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University of Basel
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The University of Basel is located in Basel, Switzerland. Founded on 3 April 1460, it is Switzerland’s oldest university and is counted among the institutions of the country. The associated University Library of Basel is the largest and among the most important libraries in the whole of Switzerland, in 2016, the University boasted 12852 students and 377 professors. International students accounted for 25 percent of the student body, the University of Basel was founded in connection with the Council of Basel. The deed of foundation given in the form of a Papal bull by Pope Pius II on November 12,1459, originally the University of Basel was decreed to have four faculties—arts, medicine, theology, and jurisprudence. The faculty of arts served until 1818 as the foundation for the three academic subjects. In the eighteenth century as Basel became more commercial, the university, one of the centers of learning in the Renaissance, enrollment which had been over a thousand around 1600, dropped to sixty in 1785 with eighteen professors. The professors themselves were mostly sons of the elite, over the course of centuries as many scholars came to the city, Basel became an early center of book printing and humanism. Around the same time as the university itself, the Basel University Library was founded, today it has over three million books and writings and is the largest library in Switzerland. The city, Basel-Stadt, had to buy back this share, students were expected to continue their education after two years or so at a German university. The Student Advice Center provides advice on academic programs and career opportunities. The Student Administration Office provides information on applications, grants, mobility, exchanges, there are also a variety of organizations that cater to international students, such as local chapters of Toastmasters and AIESEC, and associations that perform community services. There is a foreign affairs association, a Model United Nations team, there are also various religious groups. A number of student groups exist out of formal venues. Such associations include the Akademische Turnerschaft Alemannia zu Basel, AKW Raurica, Helvetia Basel, Jurassia Basiliensis, Schwizerhüsli, membership in many is restricted to men, though A. V. University Sports provides a gym, fitness classes, and sport and dance camps to students, the Studentische Körperschaft der Universität Basel speaks on behalf of the students and represents their needs and interests. It acts as a student representative and has no political or religious affiliations. Information about the university Studierendenstatistik der Universität Basel University Rankings – University of Basel
2.
Molecular biology
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Writing in Nature in 1961, William Astbury described molecular biology as. It is concerned particularly with the forms of biological molecules and is predominantly three-dimensional and structural—which does not mean, however and it must at the same time inquire into genesis and function. Researchers in molecular biology use specific techniques native to molecular biology but increasingly combine these techniques and ideas from genetics. There is not a line between these disciplines. Biochemists focus heavily on the role, function, and structure of biomolecules, the study of the chemistry behind biological processes and the synthesis of biologically active molecules are examples of biochemistry. Genetics is the study of the effect of differences on organisms. This can often be inferred by the absence of a normal component, the study of mutants – organisms which lack one or more functional components with respect to the so-called wild type or normal phenotype. Genetic interactions can often confound simple interpretations of such knockout studies, molecular biology is the study of molecular underpinnings of the processes of replication, transcription, translation, and cell function. This picture, however, is undergoing revision in light of emerging novel roles for RNA, much of molecular biology is quantitative, and recently much work has been done at its interface with computer science in bioinformatics and computational biology. In the early 2000s, the study of structure and function. There is also a tradition of studying biomolecules from the ground up in biophysics. One of the most basic techniques of molecular biology to study protein function is molecular cloning, in this technique, DNA coding for a protein of interest is cloned using PCR and/or restriction enzymes into a plasmid. A vector has 3 distinctive features, an origin of replication, a multiple cloning site, the origin of replication will have promoter regions upstream from the replication/transcription start site. This plasmid can be inserted into either bacterial or animal cells, introducing DNA into bacterial cells can be done by transformation via uptake of naked DNA, conjugation via cell-cell contact or by transduction via viral vector. Introducing DNA into eukaryotic cells, such as cells, by physical or chemical means is called transfection. Several different transfection techniques are available, such as calcium phosphate transfection, electroporation, microinjection, the plasmid may be integrated into the genome, resulting in a stable transfection, or may remain independent of the genome, called transient transfection. DNA coding for a protein of interest is now inside a cell, a variety of systems, such as inducible promoters and specific cell-signaling factors, are available to help express the protein of interest at high levels. Large quantities of a protein can then be extracted from the bacterial or eukaryotic cell, polymerase chain reaction is an extremely versatile technique for copying DNA
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Biomedical
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Biomedical research is in general simply known as medical research. It is the research, applied research, or translational research conducted to aid. An important kind of research is clinical research, which is distinguished by the involvement of patients. Other kinds of research include pre-clinical research, for example on animals. Both clinical and pre-clinical research phases exist in the pharmaceutical industrys drug development pipelines, however, only part of the clinical or pre-clinical research is oriented towards a specific pharmaceutical purpose. The need for fundamental and mechanistic understanding, diagnostics, medical devices, the most basic medical research is a rapidly evolving area that owes much to basic biology and is given names such as Human Biosciences by universities. The increased longevity of humans over the past century can be attributed to advances resulting from medical research. New, beneficial tests and treatments are expected as a result of the Human Genome Project, many challenges remain, however, including the appearance of antibiotic resistance and the obesity epidemic. Most of the research in the field is pursued by scientists, however significant contributions are made by other biologists. Medical research, done on humans, has to follow the medical ethics as sanctioned in the Declaration of Helsinki. In all cases, the research ethics has to be respected, areas tackled in the most fundamental parts of medical research include cellular and molecular biology, medical genetics, immunology, neuroscience, and psychology. Since many organisms share an evolutionary history with humans and hence common features and systems. Pre-clinical research covers research that prepares the ground for research with patients. Typically the work requires no ethical approval, is supervised by people with PhDs rather than medical doctors, the pre-clinical stage of pharmaceutical testing is covered at Phases of clinical research#Pre-clinical studies. Clinical research is carried out with patients and it is generally supervised by doctors in a medical setting such as a hospital and requires ethical approval. The clinical phase of testing is covered here Clinical trial. Research funding in many countries derives from research bodies and private organizations which distribute money for equipment, in the United Kingdom, funding bodies such as the Medical Research Council derive their assets from UK tax payers, and distribute this to institutions in a competitive manner. The Wellcome Trust is the UKs largest non-governmental source of funds for research and provides over £600 million per year in grants to scientists
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Cell growth
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The term cell growth is used in the contexts of biological cell development and cell division. When used in the context of cell division, it refers to growth of cell populations, when used in the context of cell development, the term refers to increase in cytoplasmic and organelle volume, as well as increase in genetic material following the replication during S phase. Cell populations go through a type of exponential growth called doubling. Thus, each generation of cells should be twice as numerous as the previous generation, however, the number of generations only gives a maximum figure as not all cells survive in each generation. Cell size is variable among organisms, with some algae such as Caulerpa taxifolia being a single cell several meters in length. Plant cells are larger than animal cells, and protists such as Paramecium can be 330 μm long. How these cells decide how big they should be before dividing is an open question, chemical gradients are known to be partly responsible, and it is hypothesized that mechanical stress detection by cytoskeletal structures is involved. Work on the topic generally requires an organism whose cell cycle is well-characterized, the relationship between cell size and cell division has been extensively studied in yeast. For some cells, there is a mechanism by which division is not initiated until a cell has reached a certain size. If the nutrient supply is restricted, and the rate of increase in size is slowed. Yeast cell-size mutants were isolated that begin cell division reaching a normal/regular size. Wee1 protein is a kinase that normally phosphorylates the Cdc2 cell cycle regulatory protein. Cdc2 drives entry into mitosis by phosphorylating a range of targets. This covalent modification of the structure of Cdc2 inhibits the enzymatic activity of Cdc2. Wee1 acts to keep Cdc2 inactive during early G2 when cells are still small, when cells have reached sufficient size during G2, the phosphatase Cdc25 removes the inhibitory phosphorylation, and thus activates Cdc2 to allow mitotic entry. A balance of Wee1 and Cdc25 activity with changes in size is coordinated by the mitotic entry control system. It has been shown in Wee1 mutants, cells with weakened Wee1 activity, thus, mitosis occurs before the yeast reach their normal size. This suggests that cell division may be regulated in part by dilution of Wee1 protein in cells as they grow larger, the protein kinase Cdr2 and the Cdr2-related kinase Cdr1 are localized to a band of cortical nodes in the middle of interphase cells
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Cell differentiation
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In developmental biology, cellular differentiation is the process where a cell changes from one cell type to another. Most commonly the cell changes to a specialized type. Differentiation occurs numerous times during the development of an organism as it changes from a simple zygote to a complex system of tissues. Differentiation continues in adulthood as adult stem cells divide and create fully differentiated daughter cells during tissue repair, some differentiation occurs in response to antigen exposure. Differentiation dramatically changes a cells size, shape, membrane potential, metabolic activity and these changes are largely due to highly controlled modifications in gene expression and are the study of epigenetics. With a few exceptions, cellular differentiation almost never involves a change in the DNA sequence itself, thus, different cells can have very different physical characteristics despite having the same genome. There are multiple levels of potency, the cells ability to differentiate into other cell types. A greater potency indicates a number of cells that can be derived. A cell that can differentiate into all types, including the placental tissue, is known as totipotent. In mammals, only the zygote and subsequent blastomeres are totipotent, a cell that can differentiate into all cell types of the adult organism is known as pluripotent. Such cells are called meristematic cells in plants and embryonic stem cells in animals. Virally induced expression of four transcription factors Oct4, Sox2, c-Myc, a multipotent cell is one that can differentiate into multiple different, but closely related cell types. Oligopotent cells are more restricted than multipotent, but can still differentiate into a few closely related cell types, finally, unipotent cells can differentiate into only one cell type, but are capable of self-renewal. In cytopathology, the level of differentiation is used as a measure of cancer progression. Grade is a marker of how differentiated a cell in a tumor is, three basic categories of cells make up the mammalian body, germ cells, somatic cells, and stem cells. Most cells are diploid, they have two copies of each chromosome, such cells, called somatic cells, make up most of the human body, such as skin and muscle cells. Cells differentiate to specialize for different functions, germ line cells are any line of cells that give rise to gametes—eggs and sperm—and thus are continuous through the generations. Stem cells, on the hand, have the ability to divide for indefinite periods
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Neurobiology
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Neuroscience is the scientific study of the nervous system. It is a branch of biology, that deals with the anatomy, biochemistry, molecular biology. It also draws upon fields including mathematics, pharmacology, physics, engineering, Neuroscience has also given rise to such other disciplines as neuroeducation, neuroethics, and neurolaw. The techniques used by neuroscientists have also expanded enormously, from molecular and cellular studies of neurons to imaging of sensory. Recent theoretical advances in neuroscience have also aided by the study of neural networks. As a result of the number of scientists who study the nervous system, several prominent neuroscience organizations have been formed to provide a forum to all neuroscientists. The earliest study of the system dates to ancient Egypt. Manuscripts dating to 1700 BC indicate that the Egyptians had some knowledge about symptoms of brain damage, early views on the function of the brain regarded it to be a cranial stuffing of sorts. In Egypt, from the late Middle Kingdom onwards, the brain was removed in preparation for mummification. It was believed at the time that the heart was the seat of intelligence, the view that the heart was the source of consciousness was not challenged until the time of the Greek physician Hippocrates. He believed that the brain was not only involved with sensation—since most specialized organs are located in the head near the brain—but was also the seat of intelligence, plato also speculated that the brain was the seat of the rational part of the soul. Aristotle, however, believed the heart was the center of intelligence, abulcasis, Averroes, Avicenna, Avenzoar, and Maimonides, active in the Medieval Muslim world, described a number of medical problems related to the brain. In Renaissance Europe, Vesalius, René Descartes, and Thomas Willis also made contributions to neuroscience. Studies of the brain became more sophisticated after the invention of the microscope, the procedure used a silver chromate salt to reveal the intricate structures of individual neurons. His technique was used by Santiago Ramón y Cajal and led to the formation of the neuron doctrine, Golgi and Ramón y Cajal shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1906 for their extensive observations, descriptions, and categorizations of neurons throughout the brain. In parallel with this research, work with brain-damaged patients by Paul Broca suggested that regions of the brain were responsible for certain functions. Carl Wernicke further developed the theory of the specialization of specific structures in language comprehension and production. During the 20th century, neuroscience began to be recognized as an academic discipline in its own right
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Structural biology
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This architecture, the tertiary structure of molecules, depends in a complicated way on the molecules basic composition, or primary structures. Biomolecules are too small to see in detail even with the most advanced light microscopes, the methods that structural biologists use to determine their structures generally involve measurements on vast numbers of identical molecules at the same time. But variations on these methods are used to watch nascent or denatured molecules assume or reassume their native states. A third approach that structural biologists take to understanding structure is bioinformatics to look for patterns among the sequences that give rise to particular shapes. Researchers often can deduce aspects of the structure of membrane proteins based on the membrane topology predicted by hydrophobicity analysis. In the past few years it has become possible for highly accurate physical models to complement the in silico study of biological structures. Examples of these models can be found in the Protein Data Bank
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Computational biology
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Computational Biology, sometimes referred to as bioinformatics, is the science of using biological data to develop algorithms and relations among various biological systems. Prior to the advent of computational biology, biologists did not have access to large amounts of data, researchers were able to develop analytical methods for interpreting biological information, but were unable to share them quickly among colleagues. Bioinformatics began to develop in the early 1970s and it was considered the science of analyzing informatics processes of various biological systems. At this time, research in intelligence was using network models of the human brain in order to generate new algorithms. This use of data to develop other fields pushed biological researchers to revisit the idea of using computers to evaluate. By 1982, information was being shared amongst researchers through the use of punch cards, the amount of data being shared began to grow exponentially by the end of the 1980s. This required the development of new methods in order to quickly analyze. Since the late 1990s, computational biology has become an important part of developing emerging technologies for the field of biology, the terms computational biology and evolutionary computation have a similar name, but are not to be confused. Unlike computational biology, evolutionary computation is not concerned with modeling and analyzing biological data and it instead creates algorithms based on the ideas of evolution across species. Sometimes referred to as genetic algorithms, the research of this field can be applied to computational biology, while evolutionary computation is not inherently a part of computational biology, Computational evolutionary biology is a subfield of it. Computational biology has been used to sequence the human genome, create accurate models of the human brain. Computational anatomy is a discipline focusing on the study of anatomical shape and it involves the development and application of computational, mathematical and data-analytical methods for modeling and simulation of biological structures. It focuses on the structures being imaged, rather than the medical imaging devices. It is similar in spirit to the history of Computational linguistics, at Computational anatomys heart is the comparison of shape by recognizing in one shape the other. This connects it to DArcy Wentworth Thompsons developments On Growth and Form which has led to scientific explanations of morphogenesis, the original formulation of Computational anatomy is as a generative model of shape and form from exemplars acted upon via transformations. It is a branch of the analysis and pattern theory school at Brown University pioneered by Ulf Grenander. The models of metric pattern theory, in group action on the orbit of shapes. Computational biomodeling is a field concerned with building computer models of biological systems, Computational biomodeling aims to develop and use visual simulations in order to assess the complexity of biological systems
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Systems biology
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Systems biology is the computational and mathematical modeling of complex biological systems. Particularly from year 2000 onwards, the concept has been used widely in the biosciences in a variety of contexts. The Human Genome Project is an example of applied systems thinking in biology which has led to new and these typically involve metabolic networks or cell signaling networks. As a paradigm, usually defined in antithesis to the so-called reductionist paradigm, Systems biology. is about putting together rather than taking apart, integration rather than reduction. It requires that we develop ways of thinking about integration that are as rigorous as our reductionist programmes, but different. It means changing our philosophy, in the full sense of the term. Since the objective is a model of the interactions in a system, therefore, transcriptomics, metabolomics, proteomics and high-throughput techniques are used to collect quantitative data for the construction and validation of models. As the application of systems theory to molecular biology. Indeed, the focus on the dynamics of the systems is the main conceptual difference between systems biology and bioinformatics. This variety of viewpoints is illustrative of the fact that systems biology refers to a cluster of peripherally overlapping concepts rather than a single well-delineated field, however the term has widespread currency and popularity as of 2007, with chairs and institutes of systems biology proliferating worldwide. One of the theorists who can be seen as one of the precursors of systems biology is Ludwig von Bertalanffy with his general systems theory, also in 1952, Alan Turing published The Chemical Basis of Morphogenesis, describing how non-uniformity could arise in an initially homogeneous biological system. In 1960, Denis Noble developed the first computer model of the heart pacemaker, the 1960s and 1970s saw the development of several approaches to study complex molecular systems, such as the metabolic control analysis and the biochemical systems theory. However the birth of genomics in the 1990s meant that large quantities of high quality data became available, while the computing power exploded. In 1997, the group of Masaru Tomita published the first quantitative model of the metabolism of a whole cell, in 2002, the National Science Foundation put forward a grand challenge for systems biology in the 21st century to build a mathematical model of the whole cell. In 2003, work at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology was begun on CytoSolve, since then, various research institutes dedicated to systems biology have been developed. For example, the NIGMS of NIH established a grant that is currently supporting over ten systems biology centers in the United States. As of summer 2006, due to a shortage of people in systems biology several doctoral training programs in biology have been established in many parts of the world. In that same year, the National Science Foundation put forward a challenge for systems biology in the 21st century to build a mathematical model of the whole cell. In 2012 the first whole-cell model of Mycoplasma Genitalium was achieved by the Karr Laboratory at the Mount Sinai School of Medicine in New York, the whole-cell model is able to predict viability of M. Genitalium cells in response to genetic mutations
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Basel-Stadt
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The Canton of Basel-Stadt is one of the 26 cantons of Switzerland. The city of Basel and the municipalities of Bettingen and Riehen form its territory, the city-state canton of Basel is the smallest out of all 26 cantons in Switzerland. The canton of Basel-Stadt was created when the canton of Basel was divided in 1833, following political quarrels. Some of these were concerned with the rights of the population in the agricultural areas and they ultimately led to the separation of the canton Basel-Landschaft from the city of Basel on 26 August 1833. Since then, there has been a movement for reunification and this movement gained momentum after 1900 when many parts of Basel-Landschaft became industrialized. The two half-cantons agreed in principle to reunite, but in 1969, and again in September 2014, the canton of Basel-Stadt is located in the north of Switzerland. It borders Germany and France to the north, and Basel-Landschaft to the south, Bettingen, Riehen and a part of Basel city lie on the east bank of the Rhine, bordered on three sides by the German state of Baden-Württemberg. The rest of the lies on the west bank of the Rhine. The area of the canton is 37 km², making Basel-Stadt the smallest canton in Switzerland and this means that the canton only sends one representative to the Council of States. The capital of the canton Basel-Stadt is the city of Basel, the present constitution of the canton dates from 1889. The parliament of the canton is the Grand Council, which has 100 members, there are eight different political parties represented in the parliament, the largest party is the Social Democratic Party, with 32 seats. The executive of the canton is made up of seven members, currently there are five different political parties represented in the executive. The population of the canton is 198,290, as of 2007, the population included 56,106 foreigners, or about 30. 29% of the total population. The population is evenly split between Roman Catholic and Protestant. About 10% of the population is classed as Other Religion while 36% do not belong to any organized religion, the economic area of Basel is considered to be the second largest economic centre in the whole of Switzerland, after Zurich, and before Geneva. The chemical industry and the industry are of greatest significance in the canton. There are a number of multinationals in the city of Basel, banking and finance are important as is the service sector in general. Small and middle-sized businesses employ a significant number of people, both in the city as the two municipalities, the canton is also known for its banking sector, and for being the worldwide seat of the Bank for International Settlements
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Werner Arber
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Werner Arber is a Swiss microbiologist and geneticist. Along with American researchers Hamilton Smith and Daniel Nathans, Werner Arber shared the 1978 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for the discovery of restriction endonucleases and their work would lead to the development of recombinant DNA technology. Arber studied chemistry and physics at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zürich from 1949 to 1953, very rapidly, thanks to the stimulating help by Jean Weigle and Grete Kellenberger, this turned out to be extremely fruitful. This was the end of my career as an electron microscopist and in chosing genetic and he received his doctorate in 1958 from the University of Geneva. Arber then worked at the University of Southern California in phage genetics with Gio Bertani starting in the summer of 1958, including Daisy Roulland Dussoix, whose work helped him to later obtain the nobel Prize. In 1965 the University of Geneva promoted him to Extraordinary Professor for Molecular Genetics, in 1971, after spending a year as a visiting professor in the Department of Molecular Biology of the University of California in Berkeley, Arber moved to the University of Basel. Werner Arber is member of the World Knowledge Dialogue Scientific Board, in 1981, Arber became a founding member of the World Cultural Council. He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts, pope Benedict XVI appointed him as President of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences in January 2011, making him the first Protestant to hold the position. Arber is married and has two daughters, Arber is a theistic evolutionist, stating The most primitive cells may require at least several hundred different specific biological macromolecules. How such already quite complex structures may have come together, remains a mystery to me, the possibility of the existence of a Creator, of God, represents to me a satisfactory solution to this problem. 1978, Werner Arber, Hamilton O Smith, Daniel Nathans, shampo, Ma, Kyle, Ra. Werner Arber--Nobel laureate. The Nobel Prize for Medicine and Physiology in 1978, piekarowicz, A. Werner Arber, Daniel Nathans and Hamilton Smith. Nobel prizes for the studies on DNA restriction enzymes, the Nobel prize in physiology and medicine 1978. Nobel prize to a research field. Tidsskrift for den Norske laegeforening, tidsskrift for praktisk medicin, ny raekke, desiderio, S, Boyer, S. Arber, Smith and Nathans, Nobel Laureates in medicine and physiology,1978. Petterson, R. Nobel prize laureates in physiology and medicine, autobiography for the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1978. Official Biography from the Pontifical Academy of Sciences Free to View Video Interview with Werner Arber provided by the Vega Science Trust
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Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine
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The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, administered by the Nobel Foundation, is awarded once a year for outstanding discoveries in the fields of life sciences and medicine. It is one of five Nobel Prizes established in 1895 by Swedish chemist Alfred Nobel, Nobel was personally interested in experimental physiology and wanted to establish a prize for progress through scientific discoveries in laboratories. The Nobel Prize is presented to the recipient at a ceremony on 10 December, the anniversary of Nobels death, along with a diploma. The front side of the medal provides the profile of Alfred Nobel as depicted on the medals for Physics, Chemistry. As of 2015,106 Nobel Prizes in Physiology or Medicine have been awarded to 198 men and 12 women. The first Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded in 1901 to the German physiologist Emil von Behring, for his work on serum therapy and this includes one to António Egas Moniz in 1949 for the prefrontal leucotomy, bestowed despite protests from the medical establishment. Other controversies resulted from disagreements over who was included in the award, the 1952 prize to Selman Waksman was litigated in court, and half the patent rights awarded to his co-discoverer Albert Schatz who was not recognized by the prize. The 1962 prize awarded to James D, since the Nobel Prize rules forbid nominations of the deceased, longevity is an asset, one prize being awarded as long as 50 years after the discovery. Alfred Nobel was born on 21 October 1833 in Stockholm, Sweden into a family of engineers and he was a chemist, engineer and inventor who amassed a fortune during his lifetime, most of it from his 355 inventions of which dynamite is the most famous. He was interested in experimental physiology and set up his own labs in France, in 1888, Nobel was surprised to read his own obituary, titled The merchant of death is dead, in a French newspaper. Though Nobel wrote several wills during his lifetime, the last was written a little over a year before he died at the age of 63, because his will was contested, it was not approved by the Storting until 26 April 1897. After Nobels death, the Nobel Foundation was set up to manage the assets of the bequest, in 1900, the Nobel Foundations newly created statutes were promulgated by Swedish King Oscar II. According to Nobels will, the Karolinska Institutet in Sweden, a medical school, today, the prize is commonly referred to as the Nobel Prize in Medicine. It was important to Nobel that the prize be awarded for a discovery, per the provisions of the will, only select persons are eligible to nominate individuals for the award. Past Nobel laureates may also nominate, until 1977, all professors of Karolinska Institutet together decided on the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Therefore, the Nobel Assembly was constituted, consisting of 50 professors at Karolinska Institutet. It elects the Nobel Committee with 5 members who evaluate the nominees, the Secretary who is in charge of the organization, in 1968, a provision was added that no more than three persons may share a Nobel prize. True to its mandate, the Committee has selected researchers working in the sciences over those who have made applied contributions
13.
Restriction enzyme
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A restriction enzyme or restriction endonuclease is an enzyme that cuts DNA at or near specific recognition nucleotide sequences known as restriction sites. To cut DNA, all restriction enzymes make two incisions, once through each sugar-phosphate backbone of the DNA double helix and these enzymes are found in bacteria and archaea and provide a defense mechanism against invading viruses. Together, these two form the restriction modification system. Over 3000 restriction enzymes have been studied in detail, and more than 600 of these are available commercially and these enzymes are routinely used for DNA modification in laboratories, and are a vital tool in molecular cloning. The term restriction enzyme originated from the studies of phage λ, the phenomenon was first identified in work done in the laboratories of Salvador Luria and Giuseppe Bertani in early 1950s. The host cell, in this example E. coli K, is known as the restricting host, if a phage becomes established in one strain, the ability of that phage to grow also becomes restricted in other strains. The restriction enzymes studied by Arber and Meselson were type I restriction enzymes, in 1970, Hamilton O. Smith, Thomas Kelly and Kent Wilcox isolated and characterized the first type II restriction enzyme, HindII, from the bacterium Haemophilus influenzae. Restriction enzymes of this type are useful for laboratory work as they cleave DNA at the site of their recognition sequence. For their work in the discovery and characterization of restriction enzymes, the 1978 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine was awarded to Werner Arber, Daniel Nathans, Restriction enzymes likely evolved from a common ancestor and became widespread via horizontal gene transfer. In addition, there is mounting evidence that restriction endonucleases evolved as a genetic element. Restriction enzymes recognize a specific sequence of nucleotides and produce a cut in the DNA. g. A 4-base pair sequence would theoretically occur once every 4^4 or 256bp,6 bases, 4^6 or 4, 096bp, many of them are palindromic, meaning the base sequence reads the same backwards and forwards. In theory, there are two types of sequences that can be possible in DNA. The mirror-like palindrome is similar to found in ordinary text, in which a sequence reads the same forward and backward on a single strand of DNA. The inverted repeat palindrome is also a sequence reads the same forward and backward. Inverted repeat palindromes are more common and have greater importance than mirror-like palindromes. Different restriction enzymes that recognize the sequence are known as neoschizomers. These often cleave in different locales of the sequence, different enzymes that recognize and cleave in the same location are known as isoschizomers
14.
Electron microscope
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An electron microscope is a microscope that uses a beam of accelerated electrons as a source of illumination. Transmission electron microscopes use electrostatic and electromagnetic lenses to control the electron beam and these electron optical lenses are analogous to the glass lenses of an optical light microscope. Industrially, electron microscopes are used for quality control and failure analysis. Modern electron microscopes produce electron micrographs using specialized digital cameras and frame grabbers to capture the image, the first electromagnetic lens was developed in 1926 by Hans Busch. According to Dennis Gabor, the physicist Leó Szilárd tried in 1928 to convince Busch to build an electron microscope, two years later, in 1933, Ruska built an electron microscope that exceeded the resolution attainable with an optical microscope. Moreover, Reinhold Rudenberg, the director of Siemens-Schuckertwerke, obtained the patent for the electron microscope in May 1931. In 1932, Ernst Lubcke of Siemens & Halske built and obtained images from an electron microscope. Five years later, the firm financed the work of Ernst Ruska and Bodo von Borries, also in 1937, Manfred von Ardenne pioneered the scanning electron microscope. The first commercial electron microscope was produced in 1938 by Siemens, although contemporary transmission electron microscopes are capable of two million-power magnification, as scientific instruments, they remain based upon Ruska’s prototype. The original form of electron microscope, the electron microscope uses a high voltage electron beam to illuminate the specimen. The electron beam is produced by a gun, commonly fitted with a tungsten filament cathode as the electron source. When it emerges from the specimen, the electron beam carries information about the structure of the specimen that is magnified by the lens system of the microscope. The image detected by the camera may be displayed on a monitor or computer. The resolution of TEMs is limited primarily by spherical aberration, but a new generation of aberration correctors have been able to partially overcome spherical aberration to increase resolution. The ability to determine the positions of atoms within materials has made the HRTEM an important tool for nano-technologies research, transmission electron microscopes are often used in electron diffraction mode. The major disadvantage of the electron microscope is the need for extremely thin sections of the specimens. Biological specimens are required to be chemically fixed, dehydrated and embedded in a polymer resin to stabilize them sufficiently to allow ultrathin sectioning. Sections of biological specimens, organic polymers and similar materials may require treatment with heavy atom labels in order to achieve the required image contrast
15.
Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy
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Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, most commonly known as NMR spectroscopy, is a research technique that exploits the magnetic properties of certain atomic nuclei. This type of spectroscopy determines the physical and chemical properties of atoms or the molecules in which they are contained and it relies on the phenomenon of nuclear magnetic resonance and can provide detailed information about the structure, dynamics, reaction state, and chemical environment of molecules. Suitable samples range from small compounds analyzed with 1-dimensional proton or carbon-13 NMR spectroscopy to large proteins or nucleic acids using 3 or 4-dimensional techniques. The impact of NMR spectroscopy on the sciences has been substantial because of the range of information, NMR spectra are unique, well-resolved, analytically tractable and often highly predictable for small molecules. Thus, in organic chemistry practice, NMR analysis is used to confirm the identity of a substance, different functional groups are obviously distinguishable, and identical functional groups with differing neighboring substituents still give distinguishable signals. NMR has largely replaced traditional wet chemistry tests such as reagents or typical chromatography for identification. A disadvantage is that a large amount, 2–50 mg, of a purified substance is required. Preferably, the sample should be dissolved in a solvent, because NMR analysis of solids requires a dedicated MAS machine, the timescale of NMR is relatively long, and thus it is not suitable for observing fast phenomena, producing only an averaged spectrum. NMR spectrometers are relatively expensive, universities usually have them, modern NMR spectrometers have a very strong, large and expensive liquid helium-cooled superconducting magnet, because resolution directly depends on magnetic field strength. There are even benchtop NMR spectrometers, the Purcell group at Harvard University and the Bloch group at Stanford University independently developed NMR spectroscopy in the late 1940s and early 1950s. Edward Mills Purcell and Felix Bloch shared the 1952 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discoveries, when placed in a magnetic field, NMR active nuclei absorb electromagnetic radiation at a frequency characteristic of the isotope. The resonant frequency, energy of the absorption, and the intensity of the signal are proportional to the strength of the magnetic field, for example, in a 21 Tesla magnetic field, protons resonate at 900 MHz. It is common to refer to a 21 T magnet as a 900 MHz magnet, spinning the sample is necessary to average out diffusional motion. Whereas, measurements of diffusion constants are done the sample stationary and spinning off, the vast majority of nuclei in a solution would belong to the solvent, and most regular solvents are hydrocarbons and would contain NMR-reactive protons. The most used deuterated solvent is deuterochloroform, although deuterium oxide and deuterated DMSO are used for hydrophilic analytes, the chemical shifts are slightly different in different solvents, depending on electronic solvation effects. NMR spectra are often calibrated against the known solvent residual proton peak instead of added tetramethylsilane, to detect the very small frequency shifts due to nuclear magnetic resonance, the applied magnetic field must be constant throughout the sample volume. High resolution NMR spectrometers use shims to adjust the homogeneity of the field to parts per billion in a volume of a few cubic centimeters. In order to detect and compensate for inhomogeneity and drift in the magnetic field, in modern NMR spectrometers shimming is adjusted automatically, though in some cases the operator has to optimize the shim parameters manually to obtain the best possible resolution
16.
Basel-Landschaft
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The canton of Basel-Landschaft, is one of the 26 cantons of Switzerland. It shares borders with the cantons of Basel-Stadt, Solothurn, Jura and Aargau, and with the French région of Alsace, Basel-Landschaft, together with Basel-Stadt, formed the historic Canton of Basel until they separated following the uprising of 1833. In Roman times, the area of Basel was a centre of Roman activity, there are well-preserved remains at the site of Augusta Raurica in the canton of Basel-Landschaft. Around AD200 there were about 20,000 people living in this city, the remains are on display in an open-air museum. The museum attracts over 140,000 visitors per year, many of these visitors are schoolchildren from other parts of Switzerland. The site of Augusta Raurica includes the best-preserved amphitheatre north of the Alps, the lands of the canton Basel-Landschaft are part of the lands acquired by the city of Basel. Until the end of the 16th century, most of the land belonged to the city of Basel. After Napoleon’s visit in 1798, the country achieved equality with the city, the country was economically dependent on the city, most probably because of the low level of education in the agricultural areas at the time. The city of Basel remained the cultural and economic centre of both Basel half cantons until then, castles and residences of Basel merchants dominated much of the landscape in Basel-Landschaft. After 1830 there were political quarrels and armed conflict in the canton of Basel, some of these were concerned with the rights of the population in the agricultural areas. They ultimately led to the separation of the canton Basel-Landschaft from the city of Basel on 26 August 1833, since then, there has been a movement for reunification. This movement gained momentum after 1900 when many parts of Basel-Landschaft became industrialized, the two half cantons agreed in principle to merge, but in 1969 the people of Basel-Landschaft voted down a referendum on this proposal in favour of retaining their independence. It is thought that the economic gap between the two cantons was the main reason why the population changed their attitude. That vote was not the end of a relationship between the two Basels. The two half cantons have since signed a number of agreements to co-operate, the contribution of Basel-Landschaft to the University of Basel since 1976 is just one example. The canton of Basel-Landschaft lies in the north of Switzerland, the Jura mountain chain traverses the canton. The rivers Ergolz and Birs drain the lands of the canton, in 1988 the canton of Basel-Landschaft had this aim written into its constitution. The aim remains to change the Swiss constitution to recognize the two cantons of Basel as full members, ^a FDP before 2009, FDP. The Liberals after 2009 ^b * indicates that the party was not on the ballot in this canton
17.
Alexander F. Schier
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He conducted his postdoctoral research in Wolfgang Driever’s lab at the Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard University in Boston, USA. In 1996, Schier was recruited as Assistant Professor in the Developmental Genetics Program to the Skirball Institute and Department of Cell Biology, since 2005, he is Professor at the Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Harvard University, Faculty of Arts and Sciences. Schier is internationally recognized for his work on vertebrate development using zebrafish as a model organism. During his postdoctoral work, Schier and colleagues performed one of the first large-scale forward genetic screens in a vertebrate, Schier is also well known for having an unusually high rate of placing trainees in academic positions. Key to his philosophy are five questions he has developed to sharpen the thoughts of his mentees. Do you work with sustained concentration, do you have a sense of urgency. Do you have the killer instinct to do the key experiments that will result in a coherent, conclusive and publishable study
18.
Cell (biology)
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The cell is the basic structural, functional, and biological unit of all known living organisms. A cell is the smallest unit of life that can replicate independently, the study of cells is called cell biology. Cells consist of cytoplasm enclosed within a membrane, which contains many such as proteins. Organisms can be classified as unicellular or multicellular, while the number of cells in plants and animals varies from species to species, humans contain more than 10 trillion cells. Most plant and animal cells are only under a microscope. The cell was discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665, who named the unit for its resemblance to cells inhabited by Christian monks in a monastery. Cells emerged on Earth at least 3.5 billion years ago, Cells are of two types, eukaryotic, which contain a nucleus, and prokaryotic, which do not. Prokaryotes are single-celled organisms, while eukaryotes can be either single-celled or multicellular, prokaryotic cells were the first form of life on Earth, characterised by having vital biological processes including cell signaling and being self-sustaining. They are simpler and smaller than eukaryotic cells, and lack membrane-bound organelles such as the nucleus, prokaryotes include two of the domains of life, bacteria and archaea. The DNA of a prokaryotic cell consists of a chromosome that is in direct contact with the cytoplasm. The nuclear region in the cytoplasm is called the nucleoid, most prokaryotes are the smallest of all organisms ranging from 0.5 to 2.0 µm in diameter. Though most prokaryotes have both a cell membrane and a wall, there are exceptions such as Mycoplasma and Thermoplasma which only possess the cell membrane layer. The envelope gives rigidity to the cell and separates the interior of the cell from its environment, the cell wall consists of peptidoglycan in bacteria, and acts as an additional barrier against exterior forces. It also prevents the cell from expanding and bursting from osmotic pressure due to a hypotonic environment, some eukaryotic cells also have a cell wall. Inside the cell is the region that contains the genome, ribosomes. The genetic material is found in the cytoplasm. Prokaryotes can carry extrachromosomal DNA elements called plasmids, which are usually circular, linear bacterial plasmids have been identified in several species of spirochete bacteria, including members of the genus Borrelia notably Borrelia burgdorferi, which causes Lyme disease. Though not forming a nucleus, the DNA is condensed in a nucleoid, plasmids encode additional genes, such as antibiotic resistance genes
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Genomics
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Genomics is an interdisciplinary field of science focusing on genomes. A genome is a set of DNA within a single cell of an organism, and as such genomics is a branch of molecular biology concerned with the structure, function, evolution. Genomics aims at the collective characterization and quantification of genes, which direct the production of proteins with the assistance of enzymes, proteins in turn make up body structures like organs and tissues as well as control chemical reactions and carry signals between cells. If a cells DNA is mutated, a protein may be produced. Advances in genomics have triggered a revolution in discovery-based research to understand even the most complex systems such as the brain. The field includes efforts to determine the entire DNA sequence of organisms, the field also includes studies of intragenomic phenomena such as heterosis, epistasis, pleiotropy and other interactions between loci and alleles within the genome. From the Greek ΓΕΝ gen, gene meaning become, create, creation, birth, following Rosalind Franklins confirmation of the helical structure of DNA, James D. In 1964, Robert W. Holley and colleagues published the first nucleic acid sequence ever determined, extending this work, Marshall Nirenberg and Philip Leder revealed the triplet nature of the genetic code and were able to determine the sequences of 54 out of 64 codons in their experiments. In 1972, Walter Fiers and his team at the Laboratory of Molecular Biology of the University of Ghent were the first to determine the sequence of a gene, the gene for Bacteriophage MS2 coat protein. Fiers group expanded on their MS2 coat protein work, determining the complete nucleotide-sequence of bacteriophage MS2-RNA and Simian virus 40 in 1976 and 1978, in 1975, he and Alan Coulson published a sequencing procedure using DNA polymerase with radiolabelled nucleotides that he called the Plus and Minus technique. This involved two closely related methods that generated short oligonucleotides with defined 3 termini and these could be fractionated by electrophoresis on a polyacrylamide gel and visualised using autoradiography. The procedure could sequence up to 80 nucleotides in one go and was a big improvement, nevertheless, in 1977 his group was able to sequence most of the 5,386 nucleotides of the single-stranded bacteriophage φX174, completing the first fully sequenced DNA-based genome. For their groundbreaking work in the sequencing of nucleic acids, Gilbert, the advent of these technologies resulted in a rapid intensification in the scope and speed of completion of genome sequencing projects. The first complete genome sequence of an organelle, the human mitochondrion, was reported in 1981. In 1992, the first eukaryotic chromosome, chromosome III of brewers yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae was sequenced, the first free-living organism to be sequenced was that of Haemophilus influenzae in 1995. As of October 2011, the sequences are available for,2,719 viruses,1,115 archaea and bacteria. Of the other sequenced species, most were chosen because they were well-studied model organisms or promised to become good models, yeast has long been an important model organism for the eukaryotic cell, while the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster has been a very important tool. The worm Caenorhabditis elegans is an often used model for multicellular organisms
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Proteomics
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Proteomics is the large-scale study of proteins. Proteins are vital parts of living organisms, with many functions, the term proteomics was coined in 1997 in analogy with genomics, the study of the genome. The word proteome is a portmanteau of protein and genome, and was coined by Marc Wilkins in 1994 while a PhD student at Macquarie University, Macquarie University also founded the first dedicated proteomics laboratory in 1995. The proteome is the set of proteins, produced or modified by an organism or system. This varies with time and distinct requirements, or stresses, that a cell or organism undergoes and it is an important component of functional genomics. While proteomics generally refers to the experimental analysis of proteins, it is often specifically used for protein purification. After genomics and transcriptomics, proteomics is the step in the study of biological systems. It is more complicated than genomics because an organisms genome is more or less constant, whereas the proteome differs from cell to cell and from time to time. Distinct genes are expressed in different cell types, which means even the basic set of proteins that are produced in a cell needs to be identified. In the past this phenomenon was done by RNA analysis, proteomics confirms the presence of the protein and provides a direct measure of the quantity present. Not only does the translation from mRNA cause differences, but many proteins are also subjected to a variety of chemical modifications after translation. Many of these modifications are critical to the proteins function. One such modification is phosphorylation, which happens to many enzymes and this alerts the scientist to the signaling pathways that may be active in that instance. Ubiquitin is a protein that can be affixed to certain protein substrates by enzymes called E3 ubiquitin ligases. Determining which proteins are poly-ubiquitinated helps understand how protein pathways are regulated and this is, therefore, an additional legitimate proteomic study. Similarly, once a researcher determines which substrates are ubiquitinated by each ligase, in addition to phosphorylation and ubiquitination, proteins can be subjected to methylation, acetylation, glycosylation, oxidation and nitrosylation. Some proteins undergo all these modifications, often in time-dependent combinations and this illustrates the potential complexity of studying protein structure and function. A cell may make different sets of proteins at different times or under different conditions, for example during development, cellular differentiation, cell cycle, further increasing proteome complexity, as mentioned, most proteins can undergo a wide range of post-translational modifications
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Mathematics
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Mathematics is the study of topics such as quantity, structure, space, and change. There is a range of views among mathematicians and philosophers as to the exact scope, Mathematicians seek out patterns and use them to formulate new conjectures. Mathematicians resolve the truth or falsity of conjectures by mathematical proof, when mathematical structures are good models of real phenomena, then mathematical reasoning can provide insight or predictions about nature. Through the use of abstraction and logic, mathematics developed from counting, calculation, measurement, practical mathematics has been a human activity from as far back as written records exist. The research required to solve mathematical problems can take years or even centuries of sustained inquiry, rigorous arguments first appeared in Greek mathematics, most notably in Euclids Elements. Galileo Galilei said, The universe cannot be read until we have learned the language and it is written in mathematical language, and the letters are triangles, circles and other geometrical figures, without which means it is humanly impossible to comprehend a single word. Without these, one is wandering about in a dark labyrinth, carl Friedrich Gauss referred to mathematics as the Queen of the Sciences. Benjamin Peirce called mathematics the science that draws necessary conclusions, David Hilbert said of mathematics, We are not speaking here of arbitrariness in any sense. Mathematics is not like a game whose tasks are determined by arbitrarily stipulated rules, rather, it is a conceptual system possessing internal necessity that can only be so and by no means otherwise. Albert Einstein stated that as far as the laws of mathematics refer to reality, they are not certain, Mathematics is essential in many fields, including natural science, engineering, medicine, finance and the social sciences. Applied mathematics has led to entirely new mathematical disciplines, such as statistics, Mathematicians also engage in pure mathematics, or mathematics for its own sake, without having any application in mind. There is no clear line separating pure and applied mathematics, the history of mathematics can be seen as an ever-increasing series of abstractions. The earliest uses of mathematics were in trading, land measurement, painting and weaving patterns, in Babylonian mathematics elementary arithmetic first appears in the archaeological record. Numeracy pre-dated writing and numeral systems have many and diverse. Between 600 and 300 BC the Ancient Greeks began a study of mathematics in its own right with Greek mathematics. Mathematics has since been extended, and there has been a fruitful interaction between mathematics and science, to the benefit of both. Mathematical discoveries continue to be made today, the overwhelming majority of works in this ocean contain new mathematical theorems and their proofs. The word máthēma is derived from μανθάνω, while the modern Greek equivalent is μαθαίνω, in Greece, the word for mathematics came to have the narrower and more technical meaning mathematical study even in Classical times
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Physics
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Physics is the natural science that involves the study of matter and its motion and behavior through space and time, along with related concepts such as energy and force. One of the most fundamental disciplines, the main goal of physics is to understand how the universe behaves. Physics is one of the oldest academic disciplines, perhaps the oldest through its inclusion of astronomy, Physics intersects with many interdisciplinary areas of research, such as biophysics and quantum chemistry, and the boundaries of physics are not rigidly defined. New ideas in physics often explain the mechanisms of other sciences while opening new avenues of research in areas such as mathematics. Physics also makes significant contributions through advances in new technologies that arise from theoretical breakthroughs, the United Nations named 2005 the World Year of Physics. Astronomy is the oldest of the natural sciences, the stars and planets were often a target of worship, believed to represent their gods. While the explanations for these phenomena were often unscientific and lacking in evidence, according to Asger Aaboe, the origins of Western astronomy can be found in Mesopotamia, and all Western efforts in the exact sciences are descended from late Babylonian astronomy. The most notable innovations were in the field of optics and vision, which came from the works of many scientists like Ibn Sahl, Al-Kindi, Ibn al-Haytham, Al-Farisi and Avicenna. The most notable work was The Book of Optics, written by Ibn Al-Haitham, in which he was not only the first to disprove the ancient Greek idea about vision, but also came up with a new theory. In the book, he was also the first to study the phenomenon of the pinhole camera, many later European scholars and fellow polymaths, from Robert Grosseteste and Leonardo da Vinci to René Descartes, Johannes Kepler and Isaac Newton, were in his debt. Indeed, the influence of Ibn al-Haythams Optics ranks alongside that of Newtons work of the same title, the translation of The Book of Optics had a huge impact on Europe. From it, later European scholars were able to build the devices as what Ibn al-Haytham did. From this, such important things as eyeglasses, magnifying glasses, telescopes, Physics became a separate science when early modern Europeans used experimental and quantitative methods to discover what are now considered to be the laws of physics. Newton also developed calculus, the study of change, which provided new mathematical methods for solving physical problems. The discovery of new laws in thermodynamics, chemistry, and electromagnetics resulted from greater research efforts during the Industrial Revolution as energy needs increased, however, inaccuracies in classical mechanics for very small objects and very high velocities led to the development of modern physics in the 20th century. Modern physics began in the early 20th century with the work of Max Planck in quantum theory, both of these theories came about due to inaccuracies in classical mechanics in certain situations. Quantum mechanics would come to be pioneered by Werner Heisenberg, Erwin Schrödinger, from this early work, and work in related fields, the Standard Model of particle physics was derived. Areas of mathematics in general are important to this field, such as the study of probabilities, in many ways, physics stems from ancient Greek philosophy
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Biology
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Biology is a natural science concerned with the study of life and living organisms, including their structure, function, growth, evolution, distribution, identification and taxonomy. Modern biology is a vast and eclectic field, composed of branches and subdisciplines. However, despite the broad scope of biology, there are certain unifying concepts within it that consolidate it into single, coherent field. In general, biology recognizes the cell as the unit of life, genes as the basic unit of heredity. It is also understood today that all organisms survive by consuming and transforming energy and by regulating their internal environment to maintain a stable, the term biology is derived from the Greek word βίος, bios, life and the suffix -λογία, -logia, study of. The Latin-language form of the term first appeared in 1736 when Swedish scientist Carl Linnaeus used biologi in his Bibliotheca botanica, the first German use, Biologie, was in a 1771 translation of Linnaeus work. In 1797, Theodor Georg August Roose used the term in the preface of a book, karl Friedrich Burdach used the term in 1800 in a more restricted sense of the study of human beings from a morphological, physiological and psychological perspective. The science that concerns itself with these objects we will indicate by the biology or the doctrine of life. Although modern biology is a recent development, sciences related to. Natural philosophy was studied as early as the ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia, Egypt, the Indian subcontinent, however, the origins of modern biology and its approach to the study of nature are most often traced back to ancient Greece. While the formal study of medicine back to Hippocrates, it was Aristotle who contributed most extensively to the development of biology. Especially important are his History of Animals and other works where he showed naturalist leanings, and later more empirical works that focused on biological causation and the diversity of life. Aristotles successor at the Lyceum, Theophrastus, wrote a series of books on botany that survived as the most important contribution of antiquity to the plant sciences, even into the Middle Ages. Scholars of the medieval Islamic world who wrote on biology included al-Jahiz, Al-Dīnawarī, who wrote on botany, biology began to quickly develop and grow with Anton van Leeuwenhoeks dramatic improvement of the microscope. It was then that scholars discovered spermatozoa, bacteria, infusoria, investigations by Jan Swammerdam led to new interest in entomology and helped to develop the basic techniques of microscopic dissection and staining. Advances in microscopy also had a impact on biological thinking. In the early 19th century, a number of biologists pointed to the importance of the cell. Thanks to the work of Robert Remak and Rudolf Virchow, however, meanwhile, taxonomy and classification became the focus of natural historians
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Biochemistry
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Biochemistry, sometimes called biological chemistry, is the study of chemical processes within and relating to living organisms. By controlling information flow through biochemical signaling and the flow of energy through metabolism. Biochemistry is closely related to biology, the study of the molecular mechanisms by which genetic information encoded in DNA is able to result in the processes of life. Depending on the definition of the terms used, molecular biology can be thought of as a branch of biochemistry, or biochemistry as a tool with which to investigate. The chemistry of the cell depends on the reactions of smaller molecules. These can be inorganic, for water and metal ions, or organic, for example the amino acids. The mechanisms by which cells harness energy from their environment via chemical reactions are known as metabolism, the findings of biochemistry are applied primarily in medicine, nutrition, and agriculture. In medicine, biochemists investigate the causes and cures of diseases, in nutrition, they study how to maintain health and study the effects of nutritional deficiencies. In agriculture, biochemists investigate soil and fertilizers, and try to discover ways to improve crop cultivation, crop storage and pest control. However, biochemistry as a scientific discipline has its beginning sometime in the 19th century, or a little earlier. Gowland Hopkins on enzymes and the nature of biochemistry. The term biochemistry itself is derived from a combination of biology, the German chemist Carl Neuberg however is often cited to have coined the word in 1903, while some credited it to Franz Hofmeister. Then, in 1828, Friedrich Wöhler published a paper on the synthesis of urea and these techniques allowed for the discovery and detailed analysis of many molecules and metabolic pathways of the cell, such as glycolysis and the Krebs cycle. Another significant historic event in biochemistry is the discovery of the gene and this part of biochemistry is often called molecular biology. In the 1950s, James D. Watson, Francis Crick, Rosalind Franklin, in 1958, George Beadle and Edward Tatum received the Nobel Prize for work in fungi showing that one gene produces one enzyme. In 1988, Colin Pitchfork was the first person convicted of murder with DNA evidence, mello received the 2006 Nobel Prize for discovering the role of RNA interference, in the silencing of gene expression. Around two dozen of the 92 naturally occurring elements are essential to various kinds of biological life. Most rare elements on Earth are not needed by life, while a few common ones are not used, most organisms share element needs, but there are a few differences between plants and animals
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Developmental biology
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Developmental biology is the study of the process by which animals and plants grow and develop. Developmental biology also encompasses the biology of regeneration, asexual reproduction and metamorphosis and in the growth, regional specification refers to the processes that create spatial pattern in a ball or sheet of initially similar cells. This generally involves the action of cytoplasmic determinants, located within parts of the fertilized egg, the early stages of regional specification do not generate functional differentiated cells, but cell populations committed to develop to a specific region or part of the organism. These are defined by the expression of combinations of transcription factors. Morphogenesis relates to the formation of three-dimensional shape and it mainly involves the orchestrated movements of cell sheets and of individual cells. Morphogenesis is important for creating the three layers of the early embryo and for building up complex structures during organ development. Cell differentiation relates specifically to the formation of cell types such as nerve, muscle. Differentiated cells contain large amounts of proteins associated with the cell function. Growth involves both an increase in size, and also the differential growth of parts which contributes to morphogenesis. Growth mostly occurs through cell division but also changes of cell size. The control of timing of events and the integration of the processes with one another is the least well understood area of the subject. It remains unclear whether animal embryos contain a master clock mechanism or not, the development of plants involves similar processes to that of animals. However plant cells are mostly immotile so morphogenesis is achieved by differential growth, also, the inductive signals and the genes involved in plant development are different from those that control animal development. Cell differentiation is the process whereby different functional cell types arise in development, for example, neurons, muscle fibers and hepatocytes are well known types of differentiated cell. The genes encoding these proteins are highly active, for example, NeuroD is a key transcription factor for neuronal differentiation, myogenin for muscle differentiation, and HNF4 for hepatocyte differentiation. Cell differentiation is usually the final stage of development, preceded by several states of commitment which are not visibly differentiated, a single tissue, formed from a single type of progenitor cell or stem cell, often consists of several differentiated cell types. Control of their formation involves a process of inhibition, based on the properties of the Notch signaling pathway. For example, in the plate of the embryo this system operates to generate a population of neuronal precursor cells in which NeuroD is highly expressed
26.
Genetics
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Genetics is the study of genes, genetic variation, and heredity in living organisms. It is generally considered a field of biology, but intersects frequently with other life sciences and is strongly linked with the study of information systems. The father of genetics is Gregor Mendel, a late 19th-century scientist, Mendel studied trait inheritance, patterns in the way traits are handed down from parents to offspring. He observed that organisms inherit traits by way of discrete units of inheritance and this term, still used today, is a somewhat ambiguous definition of what is referred to as a gene. Gene structure and function, variation, and distribution are studied within the context of the cell, the organism, genetics has given rise to a number of subfields, including epigenetics and population genetics. Organisms studied within the broad field span the domain of life, including bacteria, plants, animals, genetic processes work in combination with an organisms environment and experiences to influence development and behavior, often referred to as nature versus nurture. The intracellular or extracellular environment of a cell or organism may switch gene transcription on or off, a classic example is two seeds of genetically identical corn, one placed in a temperate climate and one in an arid climate. The word genetics stems from the ancient Greek γενετικός genetikos meaning genitive/generative, the observation that living things inherit traits from their parents has been used since prehistoric times to improve crop plants and animals through selective breeding. The modern science of genetics, seeking to understand this process, prior to Mendel, Imre Festetics, a Hungarian noble, who lived in Kőszeg before Mendel, was the first who used the word genetics. He described several rules of inheritance in his work The genetic law of the Nature. His second law is the same as what Mendel published, in his third law, he developed the basic principles of mutation. Other theories of inheritance preceded his work, a popular theory during Mendels time was the concept of blending inheritance, the idea that individuals inherit a smooth blend of traits from their parents. Mendels work provided examples where traits were not blended after hybridization. Blending of traits in the progeny is now explained by the action of genes with quantitative effects. Another theory that had some support at that time was the inheritance of acquired characteristics, other theories included the pangenesis of Charles Darwin and Francis Galtons reformulation of pangenesis as both particulate and inherited. Modern genetics started with Gregor Johann Mendel, a scientist and Augustinian friar who studied the nature of inheritance in plants, the importance of Mendels work did not gain wide understanding until the 1890s, after his death, when other scientists working on similar problems re-discovered his research. William Bateson, a proponent of Mendels work, coined the word genetics in 1905, Bateson popularized the usage of the word genetics to describe the study of inheritance in his inaugural address to the Third International Conference on Plant Hybridization in London in 1906. After the rediscovery of Mendels work, scientists tried to determine which molecules in the cell were responsible for inheritance, in 1911, Thomas Hunt Morgan argued that genes are on chromosomes, based on observations of a sex-linked white eye mutation in fruit flies
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Human physiology
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The human body is the entire structure of a human being. It is composed of different types of cells that together create tissues. They ensure homeostasis and the viability of the human body and it comprises a head, neck, trunk, arms and hands, legs and feet. The study of the body involves anatomy, physiology, histology and embryology. The body varies anatomically in known ways, Physiology focuses on the systems and organs of the human body and their functions. Many systems and mechanisms interact in order to maintain homeostasis, with levels of substances such as sugar. The body is studied by health professionals, physiologists, anatomists, the human body is composed of elements including hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, calcium and phosphorus. These elements reside in trillions of cells and non-cellular components of the body, the adult male body is about 60% water for a total water content of some 42 litres. This is made up of about 19 litres of extracellular fluid including about 3.2 litres of plasma and about 8.4 litres of interstitial fluid. The content, acidity and composition of the water inside and outside of cells is carefully maintained, the main electrolytes in body water outside of cells are sodium and chloride, whereas within cells it is potassium and other phosphates. The body contains trillions of cells, the unit of life. At maturity, there are roughly 30–37 trillion cells in the body, the body is also host to about the same number of non-human cells as well as multicellular organisms which reside in the gastrointestinal tract and on the skin. Not all parts of the body are made from cells, cells sit in an extracellular matrix that consists of proteins such as collagen, surrounded by extracellular fluids. Of the 70Kg weight of a human body, nearly 25kg is non-human cells or non-cellular material such as bone. Cells in the body function because of DNA, DNA sits within the nucleus of a cell. Here, parts of DNA are copied and sent to the body of the cell via RNA, the RNA is then used to create proteins which form the basis for cells, their activity, and their products. Not all cells have DNA - some cells such as red blood cells lose their nucleus as they mature. The body consists of different types of tissue, defined as cells that act with a specialised function
28.
Immunology
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Immunology is a branch of biology that covers the study of immune systems in all organisms. It was the Russian biologist Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov who boosted studies on immunology and he jabbed the thorn of a rose on a starfish and noted that,24 hours later, cells were surrounding the tip. It was a response of the body, trying to maintain its integrity. It was Mechnikov who first observed the phenomenon of phagocytosis, in which the body defends itself against a foreign body, Immunology has applications in numerous disciplines of medicine, particularly in the fields of organ transplantation, oncology, virology, bacteriology, parasitology, psychiatry, and dermatology. The important lymphoid organs of the system are the thymus and bone marrow, and chief lymphatic tissues such as spleen, tonsils, lymph vessels, lymph nodes, adenoids. Classical immunology ties in with the fields of epidemiology and medicine and it studies the relationship between the body systems, pathogens, and immunity. The earliest written mention of immunity can be traced back to the plague of Athens in 430 BCE, thucydides noted that people who had recovered from a previous bout of the disease could nurse the sick without contracting the illness a second time. Many other ancient societies have references to this phenomenon, but it was not until the 19th and 20th centuries before the concept developed into scientific theory. The study of the molecular and cellular components that comprise the immune system, the immune system has been divided into a more primitive innate immune system and, in vertebrates, an acquired or adaptive immune system. The latter is divided into humoral and cell-mediated components. The humoral response is defined as the interaction between antibodies and antigens, antibodies are specific proteins released from a certain class of immune cells known as B lymphocytes, while antigens are defined as anything that elicits the generation of antibodies. Immunology rests on an understanding of the properties of two biological entities and the cellular response to both. Immunological research continues to more specialized, pursuing non-classical models of immunity and functions of cells, organs. Clinical immunology is the study of diseases caused by disorders of the immune system and it also involves diseases of other systems, where immune reactions play a part in the pathology and clinical features. Other immune system include various hypersensitivities that respond inappropriately to otherwise harmless compounds. Clinical immunologists also study ways to prevent the immune systems attempts to destroy allografts, the body’s capability to react to antigen depends on a persons age, antigen type, maternal factors and the area where the antigen is presented. Neonates are said to be in a state of physiological immunodeficiency, once born, a child’s immune system responds favorably to protein antigens while not as well to glycoproteins and polysaccharides. In fact, many of the infections acquired by neonates are caused by low virulence organisms like Staphylococcus, in neonates, opsonic activity and the ability to activate the complement cascade is very limited
29.
Computer science
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Computer science is the study of the theory, experimentation, and engineering that form the basis for the design and use of computers. An alternate, more succinct definition of science is the study of automating algorithmic processes that scale. A computer scientist specializes in the theory of computation and the design of computational systems and its fields can be divided into a variety of theoretical and practical disciplines. Some fields, such as computational complexity theory, are highly abstract, other fields still focus on challenges in implementing computation. Human–computer interaction considers the challenges in making computers and computations useful, usable, the earliest foundations of what would become computer science predate the invention of the modern digital computer. Machines for calculating fixed numerical tasks such as the abacus have existed since antiquity, further, algorithms for performing computations have existed since antiquity, even before the development of sophisticated computing equipment. Wilhelm Schickard designed and constructed the first working mechanical calculator in 1623, in 1673, Gottfried Leibniz demonstrated a digital mechanical calculator, called the Stepped Reckoner. He may be considered the first computer scientist and information theorist, for, among other reasons and he started developing this machine in 1834, and in less than two years, he had sketched out many of the salient features of the modern computer. A crucial step was the adoption of a card system derived from the Jacquard loom making it infinitely programmable. Around 1885, Herman Hollerith invented the tabulator, which used punched cards to process statistical information, when the machine was finished, some hailed it as Babbages dream come true. During the 1940s, as new and more powerful computing machines were developed, as it became clear that computers could be used for more than just mathematical calculations, the field of computer science broadened to study computation in general. Computer science began to be established as an academic discipline in the 1950s. The worlds first computer science program, the Cambridge Diploma in Computer Science. The first computer science program in the United States was formed at Purdue University in 1962. Since practical computers became available, many applications of computing have become distinct areas of study in their own rights and it is the now well-known IBM brand that formed part of the computer science revolution during this time. IBM released the IBM704 and later the IBM709 computers, still, working with the IBM was frustrating if you had misplaced as much as one letter in one instruction, the program would crash, and you would have to start the whole process over again. During the late 1950s, the science discipline was very much in its developmental stages. Time has seen significant improvements in the usability and effectiveness of computing technology, modern society has seen a significant shift in the users of computer technology, from usage only by experts and professionals, to a near-ubiquitous user base
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Thesis
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A thesis or dissertation is a document submitted in support of candidature for an academic degree or professional qualification presenting the authors research and findings. In some contexts, the thesis or a cognate is used for part of a bachelors or masters course, while dissertation is normally applied to a doctorate, while in other contexts. The term graduate thesis is used to refer to both masters theses and doctoral dissertations. The required complexity or quality of research of a thesis or dissertation can vary by country, university, or program, the word dissertation can at times be used to describe a treatise without relation to obtaining an academic degree. The term thesis is used to refer to the general claim of an essay or similar work. The term thesis comes from the Greek θέσις, meaning something put forth, Dissertation comes from the Latin dissertātiō, meaning path. A thesis may be arranged as a thesis by publication or a monograph, with or without appended papers, an ordinary monograph has a title page, an abstract, a table of contents, comprising the various chapters, and a bibliography or a references section. They differ in their structure in accordance with the different areas of study. In a thesis by publication, the chapters constitute an introductory, Dissertations normally report on a research project or study, or an extended analysis of a topic. The structure of the thesis or dissertation explains the purpose, the research literature which impinges on the topic of the study, the methods used. Degree-awarding institutions often define their own style that candidates have to follow when preparing a thesis document. Other applicable international standards include ISO2145 on section numbers, ISO690 on bibliographic references, some older house styles specify that front matter uses a separate page-number sequence from the main text, using Roman numerals. They therefore avoid the traditional separate number sequence for front matter, however, strict standards are not always required. Most Italian universities, for example, have only general requirements on the size and the page formatting. A thesis or dissertation committee is a committee that supervises a students dissertation, the committee members are doctors in their field and have the task of reading the dissertation, making suggestions for changes and improvements, and sitting in on the defense. Sometimes, at least one member of the committee must be a professor in a department that is different from that of the student, all the dissertation referees must already have achieved at least the academic degree that the candidate is trying to reach. At English-speaking Canadian universities, writings presented in fulfillment of undergraduate coursework requirements are normally called papers, a longer paper or essay presented for completion of a 4-year bachelors degree is sometimes called a major paper. High-quality research papers presented as the study of a postgraduate consecutive bachelor with Honours or Baccalaureatus Cum Honore degree are called thesis
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Ueli Aebi
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Ueli Aebi is a Swiss structural biologist and co-founder of the Maurice E. Müller Institute for Structural Biology at the Biozentrum University of Basel. Aebi studied physics, mathematics, and molecular biology at the Universities of Bern and Basel from 1967 to 1974, after establishing his academic career in the United States, in 1986 he returned to the Biozentrum as professor of structural biology. He was co-founder of the Maurice E. Müller Institute for Structural Biology, Aebi is recognized as a pioneer in integrative structural biology as well as mechano- and nanobiology. He studied the architecture of diverse supramolecular assemblies using a combination of light, electron and atomic force microscopy, X-ray crystallography, among others, Aebi determined the 3-dimensional structure of the NPC by cryo-electron tomography. 1993 Elected Member of the European Molecular Biology Organization 1999 Elected Member of the Academia Europaea 2007 Dr, from structural architecture to cellular organization, celebrating the scientific contributions of Ueli Aebi on the occasion of his retirement
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Markus Affolter
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Markus Affolter is a Swiss Developmental Biologist and Professor at the Biozentrum University of Basel, Switzerland. Markus Affolter studied Biology at the ETH Zurich and at Laval University in Quebec City, following his PhD from Laval University in 1988, he worked as a postdoctoral fellow at the Biozentrum, University of Basel. In the laboratory of Professor Walter Gehring, Markus Affolter began his research with the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster, in 2000 he became Assistant Professor and in 2005 Professor of Developmental Biology at the Biozentrum, University of Basel. Markus Affolter researches into the cellular and molecular processes involved in the formation of organs and blood vessel networks in the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster, Markus Affolter has extensively used live-imaging, high-resolution microscopy in studying network formation in Drosophila and zebrafish. This now enables the better understanding of the function of molecules in morphogenesis, University of Basel, Interview Prof. Dr. Markus Affolter
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Silvia Arber
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Silvia Arber is a Swiss neurobiologist. She teaches and researches at both the Biozentrum of the University of Basel and the Friedrich Miescher Institute for Biomedical Research in Basel Switzerland, Silvia Arber studied biology at the Biozentrum of the University of Basel and completed her doctorate in 1995 at the Friedrich Miescher Institute in Basel. She subsequently worked as a fellow at the Columbia University in New York. In 2000, Silvia Arber returned to Basel as a Professor of Neurobiology/Cell Biology continuing her research work, Silvia Arber is the daughter of the Swiss microbiologist and geneticist Werner Arber, who in 1978 was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine. Silvia Arber investigates the mechanisms involved in the function and assembly of neuronal circuits controlling motor behavior
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Thomas A. Bickle
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Thomas Anthony Bickle is a British/Swiss microbiologist. Thomas A. Bickle studied biology at the University of Geneva and he completed his doctorate in1972 at the University of California at Davis and subsequently worked there as an assistant. The following year he moved to the Biozentrum at the University of Basel on an EMBO Long-Term Fellowship, here he was appointed in1980 to associate professor and in 1990 to full professor. In addition to his duties in research and teaching, he served as Chairman of the Biozentrum and he reached emeritus status in 2005. Thomas A. Bickle mainly investigated the mode of action of bacterial DNA restriction and modification systems and these systems protect bacteria from being invaded by foreign DNA, either free or packaged in bacterial viruses. So-called restriction enzymes recognize foreign DNA and inactivate these through endonucleolytic cleavage, furthermore, he demonstrated that many bacterial viruses have evolved diverse defense mechanisms to avoid restriction. Bickle, Markus Streiff, Methods for Purification of Restriction Enzymes
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Dirk Bumann
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Dirk Bumann is a German infection biologist and professor at the Biozentrum of the University of Basel, Switzerland. Dirk Bumann studied chemistry and biology at the “Freie Universität” in Berlin, in 1994 he earned his doctorate at the Max Planck Institute for Biochemistry in Martinsried followed by postdoc research at the Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole, USA. From 1997 to 2004 Bumann was a group leader at the Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology in Berlin and from 2004 till 2007 he taught. Since 2007 Dirk Bumann is a Professor of Infection Biology at the Biozentrum of the University of Basel, Dirk Bumann‘s research focuses on the study of pathogenic metabolic processes in the bacteria Salmonella and Shigella that cause typhus and diarrheal diseases. He investigates how these pathogens obtain nutrients from their host and how they coordinate the activities in metabolic networks. This tags them for special cell organelles, the autophagosomes, which recognize,2007 Go-Bio Award 2006 EMBO Young Investigator Award 2006 BD Research Prize 2015 Pettenkofer Prize Official website
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Guy R. Cornelis
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Guy R. Cornelis is a Belgian microbiologist. Cornelis graduated in pharmacist, studied in Oxford, UK and received his PhD from the University of Louvain and he studied antibiotic resistance plasmids in Bristol and transposons at the University of Freiburg and at the Max Planck Institute in Cologne, Germany. After his appointment as Professor in Louvain in 1984, he investigated bacterial pathogenesis, in 2001, he was appointed Professor of Molecular Microbiology at the Biozentrum, University of Basel, Switzerland. Since emeritus in 2012, he pursues his research at the University of Namur and he investigates the complex mechanisms of bacterial infectious diseases. He received particular recognition for the co-discovery with H. Wolf-Watz of the bacterial type III secretion system, T3SS is a mechanism by which many bacteria inject a cocktail of toxins, so-called effector proteins into animal, plant or insect cells. The effectors disarm or reprogram the target cell by sabotaging the cellular signaling network, the T3SS apparatus, called injectisome, is a complex nanosyringe made of more than 25 different proteins. Since 2004, Cornelis also studies Capnocytophaga canimorsus, a bacterium from dogs mouths responsible for infections in humans. Cornelis belongs to the world’s most cited scientists
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Andreas Engel
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See Andreas Angelus for the 16th-century chronicler. Andreas Engel is a Swiss structural biologist and co-founder of the Maurice E. Müller Institute for Structural Biology at the Biozentrum of the University of Basel, Engel studied physics and mathematics in Bern and at the Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore. In 1974 he joined the Biozentrum Basel, in 1986, after work in industry, he became Professor for Structural Biology. Engel and Ueli Aebi established the Maurice E. Müller Institute for Structural Biology, after becoming professor emeritus in 2010, Engel joined the Case Western Reserve University, to build up the Cleveland Center for Membrane and Structural Biology. He now works at the Bionanoscience Department of the TU Delft, Engel loves to ski, climb, and sketch. Engel pioneered the application of scanning electron microscopy and atomic force microscopy to image biomolecular complexes. Mass measurements using STEM, 2-dimensional crystallization of proteins, cryo-electron crystallography. Gram negative and positive pathogens, as well as bacterial envelopes were analyzed, fujiyoshi and Engel solved the structure of Aquaporin-1 in collaboration with Agre. Together with Palczewski Engel’s team discovered the packing arrangement of rhodopsin in the retina, Engel developed the first curriculum in nanoscale sciences that attracted many young talents to the University of Basel. Similar programs have since implemented in many top universities. Andreas Engel Awarded Honorary Doctorate by Aarhus University in Denmark on YouTube
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Walter Jakob Gehring
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Walter Jakob Gehring was a Swiss developmental biologist who was a professor at the Biozentrum Basel of the University of Basel, Switzerland. He has made significant contributions to the study of the heat shock genes, various transposons, Gehring has also been involved in the development and application of enhancer trapping methods. He and his collaborators have identified PAX6 as a control gene for eye development. 1987 Gairdner Foundation International Award 1987 Louis-Jeantet Prize for Medicine 1996 Awarded the Otto Warburg Medal 1997 Awarded the March of Dimes Prize in Developmental Biology,2000 Received the Kyoto Prize for Basic Science. 2002 Received the Balzan Prize for Developmental Biology, from Transdetermination to the Homeodomain at Atomic Resolution, An interview with Walter J. Gehring
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Michael N. Hall
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Michael Nip Hall is an American and Swiss molecular biologist and Professor at the Biozentrum University of Basel, Switzerland. Hall grew up in South America and he earned a Bachelor of Science in Zoology from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in 1976, and a PhD in Molecular Genetics from Harvard University in 1981. Hall was a fellow at the Institut Pasteur in Paris and at the University of California. He was appointed an Assistant Professor at the Biozentrum of the University of Basel in 1987, from 1995 to 1998 and from 2002 to 2009 he was head of the Division of Biochemistry, and from 2002 until 2009 was Deputy Director of the Biozentrum. Hall is a pioneer in the fields of TOR signaling and cell growth control, in 1991, Michael N. Hall discovered a protein, which regulates cell growth, cell size and cell division in yeast cells. Since the function of protein is inhibited by the substance rapamycin. Later, Hall was able to demonstrate the control mechanism in mammals. TOR is a protein kinase activated by growth factors, nutrients. It is a controller of cell growth and metabolism. TOR plays a key role in aging and the development of such as cancer, obesity, Diabetes mellitus. Insights into TOR signaling pathways have been applied for new therapeutic strategies
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Christoph Handschin
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Christoph Handschin is a Swiss cell biologist at the Biozentrum University of Basel. Handschin studied biology at the University of Basel and he completed his doctorate in biochemistry in Urs A. Meyers group at the Biozentrum. In 2009 he returned to the Biozentrum, where he works in research, Handschin studies the molecular processes underlying trained or diseased muscles. Central to his research is the protein PGC-1α that has a significant influence on metabolism, Handschin demonstrated that PGC-1 α centrally steers the adaptive mechanisms of the muscle during endurance training. PGC-1α increases the capacity of the muscle by among other things regulating the formation and degradation of lactate. Furthermore, Handschin discovered that an elevated PGC-1α production manifests a therapeutic effect on muscle wasting and his findings provide concrete approaches for the treatment of muscle diseases and age-related muscle wasting. Moreover, the insights gained on the regulation of heme biosynthesis were highly relevant for the understanding of porphyria
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Urs Jenal
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Urs Jenal is a Swiss Microbiologist and Professor at the Biozentrum University of Basel, Switzerland. Urs Jenal studied Experimental Biology at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich, subsequently, he completed postdoctoral research at the ETH Zurich and at Stanford University, USA. Since 1996, Jenal has taught and conducted research at the Biozentrum University of Basel, first as an Assistant Professor, the research of Urs Jenal explores the molecular basis of signal transduction controlling the growth, development and behavior of bacteria. Jenal’s most recent work has investigated the importance of the signaling network for chronic lung infections caused by Pseudomonas aeruginosa in patients with cystic fibrosis
