1.
German language
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German is a West Germanic language that is mainly spoken in Central Europe. It is the most widely spoken and official language in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, South Tyrol, the German-speaking Community of Belgium and it is also one of the three official languages of Luxembourg. Major languages which are most similar to German include other members of the West Germanic language branch, such as Afrikaans, Dutch, English, Luxembourgish and it is the second most widely spoken Germanic language, after English. One of the languages of the world, German is the first language of about 95 million people worldwide. The German speaking countries are ranked fifth in terms of publication of new books. German derives most of its vocabulary from the Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family, a portion of German words are derived from Latin and Greek, and fewer are borrowed from French and English. With slightly different standardized variants, German is a pluricentric language, like English, German is also notable for its broad spectrum of dialects, with many unique varieties existing in Europe and also other parts of the world. The history of the German language begins with the High German consonant shift during the migration period, when Martin Luther translated the Bible, he based his translation primarily on the standard bureaucratic language used in Saxony, also known as Meißner Deutsch. Copies of Luthers Bible featured a long list of glosses for each region that translated words which were unknown in the region into the regional dialect. Roman Catholics initially rejected Luthers translation, and tried to create their own Catholic standard of the German language – the difference in relation to Protestant German was minimal. It was not until the middle of the 18th century that a widely accepted standard was created, until about 1800, standard German was mainly a written language, in urban northern Germany, the local Low German dialects were spoken. Standard German, which was different, was often learned as a foreign language with uncertain pronunciation. Northern German pronunciation was considered the standard in prescriptive pronunciation guides though, however, German was the language of commerce and government in the Habsburg Empire, which encompassed a large area of Central and Eastern Europe. Until the mid-19th century, it was essentially the language of townspeople throughout most of the Empire and its use indicated that the speaker was a merchant or someone from an urban area, regardless of nationality. Some cities, such as Prague and Budapest, were gradually Germanized in the years after their incorporation into the Habsburg domain, others, such as Pozsony, were originally settled during the Habsburg period, and were primarily German at that time. Prague, Budapest and Bratislava as well as cities like Zagreb, the most comprehensive guide to the vocabulary of the German language is found within the Deutsches Wörterbuch. This dictionary was created by the Brothers Grimm and is composed of 16 parts which were issued between 1852 and 1860, in 1872, grammatical and orthographic rules first appeared in the Duden Handbook. In 1901, the 2nd Orthographical Conference ended with a standardization of the German language in its written form
2.
Propaganda
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Propaganda is information, especially of a biased or misleading nature, used to promote a political cause or point of view. Propaganda is often associated with material prepared by governments, but activist groups, in the 2010s, the term propaganda is associated with a manipulative approach, but propaganda historically was a neutral descriptive term. Propaganda is a modern Latin word, the form of propagare, meaning to spread or to propagate. Originally this word derived from a new body of the Catholic church created in 1622, called the Congregatio de Propaganda Fide. Its activity was aimed at propagating the Catholic faith in non-Catholic countries, from the 1790s, the term began being used also to refer to propaganda in secular activities. The term began taking a pejorative or negative connotation in the mid-19th century, primitive forms of propaganda have been a human activity as far back as reliable recorded evidence exists. The Behistun Inscription detailing the rise of Darius I to the Persian throne is viewed by most historians as an example of propaganda. During the era of the American Revolution, the American colonies had a network of newspapers and printers who specialized in the topic on behalf of the Patriots. During the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic era, propaganda was widely used, abolitionists in Britain and the United States in the 19th century developed large, complex propaganda campaigns against slavery. The first large-scale and organised propagation of government propaganda was occasioned by the outbreak of war in 1914, after the defeat of Germany in the First World War, military officials such as Erich Ludendorff suggested that British propaganda had been instrumental in their defeat. Adolf Hitler came to echo this view, believing that it had been a cause of the collapse of morale. Later, the Nazis adapted many British propaganda techniques during their time in power, most propaganda in Germany was produced by the Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda. Joseph Goebbels was placed in charge of this ministry, the 1930s and 1940s, which saw the rise of totalitarian states and the Second World War, are arguably the Golden Age of Propaganda. Leni Riefenstahl, a filmmaker working in Nazi Germany, created one of the propaganda movies. US war films in the early 1940s in the United States were designed to create a patriotic mindset, the West and the Soviet Union both used propaganda extensively during the Cold War. Both sides used film, television, and radio programming to influence their own citizens, each other, george Orwells novels Animal Farm and Nineteen Eighty-Four are virtual textbooks on the use of propaganda. During the Cuban Revolution, Fidel Castro stressed the importance of propaganda, Propaganda was used extensively by Communist forces in the Vietnam War as means of controlling peoples opinions. During the Yugoslav wars, propaganda was used as a strategy by governments of Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and Croatia
3.
Adolf Hitler
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Adolf Hitler was a German politician who was the leader of the Nazi Party, Chancellor of Germany from 1933 to 1945, and Führer of Nazi Germany from 1934 to 1945. As dictator of the German Reich, he initiated World War II in Europe with the invasion of Poland in September 1939 and was central to the Holocaust, Hitler was born in Austria, then part of Austria-Hungary, and raised near Linz. He moved to Germany in 1913 and was decorated during his service in the German Army in World War I and he joined the German Workers Party, the precursor of the NSDAP, in 1919 and became leader of the NSDAP in 1921. In 1923 he attempted a coup in Munich to seize power, the failed coup resulted in Hitlers imprisonment, during which he dictated the first volume of his autobiography and political manifesto Mein Kampf. Hitler frequently denounced international capitalism and communism as being part of a Jewish conspiracy, by 1933, the Nazi Party was the largest elected party in the German Reichstag, which led to Hitlers appointment as Chancellor on 30 January 1933. Hitler aimed to eliminate Jews from Germany and establish a New Order to counter what he saw as the injustice of the post-World War I international order dominated by Britain, Hitler sought Lebensraum for the German people in Eastern Europe. His aggressive foreign policy is considered to be the cause of the outbreak of World War II in Europe. He directed large-scale rearmament and on 1 September 1939 invaded Poland, resulting in British, in June 1941, Hitler ordered an invasion of the Soviet Union. By the end of 1941 German forces and the European Axis powers occupied most of Europe, failure to defeat the Soviets and the entry of the United States into the war forced Germany onto the defensive and it suffered a series of escalating defeats. In the final days of the war, during the Battle of Berlin in 1945, Hitler married his long-time lover, on 30 April 1945, less than two days later, the two killed themselves to avoid capture by the Red Army, and their corpses were burned. Hitler and the Nazi regime were also responsible for the killing of an estimated 19.3 million civilians, in addition,29 million soldiers and civilians died as a result of military action in the European Theatre of World War II. The number of civilians killed during the Second World War was unprecedented in warfare, Hitlers father Alois Hitler Sr. was the illegitimate child of Maria Anna Schicklgruber. The baptismal register did not show the name of his father, in 1842, Johann Georg Hiedler married Aloiss mother Maria Anna. Alois was brought up in the family of Hiedlers brother, Johann Nepomuk Hiedler, in 1876, Alois was legitimated and the baptismal register changed by a priest to register Johann Georg Hiedler as Aloiss father. Alois then assumed the surname Hitler, also spelled Hiedler, Hüttler, the Hitler surname is probably based on one who lives in a hut. Nazi official Hans Frank suggested that Aloiss mother had been employed as a housekeeper by a Jewish family in Graz, and that the familys 19-year-old son Leopold Frankenberger had fathered Alois. No Frankenberger was registered in Graz during that period, and no record has been produced of Leopold Frankenbergers existence, Adolf Hitler was born on 20 April 1889 in Braunau am Inn, a town in Austria-Hungary, close to the border with the German Empire. He was one of six born to Alois Hitler and Klara Pölzl
4.
Mein Kampf
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Mein Kampf is a 1925 autobiographical book by Nazi Party leader Adolf Hitler. The work outlines Hitlers political ideology and future plans for Germany, Volume 1 of Mein Kampf was published in 1925 and Volume 2 in 1926. The book was edited by Hitlers deputy Rudolf Hess, Hitler began the book while imprisoned for what he considered to be political crimes following his failed Putsch in Munich in November 1923. Although Hitler received many visitors initially, he devoted himself entirely to the book. As he continued, Hitler realized that it would have to be a two-volume work, in 2016, following the expiry of the copyright held by the Bavarian state government, Mein Kampf was republished in Germany for the first time since 1945. Hitler originally wanted to call his forthcoming book Viereinhalb Jahre gegen Lüge, Dummheit und Feigheit, or Four, max Amann, head of the Franz Eher Verlag and Hitlers publisher, is said to have suggested the much shorter Mein Kampf or My Struggle. The narrative describes the process by which he became increasingly antisemitic and militaristic and he speaks of not having met a Jew until he arrived in Vienna, and that at first his attitude was liberal and tolerant. When he first encountered the anti-semitic press, he says, he dismissed it as unworthy of serious consideration, later he accepted the same anti-semitic views, which became crucial to his program of national reconstruction of Germany. Mein Kampf has also studied as a work on political theory. For example, Hitler announces his hatred of what he believed to be the two evils, Communism and Judaism. He announced that he wanted to destroy the parliamentary system, believing it to be corrupt in principle. While historians dispute the exact date Hitler decided to force the Jewish people to emigrate to Madagascar, first published in 1925, Mein Kampf shows Hitlers personal grievances and his ambitions for creating a New Order. Historian Ian Kershaw points out that passages in Mein Kampf are undeniably of a genocidal nature. The racial laws to which Hitler referred resonate directly with his ideas in Mein Kampf, in his first edition of Mein Kampf, Hitler stated that the destruction of the weak and sick is far more humane than their protection. Apart from this allusion to humane treatment, Hitler saw a purpose in destroying the weak in order to provide the proper space and purity for the strong. In the chapter Eastern Orientation or Eastern Policy, Hitler argued that the Germans needed Lebensraum in the East, a historic destiny that would properly nurture the German people. In Mein Kampf Hitler openly stated the future German expansion in the East and we take up where we broke off six hundred years ago. We stop the endless German movement to the south and west, at long last we break off the colonial and commercial policy of the pre-War period and shift to the soil policy of the future
5.
Truth
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Truth is most often used to mean being in accord with fact or reality, or fidelity to an original or standard. Truth may also often be used in modern contexts to refer to an idea of truth to self, the commonly understood opposite of truth is falsehood, which, correspondingly, can also take on a logical, factual, or ethical meaning. The concept of truth is discussed and debated in several contexts, including philosophy, art, Some philosophers view the concept of truth as basic, and unable to be explained in any terms that are more easily understood than the concept of truth itself. Commonly, truth is viewed as the correspondence of language or thought to an independent reality, other philosophers take this common meaning to be secondary and derivative. On this view, the conception of truth as correctness is a derivation from the concepts original essence. Various theories and views of truth continue to be debated among scholars, philosophers, language and words are a means by which humans convey information to one another and the method used to determine what is a truth is termed a criterion of truth. The English word truth is derived from Old English tríewþ, tréowþ, trýwþ, Middle English trewþe, cognate to Old High German triuwida, like troth, it is a -th nominalisation of the adjective true. Old Norse trú, faith, word of honour, religious faith, thus, truth involves both the quality of faithfulness, fidelity, loyalty, sincerity, veracity, and that of agreement with fact or reality, in Anglo-Saxon expressed by sōþ. All Germanic languages besides English have introduced a distinction between truth fidelity and truth factuality. To express factuality, North Germanic opted for nouns derived from sanna to assert, affirm, while continental West Germanic opted for continuations of wâra faith, trust, pact. Romance languages use terms following the Latin veritas, while the Greek aletheia, Russian pravda, each presents perspectives that are widely shared by published scholars. However, the theories are not universally accepted. More recently developed deflationary or minimalist theories of truth have emerged as competitors to the substantive theories. Minimalist reasoning centres around the notion that the application of a term like true to a statement does not assert anything significant about it, for instance, anything about its nature. Minimalist reasoning realises truth as a label utilised in general discourse to express agreement, to stress claims, correspondence theories emphasise that true beliefs and true statements correspond to the actual state of affairs. This type of theory stresses a relationship between thoughts or statements on one hand, and things or objects on the other and it is a traditional model tracing its origins to ancient Greek philosophers such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. This class of theories holds that the truth or the falsity of a representation is determined in principle entirely by how it relates to things, Aquinas also restated the theory as, A judgment is said to be true when it conforms to the external reality. Many modern theorists have stated that this ideal cannot be achieved without analysing additional factors, for example, language plays a role in that all languages have words to represent concepts that are virtually undefined in other languages
6.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
7.
Erich Ludendorff
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Erich Friedrich Wilhelm Ludendorff was a German general, the victor of the Battle of Liège and the Battle of Tannenberg. From August 1916, his appointment as Quartermaster general made him the leader of the German war efforts during World War I until his resignation in October 1918, from 1924 to 1928 he represented the German Völkisch Freedom Party in the German Parliament. Consistently pursuing a military line of thought, Ludendorff developed, after the war. In this work, he argued that the physical and moral forces of the nation should be mobilized, because, according to him. Ludendorff was a recipient of the Grand Cross of the Iron Cross, Ludendorff was born on 9 April 1865 in Kruszewnia near Posen, Province of Posen, Kingdom of Prussia, the third of six children of August Wilhelm Ludendorff. His father was descended from Pomeranian merchants who had achieved the status of Junker, the Prussian epiphet of lower nobility, and he held a commission in the reserve cavalry. Through Dziembowskis wife Johanna Wilhelmine von Unruh, Erich was a descendant of the Counts of Dönhoff, the Dukes of Legnica and Brzeg. He had a stable and comfortable childhood, growing up on their family farm. Erich received his schooling from his maternal aunt and had a gift for mathematics. He passed the exam for the Cadet School at Plön with distinction. Ludendorffs education continued at the Hauptkadettenschule at Groß-Lichterfelde near Berlin through 1882, the old sinner, as he liked to hear himself called. Married the daughter of a factory owner, Margarethe née Schmidt. They met in a rainstorm when he offered his umbrella and she divorced to marry him, bringing three stepsons and a stepdaughter. Their marriage pleased both families and he was devoted to his stepchildren, in 1885, Ludendorff was commissioned as a subaltern into the 57th Infantry Regiment, then at Wesel. His service reports reveal the highest praise, with frequent commendations, in 1893, he entered the War Academy, where the commandant, General Meckel, recommended him to the General Staff, to which he was appointed in 1894. He rose rapidly and was a staff officer at the headquarters of V Corps from 1902 to 1904. Next he joined the Great General Staff in Berlin, which was commanded by Alfred von Schlieffen, Ludendorff directed the Second or Mobilization Section from 1904–13. Soon he was joined by Max Bauer, a brilliant artillery officer, by 1911, Ludendorff was a full colonel
8.
Weimar Republic
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Weimar Republic is an unofficial, historical designation for the German state between 1919 and 1933. The name derives from the city of Weimar, where its constitutional assembly first took place, the official name of the state was still Deutsches Reich, it had remained unchanged since 1871. In English the country was known simply as Germany. A national assembly was convened in Weimar, where a new constitution for the Deutsches Reich was written, in its fourteen years, the Weimar Republic faced numerous problems, including hyperinflation, political extremism, and contentious relationships with the victors of the First World War. The people of Germany blamed the Weimar Republic rather than their leaders for the countrys defeat. However, the Weimar Republic government successfully reformed the currency, unified tax policies, Weimar Germany eliminated most of the requirements of the Treaty of Versailles, it never completely met its disarmament requirements, and eventually paid only a small portion of the war reparations. Under the Locarno Treaties, Germany accepted the borders of the republic. From 1930 onwards President Hindenburg used emergency powers to back Chancellors Heinrich Brüning, Franz von Papen, the Great Depression, exacerbated by Brünings policy of deflation, led to a surge in unemployment. In 1933, Hindenburg appointed Adolf Hitler as Chancellor with the Nazi Party being part of a coalition government, the Nazis held two out of the remaining ten cabinet seats. Von Papen as Vice Chancellor was intended to be the éminence grise who would keep Hitler under control, within months the Reichstag Fire Decree and the Enabling Act of 1933 had brought about a state of emergency, it wiped out constitutional governance and civil liberties. Hitlers seizure of power was permissive of government by decree without legislative participation and these events brought the republic to an end, as democracy collapsed, a single-party state founded the Nazi era. The Weimar Republic is so called because the assembly that adopted its constitution met at Weimar, Germany from 6 February 1919 to 11 August 1919, but this name only became mainstream after 1933. To the right of the spectrum the politically engaged rejected the new democratic model, the Catholic Centre party, Zentrum favoured the term Deutscher Volksstaat while on the moderate left the Chancellors SPD preferred Deutsche Republik. Only during the 1930s did the term become mainstream, both within and outside Germany, after the introduction of the republic, the flag and coat of arms of Germany were officially altered to reflect the political changes. The Weimar Republic retained the Reichsadler, but without the symbols of the former Monarchy and this left the black eagle with one head, facing to the right, with open wings but closed feathers, with a red beak, tongue and claws and white highlighting. If the Reichs Eagle is shown without a frame, the charge and colors as those of the eagle of the Reichs coat of arms are to be used. The patterns kept by the Federal Ministry of the Interior are decisive for the heraldic design, the artistic design may be varied for each special purpose. The achievements and signs of movement were mostly done away with after its downfall
9.
Jewish conspiracy
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There are many unproven conspiracy theories with varying degrees of popularity, frequently related to clandestine government plans and elaborate murder plots. Antisemitism has, since the Middle Ages, frequently taken on the characteristics of a conspiracy theory, in medieval Europe it was widely believed that Jews poisoned wells, had killed Jesus, and consumed the blood of Christians in their rituals. In the second half of the 19th century conspiracists claimed that Jews and/or Freemasons were plotting to control over the world. The best-known text alleging the existence of this Judeo-Masonic conspiracy theory is The Protocols of the Elders of Zion, a more modern manifestation of such ideas is the theory of a Zionist Occupation Government. The Jewish Bolshevism theories allege that the Jews were the force behind the propagation of communism, in particular, of the Russian Revolution. A related theory is that Jews control Hollywood and the news media, for this reason, Holocaust denial is considered to be an antisemitic conspiracy theory. Online, the website Jew Watch propagates many different conspiracy theories involving Jews, the phrase Anti-racist is a code word for anti-white, coined by high-profile white nationalist Robert Whitaker, is commonly associated with the topic of white genocide. It has been spotted on billboards near Birmingham, Alabama and in Harrison, Conspiracy theories involving Armenians are prevalent in Azerbaijan. Daniel McLaughlin, writing for The Irish Times in 2012, noted that everywhere from taxi cabs to cabinet offices and he stated, They especially try to poison the Russian nation against the Turkish nation but as can be seen, they haven’t been very successful. Samuel Weems, an American writer and disbarred lawyer from Arkansas, was paid by the Turkish lobby in the United States. He also claimed that the Armenian Church was an entity that organizes and funds terrorist attacks. In these majority Protestant countries, Catholics have long been accused or suspected of secretly pursuing Catholic or Vatican interests through intrigue and conspiracy. In the 17th century, Titus Oates fabricated a fictitious Catholic conspiracy known as the Popish Plot, schlesinger, Sr. describing American prejudice against the Catholics as the deepest bias in the history of the American people. British anti-Catholicism was exported to the United States with the arrival of British colonists, the second was a more secular variety which focused on the supposed intrigue of the Catholics, suspecting Catholics of being intent on extending medieval despotism worldwide. Anti-Catholic fears in the U. S. reached a peak in the 19th century when the Protestant population became alarmed by the influx of Catholic immigrants, other groups such as the Ku Klux Klan were especially anti-Catholic and fearful of an eventual Catholic takeover of the U. S. Rising fears sparked a rebirth in the conspiracy claim that the Catholic Church was the Whore of Babylon in the Book of Revelations. American fear of Catholic and Papal political control also grew with the establishment of Catholic parochial school, rebecca Reeds 1835 novel, the Six Months in a Convent, described her alleged captivity by an Ursuline order near Boston. Reeds accusations inspired an angry mob to burn down the convent, col. William Stone, a New York city newspaper editor, along with a team of Protestant investigators, inquired into Monks claims, inspecting the convent in the process
10.
Joseph Goebbels
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Paul Joseph Goebbels was a German politician and Reich Minister of Propaganda of Nazi Germany from 1933 to 1945. He advocated progressively harsher discrimination, including the extermination of the Jews in the Holocaust, Goebbels, who aspired to be an author, obtained a Doctor of Philosophy degree from the University of Heidelberg in 1921. He joined the Nazi Party in 1924, and worked with Gregor Strasser in their northern branch and he was appointed as Gauleiter for Berlin in 1926, where he began to take an interest in the use of propaganda to promote the party and its programme. After the Nazi Seizure of Power in 1933, Goebbels Propaganda Ministry quickly gained and exerted controlling supervision over the media, arts. He was particularly adept at using the new media of radio. Topics for party propaganda included antisemitism, attacks on the Christian churches, as the war drew to a close and Nazi Germany faced defeat, Magda Goebbels and the Goebbels children joined him in Berlin. They moved into the underground Vorbunker, part of Hitlers underground bunker complex, Hitler committed suicide on 30 April. In accordance with Hitlers will, Goebbels succeeded him as Chancellor of Germany, the following day, Goebbels and his wife committed suicide, after poisoning their six children with cyanide. Paul Joseph Goebbels was born on 29 October 1897 in Rheydt, both of his parents were Catholics with modest family backgrounds. His father Fritz was a clerk, his mother Katharina was ethnically Dutch. Goebbels had five siblings, Konrad, Hans, Maria, Elisabeth, and Maria, in 1932, Goebbels published a pamphlet of his family tree to refute the rumors that his grandmother was of Jewish ancestry. During childhood, Goebbels suffered from ill health, which included a bout of inflammation of the lungs. He had a right foot that turned inwards, due to a congenital deformity. It was thicker and shorter than his left foot and he underwent a failed operation to correct it just prior to starting grammar school. Goebbels wore a metal brace and special shoe because of his shortened leg and he was rejected for military service in World War I due to his deformity. Goebbels was educated at a Christian Gymnasium, where he completed his Abitur in 1917 and he was the top student of his class and was given the traditional honor to speak at the awards ceremony. His parents initially hoped that he would become a Catholic priest and he studied literature and history at the universities of Bonn, Würzburg, Freiburg, and Munich, aided by a scholarship from the Albertus Magnus Society. By this time Goebbels had begun to distance himself from the church, historians, including Richard J. Evans and Roger Manvell, speculate that Goebbels lifelong pursuit of women may have been in compensation for his physical disabilities
11.
Winston Churchill
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Sir Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill KG OM CH TD PC DL FRS RA was a British statesman who was the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1940 to 1945 and again from 1951 to 1955. Churchill was also an officer in the British Army, a historian. He won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1953 for his overall, in 1963, he was the first of only eight people to be made an honorary citizen of the United States. Churchill was born into the family of the Dukes of Marlborough and his father, Lord Randolph Churchill, was a charismatic politician who served as Chancellor of the Exchequer, his mother, Jennie Jerome, was an American socialite. As a young officer, he saw action in British India, the Anglo–Sudan War. He gained fame as a war correspondent and wrote books about his campaigns, at the forefront of politics for fifty years, he held many political and cabinet positions. Before the First World War, he served as President of the Board of Trade, Home Secretary, during the war, he continued as First Lord of the Admiralty until the disastrous Gallipoli Campaign caused his departure from government. He then briefly resumed active service on the Western Front as commander of the 6th Battalion of the Royal Scots Fusiliers. He returned to government under Lloyd George as Minister of Munitions, Secretary of State for War, Secretary of State for Air, at the outbreak of the Second World War, he was again appointed First Lord of the Admiralty. Following the resignation of Neville Chamberlain on 10 May 1940, Churchill became Prime Minister and he led Britain as Prime Minister until victory over Nazi Germany had been secured. After the Conservative Party suffered a defeat in the 1945 general election. He publicly warned of an Iron Curtain of Soviet influence in Europe, after winning the 1951 election, Churchill again became Prime Minister. His second term was preoccupied by foreign affairs, including the Malayan Emergency, Mau Mau Uprising, Korean War, domestically his government laid great emphasis on house-building. Churchill suffered a stroke in 1953 and retired as Prime Minister in 1955. Upon his death aged ninety in 1965, Elizabeth II granted him the honour of a state funeral and his highly complex legacy continues to stimulate intense debate amongst writers and historians. Born into the family of the Dukes of Marlborough, a branch of the noble Spencer family, Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill, like his father. His ancestor George Spencer had changed his surname to Spencer-Churchill in 1817 when he became Duke of Marlborough, to highlight his descent from John Churchill, Churchill was born on 30 November 1874, two months prematurely, in a bedroom in Blenheim Palace, Woodstock, Oxfordshire. From age two to six, he lived in Dublin, where his grandfather had been appointed Viceroy, Churchills brother, John Strange Spencer-Churchill, was born during this time in Ireland
12.
Germany Must Perish!
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Germany Must Perish. is a 104-page book written by Theodore Newman Kaufman, which he self-published in 1941 in the United States. The book advocated the genocide through sterilization of all Germans and the dismemberment of Germany. Kaufman founded the Argyle Press in Newark, New Jersey, United States and he was the sole proprietor of the Argyle Press and it is not known to have published any other works. The Nazi Party used the book, written by a Jewish author, though written and self-published by a non-notable author, the book received considerable attention. However, the Time essay recognized that Kaufmans work was not satirical, since Germans are the perennial disturbers of the worlds peace, says the book, they must be dealt with like any homicidal criminals. But it is unnecessary to put the whole German nation to the sword and it is more humane to sterilize them. According to one study, reviews in the United States reflected an odd combination of straight reporting, Kaufmans second and more moderate pamphlet, No More German Wars published in 1942, was ignored both in the U. S. and in Germany. An advertisement in The New York Times stated that the book was released to the public on March 1,1941, Kaufman also promoted the book by mailing a miniature black cardboard coffin with a hinged lid to reviewers. Inside the coffin was a card proclaiming, Read GERMANY MUST PERISH, tomorrow you will receive your copy. The books dust jacket contained excerpts from reviews of the book, one blurb read, A Plan For Permanent Peace Among Civilized Nations. Kaufmans advocacy of sterilization of Germans was echoed in a later book by another American Jew, Louis Nizer. In his 1944 book What To Do With Germany, Nizer accepted collective punishment of Germans and considered, but ultimately rejected, their mass eugenic sterilization. In 1945, a Jewish journalist wrote an article claiming that the book was more than self-indulgence in dire vituperation by a man who sees Germany as the sole cause of the worlds woes. Kaufman advocated the mass extermination through forced sterilization of the German people and they must see to it that the nations of the world get together in one vast federation. Union Now is the beginning of this, slowly but surely the world will develop into a paradise. And the Jews will do the most to bring about this confederation, but how can you get peace if Germany exists. The only way to win an eternal peace is to make the punishment of waging war more horrible than war itself, human beings are penalized for murder, arent they. Well, Germany starts all the wars of magnitude, let us sterilize all Germans and wars of world domination will come to an end
13.
Office of Strategic Services
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The Office of Strategic Services was a wartime intelligence agency of the United States during World War II, and a predecessor of the modern Central Intelligence Agency. The OSS was formed as an agency of the Joint Chiefs of Staff to coordinate espionage activities behind enemy lines for all branches of the United States Armed Forces, other OSS functions included the use of propaganda, subversion, and post-war planning. It had no direction, coordination, or control. The US Army and US Navy had separate code-breaking departments, Signal Intelligence Service, the FBI was responsible for domestic security and anti-espionage operations. President Franklin D. Roosevelt was concerned about American intelligence deficiencies, Colonel Donovan was employed to evaluate the global military position to offer suggestions concerning American intelligence requirements because the U. S. did not have a central intelligence agency. Thereafter the organization was developed with British assistance, Donovan had responsibilities but no actual powers, until some months after Pearl Harbor, the bulk of OSS intelligence came from the UK. The British immediately made available their short-wave broadcasting capabilities to Europe, Africa, during the war, the OSS supplied policymakers with facts and estimates, but the OSS never had jurisdiction over all foreign intelligence activities. The FBI was left responsible for work in Latin America. At the height of its influence during World War II, the OSS employed almost 24,000 people, OSS officer Archimedes Patti played a central role in OSS operations in French Indochina and met frequently with Ho Chi Minh in 1945. One of the greatest accomplishments of the OSS during World War II was its penetration of Nazi Germany by OSS operatives, the OSS was responsible for training German and Austrian individuals for missions inside Germany. Some of these agents included exiled communists and Socialist party members, labor activists, anti-Nazi prisoners-of-war, the OSS also recruited and ran one of the wars most important spies, the German diplomat Fritz Kolbe. In 1943, the Office of Strategic Services set up operations in Istanbul, turkey, as a neutral country during the Second World War, was a place where both the Axis and Allied powers had spy networks. The railroads connecting central Asia with Europe as well as Turkeys close proximity to the Balkan states placed it at a crossroads of intelligence gathering, the goal of the OSS Istanbul operation called Project Net-1 was to infiltrate and extenuate subversive action in the old Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian Empires. Head of operations at OSS Istanbul was a banker from Chicago named Lanning Packy Macfarland who maintained the story as a banker for the American lend-lease program. Macfarland hired Alfred Schwarz, a Czechoslovakian engineer and businessman who came to be known as Dogwood, Dogwood in turn hired a personal assistant named Walter Arndt and established himself as an employee of the Istanbul Western Electrik Kompani. Through Schwartz and Arndt the OSS was able to infiltrate anti-fascist groups in Austria, Hungary, through this process information about the Nazi regime made its way to Macfarland and the OSS in Istanbul and eventually to Washington. While the OSS Dogwood-chain produced a lot of information, its reliability was increasingly questioned by British intelligence, eventually by May 1944 through collaboration between the OSS, British intelligence, Cairo and Washington the entire Dogwood-chain was found to be unreliable and dangerous. Planting phony information into the OSS was intended to misdirect the resources of the Allies, schwartzs Dogwood-chain, which was the largest American intelligence gathering tool in occupied territory, was shortly thereafter shut down
14.
Truthiness
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By using this as part of his routine, Colbert satirized the misuse of appeal to emotion and gut feeling as a rhetorical device in contemporaneous socio-political discourse. He particularly applied it to U. S. President George W. Bushs nomination of Harriet Miers to the Supreme Court, Colbert later ascribed truthiness to other institutions and organizations, including Wikipedia. Colbert has sometimes used a Dog Latin version of the term, for example, in Colberts Operation Iraqi Stephen, Going Commando the word Veritasiness can be seen on the banner above the eagle on the operations seal. Truthiness was named Word of the Year for 2005 by the American Dialect Society, responding to claims by Michael Adams that the word already existed with a different meaning, Colbert explained the origin of his word as, Truthiness is a word I pulled right out of my keister. Stephen Colbert, portraying his character Dr. Stephen T and he introduced his definition in the first segment of the episode, saying, Now Im sure some of the word police, the wordinistas over at Websters are gonna say, Hey, thats not a word. Well, anybody who knows me knows Im no fan of dictionaries or reference books, constantly telling us what is or isnt true. Or what did or didnt happen, when asked in an out-of-character interview with The Onions A. V. It used to be, everyone was entitled to their own opinion, but thats not the case anymore. People love the President because hes certain of his choices as a leader and its the fact that hes certain that is very appealing to a certain section of the country. I really feel a dichotomy in the American populace, what you want to be true, or what is true. Truthiness is What I say is right, and anyone else says could possibly be true and its not only that I feel it to be true, but that I feel it to be true. Theres not only a quality, but theres a selfish quality. During an interview on December 8,2006, with Charlie Rose, Colbert stated, I was thinking of the idea of passion and emotion and certainty over information. On his April 2,2009 episode of the Colbert Report, Colbert added an addendum to the definition, after Colberts introduction of truthiness, it quickly became widely used and recognized. Six days after, CNNs Reliable Sources featured a discussion of The Colbert Report by host Howard Kurtz, on the same day, ABCs Nightline also reported on truthiness, prompting Colbert to respond by saying, You know what was missing from that piece. The February 13,2006, issue of Newsweek featured an article on The Colbert Report titled The Truthiness Teller, recounting the career of the word truthiness since its popularization by Colbert. In its October 25,2005, issue, eight days after the episode of the Report, The New York Times ran its third article on The Colbert Report. The article specifically discussed the segment on truthiness, although the Times misreported the word as trustiness, in its November 1,2005 issue, the Times ran a correction
15.
Walter C. Langer
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Well before the assassination attempt in the summer of 1944, Langers report also identified the possibility of a military coup against Hitler. The report is available online and, along with material including a foreword, introduction. Langer was born on February 5,1899 in South Boston to Charles Rudolph and Johanna Rockenbach and his mother was born to a Lutheran household in Zweibrücken, Germany, and his father was a member of the Moravian Brethren from Silesia, Germany. Walter Langer, who for a time was also a professor at Harvard, held a Ph. D, retired to Florida, Langer died in Sarasota in 1981, aged 82. The Military Channel program Inside the Mind of Adolf Hitler is based on The Mind of Adolf Hitler, and dramatised scenes connected to Langers investigation
16.
The Mind of Adolf Hitler
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The Mind of Adolf Hitler, The Secret Wartime Report, published in 1972 by Basic Books, is based on a World War II report by psychoanalyst Walter C. Langer which probed the psychology of Adolf Hitler from the available information, Murray who also contributed to Langers report. The report eventually became 1000 pages long, the report is notable for making several correct predictions about Hitlers future, As the war turns against him, his emotions will intensify and will have outbursts more frequently. His public appearances will become much rarer, because hes unable to face a critical audience, there might be an assassination attempt on him by the German aristocracy, the Wehrmacht officers or Oberkommando der Wehrmacht, because of his superhuman self-confidence in his military judgment. There will be no surrender, capitulation, or peace negotiations, the course he will follow will almost certainly be the road to ideological immortality, resulting in the greatest vengeance on a world he despises. From what we know of his psychology, the most likely possibility is that he commit suicide in the event of defeat. Its probably true he has a fear of death, but possibly being a psychopath he would undoubtedly weigh his options. The wartime report was commissioned by the head of the OSS and he promised, however, to write down his views and conclusions and submit them. Unfortunately, not a word was received from him although he did apparently confirm to Langer by telephone that he agreed with the diagnosis of Hitlers perversion. The Harvard University Archives register stated that Murray started work on this profile in 1938 upon request from the Roosevelt administration, the Langer report was classified as Secret by the OSS, but was eventually declassified in 1968. The original report is in the domain and is available on the Internet on a number of sites. Numerous substantial unexplained differences were noted by Gatzke, however, between the report as published in 1972 and separate copy of the 1943/33 report, the so-called Hitler Source Book which was appended to the wartime report, ran over one thousand pages and was indexed against the report. The groundbreaking study was the pioneer of offender profiling and political psychology and it is probably true that Hitler calls Foerster Bubi, which is a common nickname employed by homosexuals in addressing their partners. This alone, however, is not adequate proof that he has indulged in homosexual practices with Foerster. From a purely scientific point of view, therefore, it is not to base our reconstruction on such slim evidence. Nevertheless, we can leave it as a possibility which requires further verification, some statements in the report have proven, on further investigation, to be erroneous. The bibliography of the report contains close to 400 entries, the first words of the OSS report are, This study is not propagandistic in any sense of the term. Others, however, have suggested that the analysis was intended to be useful for propaganda, historian Gatzke agrees that the original document is of historical interest, but not more due to the unreliability of its descriptions of the evidence and of its interpretations
17.
OCLC
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The Online Computer Library Center is a US-based nonprofit cooperative organization dedicated to the public purposes of furthering access to the worlds information and reducing information costs. It was founded in 1967 as the Ohio College Library Center, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat, the largest online public access catalog in the world. OCLC is funded mainly by the fees that libraries have to pay for its services, the group first met on July 5,1967 on the campus of the Ohio State University to sign the articles of incorporation for the nonprofit organization. The group hired Frederick G. Kilgour, a former Yale University medical school librarian, Kilgour wished to merge the latest information storage and retrieval system of the time, the computer, with the oldest, the library. The goal of network and database was to bring libraries together to cooperatively keep track of the worlds information in order to best serve researchers and scholars. The first library to do online cataloging through OCLC was the Alden Library at Ohio University on August 26,1971 and this was the first occurrence of online cataloging by any library worldwide. Membership in OCLC is based on use of services and contribution of data, between 1967 and 1977, OCLC membership was limited to institutions in Ohio, but in 1978, a new governance structure was established that allowed institutions from other states to join. In 2002, the structure was again modified to accommodate participation from outside the United States. As OCLC expanded services in the United States outside of Ohio, it relied on establishing strategic partnerships with networks, organizations that provided training, support, by 2008, there were 15 independent United States regional service providers. OCLC networks played a key role in OCLC governance, with networks electing delegates to serve on OCLC Members Council, in early 2009, OCLC negotiated new contracts with the former networks and opened a centralized support center. OCLC provides bibliographic, abstract and full-text information to anyone, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat—the OCLC Online Union Catalog, the largest online public access catalog in the world. WorldCat has holding records from public and private libraries worldwide. org, in October 2005, the OCLC technical staff began a wiki project, WikiD, allowing readers to add commentary and structured-field information associated with any WorldCat record. The Online Computer Library Center acquired the trademark and copyrights associated with the Dewey Decimal Classification System when it bought Forest Press in 1988, a browser for books with their Dewey Decimal Classifications was available until July 2013, it was replaced by the Classify Service. S. The reference management service QuestionPoint provides libraries with tools to communicate with users and this around-the-clock reference service is provided by a cooperative of participating global libraries. OCLC has produced cards for members since 1971 with its shared online catalog. OCLC commercially sells software, e. g. CONTENTdm for managing digital collections, OCLC has been conducting research for the library community for more than 30 years. In accordance with its mission, OCLC makes its research outcomes known through various publications and these publications, including journal articles, reports, newsletters, and presentations, are available through the organizations website. The most recent publications are displayed first, and all archived resources, membership Reports – A number of significant reports on topics ranging from virtual reference in libraries to perceptions about library funding
18.
Calvin College
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Calvin College is a liberal arts college located in Grand Rapids, Michigan. Founded in 1876, Calvin College is an institution of the Christian Reformed Church. Calvin College is named after John Calvin, the 16th-century Protestant Reformer, the Christian Reformed Church in North America founded the school on August 4,1876, as part of Calvin College and Theological Seminary to train church ministers. The college and seminary began with seven students, in an upper room on Spring Street, in Grand Rapids. The initial six-year curriculum included four years of studies and two years of theology. In 1892, the moved to the intersection of Madison Avenue. In September 1894, the school expanded the curriculum for those who were not pre-theological students, in 1900, the curriculum further broadened, making it more attractive to students interested in teaching or preparing for professional courses at universities. In 1901, Calvin admitted the first women to the school, in 1906, the literary department of the college became known as John Calvin Junior College and the college held its first commencement. The student newspaper Chimes was first published in 1907, around 1910, the West Michigan cities of Muskegon and Kalamazoo fought to have Calvin relocate to their respective cities. Muskegon offered US$10,000 and a tract of land to attract the college, the city of Grand Rapids countered with its own $10,000 offer and the junior college chose to stay in Grand Rapids. In time, the college became a four-year college. In 1917, John Calvin Junior College moved to the Franklin Street Campus, two years later the college appointed its first president, the Rev. J. J. The next year the college awarded its first bachelors degree, in 1925, the college began a teacher training program and, in 1926, appointed its first female faculty member, Johanna Timmer, as Dean of Women. The college dedicated its library, the Hekman Library on March 8,1928, the college later dedicated its seminary building at the Franklin Street Campus on October 29,1930. Still under the leadership of Rev. Hiemenga the college faced significant trouble during the Great Depression as financial hardship beset the college, although the school grew slowly in these early years, by 1930 it had reached its pre-World War I size of 350-450 students. Like many colleges in the United States, the end of the war led to the fastest enrollment increase in Calvins history, by 1950 the enrollment had climbed to 1,270 and Calvin joined the M. I. A. A. The enrollment increase led to space limitations at the Franklin Campus, William Spoelhoef became president of Calvin in 1951. In 1956, the Synod of the Christian Reformed Church authorized the college to purchase the Knollcrest Farm from J. C. Miller for $400,000
19.
Circular reporting
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In source criticism, circular reporting or false confirmation is a situation where a piece of information appears to come from multiple independent sources, but in fact is coming from only one source. In most cases, the problem happens mistakenly through sloppy intelligence gathering practices, but in a few cases and this problem occurs in variety of fields, including intelligence gathering, journalism, and scholarly research. Wikipedia is sometimes criticized for being used as a source of circular reporting, Wikipedia advises all researchers and journalists to be wary of using Wikipedia as a direct source, and instead focus on verifiable information found in an articles cited references. In the following examples, false claims were made due to circular reporting, Wikipedia and Der Spiegel in 2009, regarding Karl-Theodor Freiherr von und zu Guttenberg. Wikipedia and The Independent in 2007, propagating the false information that Sacha Baron Cohen worked at Goldman Sachs, Wikipedia and coati beginning in 2008, when an arbitrary addition also known as. Media echo chamber Circular reference Ghost word Hoax Rumor Reliability of Wikipedia Wikipedia, List of citogenesis incidents
20.
Deception
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Deception, beguilement, deceit, bluff, mystification, ruse, and subterfuge is the act of propagating beliefs in things that are not true, or not the whole truth. Deception can involve dissimulation, propaganda, and sleight of hand, as well as distraction, camouflage, there is also self-deception, as in bad faith. Deception is a relational transgression that often leads to feelings of betrayal. Deception violates relational rules and is considered to be a violation of expectations. Most people expect friends, relational partners, and even strangers to be truthful most of the time, if people expected most conversations to be untruthful, talking and communicating with others would require distraction and misdirection to acquire reliable information. A significant amount of deception occurs between romantic and relational partners, Deceit and dishonesty can also form grounds for civil litigation in tort, or contract law, or give rise to criminal prosecution for fraud. It also forms a part of psychological warfare in Denial. Deception includes several types of communications or omissions that serve to distort or omit the complete truth, examples of deception range from false statements to misleading claims in which relevant information is omitted, leading the receiver to infer false conclusions. Deception itself is intentionally managing verbal and/or nonverbal messages so that the receiver will believe in a way that the message sender knows is false. Intent is critical with regard to deception, intent differentiates between deception and an honest mistake. The Interpersonal Deception Theory explores the interrelation between communicative context and sender and receiver cognitions and behaviors in deceptive exchanges, some forms of deception include, Lies, making up information or giving information that is the opposite or very different from the truth. Equivocations, making an indirect, ambiguous, or contradictory statement, concealments, omitting information that is important or relevant to the given context, or engaging in behavior that helps hide relevant information. Exaggerations, overstatement or stretching the truth to a degree, understatements, minimization or downplaying aspects of the truth. Many people believe that they are good at deception, though this confidence is often misplaced, while it is difficult to deceive a partner over a long period of time, deception often occurs in day-to-day conversations between relational partners. Detecting deception is difficult because there are no completely reliable indicators of deception. Deception, however, places a significant cognitive load on the deceiver and he or she must recall previous statements so that his or her story remains consistent and believable. As a result, deceivers often leak important information both verbally and nonverbally, Deception and its detection is a complex, fluid, and cognitive process that is based on the context of the message exchange. A deceivers actions are interrelated to the message receivers actions and it is during this exchange that the deceiver will reveal verbal and nonverbal information about deceit
21.
Euromyth
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The term euromyth was coined in c.2007 in journalistic repots on urban legends involving exaggerated or invented story about allegedly nonsensical EU legislation or EU bodies. Conversely, the same term applied by Eurosceptics to purportedly misleading or exaggerated claims by the European Commission. Sometimes debate as to whether a claim is true or not continues long after the original story appeared. On occasions, Euromyths may arise when the actions of a different European organisation, the European Union has introduced a policy of publicly rebutting negative coverage that it regards as unfair or distorted. Accusations of distorted or untruthful reporting are most commonly directed at conservative, stories often present the European civil service as drafting rules that defy common sense. Examples cited as Euromyths include stories about rules banning mince-pies, curved bananas, in some cases Euromyth stories have been traced to deliberate attempts by lobbyists to influence actions by the European bureaucracy, for instance the level of customs duties for particular products. The alleged ban on curved bananas is a long-standing, famous, amongst other issues of acceptable quality and standards, the regulation does actually specify minimum dimensions. It also states that bananas shall be free from deformation or abnormal curvature, however, the provisions relating to shape apply fully only to bananas sold as Extra class, some defects of shape are permitted in Class I and Class II bananas. On 29 July 2008, the European Commission held a preliminary vote towards repealing certain regulations relating to other fruit and it is far better to leave it to market operators. Some Eurosceptic sources have claimed this to be an admission that the regulations did indeed ban undersized or misshapen fruit. Euromyths from the European Commission Euromyths from the BBC Standards myths from CEN
22.
Factoid
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The term factoid can, in common usage, mean either a false or spurious statement presented as a fact, as well as a true, if brief or trivial, item of news or information. Since its creation in 1973 the term has evolved from its meaning and has assumed other meanings. The Oxford English Dictionary defines a factoid as a brief or trivial item of news or information, the term was coined by American writer Norman Mailer in his 1973 biography of Marilyn Monroe. The Washington Times described Mailers new word as referring to something that looks like a fact, could be a fact, accordingly, factoids may give rise to, or arise from, common misconceptions and urban legends. Several decades after the term was coined by Mailer, it grew to have several meanings, in 1993, William Safire identified several contrasting senses of factoid, factoid, accusatory, misinformation purporting to be factual, or, a phony statistic. Factoid, neutral, seemingly though not necessarily factual factoid, a bit of information, trivial. BBC Radio 2 presenter Steve Wright uses factoids extensively on his show, historian Dion Smythe defines factoids to be assertions about the truth, as documented in primary sources of historical research. In this indirect meaning, the truthfulness of factoids comes from objectively observable existence of such assertions themselves, as a result of confusion over the meaning of factoid, some English-language style and usage guides recommend against its use. Safire suggested that factlet be used to designate a small or trivial bit of information that is true or accurate. A report in The Guardian identified Safire as the writer who coined the term factlet, the term factlet has been used in publications such as Mother Jones, the San Jose Mercury News, and in the Reno Gazette Journal. Chuck Norris facts Groupthink Just-so story List of common misconceptions Meme Talking point Trivia Truthiness Urban legend Woozle effect
23.
False flag
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While Kormoran was fatally damaged in the engagement and its crew captured the outcome represented a considerable psychological victory for the Germans. In December 1922–February 1923, Rules concerning the Control of Wireless Telegraphy in Time of War and Air Warfare, drafted by a commission of jurists at the Hague regulates, a military aircraft must carry an exterior mark indicating its nationality and its military character. The use of false exterior marks is forbidden, during the trial, a number of arguments were advanced to substantiate this position and the German and U. S. military seem to have been in agreement. The foregoing rule, does not prohibit such use, but does prohibit their improper use and it is certainly forbidden to make use of them during a combat. Before opening fire upon the enemy, they must be discarded, the American Soldiers Handbook was also quoted by Defense Counsel, The use of the enemy flag, insignia, and uniform is permitted under some circumstances. They are not to be used during fighting, and if used in order to approach the enemy without drawing fire. Subsequently, the outcome of the trial has been codified in the 1977 Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949 and it is prohibited to kill, injure, or capture an adversary by resort to perfidy. Ruses of war are not prohibited, the following are examples of such ruses, the use of camouflage, decoys, mock operations and disinformation. It is prohibited to use of the distinctive emblem of the United Nations. It is prohibited to use in an armed conflict of the flags or military emblems. It is prohibited to use of the flags or military emblems, insignia or uniforms of adverse Parties while engaging in attacks or in order to shield, favour. A false flag in the domain is slightly different and easier to perpetrate than in other physical theaters of war. This misdirection tactic can cause misattribution or misperception which can lead to retaliation against the wrong adversary, in 1788, the head tailor at the Royal Swedish Opera received an order to sew a number of Russian military uniforms. These were then used by the Swedes to stage an attack on Puumala and this caused an outrage in Stockholm and impressed the Riksdag of the Estates, the Swedish national assembly, who until then had refused to agree to an offensive war against Russia. The Puumala incident allowed King Gustav III of Sweden, who lacked the authority to initiate unprovoked hostilities without the Estates consent. In September 1931, Japanese officers fabricated a pretext for invading Manchuria by blowing up a section of railway, the Gleiwitz incident in 1939 involved Reinhard Heydrich fabricating evidence of a Polish attack against Germany to mobilize German public opinion for war and to justify the war with Poland. Alfred Naujocks was a key organiser of the operation orders from Heydrich. It led to the deaths of Nazi concentration camp victims who were dressed as German soldiers and this, along with other false flag operations in Operation Himmler, would be used to mobilize support from the German population for the start of World War II in Europe
24.
Gaslighting
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Gaslighting is a form of manipulation that seeks to sow seeds of doubt in a targeted individual or members of a group, hoping to make targets question their own memory, perception, and sanity. Using persistent denial, misdirection, contradiction, and lying, it attempts to destabilize the target, instances may range from the denial by an abuser that previous abusive incidents ever occurred up to the staging of bizarre events by the abuser with the intention of disorienting the victim. The term owes its origin to Gas Light, a 1938 play and 1944 film and it has been used in clinical and research literature. The original title stems from the dimming of the gas lights in the house that happened when the husband was using the gas lights in the attic while searching for hidden treasure. The wife accurately notices the lights and discusses the phenomenon. The term gaslighting has been used colloquially since the 1960s, to describe efforts to manipulate someones sense of reality, sociopaths and narcissists frequently use gaslighting tactics. Sociopaths consistently transgress social mores, break laws, and exploit others, but typically also are convincing liars, sometimes charming ones, thus, some who have been victimized by sociopaths may doubt their own perceptions. Some physically abusive spouses may gaslight their partners by flatly denying that they have been violent, Gaslighting may occur in parent–child relationships, with either parent, child, or both, lying to each other and attempting to undermine perceptions. Gaslighting describes a dynamic observed in cases of marital infidelity. The gaslighting behaviors of the spouse provide a recipe for the nervous breakdown for some women suicide in some of the worst situations. The situation was a theme in the BBCs The Archers radio soap opera through the story of Helen Archer and Rob Titchenor in 2015-6. Psychotherapy and psychiatry have been described as forms of gaslighting wherein the therapist or psychiatrist is characterized by the patient to be of a more sound, furthermore, gaslighting has been observed between patients and staff in inpatient psychiatric facilities. Of painful and potentially painful mental conflicts, dorpat describes this as an example of projective identification. With respect to women in particular, Hilde Lindemann argued emphatically that in such cases, establishment of counterstories may help the victim reacquire ordinary levels of free agency. Gaslighting has been used by Russian politicians, british film-maker Adam Curtis suggested in 2014 that nonlinear or asymmetric war was a form of gaslighting intended to force political control. Surkov used his influence to finance various political coalitions so none of the Russian citizens could know if an organization was created by the government or a grassroots movement, in fact, I would never dream of saying X. had brought new notability to the term. Some Clinical Consequences of Introjection, Gaslighting, dialogues of Doubt, The Psychology of Self-Doubt and Emotional Gaslighting in Adult Women and Men. Gaslighting, How to Drive Your Enemies Crazy, the Gaslight Effect, How to Spot and Survive the Hidden Manipulation Others Use to Control Your Life
25.
Hoax
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A hoax is a deliberately fabricated falsehood made to masquerade as the truth. It is distinguishable from errors in observation or judgment, rumors, urban legends, pseudosciences, although practical jokes have likely existed for thousands of years, one of the earliest recorded hoaxes in history was the drummer of Tedworth in 1661. The communication of hoaxes can be accomplished in almost any manner that a story can be communicated, in person, via word of mouth, via words printed on paper. However, hoaxes could also be spread via chain letters, which became easier as the cost of mailing a letter dropped. The invention of the press in the 15th century brought down the cost of a mass-produced books and pamphlets. During the 20th century, the hoax found a market in the form of supermarket tabloids. Hocus is a shortening of the magic incantation hocus pocus, whose origin is disputed, robert Nares defined the word hoax as meaning to cheat, dating from Thomas Adys 1656 book A candle in the dark, or a treatise on the nature of witches and witchcraft. T. Barnum, whose Fiji mermaid contributed to his wealth—often acquire monetary gain or fame through their fabrications, one of the earliest recorded media hoaxes is a fake almanac published by Jonathan Swift under the pseudonym of Isaac Bickerstaff in 1708. Swift predicted the death of John Partridge, one of the astrologers in England at that time, in the almanac. Partridges reputation was damaged as a result and his astrological almanac was not published for the six years. It is possible to perpetrate a hoax by making only true statements using unfamiliar wording or context, political hoaxes are sometimes motivated by the desire to ridicule or besmirch opposing politicians or political institutions, often before elections. A hoax differs from a trick or from fiction in that the audience is unaware of being deceived. A hoax is often intended as a joke or to cause embarrassment. It can also emerge from a marketing or advertising purpose, a resulting video clip of Chloe and Keiths Wedding was uploaded to YouTube and was viewed by over 30 million people and the couple was interviewed by numerous talk shows. Viewers were deluded into thinking that it was a clip of a real accident at a real wedding. A borderline case between fiction and hoax is a 1938 radio broadcast by Orson Welles describing a Martian invasion of Earth, many people who tuned in without hearing the introduction of the program as fiction were concerned that the invasion was real. Governments sometimes spread false information to facilitate their objectives, such as going to war, the Iraq dossier is an example of this, there is often a mixture of outright hoax and suppression and management of information to give the desired impression. In wartime and times of international tension rumors abound, some of which may be deliberate hoaxes, examples of politics-related hoaxes, Belgium is a country with a Flemish-speaking region and a French-speaking region
26.
Framing (social sciences)
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In the social sciences, framing comprises a set of concepts and theoretical perspectives on how individuals, groups, and societies, organize, perceive, and communicate about reality. Framing involves social construction of a social phenomenon – by mass media sources, political or social movements, political leaders, or other actors, participation in a language community necessarily influences an individuals perception of the meanings attributed to words or phrases. Framing itself can be framed in one of two ways, depending on whether one chooses to emphasise processes of thought or processes of interpersonal communication, Frames in thought consist of the mental representations, interpretations, and simplifications of reality. Frames in communication consist of the communication of frames between different actors, one can view framing in communication as positive or negative – depending on the audience and what kind of information is being presented. In the case of equivalence frames, the information being presented is based on the same facts, the effects of framing can be seen in many journalism applications. With the same information being used as a base, the surrounding the issue can change the readers perception without having to alter the actual facts. In the context of politics or mass-media communication, a frame defines the packaging of an element of rhetoric in such a way as to certain interpretations. For political purposes, framing often presents facts in such a way that implicates a problem that is in need of a solution. Members of political parties attempt to frame issues in a way makes a solution favoring their own political leaning appear as the most appropriate course of action for the situation at hand. In social theory, framing is a schema of interpretation, a collection of anecdotes and stereotypes, in other words, people build a series of mental filters through biological and cultural influences. They then use these filters to make sense of the world, the choices they then make are influenced by their creation of a frame. Framing is also a key component of sociology, the study of interaction among humans. Framing is an part of conveying and processing data on a daily basis. Successful framing techniques can be used to reduce the ambiguity of intangible topics by contextualizing the information in such a way that recipients can connect to what they already know, when one seeks to explain an event, the understanding often depends on the frame referred to. If a friend rapidly closes and opens an eye, we will respond very differently depending on whether we attribute this to a physical frame or to a social frame. Though the former might result from a speck of dust, the latter would imply a voluntary, observers will read events seen as purely physical or within a frame of nature differently from those seen as occurring with social frames. But we do not look at an event and then apply a frame to it, rather, individuals constantly project into the world around them the interpretive frames that allow them to make sense of it, we only shift frames when incongruity calls for a frame-shift. In other words, we become aware of the frames that we always already use when something forces us to replace one frame with another
27.
Media manipulation
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Media manipulation is a series of related techniques in which partisans create an image or argument that favours their particular interests. It is used within public relations, propaganda, marketing, etc, while the objective for each context is quite different, the broad techniques are often similar. As illustrated below, many of the modern mass media manipulation methods are types of distraction, on the assumption that the public has a limited attention span. Activism is the practice or doctrine that has an emphasis on direct vigorous action especially supporting or opposing one side of a controversial matter and it is quite simply starting a movement to effect or change social views. It is frequently started by individuals but is done collectively through social movements with large masses. These social movements can be done through public rallies, strikes, street marches, most of Kings movements were done through non-violence rallies and public speeches to show the white American population that they were peaceful but also wanted change in their community. In 1964, the Civil Rights Acts commenced giving African Americans equality with all races, advertising is the action of attracting public attention to something, especially through paid announcements for products and services. This tends to be done by businesses who wish to sell their product by paying media outlets to show their products or services on television breaks, banners on websites and these advertisements are not only done by businesses but can also be done by certain groups. Non-commercial advertisers are those who spend money on advertising in a hope to raise awareness for a cause or promote specific ideas and these include groups such as interest groups, political parties, government organizations and religious movements. Most of these organizations intend to spread a message or sway public opinion instead of trying to sell products or services, advertising can not only be found on social media, it is also evident on billboards, newspapers, magazines and even word of mouth. A hoax is something intended to deceive or defraud, when a newspaper or the news reports a fake story, it is known as a hoax. Misleading public stunts, scientific frauds, false bomb threats and business scams as hoaxes, a common aspect that hoaxes have is that they are all meant to deceive or lie. For something to become a hoax, the lie must have something more to offer and it must be outrageous, dramatic but also has to be believable and ingenious. Above all, it must be able to attract attention from the public, once it has done that then a hoax is in full effect. The word hoax became popular in the middle to late eighteenth century and it is thought to have come from the saying hocus pocus. Hocus pocus means meaningless talk which is designed to trick others or conceal the truth about a situation. The key word in something becoming a hoax is public, a lie or a deception only becomes a hoax when it is acknowledged by the public. A popular hoax that is evident in todays times would be the Microwave your spoon hoax and this hoax originated from a video which shows a metallic spoon being heated inside a microwave oven
28.
Potemkin village
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In politics and economics, a Potemkin village is any construction built solely to deceive others into thinking that a situation is better than it really is. The term comes from stories of a fake portable village, built only to impress Empress Catherine II during her journey to Crimea in 1787, Grigory Potemkin was a favorite lover of the Russian Empress Catherine II. After the Russian annexation of Crimea from the Ottoman Empire and liquidation of the Zaporozhian Sich, the region had been devastated by the war, Potemkins major tasks were to rebuild it and bring in Russian settlers. In 1787, as a new war was about to break out between Russia and the Ottoman Empire, Catherine II with her court and several ambassadors made an unprecedented trip to New Russia. The purpose of this trip was to impress Russias allies prior to the war, to help accomplish this, Potemkin set up mobile villages on the banks of the Dnieper River. As soon as the carrying the Empress and ambassadors arrived, Potemkins men, dressed as peasants. Once the barge left, the village was disassembled, then rebuilt downstream overnight, modern historians are divided on the degree of truth behind the Potemkin village story, and some writers argue that the story is an exaggeration. Some historians dismiss it as rumors spread by Potemkins opponents. These historians argue that Potemkin did mount efforts to develop the Crimea, aleksandr Panchenko, an established specialist on 19th-century Russia, used original correspondence and memoirs to conclude that the Potemkin villages are a myth. He writes, Based on the above said we must conclude that the myth of Potemkin villages is exactly a myth and he writes that Potyomkin indeed decorated cities and villages, but made no secret that this was a decoration. The close relationship between Potemkin and the empress would make it difficult for him to deceive her, thus, the deception would have been mainly directed towards the foreign ambassadors accompanying the imperial party. Regardless, Potemkin had supervised the building of fortresses, ships of the line, and thriving settlements, according to these historians, the claims of deception were part of a defamation campaign against Potemkin. It was meant to prove that the area was not under Japanese domination, whether the farce succeeded is moot, Japan withdrew from the League the following year. It ultimately served as a way-station to Auschwitz-Birkenau, henry A. Wallace visited a Soviet slave labor camp in Magadan in 1944 and believed that the prisoners were volunteers. In 1998, the energy services company Enron built and maintained a trading floor on the 6th story of its downtown Houston headquarters. The trading floor was used to impress Wall Street analysts attending Enrons annual shareholders meeting and even included rehearsals conducted by Enron executives Kenneth Lay and Jeffrey Skilling. In 2010,22 vacant houses in a part of Cleveland, USA, were disguised with fake doors and windows painted on the plywood panels used to close them up. A similar program has been undertaken in Chicago and in Detroit during the World Series festivities in 1984, in 2013 before Vladimir Putins visit to Suzdal some old and half-ruined houses in the city center were covered with large posters with doors and windows printed on them
