible into the Welsh language. William Morgan Bible on-line Y Beibl Cysegr Lan, images of the entire 1588 Bible Williams, Sir Glanmore
4.
Latin
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Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole
5.
Vulgate
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The Vulgate is a late fourth-century Latin translation of the Bible that became, during the 16th century, the Catholic Churchs officially promulgated Latin version of the Bible. The translation was largely the work of St. Jerome, who, in 382 AD, was commissioned by Pope Damasus I to revise the Vetus Latina collection of biblical texts in Latin then in use by the Church. Once published, it was adopted and eventually eclipsed the Vetus Latina and, by the 13th century, was known as the versio vulgata or, more simply. The Catholic Church affirmed it as its official Latin Bible at the Council of Trent, the Vulgate has a compound text that is not entirely the work of Jerome. Its components include, Jeromes independent translation from the Hebrew, the books of the Hebrew Bible, usually not including his translation of the Psalms. Translation from the Greek of Theodotion by Jerome, The three additions to the Book of Daniel, Song of the Three Children, Story of Susanna, and The Idol Bel and the Dragon. The Song of the Three Children was retained within the narrative of Daniel, translation from the Septuagint by Jerome, the Rest of Esther. Jerome gathered all these additions together at the end of the Book of Esther, translation from the Hexaplar Septuagint by Jerome, his Gallican version of the Book of Psalms. Jeromes Hexaplaric revisions of other books of Old Testament continued to circulate in Italy for several centuries, free translation by Jerome from a secondary Aramaic version, Tobias and Judith. Revision by Jerome of the Old Latin, corrected with reference to the oldest Greek manuscripts available, Old Latin, more or less revised by a person or persons unknown, Baruch, Letter of Jeremiah,3 Esdras, Acts, Epistles, and the Apocalypse. Old Latin, wholly unrevised, Epistle to the Laodiceans, Prayer of Manasses,4 Esdras, Wisdom, Ecclesiasticus, and 1 and 2 Maccabees. Jerome did not embark on the work with the intention of creating a new version of the whole Bible, how much of the rest of the New Testament he then revised is difficult to judge today, but little of his work survived in the Vulgate text. Jerome first embarked on a revision of the Psalms, translated from the revised Septuagint Greek column of the Hexapla and he also appears to have undertaken further new translations into Latin from the Hexaplar Septuagint column for other books. But from 390 to 405, Jerome translated anew from the Hebrew all 39 books in the Hebrew Bible, including a further version of the Psalms. This new translation of the Psalms was labelled by him as iuxta Hebraeos, the Vulgate is usually credited as being the first translation of the Old Testament into Latin directly from the Hebrew Tanakh, rather than the Greek Septuagint. Moreover, Augustine in that passage demonstrates his own preference for the Greek thus eliminating any possibility that Saint Jerome translated the OT from Greek. In these letters, Jerome described those books or portions of books in the Septuagint that were not found in the Hebrew as being non-canonical, Jeromes views did not, however, prevail, and all complete manuscripts and editions of the Vulgate include some or all of these books. Their style is markedly distinguishable from Jeromes
6.
English Reformation
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The English Reformation was a series of events in 16th century England by which the Church of England broke away from the authority of the Pope and the Roman Catholic Church. Based on Henry VIIIs desire for an annulment of his marriage, the reality of political differences between Rome and England allowed growing theological disputes to come to the fore. Until the break with Rome, it was the Pope and general councils of the Church that decided doctrine, Church law was governed by the code of canon law with final jurisdiction in Rome. Church taxes were paid straight to Rome, and the Pope had the word in the appointment of bishops. Final authority in doctrinal and legal disputes now rested with the monarch, and the papacy was deprived of revenue, the theology and liturgy of the Church of England became markedly Protestant during the reign of Henrys son Edward VI largely along lines laid down by Archbishop Thomas Cranmer. Under Mary, the process was reversed and the Church of England was again placed under papal jurisdiction. Soon after, Elizabeth reintroduced the Protestant faith but in a moderate manner. The structure and theology of the church was a matter of dispute for generations. The legacy of the past Roman Catholic Establishment remained an issue for some time, a substantial minority remained Roman Catholic in England, and in an effort to disestablish it from British systems, their church organisation remained illegal until the 19th century. Henry VIII ascended the English throne in 1509 at the age of 17 and he made a dynastic marriage with Catherine of Aragon, widow of his brother Arthur, in June 1509, just before his coronation on Midsummers Day. Unlike his father, who was secretive and conservative, the young Henry appeared the epitome of chivalry and sociability. An observant Roman Catholic, he heard up to five masses a day, of powerful but unoriginal mind, he let himself be influenced by his advisors from whom he was never apart and he was thus susceptible to whoever had his ear. This contributed to a state of hostility between his young contemporaries and the Lord Chancellor, Cardinal Thomas Wolsey, wolseys enemies at court included those who had been influenced by Lutheran ideas, among whom was the attractive, charismatic Anne Boleyn. By the late 1520s, Henry wanted his marriage to Catherine annulled and she had not produced a male heir who survived longer than two months, and Henry wanted a son to secure the Tudor dynasty. Before Henrys father ascended the throne, England had been beset by civil warfare over rival claims to the English crown, Henry wanted to avoid a similar uncertainty over the succession. Catherine of Aragons only surviving child was Princess Mary, Henry claimed that this lack of a male heir was because his marriage was blighted in the eyes of God. Henry argued that this had been wrong and that his marriage had never been valid, in 1527 Henry asked Pope Clement VII to annul the marriage, but the Pope refused. According to Canon Law the Pope cannot annul a marriage on the basis of a canonical impediment previously dispensed, Clement also feared the wrath of Catherines nephew, Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, whose troops earlier that year had sacked Rome and briefly taken the Pope prisoner
7.
Greek language
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Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages, native to Greece and other parts of the Eastern Mediterranean. It has the longest documented history of any living language, spanning 34 centuries of written records and its writing system has been the Greek alphabet for the major part of its history, other systems, such as Linear B and the Cypriot syllabary, were used previously. The alphabet arose from the Phoenician script and was in turn the basis of the Latin, Cyrillic, Armenian, Coptic, Gothic and many other writing systems. Together with the Latin texts and traditions of the Roman world, during antiquity, Greek was a widely spoken lingua franca in the Mediterranean world and many places beyond. It would eventually become the official parlance of the Byzantine Empire, the language is spoken by at least 13.2 million people today in Greece, Cyprus, Italy, Albania, Turkey, and the Greek diaspora. Greek roots are used to coin new words for other languages, Greek. Greek has been spoken in the Balkan peninsula since around the 3rd millennium BC, the earliest written evidence is a Linear B clay tablet found in Messenia that dates to between 1450 and 1350 BC, making Greek the worlds oldest recorded living language. Among the Indo-European languages, its date of earliest written attestation is matched only by the now extinct Anatolian languages, the Greek language is conventionally divided into the following periods, Proto-Greek, the unrecorded but assumed last ancestor of all known varieties of Greek. The unity of Proto-Greek would have ended as Hellenic migrants entered the Greek peninsula sometime in the Neolithic era or the Bronze Age, Mycenaean Greek, the language of the Mycenaean civilisation. It is recorded in the Linear B script on tablets dating from the 15th century BC onwards, Ancient Greek, in its various dialects, the language of the Archaic and Classical periods of the ancient Greek civilisation. It was widely known throughout the Roman Empire, after the Roman conquest of Greece, an unofficial bilingualism of Greek and Latin was established in the city of Rome and Koine Greek became a first or second language in the Roman Empire. The origin of Christianity can also be traced through Koine Greek, Medieval Greek, also known as Byzantine Greek, the continuation of Koine Greek in Byzantine Greece, up to the demise of the Byzantine Empire in the 15th century. Much of the written Greek that was used as the language of the Byzantine Empire was an eclectic middle-ground variety based on the tradition of written Koine. Modern Greek, Stemming from Medieval Greek, Modern Greek usages can be traced in the Byzantine period and it is the language used by the modern Greeks, and, apart from Standard Modern Greek, there are several dialects of it. In the modern era, the Greek language entered a state of diglossia, the historical unity and continuing identity between the various stages of the Greek language is often emphasised. Greek speakers today still tend to regard literary works of ancient Greek as part of their own rather than a foreign language and it is also often stated that the historical changes have been relatively slight compared with some other languages. According to one estimation, Homeric Greek is probably closer to demotic than 12-century Middle English is to modern spoken English, Greek is spoken by about 13 million people, mainly in Greece, Albania and Cyprus, but also worldwide by the large Greek diaspora. Greek is the language of Greece, where it is spoken by almost the entire population
8.
New Testament
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The New Testament is the second major part of the Christian biblical canon, the first part being the Old Testament, based on the Hebrew Bible. The New Testament discusses the teachings and person of Jesus, as well as events in first-century Christianity, Christians regard both the Old and New Testaments together as sacred scripture. The New Testament has frequently accompanied the spread of Christianity around the world and it reflects and serves as a source for Christian theology and morality. Both extended readings and phrases directly from the New Testament are also incorporated into the various Christian liturgies, the New Testament has influenced religious, philosophical, and political movements in Christendom and left an indelible mark on literature, art, and music. In almost all Christian traditions today, the New Testament consists of 27 books, John A. T. Robinson, Dan Wallace, and William F. Albright dated all the books of the New Testament before 70 AD. Others give a date of 80 AD, or at 96 AD. Over time, some disputed books, such as the Book of Revelation, other works earlier held to be Scripture, such as 1 Clement, the Shepherd of Hermas, and the Diatessaron, were excluded from the New Testament. However, the canon of the New Testament, at least since Late Antiquity, has been almost universally recognized within Christianity. The term new testament, or new covenant first occurs in Jeremiah 31,31, the same Greek phrase for new covenant is found elsewhere in the New Testament. Modern English, like Latin, distinguishes testament and covenant as alternative translations, John Wycliffes 1395 version is a translation of the Latin Vulgate and so follows different terms in Jeremiah and Hebrews, Lo. Days shall come, saith the Lord, and I shall make a new covenant with the house of Israel, for he reproving him saith, Lo. Days come, saith the Lord, when I shall establish a new testament on the house of Israel, use of the term New Testament to describe a collection of first and second-century Christian Greek Scriptures can be traced back to Tertullian. In Against Marcion, written circa 208 AD, he writes of the Divine Word, by the 4th century, the existence—even if not the exact contents—of both an Old and New Testament had been established. Lactantius, a 3rd–4th century Christian author wrote in his early-4th-century Latin Institutiones Divinae and that which preceded the advent and passion of Christ—that is, the law and the prophets—is called the Old, but those things which were written after His resurrection are named the New Testament. The canon of the New Testament is the collection of books that most Christians regard as divinely inspired, several of these writings sought to extend, interpret, and apply apostolic teaching to meet the needs of Christians in a given locality. The book order is the same in the Greek Orthodox, Roman Catholic, the Slavonic, Armenian and Ethiopian traditions have different New Testament book orders. Each of the four gospels in the New Testament narrates the life, death, the word gospel derives from the Old English gōd-spell, meaning good news or glad tidings. The gospel was considered the good news of the coming Kingdom of Messiah, and the redemption through the life and death of Jesus, Gospel is a calque of the Greek word εὐαγγέλιον, euangelion
9.
St John's College, Cambridge
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St Johns College is a constituent college of the University of Cambridge. The college was founded by Lady Margaret Beaufort, in constitutional terms, the college is a charitable corporation established by a charter dated 9 April 1511. The aims of the college, as specified by its Statutes, are the promotion of education, religion, learning, the colleges alumni include the winners of ten Nobel Prizes, seven prime ministers and twelve archbishops of various countries, at least two princes, and three Saints. HRH Prince William was affiliated with St Johns while undertaking a course in 2014. St Johns College is also known for its choir, its members success in a wide variety of inter-collegiate sporting competitions. In 2011 the college celebrated its quincentenary, an event marked by a visit of HM Queen Elizabeth II and HRH Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh. The college was founded on the site of the 13th-century Hospital of St John in Cambridge at the suggestion of Saint John Fisher, Bishop of Rochester and chaplain to Lady Margaret Beaufort. However, Lady Margaret died without having mentioned the foundation of St Johns in her will, and it was largely the work of Fisher that ensured that the college was founded. He had to obtain the approval of King Henry VIII of England, the Pope through the intermediary Polydore Vergil, the college received its charter on 9 April 1511. In November 1512 the Court of Chancery allowed Lady Margarets executors to pay for the foundation of the college from her estates, when Lady Margarets executors took over they found most of the old Hospital buildings beyond repair, but repaired and incorporated the Chapel into the new college. A kitchen and hall were added, and a gate tower was constructed for the College Treasury. The doors were to be closed each day at dusk, sealing the monastic community from the outside world. Over the course of the five hundred years, the college expanded westwards towards the River Cam, and now has eleven courts. The first three courts are arranged in enfilade, St Johns College first admitted women in October 1981, when K. M. Wheeler was admitted to the fellowship, along with nine female graduate students. The first women undergraduates arrived a year later, St Johns distinctive Great Gate follows the standard contemporary pattern employed previously at Christs College and Queens College. The gatehouse is crenelated and adorned with the arms of the foundress Lady Margaret Beaufort, above these are displayed her ensigns, the Red Rose of Lancaster and Portcullis. The college arms are flanked by curious creatures known as yales, mythical beasts with elephants tails, antelopes bodies, goats heads, and swivelling horns. Above them is a tabernacle containing a figure of St John the Evangelist
10.
Edmund Prys
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Edmund Prys was a Welsh clergyman and poet, best known for Welsh metrical translations of the Psalms in his Salmau Cân. Prys was born in Llanrwst, Denbighshire 1542 or 1543, son of Siôn ap Rhys ap Gruffudd ap Rhys and Siân and he was a kinsman of the scholar and bible translator William Salesbury who may have been an early influence. On 16 March 1565 he entered St. Johns College, Cambridge where he was a contemporary of William Morgan and he graduated B. A. in 1568, in M. A.1571, and was a Fellow in 1570. On 14 March 1573 he became rector of Festiniog, with its chapelry of Maentwrog and he became Rector of Ludlow in March 1576 and on 5 November 1576 archdeacon of Merioneth. On 16 April 1580 there was added to the livings he already held the rectory of Llanenddwyn with its chapelry of Llanddwywe and he died in 1623, and was buried in Maentwrog church. There is a memorial to William Morgan and Edmwnd Prys in St Johns College Chapel, Cambridge, Prys composed in the strict Welsh metres, and took an active part in the bardic life of his time. He engaged in duels of satiric verse, crossing swords with his neighbours, Thomas Price, Siôn Phylip, but Pryss reputation rests on his translation of the psalms into free Welsh verse, suitable for congregational singing. At least nineteen editions of the Salmau Cân appeared, chiefly in editions of the Bible, a rendering of the psalms into the strict metres by Captain William Midleton had been issued in 1603, and a freer translation of thirteen by Edward Kyffin had appeared in the same year. In 1621, however, to a new issue of the Welsh version of the Book of Common Prayer was appended Pryss translation of the whole of the psalter and he rejected the bardic metres in order to adapt his work for popular use. His version of Psalm 23 was translated into English, becoming the popular hymn The King of Love My Shepherd Is. Prys is mentioned by Dr William Morgan as one of three who rendered him assistance in the preparation of his translation of the Bible, Dr John Davies addressed the preface to his grammar Antiquae Linguae Britannicae. to him. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Prys
11.
King James Version
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The King James Version, also known as Authorized Version or simply King James Bible, is an English translation of the Christian Bible for the Church of England begun in 1604 and completed in 1611. The books of the King James Version include the 39 books of the Old Testament, a section containing 14 books of the Apocrypha. It was first printed by the Kings Printer Robert Barker and was the translation into English approved by the English Church authorities. The first had been the Great Bible, commissioned in the reign of King Henry VIII, the translation is noted for its majesty of style, and has been described as one of the most important books in English culture. The translation was done by 47 scholars, all of whom were members of the Church of England. In common with most other translations of the period, the New Testament was translated from Greek, the Old Testament from Hebrew and Aramaic, and the Apocrypha from Greek and Latin. In the Book of Common Prayer, the text of the Authorized Version replaced the text of the Great Bible for Epistle and Gospel readings, over the course of the 18th century, the Authorized Version supplanted the Latin Vulgate as the standard version of scripture for English-speaking scholars. Today the unqualified title King James Version usually indicates that this Oxford standard text is meant, the title page carries the words Appointed to be read in Churches, and F. F. For many years it was not to give the translation any specific name. In his Leviathan of 1651, Thomas Hobbes referred to it as the English Translation made in the beginning of the Reign of King James. Similarly, a History of England, whose edition was published in 1775, writes merely that new translation of the Bible, viz. that now in Use, was begun in 1607. King Jamess Bible is used as the name for the 1611 translation in Charles Butlers Horae Biblicae and this name was also found as King James Bible, for example in a book review from 1811. The phrase King Jamess Bible is used as far back as 1715, the use of Authorized Version or Authorised Version, capitalized and used as a name, is found as early as 1814. For some time before this, descriptive phrases such as our present, and only publicly authorised version, our Authorised version, the Oxford English Dictionary records a usage in 1824. In Britain, the 1611 translation is known as the Authorised Version today. As early as 1814, we find King James version, evidently a descriptive phrase, the King James Version is found, unequivocally used as a name, in a letter from 1855. The next year King James Bible, with no possessive, appears as a name in a Scottish source, in the United States, the 1611 translation is generally known as the King James Version today. The followers of John Wycliffe undertook the first complete English translations of the Christian scriptures in the 14th century and these translations were banned in 1409 due to their association with the Lollards
12.
Bible translations into English
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Partial Bible translations into languages of the English people can be traced back to the late 7th century, including translations into Old and Middle English. More than 450 translations into English have been written, the New Revised Standard Version is the version most commonly preferred by biblical scholars. Although John Wycliffe is often credited with the first translation of the Bible into English, there were, in fact, the English Bible was first translated from the Latin Vulgate into Old English by a few select monks and scholars. Such translations were generally in the form of prose or as interlinear glosses, very few complete translations existed during that time. Rather, most of the books of the Bible existed separately and were read as individual texts, thus, the sense of the Bible as history that often exists today did not exist at that time. Instead, a rendering of the Bible was more common. Toward the end of the 7th century, the Venerable Bede began a translation of scripture into Old English, aldhelm translated the complete Book of Psalms and large portions of other scriptures into Old English. This is the oldest extant translation of the Gospels into the English language, the Wessex Gospels are a full translation of the four gospels into a West Saxon dialect of Old English. Produced in approximately 990, they are the first translation of all four gospels into English without the Latin text, in the 11th century, Abbot Ælfric translated much of the Old Testament into Old English. The Ormulum is in Middle English of the 12th century, like its Old English precursor from Ælfric, an Abbot of Eynsham, it includes very little Biblical text, and focuses more on personal commentary. This style was adopted by many of the original English translators, for example, the story of the Wedding at Cana is almost 800 lines long, but fewer than 40 lines are the actual translation of the text. An unusual characteristic is that the translation mimics Latin verse, and so is similar to the known and appreciated 14th-century English poem. Richard Rolle wrote an English Psalter, many religious works are attributed to Rolle, but it has been questioned how many are genuinely from his hand. Many of his works were concerned with personal devotion, and some were used by the Lollards, the 14th century theologian John Wycliffe is credited with translating what is now known as Wycliffes Bible, though it is not clear how much of the translation he himself did. This translation came out in two different versions, the earlier text is characterised by a strong adherence to the word order of Latin, and might have been difficult for the layperson to comprehend. The later text made more concessions to the grammar of English. Early Modern English Bible translations are of between about 1500 and 1800, the period of Early Modern English and this, the first major period of Bible translation into the English language, began with the introduction of the Tyndale Bible. The first complete edition of his New Testament was in 1526, Tyndale used the Greek and Hebrew texts of the New Testament and Old Testament in addition to Jeromes Latin translation
13.
St Asaph Cathedral
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St Asaph Cathedral is a cathedral in St Asaph, Denbighshire, north Wales. An Anglican church, it is the seat of the Bishop of St Asaph. The cathedral dates back 1,400 years, while the current building dates from the 13th century and it is sometimes claimed to be the smallest Anglican cathedral in Great Britain. A church was built on or near the site by Saint Kentigern in the 6th century. Saint Asa, a grandson of Pabo Post Prydain, followed after this date, the earliest parts of the present building date from the 13th century when a new building was begun on the site after the original stone cathedral was burnt by King Edward I in 1282. The rebellion of Owain Glyndŵr resulted in part of the cathedral being reduced to a ruin for seventy years, the present building was largely built in the reign of Henry Tudor and greatly restored in the 19th century. It was reported that the cause of the damage was by a subterranean stream and it made the papers again when work was approaching completion in 1935. Geoffrey of Monmouth served as Bishop of St Asaph from 1152 to 1155, although due to war and unrest in Wales at the time, he probably never set foot in his see. William Morgan was also Bishop of St Asaph and of Llandaff and his Bible is kept on public display in the cathedral. The first Archbishop of Wales Alfred George Edwards was appointed Bishop of St Asaph in 1889, a specification of the organ can be found on the National Pipe Organ Register. Walton Evans 1897–1901 John Hosking See also the List of Organ Scholars at St Asaph Cathedral, Saint Asaph John Owen, Bishop of St Asaph Isaac Barrow, Bishop of St Asaph —buried in the Cathedral churchyard William Mathias, composer, born in Whitland, Carmarthenshire
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St Asaph
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St Asaph is a city and community on the River Elwy in Denbighshire, Wales. In the 2011 Census it had a population of 3,355 making it the second-smallest city in Britain, the city of St Asaph is surrounded by countryside and views of the Vale of Clwyd. It is situated close to a number of coastal towns such as Rhyl, Prestatyn, Abergele, Colwyn Bay. The historic castles of Denbigh and Rhuddlan are also nearby, teeth and part of a jawbone excavated in 1981 were dated to 225,000 years ago. This site is the most north-western site in Eurasia for remains of hominids and is considered of international importance. Later some historians postulate that the Roman fort of Varae sat on the site of the Cathedral, however, the city is believed to have developed around a 6th-century Celtic monastery founded by Saint Kentigern, and is now home to the small 14th century St Asaph Cathedral. This is dedicated to Saint Asaph, its second bishop, the Cathedral has had a chequered history. Two hundred and fifty years later, during the Commonwealth, the building was used to farm animals, pigs, cattle. The Laws in Wales Act 1535 placed St Asaph in Denbighshire, however, in 1542 St Asaph was placed in Flintshire for voting purposes. Between 1 April 1974 and 1 April 1996 it was part of non-metropolitan Clwyd, the town applied for restoration of city status in competitions held by the British government in 2000 and 2002 but was unsuccessful. In 2012 it again competed for city status during the Queens Diamond Jubilee celebrations and it was announced on 14 March 2012 that the application was successful, and city status was to be bestowed upon St Asaph alongside Chelmsford and Perth. The status was granted by letters patent dated 1 June 2012. Despite the previous lack of city status, the community council had referred to itself as the City of St Asaph Town Council. The city is promoted locally as the City of Music, the crowded roads in St Asaph have been a hot political issue for many years. In recent years, increasing volumes of traffic on the A525, St Asaph High Street, St Asaph is now home to Ysgol Glan Clwyd, a Welsh medium secondary school that opened in Rhyl in 1956 and moved to St Asaph in 1969. It was the first Welsh medium secondary school in Wales, St Asaph is twinned with the town of Bégard in Brittany, France. Both organise annual trips to the other for their residents, every year the city hosts the North Wales International Music Festival, which takes place at several venues in the city and attracts musicians and music lovers from all over Wales and beyond. In past years, the event in September at the cathedral has been covered on television by the BBC
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North Wales
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North Wales is the northernmost unofficial region of Wales. Retail, transport and educational infrastructure are centred on Wrexham, Rhyl, Colwyn Bay, Llandudno and Bangor. It is bordered to the south by the counties of Ceredigion and Powys in Mid Wales, the southern boundary is arbitrary and its definition may depend on the use being made of the term. For example, the boundary of North Wales Police differs from the boundary of the North Wales area of the Natural Resources Wales, montgomeryshire is sometimes referred to as being in north Wales. The region is steeped in history and was for almost a millennium known as the Kingdom of Gwynedd, the mountainous stronghold of Snowdonia formed the nucleus of that realm and would become the last redoubt of independent Wales — only overcome in 1283. To this day it remains a stronghold of the Welsh language, the area is home to two of the three UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Wales. These are Pontcysyllte Aqueduct and canal and, collectively, the Edwardian castles and town walls of the region which comprise those at Caernarfon, Beaumaris, Conwy and Harlech. It also shares with Powys and Ceredigion the distinction of hosting the only UNESCO Biosphere reserve in Wales, namely, the area is mostly rural with many mountains and valleys. This, in combination with its coast, has ensured that tourism is the principal industry, farming, which was once the principal economic force in the area, is now much reduced in importance. The average income per capita of the population is the lowest in the UK. The eastern part of North Wales contains the most populous areas, with more than 300,000 people living in the areas around Wrexham, Wrexham is North Wales largest town, with a population of 63,084 in 2001. The total population of North Wales is 687,937, the majority of other settlements are along the coast, including some popular resort towns, such as Rhyl, Llandudno and Pwllheli. The A55 road links these towns to cities like Manchester, Liverpool and Birmingham, the highest mountain in Wales, Snowdon, is situated in north west Wales. North Wales has a diverse and complex geology with Precambrian schists along the Menai Strait. To the east, around Llangollen, to the north on Halkyn Mountain, added to all this are the complexities posed by Parys Mountain and the outcrops of unusual minerals such as Jasper and Mona Marble which make the area of special interest to geologists. North Wales has a regional identity. Colloquially, a person from North Wales is known as a North Walian, areas close to the border with Cheshire can have Scouse accents of English, and along the coast Manchester accents are common. Two daily newspapers are published in the region, a weekly Welsh-language newspaper, Y Cymro is published each week by the Cambrian News from its Porthmadog office alongside two localised Welsh titles, Y Cyfnod and Y Dydd
16.
Charles, Prince of Wales
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Charles, Prince of Wales is the eldest child and heir apparent of Queen Elizabeth II. Known alternatively in South West England as Duke of Cornwall and in Scotland as Duke of Rothesay, he is the heir apparent in British history. He is also the oldest person to be next in line to the throne since Sophia of Hanover, Charles was born at Buckingham Palace as the first grandchild of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth. After earning a bachelor of degree from Trinity College, Cambridge. In 1981, he married Lady Diana Spencer and they had two sons, Prince William later to become Duke of Cambridge, and Prince Harry, in 1996, the couple divorced, following well-publicised extramarital affairs. Diana died in a car crash in Paris the following year, in 2005, Charles married Camilla Parker Bowles. Charles has sought to raise awareness of the dangers facing the natural environment. As an environmentalist, he has received awards and recognition from environmental groups around the world. His support for alternative medicine, including homeopathy, has been criticised by some in the medical community and he has been outspoken on the role of architecture in society and the conservation of historic buildings. Subsequently, Charles created Poundbury, a new town based on his theories. He has authored a number of books, including A Vision of Britain, A Personal View of Architecture in 1989 and he was baptised in the palaces Music Room by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Geoffrey Fisher, on 15 December 1948. When Prince Charles was aged three his mothers accession as Queen Elizabeth II made him her heir apparent. As the monarchs eldest son, he took the titles Duke of Cornwall, Duke of Rothesay, Earl of Carrick, Baron of Renfrew, Lord of the Isles and Prince. Charles attended his mothers coronation at Westminster Abbey on 2 June 1953, seated alongside his grandmother, as was customary for upper-class children at the time, a governess, Catherine Peebles, was appointed and undertook his education between the ages of five and eight. Buckingham Palace announced in 1955 that Charles would attend school rather than have a private tutor, Charles then attended two of his fathers former schools, Cheam Preparatory School in Berkshire, England, followed by Gordonstoun in the north-east of Scotland. He reportedly despised the school, which he described as Colditz in kilts. Upon his return to Gordonstoun, Charles emulated his father in becoming Head Boy and he left in 1967, with six GCE O-levels and two A-levels in history and French, at grades B and C, respectively. Tradition was broken again when Charles proceeded straight from school into university
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Prince of Wales
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Charles, Prince of Wales is the eldest child and heir apparent of Queen Elizabeth II. Known alternatively in South West England as Duke of Cornwall and in Scotland as Duke of Rothesay, he is the heir apparent in British history. He is also the oldest person to be next in line to the throne since Sophia of Hanover, Charles was born at Buckingham Palace as the first grandchild of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth. After earning a bachelor of degree from Trinity College, Cambridge. In 1981, he married Lady Diana Spencer and they had two sons, Prince William later to become Duke of Cambridge, and Prince Harry, in 1996, the couple divorced, following well-publicised extramarital affairs. Diana died in a car crash in Paris the following year, in 2005, Charles married Camilla Parker Bowles. Charles has sought to raise awareness of the dangers facing the natural environment. As an environmentalist, he has received awards and recognition from environmental groups around the world. His support for alternative medicine, including homeopathy, has been criticised by some in the medical community and he has been outspoken on the role of architecture in society and the conservation of historic buildings. Subsequently, Charles created Poundbury, a new town based on his theories. He has authored a number of books, including A Vision of Britain, A Personal View of Architecture in 1989 and he was baptised in the palaces Music Room by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Geoffrey Fisher, on 15 December 1948. When Prince Charles was aged three his mothers accession as Queen Elizabeth II made him her heir apparent. As the monarchs eldest son, he took the titles Duke of Cornwall, Duke of Rothesay, Earl of Carrick, Baron of Renfrew, Lord of the Isles and Prince. Charles attended his mothers coronation at Westminster Abbey on 2 June 1953, seated alongside his grandmother, as was customary for upper-class children at the time, a governess, Catherine Peebles, was appointed and undertook his education between the ages of five and eight. Buckingham Palace announced in 1955 that Charles would attend school rather than have a private tutor, Charles then attended two of his fathers former schools, Cheam Preparatory School in Berkshire, England, followed by Gordonstoun in the north-east of Scotland. He reportedly despised the school, which he described as Colditz in kilts. Upon his return to Gordonstoun, Charles emulated his father in becoming Head Boy and he left in 1967, with six GCE O-levels and two A-levels in history and French, at grades B and C, respectively. Tradition was broken again when Charles proceeded straight from school into university
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Book of Common Prayer
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The original book, published in 1549, in the reign of Edward VI, was a product of the English Reformation following the break with Rome. Prayer books, unlike books of prayers, contain the words of structured services of worship, the work of 1549 was the first prayer book to include the complete forms of service for daily and Sunday worship in English. It also set out in full the propers, the collects, the 1549 book was soon succeeded by a more reformed revision in 1552 under the same editorial hand, that of Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury. It was used only for a few months, as after Edward VIs death in 1553, in 1604, James I ordered some further changes, the most significant of these being the addition to the Catechism of a section on the Sacraments. Following the tumultuous events leading to and including the English Civil War, a Book of Common Prayer with local variations is used in churches inside and outside the Anglican Communion in over 50 different countries and in over 150 different languages. In many parts of the world, other books have replaced it in weekly worship. Like the King James Version of the Bible and the works of Shakespeare, many words, the forms of parish worship in the late medieval church in England, which followed the Latin Roman Rite, varied according to local practice. By far the most common form, or use, found in Southern England was that of Sarum. There was no book, the services that would be provided by the Book of Common Prayer were to be found in the Missal, the Breviary, Manual. The chant for worship was contained in the Roman Gradual for the Mass, in his early days Cranmer was somewhat conservative, an admirer, if a critical one, of John Fisher. It may have been his visit to Germany in 1532 which began the change in his outlook, then in 1538, as Henry began diplomatic negotiations with Lutheran princes, Cranmer came face to face with a Lutheran embassy. The Exhortation and Litany, the earliest English-language service of the Church of England, was the first overt manifestation of his changing views. It was no mere translation from the Latin, its Protestant character is made clear by the reduction of the place of saints. It was only on Henrys death in 1547 and the accession of Edward VI that revision could proceed faster. Cranmer finished his work on an English Communion rite in 1548, the ordinary Roman Rite of the Mass had made no provision for any congregation present to receive communion in both species. So, Cranmer composed in English an additional rite of congregational preparation and communion, to be undertaken immediately following the communion, although the work is commonly attributed to Cranmer, its detailed origins are obscure. A group of bishops and divines met first at Chertsey and then at Windsor in 1548, Cranmer collected the material from many sources, even the opening of Preface was borrowed. He borrowed much from German sources, particularly from work commissioned by Hermann von Wied, Archbishop of Cologne, the Church Order of Brandenberg and Nuremberg was partly the work of the latter
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Sacred language
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A sacred language, holy language or liturgical language is a language that is cultivated for religious reasons by people who speak another language in their daily life. Once a language associated with religious worship, its believers may ascribe virtues to the language of worship that they would not give to their native tongues. In the case of sacred texts, there is a fear of losing authenticity and accuracy by a translation or re-translation, a sacred language is typically vested with a solemnity and dignity that the vernacular lacks. In some cases, the language is a dead language. In other cases, it may simply reflect archaic forms of a living language, in more extreme cases, the language has changed so much from the language of the sacred texts that the liturgy is no longer comprehensible without special training. The concept of sacred languages is distinct from that of divine languages, the concept, as expressed by the name of a script, for example in Devanāgarī, the name of a script that means of city of deities. Theravada Buddhism uses Pali as its liturgical language, and prefers its scriptures to be studied in the original Pali. In Thailand, Pali is written using the Thai alphabet, resulting in a Thai pronunciation of the Pali language, Mahayana Buddhism makes little use of its original language, Sanskrit. In some Japanese rituals, Chinese texts are read out or recited with the Japanese pronunciations of their constituent characters, in Tibetan Buddhism, the Tibetan language is used, but mantras are in Sanskrit. Christian rites, rituals, and ceremonies are not celebrated in one single sacred language, the Churches which trace their origin to the Apostles continued to use the standard languages of the first few centuries AD. The continuous use of Greek in the Roman Liturgy came to be replaced in part by Latin by the reign of Pope Saint Damasus I, gradually, the Roman Liturgy took on more and more Latin until, generally, only a few words of Hebrew and Greek remained. The adoption of Latin was further fostered when the Vetus Latina version of the Bible was edited and parts retranslated from the original Hebrew, Latin continued as the Western Churchs language of liturgy and communication. One simply practical reason for this may be there were no standardized vernaculars throughout the Middle Ages. Church Slavonic was used for the celebration of the Roman Liturgy in the 9th century, in the mid-16th century the Council of Trent rejected a proposal to introduce national languages as this was seen, among other reasons, as potentially divisive to Catholic unity. From the end of 16th century, in coastal Croatia, the vernacular was gradually replacing Church Slavonic as liturgical language, for example, vernacular was used in the inquiry of bride and bridegroom as to whether they accepted their marriage-vows itself. Jesuit missionaries to China had sought, and for a short time, among the Algonquin and Iroquois, they received permission to translate the propers of the Mass into the vernacular. In the 20th century, Pope Pius XII granted permission for a few vernaculars to be used in a few rites, rituals and this did not include the Roman Liturgy of the Mass. In the 20th century, Vatican II set out to protect the use of Latin as a liturgical language, to a large degree, its prescription was initially disregarded and the vernacular became not only standard, but generally used exclusively in the liturgy
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Trinitarian Bible Society
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The arguments came into the open during the Annual Meeting in May 1831 of the Society. The membership voted six to one to retain the status quo. Ultra-dispensationalist E. W. Bullinger was clerical secretary of the Society from 1867 until his death in 1913, activities during his secretariat include, Completion of a Hebrew version of the New Testament under contract with Christian David Ginsburg after the death of Isaac Salkinson. The first edition was published in 1885, publication of Ginsburgs first edition of the Old Testament along with his Introduction to the Massoretico-Critical Edition of the Hebrew Bible in 1897. Formation of the Brittany Evangelical Mission Society under Pasteur LeCoat and translation of the Bible into the Breton language, distribution of Spanish language Bibles in Spain after the Spanish Revolution of 1868. The Society provides Bibles and Christian literature to the world and they have chapters all over the world. Their consider their primary function is to translate and disseminate worldwide Bibles in languages other than English. The translation of Bibles into non-English languages is based on the Hebrew Masoretic Text and Greek New Testament edition of the Textus Receptus compiled by F. H. A. Scrivener and published in 1894. The Society sells copies of the King James Version of the Bible, as well as Scriptures in other languages and these Scriptures are printed by the Society itself. They also sell or give away Scripture-based Christian literature, such as tracts and childrens items in English, the Society produces a magazine, The Quarterly Record, and sponsors meetings during which the Societys work and issues surrounding translation and text are discussed. The Trinitarian Bible Society has been associated with the King-James-Only Movement, however, the Society stated The Trinitarian Bible Society does not believe the Authorised Version to be a perfect translation, only that it is the best available translation in the English language. Translations from the languages are likewise to be considered the written Word of God in so far as these translations are accurate as to the form. Translations made since New Testament times must use words chosen by uninspired men to translate God’s words, for this reason no translation of the Word of God can have an absolute or definitive status. The final appeal must always be to the languages, in the Traditional Hebrew. Trinitarian Bible Society Biography of Malcolm Watts who currently heads the society
21.
John Tudno Williams
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John Tudno Williams was the Moderator of the Presbyterian Church of Wales 2006–7 and the Principal of the United Theological College, Aberystwyth from 1998 to 2003. John Tudno Williams was born in 1938 in Flint, the son of Arthur Tudno Williams, a minister in the Presbyterian Church of Wales and an alumnus of Jesus College, Oxford, and Primrose. He was educated at the Liverpool Institute High School for Boys in Liverpool, Williams studied theology at Jesus College, Oxford like his father before him, graduating in 1960. He was ordained in 1963 and served at Borth, in north Cardiganshire, in 1976 he gained a doctorate from the University of Wales for a research thesis on the Jewish background to St Johns Gospel. In 1966 Williams joined the staff at the United Theological College, Aberystwyth, under its principal. Williams took leading roles in the University Colleges Gilbert and Sullivan Society. On his retirement in 2003 Williams had completed a period of 37 years as a lecturer within the Faculty of Theology of the University of Wales and he served as Principal of the United Theological College in Aberystwyth between 1998 and 2003. Williams served two terms as Dean at the Aberystwyth and Lampeter School of Theology, and was Visiting Professor at Acadia Divinity College and he also served as chief A level examiner in Religious Studies for the WJEC for twelve years. Currently, he is a research fellow at the University of Wales, Lampeters Department of Theology and Religious Studies. In 2002/03, he was Moderator of the Presbyterian Church of Waless Association in the South and was the General Assemblys Moderator in 2006/07. In 1990 he was elected Moderator of the Free Church Federal Council in Wales and England, in 2006, Williams received the honorary degree of Doctor of Divinity from the University of Wales in recognition of his contribution to biblical scholarship and to religion and education in Wales. In 2011 the volume The Bible in Church, Academy, and Culture, sell was published in honour of his contributions to the Church and to scholarship. Williams married Ina Evans in 1964, the couple have two children, Haf and Tomos Tudno Williams
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Samuel Ifor Enoch
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Professor Samuel Ifor Enoch MA, was Professor of New Testament Studies and Principal of the Presbyterian United Theological College Aberystwyth in Wales. Samuel Ifor Enoch was born at Ciliau Aeron, Cardiganshire, one of three sons of Jennie Enoch and the Rev J. Aeronydd Enoch. As a school boy in Ferryside in south Carmarthenshire Enoch grew up with serious breathing problems, Enoch had pneumonia four times, once even surviving double pneumonia. In 1933 Enoch contributed one shilling towards the public fund-raising campaign which bought the Codex Sinaiticus from the Russian government for £100,000 and it is now in the British Library in London. Enoch joined Columbia University, in New York City, where he researched for an MPhil degree, here he came under the influence of the brilliant scholars at Union Theological Seminary, especially the Professor of Applied Christianity, Reinhold Niebuhr and F. C. Grant. Enoch was ordained into the Presbyterian Church of Wales in 1941, and served for 10 years as minister in Aberdare, Glamorgan and he was proud of his left-wing credentials as a Christian Socialist and gave his support to the Labour Party. He was delighted when in 1964 Harold Wilson was elected Prime Minister and he was an accomplished lecturer, preacher and linguist, he mastered five languages, Hebrew, Greek, English, Welsh, and German. He was deeply interested in the findings of the Nag Hammadi Gnostic Gospels in 1945. Enoch was involved in the interpretation of the Dead Sea Scrolls, and his 1968 monograph The Jesus of Faith, james lectures, delivered at the University College of Swansea, were published as Jesus in the Twentieth Century. In 1966 Enoch was invited to revise the commentary on the Second Epistle to the Corinthians prepared by his predecessor Professor David Williams and he was a prominent member of the Studiorum Novi Testamenti Societas and a member of the University of Wales Subject Panel. Enoch was a member of the New Testament and Apocrypha Panel of the New Welsh Bible from its origin in 1964, in his retirement he continued to lecture for the University of Wales in extramural adult classes and was an active preacher in chapels across Wales. Professor Enoch married Margaret Mary OConnor from Ireland in 1953, she died in 2000 and they adopted two children, Desmond John Enoch, and a daughter, Helen Margaret Enoch, a nurse. Samuel Ifor Enoch died at Aberystwyth on 10 June 2001 and was cremated at the local crematorium, Rev Prof Enochs obituary in The Independent 2001 Enoch and Studiorum Novi Testamenti Societas 2002
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Nick Bourne
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Nicholas Henry Bourne, Baron Bourne of Aberystwyth is a Welsh Conservative politician. He served as the Leader of the Welsh Conservative Party and as a member of the National Assembly for Wales for the Mid, during the 2011 assembly elections he unexpectedly lost his regional list seat, due to Conservative gains at constituency level. He was elevated to the House of Lords in September 2013, Bourne was the first of two children of the late, John Morgan Bourne and his wife, Joan Edith Mary Bourne. Bourne is the Honorary President of Aberystwyth University Conservative Future, a former Professor of Law, Bourne has been Assistant Principal of Swansea Institute of Higher Education, is a visiting lecturer at Hong Kong University and an author. He is also a fluent speaker in Welsh and French, Bourne was the Conservative Party candidate in the 1984 Chesterfield by-election and in the same constituency at the previous years general election. He was the Conservatives Chief Spokesman in Wales and led the unsuccessful Just Say NO campaign against Welsh devolution during the 1997 referendum, after the referendum he served on the National Assembly Advisory Group the body which set up the institutions working arrangements. He has been leader of the Welsh Conservatives from August 1999, following a minor reshuffle in June 2008, Bourne also became the Shadow Minister for Finance and Public Service Delivery until 22 October 2008. His political interests include the economy, foreign affairs, health, Bourne is also a supporter of charities and organizations in Wales, including the NSPCC, National Trust, and the British Heart Foundation. Bourne has campaigned for rural communities, opposing wind farm developments, the closure of post offices and small schools and he is a member of the Doctors and Dentists Pay Review Body. He was presented with the Local Campaigner of the Year Award, by BBC AM. PM show 2005, in 2011, Nick Bourne was nominated by the Welsh Conservatives as their representative on the Commission on Devolution in Wales, chaired by Paul Silk. On 9 September 2013 he was created a life peer taking the title Baron Bourne of Aberystwyth, of Aberystwyth in the County of Ceredigion and of Wethersfield in the County of Essex. On 11 August 2014, Lord Bourne was made a whip in the House of Lords replacing Lord Bates who had promoted as part of a mini-reshuffle following the resignation of Baroness Warsi. In May 2015 he was appointed Parliamentary Under Secretary of State jointly for DECC, in September 2008 the Conservatives in the Welsh Assembly published a dossier that contained personal attacks on Welsh First Minister Rhodri Morgan. Bourne initially disassociated himself from the dossier, claiming Conservative Group staff had issued it without his knowledge or authorisation, Bourne was forced to admit later that he had signed off the dossier for publication. Bourne is unmarried and has one brother, Tim. Bourne divides his time between London and Andover
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Literary language
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A literary language is a register or dialect of a language that is used in literary writing. This may also include liturgical writing, the difference between literary and non-literary forms is more marked in some languages than in others. Where there is a divergence, the language is said to exhibit diglossia. Classical Latin was the register of Latin, as opposed to the Vulgar Latin spoken across the Roman Empire. The Latin brought by Roman soldiers to Gaul, Iberia, or Dacia was not identical to the Latin of Cicero, and differed from it in vocabulary, syntax, and grammar. Some literary works with low-register language from the Classical Latin period give a glimpse into the world of early Vulgar Latin, Literary language is a register that is used in literary criticism and general discussion on some literary work. For much of its history there has been a distinction in the English language between an elevated literary language and a colloquial language, Modern English no longer has quite the same distinction between literary and colloquial registers. Many western scholars distinguish two varieties, the Classical Arabic of the Quran and early Islamic literature, and Modern Standard Arabic, the modern standard language is closely based on the Classical language, and most Arabs consider the two varieties to be two registers of the same language. Literary Arabic or classical Arabic is the language of all Arab countries and is the only form of Arabic taught in schools at all stages. Educated Arabic speakers are able to communicate in MSA in formal situations. This diglossic situation facilitates code-switching in which a speaker switches back, western Armenian and Eastern Armenian were eventually standardized into their own literary forms. Grammatically, the two forms are identical and differing forms, such as verb conjugations, are converted from one form to another. However, the vocabulary is different from one form to the other. Among the works of Rabindranath Tagore are examples of both shadhubhasha and chôlitôbhasha, the national anthem of India was originally written in the shadhubhasha form of Bengali. Literary Chinese continually diverged from Classical Chinese as the dialects of China became more disparate, at the same time, Literary Chinese was based largely upon the Classical language, and writers frequently borrowed Classical language into their literary writings. Literary Chinese therefore shows a great deal of similarity to Classical Chinese, some of these variants have their own literary form but none of them are being used in formal register. The Finnish language has a variant, literary Finnish. Both are considered a form of standard language, and are used throughout the country
25.
Mary Jones and her Bible
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The story of Mary Jones and her Bible inspired the founding of the British and Foreign Bible Society. Mary Jones was a Welsh girl who, at the age of fifteen, rev. Thomas Charles then used her story in proposing to the Religious Tract Society that it set up a new organisation to supply Wales with Bibles. The account was first set out in print in 1878 in Welsh and then in 1882 in English by the British and Foreign Bible Society, the author simply being credited as M. E. R. Together with the Welsh hymnwriter Ann Griffiths, she became an icon by the end of the nineteenth century. Mary Jones was from a family, the daughter of a weaver. She was born in December 1784 and her parents were devout Calvinistic Methodists, and she herself professed the Christian faith at eight years of age. Having learned to read in the circulating schools organised by Thomas Charles, Welsh Bibles were scarce in those days. Thomas Charles, the individual with Bibles for sale in the area. According to one version of the story, Mr. Charles told her all of the copies which he had received were sold or already spoken for. Mary was so distraught that Charles spared her one of the copies which was promised to another. In another version, she had to wait two days for a supply of Bibles to arrive, and was able to purchase a copy for herself, Mary later married a weaver of Bryn-crug named Thomas Lewis. She died in 1864 and was buried at the graveyard of Bryn-crug Calvinistic Methodist Chapel, a Mary Jones Walk was held in the year 2000 to commemorate Marys journey, and has been repeated several times. Two of Mary Jones bibles are known, supporting the version of the story where she buys three copies from Thomas Charles, one copy is in the British and Foreign Bible Societys Archives in Cambridge University Library and one in the National Library of Wales. They are copies of the 1799 edition of the Welsh Bible, in addition to the Old and New Testaments and the Apocrypha, the volume contains the Book of Common Prayer and Edmwnd Pryss Welsh metrical Psalms. In the copy now in Cambridge, Mary Jones wrote the following on the last page of the Apocrypha, I Bought this in the 16th year of my age. I am Daughter of Jacob Jones and Mary Jones His wife, the Lord may give me grace. Mary Jones His The True Onour of this Bible, Bought In the Year 1800 Aged 16th. The Cambridge copy of the bible was exhibited in Bala for 3 days in March 2016
26.
Bible society
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The production and distribution of bibles are issues that have engaged the attention of Christian leaders for centuries. In 797, Charlemagne commissioned Alcuin to prepare an emended text of the Vulgate, multiple copies of text were created, not always accurately. The first book printed in Europe was the Latin Bible, the Italian Bible was printed a dozen times before 1500, and eighteen editions of the German Bible had already been published before Martin Luthers version appeared. From medieval time and then accompanying the Protestant Reformation, there was a marked increase in interest in the scriptures. In 1710, the Canstein Bible Institute for the production of affordable Bibles was founded in Halle, Brandenburg-Prussia, by Karl Hildebrand. The first organisation called The Bible Society was formed in 1779 to distribute Bibles to soldiers, although perceived as Protestant, from the early days the British and Foreign Bible Society was officially ecumenical, and allowed inclusion of the Apocrypha. As a reaction to the inclusion of these books and other issues. The British and Foreign Bible Society extended its work to England, India, Europe, auxiliary branches were set up all over the world which later became Bible Societies in their own right. Today the United Bible Societies co-ordinates the work of these separate Bible Societies, nowadays Bible Societies print Bibles according to the canons of the countries they are in e. g. Protestant, Catholic or Orthodox, and inter-confessional versions. Bible Societies work with other Christian agencies and Bible translations are done on an ecumenical basis, in the United States, Bible societies flourished in the first half of the 19th century. The Bible society movement spread west as far as Chicago where the Chicago Bible Society was founded in 1840, the United Bible Societies is a worldwide association of Bible societies. As of January 2011 the UBS has 147 member societies, working in more than 200 countries and territories, gillis, James M. Bible Societies in the Catholic Encyclopedia McCauley, J. C. Truth Versus Dogma Chicago, Moody Press,1946, toronto, J. M. Dent & Sons,1953. International Biblical Association Original works, The Online Pinyin Chinese Bible, distributing free pdf Bibles in all countries
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Dictionary of Welsh Biography
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The Dictionary of Welsh Biography is a dictionary of biographies of Welsh men and women who have made a significant contribution to Welsh life over seventeen centuries. It was first published in 1959, robert Thomas Jenkins was assistant editor, then joint editor, of Y Bywgraffiadur Cymreig and its English-language counterpart, the Dictionary of Welsh Biography, writing over 600 entries. His joint editor was John Edward Lloyd, but the Dictionary was not published until 1959 and it is properly known as The Dictionary of Welsh Biography Down to 1940, and its supplementary volume as The Dictionary of Welsh Biography,1941 to 1970. Originally published by the Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion, recent editions have been published by the University of Wales Press, Welsh Biography Online is a bilingual resource with every entry in Welsh and English. The National Library of Wales also has a long and close association with The Dictionary of Welsh Biography, several National Librarians have served as editors and many members of staff have undertaken editorial and research work for the publication. The National Library of Wales then decided to make the online resource a live data-base, Welsh Biography Online Search Engine DWB in Bibliography of Welsh history – Open University website
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Wikisource
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Wikisource is an online digital library of free content textual sources on a wiki, operated by the Wikimedia Foundation. Wikisource is the name of the project as a whole and the name for each instance of that project, the projects aims are to host all forms of free text, in many languages, and translations. Originally conceived as an archive to store useful or important historical texts, the project officially began in November 24,2003 under the name Project Sourceberg. The name Wikisource was adopted later that year and it received its own domain name seven months later, the project has come under criticism for lack of reliability but it is also cited by organisations such as the National Archives and Records Administration. The project holds works that are either in the domain or freely licensed, professionally published works or historical source documents, not vanity products. Verification was initially made offline, or by trusting the reliability of digital libraries. Now works are supported by online scans via the ProofreadPage extension, some individual Wikisources, each representing a specific language, now only allow works backed up with scans. While the bulk of its collection are texts, Wikisource as a whole hosts other media, some Wikisources allow user-generated annotations, subject to the specific policies of the Wikisource in question. Wikisources early history included several changes of name and location, the original concept for Wikisource was as storage for useful or important historical texts. These texts were intended to support Wikipedia articles, by providing evidence and original source texts. The collection was focused on important historical and cultural material. The project was originally called Project Sourceberg during its planning stages, in 2001, there was a dispute on Wikipedia regarding the addition of primary source material, leading to edit wars over their inclusion or deletion. Project Sourceberg was suggested as a solution to this, perhaps Project Sourceberg can mainly work as an interface for easily linking from Wikipedia to a Project Gutenberg file, and as an interface for people to easily submit new work to PG. Wed want to complement Project Gutenberg--how, exactly, and Jimmy Wales adding like Larry, Im interested that we think it over to see what we can add to Project Gutenberg. It seems unlikely that primary sources should in general be editable by anyone -- I mean, Shakespeare is Shakespeare, unlike our commentary on his work, the project began its activity at ps. wikipedia. org. The contributors understood the PS subdomain to mean either primary sources or Project Sourceberg, however, this resulted in Project Sourceberg occupying the subdomain of the Pashto Wikipedia. A vote on the name changed it to Wikisource on December 6,2003. Despite the change in name, the project did not move to its permanent URL until July 23,2004, since Wikisource was initially called Project Sourceberg, its first logo was a picture of an iceberg
