1.
Elkanah
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Elkanah was, according to the Books of Samuel, the husband of Hannah, and the father of her children including her first, Samuel. Elkanah practiced polygamy, his wife, less favoured but bearing more children, was named Peninnah. The names of Elkanahs other children apart from Samuel are not given, Elkanah plays only a minor role in the narrative, and is mostly a supporting character to Eli, Hannah, and Samuel. Elkanah is descended from Kohath and Levi, making him a Levite, Elkanah was the son of Jeroham, who was the son of Elihu, who was the son of Tohu, who was the son of Zuph. Elkanah is described as having originated from Zuph, specifically Ramathaim-Zophim, which was part of the lands of Ephraim, however. He is the great great grandson of another Elkanah
2.
Family
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In the context of human society, a family is a group of people affiliated either by consanguinity, affinity, or co-residence or some combination of these. Members of the family may include spouses, parents, brothers, sisters, sons. Members of the family may include grandparents, aunts, uncles, cousins, nephews, nieces. Sometimes these are considered members of the immediate family, depending on an individuals specific relationship with them. In most societies, the family is the institution for the socialization of children. As the basic unit for raising children, anthropologists generally classify most family organizations as matrifocal, conjugal, avuncular, sexual relations among the members are regulated by rules concerning incest such as the incest taboo. The word family can be used metaphorically to create more inclusive categories such as community, nationhood, global village, the field of genealogy aims to trace family lineages through history. Family is also an important economic unit studied in family economics, one of the primary functions of the family involves providing a framework for the production and reproduction of persons, biologically and/or socially. This can occur through the sharing of material substances, the giving and receiving of care and nurture, jural rights and obligations, thus, ones experience of ones family shifts over time. From the perspective of children, the family is a family of orientation, from the point of view of the parent, the family is a family of procreation, the goal of which is to produce and enculturate and socialize children. Christopher Harris notes that the conception of family is ambiguous. Diverse data from ethnography, history, law and social statistics, reveal the human family as a social institution, the different types of families occur in a wide variety of settings, and their specific functions and meanings depend largely on their relationship to other social institutions. Sociologists have a special interest in the function and status of family forms in stratified societies, much sociological, historical and anthropological research dedicates itself to the understanding of this variation, and of changes in the family that form over time. Levitan claims, Times have changed, it is acceptable and encouraged for mothers to work. The way roles are balanced between the parents will help children grow and learn life lessons. There is great importance of communication and equality in families, in order to avoid role strain, the term nuclear family is commonly used, especially in the United States of America, to refer to conjugal families. A conjugal family includes only the husband, the wife, sociologists distinguish between conjugal families and nuclear families. Other family structures, such as blended parents, single parents, a matrifocal family consists of a mother and her children
3.
Marriage
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The definition of marriage varies according to different cultures, but it is principally an institution in which interpersonal relationships, usually sexual, are acknowledged. In some cultures, marriage is recommended or considered to be compulsory before pursuing any sexual activity, when defined broadly, marriage is considered a cultural universal. Individuals may marry for several reasons, including legal, social, libidinal, emotional, financial, spiritual, whom they marry may be influenced by socially determined rules of incest, prescriptive marriage rules, parental choice and individual desire. In some areas of the world, arranged marriage, child marriage, polygamy, conversely, such practices may be outlawed and penalized in parts of the world out of concerns for womens rights and because of international law. These trends coincide with the human rights movement. Marriage can be recognized by a state, an organization, an authority, a tribal group. It is often viewed as a contract, Marriages can be performed in a secular civil ceremony or in a religious setting via a wedding ceremony. The act of marriage usually creates normative or legal obligations between the individuals involved, and any offspring they may produce, some cultures allow the dissolution of marriage through divorce or annulment. In some areas, child marriages and polygamy may occur in spite of laws against the practice. For example, the number of marriages in Europe decreased by 30% from 1975 to 2005 and these changes have occurred primarily in Western countries. The word marriage derives from Middle English mariage, which first appears in 1250–1300 CE and this in turn is derived from Old French, marier, and ultimately Latin, marītāre, meaning to provide with a husband or wife and marītāri meaning to get married. The adjective marīt-us -a, -um meaning matrimonial or nuptial could also be used in the form as a noun for husband. Anthropologists have proposed several competing definitions of marriage in an attempt to encompass the wide variety of marital practices observed across cultures, even within Western culture, definitions of marriage have careened from one extreme to another and everywhere in between. The anthropological handbook Notes and Queries defined marriage as a union between a man and a such that children born to the woman are the recognized legitimate offspring of both partners. In recognition of a practice by the Nuer people of Sudan allowing women to act as a husband in certain circumstances, Kathleen Gough suggested modifying this to a woman, none of these men had legal rights to the womans child. Economic anthropologist Duran Bell has criticized the definition on the basis that some societies do not require marriage for legitimacy. He argued that a definition of marriage is circular in societies where illegitimacy has no other legal or social implications for a child other than the mother being unmarried. In 1955 article in Man, Leach argued that no one definition of marriage applied to all cultures and he offered a list of ten rights associated with marriage, including sexual monopoly and rights with respect to children, with specific rights differing across cultures
4.
Types of marriages
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The type, functions, and characteristics of marriage vary from culture to culture, and can change over time. In general there are two types, civil marriage and religious marriage, and typically employ a combination of both. In the Americas and Europe, in the 21st century, legally recognized marriages are formally presumed to be monogamous, in these countries, divorce is relatively simple and socially accepted. In the West, the view toward marriage today is that it is based on a legal covenant recognizing emotional attachment between the partners and entered into voluntarily. In the West, marriage has evolved from a life-time covenant that can only be broken by fault or death to a contract that can be broken by party at will. In some jurisdictions, property acquired since marriage is not owned by the title-holder and this property is considered marital and to be divided among the spouses by community property law or equitable distribution via the courts. Marriages are more likely to be a product of mutual love, remaining single by choice is increasingly viewed as socially acceptable and there is less pressure on young couples to marry. Interracial marriage is no longer forbidden, key facts concerning the marriage law in Africa and Asia, Marital rape is legal in most parts Africa and Asia alike. Child marriage is legal in most parts of Africa and Asia alike, arranged marriage is prevalent in many parts of Africa and Asia alike, especially in rural regions. Same-sex marriage is illegal in most parts of Africa and Asia alike, dowries are a traditional aspect of marriage customs in most rural regions of Africa and Asia alike. Some societies permit polygamy, in which a man could have multiple wives, even in such societies however, in such societies, having multiple wives is generally considered a sign of wealth and power. The status of multiple wives has varied from one society to another, after the rise of Communism, only strictly monogamous marital relationships are permitted, although divorce is a relatively simple process. Polyandry occurs very rarely in a few isolated tribal societies, additionally, the Spartans were notable for practicing polyandry. Societies which permit group marriage are extremely rare, but have existed in Utopian societies such as the Oneida Community, today, many married people practice various forms of consensual nonmonogamy, including polyamory and Swinging. These people have agreements with their spouses that permit other intimate relationships or sexual partners, therefore, the concept of marriage need not necessarily hinge on sexual or emotional monogamy. In the Christian society, a one man one woman model for the Christian marriage was advocated by Saint Augustine with his published letter The Good of Marriage. To discourage polygamy, he wrote it was lawful among the ancient fathers, whether it be lawful now also, sermons from St. Augustines letters were popular and influential. In 534 AD Roman Emperor Justinian criminalized all but monogamous man/woman sex within the confines of marriage, the Codex Justinianus was the basis of European law for 1,000 years
5.
Prenuptial agreement
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The content of a prenuptial agreement can vary widely, but commonly includes provisions for division of property and spousal support in the event of divorce or breakup of marriage. They may also include terms for the forfeiture of assets as a result of divorce on the grounds of adultery and it should not be confused with the historic marriage settlement which was concerned not primarily with the effects of divorce but with the establishment and maintaining of dynastic families. Many countries, including Canada, France, Italy, and Germany, have matrimonial regimes, in addition to, or some cases, postnuptial agreements are similar to prenuptial agreements, except that they are entered into after a couple is married. Laws vary between states and countries in both how to draft them and in whether they will enforce such agreements. Prenuptial agreements are recognised in Australia by the Family Law Act 1975, prenuptial agreements in Canada are governed by provincial legislation. Each province and territory in Canada recognizes prenuptial agreements, for instance, in Ontario prenuptial agreements are called marriage contracts and they are recognized by section 52 of the Family Law Act. Prenuptial agreements have long recognized as valid in several European countries, such as France, Belgium. In France and Belgium prenuptial agreements must be set up in the presence of a notary, in India, prenuptial agreements are very rare and do not have any governing laws. However, with rising divorce rates people are showing increasing interest in prenups, some lawyers are of the opinion that prenups dont have legal sanctity in India. However, some form of contract is signed in some cases, but, the agreements need to be reasonable and not violate pre-existing laws like the Hindu Marriage Act. Indian courts allow a memorandum of settlement to be signed during divorces, but, no court has yet been asked to enforce a prenup. These agreements may come under the Indian Contract Act 1872, the Section 10 of the Indian Contract Act states that agreements are to be considered contracts if they are made by the free consent of the parties. However, the Section 23 of the act states that a contract may be void if they are immoral or against public policy. Goa is the only Indian state where a prenuptial is legally enforceable, a prenuptial agreement may be signed between the two parties at the time of marriage, stating the regime of ownership. If a prenuptial has not been signed, then the property is simply divided equally between the husband and wife. Prenuptial agreements have not been considered legally valid in England. The Law Commission is due to whether a change should be made to the letter of the law, recognizing prenupts in a more general way. Currently, prenuptial agreements are recognized, although they may not always be enforced, both parties should have lawyers represent them to ensure that the agreement is enforceable
6.
Cohabitation
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Cohabitation is an arrangement where two people who are not married live together. Such arrangements have become common in Western countries during the past few decades, being led by changing social views, especially regarding marriage, gender roles. They often involve a romantic relationship and/or sexually intimate relationship on a long-term or permanent basis, more broadly, the term cohabitation can mean any number of people living together. To cohabit, in a sense, means to coexist. The origin of the term comes from the mid 16th century, from the Latin cohabitare, today, cohabitation is a common pattern among people in the Western world. In Europe, the Scandinavian countries have been the first to start this leading trend, mediterranean Europe has traditionally been very conservative, with religion playing a strong role. Until the mid-1990s, cohabitation levels remained low in this region, during the past decades, in Western countries, there has been an increase in unmarried couples cohabiting. Historically, many Western countries have been influenced by Christian doctrines on sex, as social mores have changed, such beliefs have become less widely held by the population and some Christian denominations today view cohabitation as a precursor to marriage. Pope Francis has married a couple who had children, while former Archbishop of Canterbury Rowan Williams. All these changes favored living arrangement alternatives to marriage, in Central and Eastern Europe, during the late 1980s and early 1990s, there were major political changes, such as the fall of Communist governments. These societies entered a new era of increased social freedom, less rigid rules and they interacted with Western Europe and some became members of the European Union. As a result, the patterns of life have started to change, marriage rates have declined. Cohabitation and births to unmarried mothers increased, and in countries the increase was very quick. The deinstitutionalization of marriage refers to the weakening of the social and legal norms that regulate behavior in regard to marriage. The rise in cohabitation is part of major social changes such as, higher divorce rate, older age at first marriage and childbearing. There have been objections against the legal and social regulation of female sexuality, in addition, some individuals may feel that marriage is unnecessary or outdated, leading to couples not formalizing their relation. The fact that many choose to live together without formalizing their relation is also recognized by the European Union. A2004 directive forbids EU members from denying entry or residence of partners with whom the Union citizen has a durable relationship, a reason for the more permissive and less traditional views on cohabiting would be a low sex ratio
7.
Concubinage
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The woman in such a relationship is referred to as a concubine. The prevalence of concubinage and the status of rights and expectations of a concubine have varied between cultures as well as the rights of children of a concubine. Whatever the status and rights of the concubine, they were inferior to those of the wife. Historically, concubinage was frequently entered into voluntarily as it provided a measure of security for the woman involved. Involuntary or servile concubinage sometimes involved sexual slavery of one member of the relationship, nevertheless, sexual relations outside marriage were not uncommon, especially among royalty and nobility, and the woman in such relationships was commonly described as a mistress. However, the children of such relationships were counted as illegitimate and were barred from inheriting the title or estates. While various forms of sexual relationships and co-habitation short of marriage have become increasingly common in the Western world. The terms concubinage and concubine are used primarily when referring to non-marital partnerships of earlier eras. In modern usage, a domestic relationship is commonly referred to as co-habitation. Concubinage was highly popular before early 20th century all over Asia, the main function of concubinage was producing additional heirs, as well as bring males pleasure. Children of concubines had lower rights in account to inheritance, which was regulated by Dishu system, after that, even concubinage has been legally banned, the relationship between mistresses and their men are highly affected by it. In China, successful men often had concubines until the practice was outlawed after the Communist Party of China came to power in 1949, the standard Chinese term translated as concubine was qiè 妾, a term used since ancient times, which means female slave. Concubines resembled wives in that they were recognized sexual partners of a family member and were expected to bear children from him. Unofficial concubines, are of lower status, and children of her are considered illegitimate, in English the term concubine is also used for what the Chinese refer to as pínfēi consorts of emperors, some of very high rank. In premodern China, it was illegal and socially disreputable for a man to have more than one wife at a time, but he could have concubines. At first a man could have as many concubines as he could afford, however, from the Eastern Han onward, the higher ranking and the more noble an identity a man possessed, the more concubines he was permitted to have. A concubines treatment and situation were highly variable and were influenced by the status of the male to whom she was engaged. In the Book of Rites chapter on “The Pattern of the Family” it says, “If there were betrothal rites, she became a wife, and if she went without these, Concubines could be taken without any of the ceremonies used in marriages
8.
Civil union
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A civil union, also referred to by a variety of other names, is a legally recognized arrangement similar to marriage. These unions have been established in a number of countries since the late 1990s, in Denmark, Iceland, Norway and Sweden, they have since been replaced, and in a number of other countries supplemented, by same-sex marriage. Civil unions are often seen by campaigners as a first step towards legalizing marriage for same-sex couples, while civil unions are predominantly established for both opposite-sex and same-sex couples, in a number of countries they are available to same-sex couples only. In Brazil, civil unions were first created for opposite-sex couples in 2002, same-sex marriages performed abroad are commonly recognised as civil unions in jurisdictions that only have the latter. The terms used to designate civil unions are not standardized, the exact level of rights, benefits, obligations, and responsibilities also varies, depending on the laws of a particular country. Some jurisdictions allow same-sex couples to adopt, while others forbid them to do so, Civil unions are not seen as a replacement for marriage by many in the LGBT community. Marriage in the United States is a union, but a civil union, as it has come to be called, is not marriage. It is a proposed hypothetical legal mechanism, since it doesnt exist in most places, to some of the protections. Theres no good reason to do that, the California Supreme Court, in the In Re Marriage Cases decision, noted nine differences in state law. Civil unions are commonly criticised as being separate but equal, critics say they segregate same-sex couples by forcing them to use a separate institution. A New Jersey commission which reviewed the civil union law reported that the law invites and encourages unequal treatment of same-sex couples. Some have suggested that creating civil unions which are open to opposite-sex couples would avoid the accusations of apartheid and these have still been criticised as being separate but equal by former New Zealand MP and feminist Marilyn Waring as same-sex couples remain excluded from the right to marry. Many supporters of same-sex marriage state that the word marriage matters, former US Solicitor General and attorney in the Perry v. Many also contend that the fact that civil unions are not understood can cause difficulty for same-sex couples in emergency situations. Countries, territories and cities which introduced civil unions for same-sex and/or opposite-sex couples, the City of Villa Carlos Paz allowed it from 2007. And since 2009 the city of Río Cuarto allows Civil Unions too, all levels of Australian Governments under nearly all Australian statutes do recognise same-sex couples as de facto couples as unregistered co-habitation or de facto status since 2009. From 1 July 2009 Centrelink recognised same-sex couples equally regarding social security – under the common-law marriage, Cohabitation grants 112 benefits as family entities in Brazil since 2002. It is known as união estável when both parts are legally authorized to marry, and as concubinato when at least one part is legally prohibited from doing so
