1.
Americans
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Americans are citizens of the United States of America. The country is home to people of different national origins. As a result, Americans do not equate their nationality with ethnicity, although citizens make up the majority of Americans, non-citizen residents, dual citizens, and expatriates may also claim an American identity. See Names for United States citizens. S, virgin Islands and Northern Mariana Islands in the 20th century. It also includes influences of African-American culture, westward expansion integrated the Creoles and Cajuns of Louisiana and the Hispanos of the Southwest and brought close contact with the culture of Mexico. Large-scale immigration in the late 19th and early 20th centuries from Southern and Eastern Europe introduced a variety of elements, immigration from Asia, Africa, and Latin America has also had impact. A cultural melting pot, or pluralistic salad bowl, describes the way in which generations of Americans have celebrated and exchanged distinctive cultural characteristics, in addition to the United States, Americans and people of American descent can be found internationally. As many as seven million Americans are estimated to be living abroad, the United States of America is a diverse country, racially, and ethnically. Some other race is also an option in the census and other surveys, people of European descent, or White Americans, constitute the majority of the 308 million people living in the United States, with 72. 4% of the population in the 2010 United States Census. They are considered people who trace their ancestry to the peoples of Europe, the Middle East. Of those reporting to be White American,7,487,133 reported to be Multiracial, with largest combination being white, additionally, there are 29,184,290 White Hispanics or Latinos. Non-Hispanic Whites are the majority in 46 states, there are four minority-majority states, California, Texas, New Mexico, and Hawaii. In addition, the District of Columbia has a non-white majority, the state with the highest percentage of non-Hispanic White Americans is Maine. The largest continental ancestral group of Americans are that of Europeans who have origins in any of the peoples of Europe. This includes people via African, North American, Caribbean, Central American or South American and Oceanian nations that have a large European diaspora, the Spanish were the first Europeans to establish a continuous presence in what is now the United States. Martín de Argüelles born 1566, San Agustín, La Florida, was the first person of European descent born in what is now the United States. Twenty-one years later, Virginia Dare born 1587 Roanoke Island in present-day North Carolina, was the first child born in the Thirteen Colonies to English parents. 8% of the total population, Hispanic or Latino Americans constitute the largest ethnic minority in the United States. They form the second largest group after non-Hispanic Whites in the United States, hispanic/Latino Americans are very racially diverse, and as a result form an ethnic category, rather than a race
2.
SRI International
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SRI International is an American nonprofit research institute headquartered in Menlo Park, California. The trustees of Stanford University established SRI in 1946 as a center of innovation to support development in the region. The organization was founded as the Stanford Research Institute, SRI formally separated from Stanford University in 1970 and became known as SRI International in 1977. SRI describes its mission as creating world-changing solutions to make people safer, healthier and it performs client-sponsored research and development for government agencies, commercial businesses, and private foundations. It also licenses its technologies, forms strategic partnerships, sells products, SRIs annual revenue in 2014 was approximately $540 million. SRIs headquarters are located near the Stanford University campus, jeffrey has served as SRIs president and CEO since September 2014. Sarnoff Corporation, an owned subsidiary of SRI since 1988, was fully integrated into SRI in January 2011. SRI has received more than 4,000 patents and patent applications worldwide, in the 1920s, Stanford University professor Robert E. Swain proposed creating a research institute in the Western United States. Herbert Hoover, then a trustee of Stanford University, was also a proponent of an institute. The development of the institute was delayed by the Great Depression in the 1930s and World War II in the 1940s, with three separate attempts leading to its formation in 1946. In August 1945, Maurice Nelles, Morlan A. Visel, a second attempt was made by Henry T. Heald, then president of the Illinois Institute of Technology. In 1945, Heald wrote a report recommending a research institute on the West Coast, a third attempt was made by Fred Terman, Stanford Universitys dean of engineering. Termans proposal followed Healds, but focused on faculty and student research more than contract research, the trustees of Stanford University voted to create the organization in 1946. It was structured so that its goals were aligned with the charter of the university—to advance scientific knowledge and to benefit the public at large, not just the students of Stanford University. The trustees were named as the general members, and elected SRIs directors, if the organization were dissolved. Research chemist William F. Talbot became the first director of the institute and this and other issues, including frustration with Tresidders micromanagement of the new organization, caused Talbot to repeatedly offer his resignation, which Tresidder eventually accepted. Talbot was replaced by Jesse Hobson, who had led the Armour Research Foundation. SRIs first research project investigated whether the plant could be used as a source of natural rubber
3.
Sun Microsystems
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Sun contributed significantly to the evolution of several key computing technologies, among them Unix, RISC processors, thin client computing, and virtualized computing. Sun was founded on February 24,1982, at its height, the Sun headquarters were in Santa Clara, California, on the former west campus of the Agnews Developmental Center. On January 27,2010, Oracle Corporation acquired Sun by for US$7.4 billion, other technologies include the Java platform, MySQL, and NFS. Sun was a proponent of open systems in general and Unix in particular, the initial design for what became Suns first Unix workstation, the Sun-1, was conceived by Andy Bechtolsheim when he was a graduate student at Stanford University in Palo Alto, California. Bechtolsheim originally designed the SUN workstation for the Stanford University Network communications project as a personal CAD workstation and it was designed around the Motorola 68000 processor with an advanced memory management unit to support the Unix operating system with virtual memory support. He built the first ones from spare parts obtained from Stanfords Department of Computer Science, on February 24,1982, Vinod Khosla, Andy Bechtolsheim, and Scott McNealy, all Stanford graduate students, founded Sun Microsystems. Bill Joy of Berkeley, a developer of the Berkeley Software Distribution. The Sun name is derived from the initials of the Stanford University Network, Sun was profitable from its first quarter in July 1982. By 1983 Sun was known for producing 68000-based systems with high-quality graphics that were the only computers other than DECs VAX to run 4. 2BSD and it licensed the computer design to other manufacturers, which typically used it to build Multibus-based systems running Unix from UniSoft. Suns initial public offering was in 1986 under the stock symbol SUNW, the symbol was changed in 2007 to JAVA, Sun stated that the brand awareness associated with its Java platform better represented the companys current strategy. Suns logo, which features four interleaved copies of the sun in the form of a rotationally symmetric ambigram, was designed by professor Vaughan Pratt. The initial version of the logo was orange and had the sides oriented horizontally and vertically, but it was rotated to stand on one corner and re-colored purple. In the dot-com bubble, Sun began making more money. It also began spending more, hiring workers and building itself out. Some of this was because of demand, but much was from web start-up companies anticipating business that would never happen. Sales in Suns important hardware division went into free-fall as customers closed shop, several quarters of steep losses led to executive departures, rounds of layoffs, and other cost cutting. In December 2001, the fell to the 1998, pre-bubble level of about $100. But it kept falling, faster than many other tech companies, a year later it had dipped below $10 but bounced back to $20
4.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
5.
Computer mouse
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A computer mouse is a pointing device that detects two-dimensional motion relative to a surface. This motion is typically translated into the motion of a pointer on a display, physically, a mouse consists of an object held in ones hand, with one or more buttons. Mice often also other elements, such as touch surfaces and wheels. The earliest known publication of the mouse as referring to a computer pointing device is in Bill Englishs July 1965 publication. The plural for the rodent is always mice in modern usage. The plural of a mouse is mouses and mice according to most dictionaries. The first recorded usage is mice, the online Oxford Dictionaries cites a 1984 use. The trackball, a pointing device, was invented in 1944 by Ralph Benjamin as part of a World War II-era fire-control radar plotting system called Comprehensive Display System. Benjamin was then working for the British Royal Navy Scientific Service, Benjamins project used analog computers to calculate the future position of target aircraft based on several initial input points provided by a user with a joystick. Benjamin felt that a more elegant input device was needed and invented what they called a ball for this purpose. The device was patented in 1947, but only a prototype using a ball rolling on two rubber-coated wheels was ever built, and the device was kept as a military secret. Another early trackball was built by British electrical engineer Kenyon Taylor in collaboration with Tom Cranston, Taylor was part of the original Ferranti Canada, working on the Royal Canadian Navys DATAR system in 1952. DATAR was similar in concept to Benjamins display, the trackball used four disks to pick up motion, two each for the X and Y directions. When the ball was rolled, the pickup discs spun and contacts on their outer rim made periodic contact with wires, by counting the pulses, the physical movement of the ball could be determined. A digital computer calculated the tracks and sent the data to other ships in a task force using pulse-code modulation radio signals. This trackball used a standard Canadian five-pin bowling ball and it was not patented, since it was a secret military project. Douglas Engelbart of the Stanford Research Institute has been credited in published books by Thierry Bardini, Paul Ceruzzi, Howard Rheingold, Engelbart was also recognized as such in various obituary titles after his death in July 2013. That November, while attending a conference on computer graphics in Reno, Nevada, Engelbart began to ponder how to adapt the underlying principles of the planimeter to X-Y coordinate input
6.
Telefunken
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Telefunken was a German radio and television apparatus company, founded in Berlin in 1903, as a joint venture of Siemens & Halske and the Allgemeine Elektricitäts-Gesellschaft. The name Telefunken appears in, the brand name Telefunken. System Telefunken, founded 1903 in Berlin as a subsidiary of AEG and Siemens & Halske, Telefunken, KG in Heilbronn, Germany, the company Telefunken Lighting technologies S. L. The company Telefunken USA was incorporated in early 2001 to provide restoration services, around the start of the 20th century, two groups of German researchers worked on the development of techniques for wireless communication. The one group at AEG, led by Adolf Slaby and Georg Graf von Arco, developed systems for the Kaiserliche Marine and their main competitor was the British Marconi Company. On 17 April 1923, it was renamed Telefunken, The Company for Wireless Telegraphy, Telefunken was the companys telegraph address. The first technical director of Telefunken was Count Georg von Arco, Telefunken rapidly became a major player in the radio and electronics fields, both civilian and military. During World War I, they supplied radio sets and telegraphy equipment for the military, the Telefunken Kompass Sender operated from 1908 to 1918, allowing the Zeppelins to navigate throughout the North Sea area in any weather. Starting in 1923, Telefunken built broadcast transmitters and radio sets, in 1928, Telefunken made history by designing the V-41 amplifier for the German Radio Network. This was the very first two-stage, Hi-Fi amplifier, over time, Telefunken perfected their designs and in 1950 the V-72 amplifier was developed. The TAB V-72 soon became popular with radio stations and recording facilities. The V-72S was the type of amplifier found in the REDD.37 console used by the Beatles at Abbey Road Studios on many of their early recordings. In 1932, record players were added to the product line, during the war, manufacturing plants were shifted to and developed in west of Germany or relocated. Thus, Telefunken, under AEG, turned into the smaller subsidiary, Telefunken was also the originator of the FM radio broadcast system. Telefunken, through the subsidiary company Teldec, was for decades one of the largest German record companies. In 1959, Telefunken established a modern semiconductor works in Heilbronn, the works was expanded several times, and in 1970 a new 6-storey building was built at the northern edge of the area. At the beginning of the 1970s it housed approximately 2,500 employees, in 1967, Telefunken was merged with AEG, which was then renamed to AEG-Telefunken. In the beginning of the 1960s, Walter Bruch developed the PAL-colour television system for the company, PAL is established i. e. in the United Kingdom and, except France, many other European countries - also in Brazil, Argentina, South Africa, India and Australia
7.
Computer History Museum
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The Computer History Museum is a museum established in 1996 in Mountain View, California, US. The Museum is dedicated to preserving and presenting the stories and artifacts of the information age, the museums origins date to 1968 when Gordon Bell began a quest for a historical collection and, at that same time, others were looking to preserve the Whirlwind computer. The resulting Museum Project had its first exhibit in 1975, located in a coat closet in a DEC lobby. In 1978, the museum, now The Digital Computer Museum, moved to a larger DEC lobby in Marlborough, maurice Wilkes presented the first lecture at TDCM in 1979 – the presentation of such lectures has continued to the present time. TDCM incorporated as The Computer Museum in 1982, in 1984, TCM moved to Boston, locating on Museum Wharf. In 1996/1997, The TCM History Center in Silicon Valley was established, a site at Moffett Field was provided by NASA, in 1999, TCMHC incorporated and TCM ceased operation, shipping its remaining artifacts to TCMHC in 2000. The name TCM had been retained by the Boston Museum of Science so, in 2000, in 2003, CHM opened its new building, at 1401 N. Shoreline Blvd in Mountain View, California, to the public. The facility was heavily renovated and underwent a two-year $19 million makeover before reopening on January 2011. The Computer History Museum claims to house the largest and most significant collection of computing artifacts in the world, the collection comprises nearly 90,000 objects, photographs and films, as well as 4,000 feet of cataloged documentation and several hundred gigabytes of software. The CHM oral history program conducts video interviews around the history of computing and networking, the museums 25, 000-square-foot exhibit Revolution, The First 2000 Years of Computing, opened to the public on January 13,2011. It covers the history of computing in 20 galleries, from the abacus to the Internet, the entire exhibition is also available online. The museum features a Liquid Galaxy in the “Going Places, A History of Silicon Valley” exhibit, the exhibit features 20 preselected locations that visitors can fly to on the Liquid Galaxy. An operating Difference Engine designed by Charles Babbage in the 1840s and it had been on loan since 2008 from its owner, Nathan Myhrvold, a former Microsoft executive. Former media executive John Hollar was appointed CEO of The Computer History Museum in July 2008, in 2012 the APL programming language followed. In February 2013 Adobe Systems, Inc. donated the Photoshop 1.0.1 source code to the collection, on October 21,2014, Xerox Altos source code and other resources followed. The CHM Fellows are exceptional men and women whose ideas have changed the world, the first fellow was Rear Admiral Grace Hopper in 1987. The fellows program has grown to 70 members as of 2015, vintage Computer Festival held annually at The Computer History Museum Computer museums History of computing History of computer science Bell, Gordon. Out of a Closet, The Early Years of the Computer * Museum, official website Computer History Museums channel on YouTube The Computer Museum Archive
8.
Douglas Engelbart
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Douglas Carl Engelbart was an American engineer and inventor, and an early computer and Internet pioneer. These were demonstrated at The Mother of All Demos in 1968, Engelbarts Law, the observation that the intrinsic rate of human performance is exponential, is named after him. In the early 1950s, he decided instead of having a steady job – such as his position at NASAs Ames Research Center – he would focus on making the world a better place. He believed that the computer, which was at the thought of only as a tool for automation. He was a committed, vocal proponent of the development and use of computers and computer networks to help cope with the increasingly urgent. Engelbart embedded a set of organizing principles in his lab, which he termed bootstrapping and his belief was that when human systems and tool systems were aligned, such that workers spent time improving their tools for improving their tools it would lead to an accelerating rate of progress. The lab was transferred from SRI to Tymshare in the late 1970s, which was acquired by McDonnell Douglas in 1984, at both Tymshare and McDonnell Douglas, Engelbart was limited by a lack of interest in his ideas and funding to pursue them, and retired in 1986. In December 2000, United States President Bill Clinton awarded Engelbart the National Medal of Technology, in December 2008, Engelbart was honored by SRI at the 40th Anniversary celebration of the 1968 Mother of All Demos. Engelbart was born in Portland, Oregon on January 30,1925, to Carl Louis Engelbart and his ancestors were of German, Swedish and Norwegian descent. He was the middle of three children, with a sister Dorianne, and a brother David, the family lived in Portland, Oregon, in his early years, and moved to the surrounding countryside along Johnson Creek when he was 8. His father died one year later and he graduated from Portlands Franklin High School in 1942. On a small island, in a hut on stilts, he read Vannevar Bushs article As We May Think. He returned to Oregon State College and completed his bachelors degree in engineering in 1948. While at Oregon State College, he was a member of Sigma Phi Epsilon social fraternity and he was hired by the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics at the Ames Research Center, where he worked in wind tunnel maintenance. In his off hours he enjoyed hiking, camping, and folk dancing and it was there he met Ballard Fish who was just completing her training to become an occupational therapist. They were married on May 5,1951 in Portola State Park, soon after, Engelbart left NACA to pursue a PhD at UC Berkeley. Engelbarts career was inspired in December 1950 when he was engaged to be married and realized he had no goals other than a steady job, getting married. In 1945, Engelbart had read with interest Vannevar Bushs article As We May Think and he had also read something about the recent phenomenon of computers, and from his experience as a radar technician, he knew that information could be analyzed and displayed on a screen
9.
Hewitt Crane
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Crane was born in 1927 in Jersey City, New Jersey. He then developed magnetic multiaperture devices at RCA Laboratories, in order to develop magnetic logic, Crane controlled the direction of bit flow in magnetic ferrite memory cores. Ferrite logic circuits are more stable than vacuum tubes and transistors, draw no power when unused. In 1959, Crane introduced the all-magnetic logic approach at the Fall Joint Computer Conference, the prototype of the first all-magnetic computer now resides at the Computer History Museum, in Mountain View, California. In addition to his work at SRI, Crane cofounded Communication Intelligence Corporation. CICs Jot handwriting recognition software was acquired by Palm and renamed Graffiti 2. In 1959, with fellow SRI engineers David Bennion, Charles Rosen, one of its red wines placed fifth in the Judgment of Paris wine tasting. Crane died from complications of Alzheimers disease on June 17,2008 at his home in Portola Valley, Crane was named an IEEE Fellow in 1968. Home page/Curriculum Vitae at SRI SRI Timeline of Innovations, All-Magnetic Logic SRI Fellows Awards,1980 –1989 SRI Timeline of Innovation, Banking Automation, ERMA
10.
PARC (company)
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PARC, formerly Xerox PARC, is a research and development company in Palo Alto, California, with a distinguished reputation for its contributions to information technology and hardware systems. Xerox formed Palo Alto Research Center Incorporated as an owned subsidiary in 2002. Pake selected Palo Alto, California, as the site of what was to become known as PARC. S, the integration of Ethernet prompted the development of the PARC Universal Packet architecture, much like todays Internet. Xerox has been criticized for failing to properly commercialize and profitably exploit PARCs innovations. A favorite example is the user interface, initially developed at PARC for the Alto. Although very significant in terms of its influence on future system design, a small group from PARC led by David Liddle and Charles Irby formed Metaphor Computer Systems. They extended the Star desktop concept into a graphic and communicating office-automation model. Among PARCs distinguished researchers were three Turing Award winners, Butler W. Lampson, Alan Kay, and Charles P. Thacker. The Association for Computing Machinery Software System Award recognized the Alto system in 1984, Smalltalk in 1987, InterLisp in 1992, and the remote procedure call in 1994. Lampson, Kay, Bob Taylor, and Charles P. Thacker received the National Academy of Engineerings prestigious Charles Stark Draper Prize in 2004 for their work on the Alto, PARCs developments in information technology served for a long time as standards for much of the computing industry. Many advances were not equalled or surpassed for two decades, enormous timespans in the fast-paced high-tech world, a number of GUI engineers left to join Apple Computer. Work at PARC since the early 1980s includes advances in computing, aspect-oriented programming. Xerox Daybreak GlobalView Michael A. Hiltzik, Dealers of Lightning, Xerox PARC, alexander, Fumbling the Future, How Xerox Invented, Then Ignored, the First Personal Computer ISBN 1-58348-266-0 M. Mitchell Waldrop, The Dream Machine, J. C. R. Strassmann Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis Oral history interview with William Crowther Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis
