1.
Basel-Stadt
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The Canton of Basel-Stadt is one of the 26 cantons of Switzerland. The city of Basel and the municipalities of Bettingen and Riehen form its territory, the city-state canton of Basel is the smallest out of all 26 cantons in Switzerland. The canton of Basel-Stadt was created when the canton of Basel was divided in 1833, following political quarrels. Some of these were concerned with the rights of the population in the agricultural areas and they ultimately led to the separation of the canton Basel-Landschaft from the city of Basel on 26 August 1833. Since then, there has been a movement for reunification and this movement gained momentum after 1900 when many parts of Basel-Landschaft became industrialized. The two half-cantons agreed in principle to reunite, but in 1969, and again in September 2014, the canton of Basel-Stadt is located in the north of Switzerland. It borders Germany and France to the north, and Basel-Landschaft to the south, Bettingen, Riehen and a part of Basel city lie on the east bank of the Rhine, bordered on three sides by the German state of Baden-Württemberg. The rest of the lies on the west bank of the Rhine. The area of the canton is 37 km², making Basel-Stadt the smallest canton in Switzerland and this means that the canton only sends one representative to the Council of States. The capital of the canton Basel-Stadt is the city of Basel, the present constitution of the canton dates from 1889. The parliament of the canton is the Grand Council, which has 100 members, there are eight different political parties represented in the parliament, the largest party is the Social Democratic Party, with 32 seats. The executive of the canton is made up of seven members, currently there are five different political parties represented in the executive. The population of the canton is 198,290, as of 2007, the population included 56,106 foreigners, or about 30. 29% of the total population. The population is evenly split between Roman Catholic and Protestant. About 10% of the population is classed as Other Religion while 36% do not belong to any organized religion, the economic area of Basel is considered to be the second largest economic centre in the whole of Switzerland, after Zurich, and before Geneva. The chemical industry and the industry are of greatest significance in the canton. There are a number of multinationals in the city of Basel, banking and finance are important as is the service sector in general. Small and middle-sized businesses employ a significant number of people, both in the city as the two municipalities, the canton is also known for its banking sector, and for being the worldwide seat of the Bank for International Settlements
2.
Electron microscope
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An electron microscope is a microscope that uses a beam of accelerated electrons as a source of illumination. Transmission electron microscopes use electrostatic and electromagnetic lenses to control the electron beam and these electron optical lenses are analogous to the glass lenses of an optical light microscope. Industrially, electron microscopes are used for quality control and failure analysis. Modern electron microscopes produce electron micrographs using specialized digital cameras and frame grabbers to capture the image, the first electromagnetic lens was developed in 1926 by Hans Busch. According to Dennis Gabor, the physicist Leó Szilárd tried in 1928 to convince Busch to build an electron microscope, two years later, in 1933, Ruska built an electron microscope that exceeded the resolution attainable with an optical microscope. Moreover, Reinhold Rudenberg, the director of Siemens-Schuckertwerke, obtained the patent for the electron microscope in May 1931. In 1932, Ernst Lubcke of Siemens & Halske built and obtained images from an electron microscope. Five years later, the firm financed the work of Ernst Ruska and Bodo von Borries, also in 1937, Manfred von Ardenne pioneered the scanning electron microscope. The first commercial electron microscope was produced in 1938 by Siemens, although contemporary transmission electron microscopes are capable of two million-power magnification, as scientific instruments, they remain based upon Ruska’s prototype. The original form of electron microscope, the electron microscope uses a high voltage electron beam to illuminate the specimen. The electron beam is produced by a gun, commonly fitted with a tungsten filament cathode as the electron source. When it emerges from the specimen, the electron beam carries information about the structure of the specimen that is magnified by the lens system of the microscope. The image detected by the camera may be displayed on a monitor or computer. The resolution of TEMs is limited primarily by spherical aberration, but a new generation of aberration correctors have been able to partially overcome spherical aberration to increase resolution. The ability to determine the positions of atoms within materials has made the HRTEM an important tool for nano-technologies research, transmission electron microscopes are often used in electron diffraction mode. The major disadvantage of the electron microscope is the need for extremely thin sections of the specimens. Biological specimens are required to be chemically fixed, dehydrated and embedded in a polymer resin to stabilize them sufficiently to allow ultrathin sectioning. Sections of biological specimens, organic polymers and similar materials may require treatment with heavy atom labels in order to achieve the required image contrast
3.
Basel-Landschaft
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The canton of Basel-Landschaft, is one of the 26 cantons of Switzerland. It shares borders with the cantons of Basel-Stadt, Solothurn, Jura and Aargau, and with the French région of Alsace, Basel-Landschaft, together with Basel-Stadt, formed the historic Canton of Basel until they separated following the uprising of 1833. In Roman times, the area of Basel was a centre of Roman activity, there are well-preserved remains at the site of Augusta Raurica in the canton of Basel-Landschaft. Around AD200 there were about 20,000 people living in this city, the remains are on display in an open-air museum. The museum attracts over 140,000 visitors per year, many of these visitors are schoolchildren from other parts of Switzerland. The site of Augusta Raurica includes the best-preserved amphitheatre north of the Alps, the lands of the canton Basel-Landschaft are part of the lands acquired by the city of Basel. Until the end of the 16th century, most of the land belonged to the city of Basel. After Napoleon’s visit in 1798, the country achieved equality with the city, the country was economically dependent on the city, most probably because of the low level of education in the agricultural areas at the time. The city of Basel remained the cultural and economic centre of both Basel half cantons until then, castles and residences of Basel merchants dominated much of the landscape in Basel-Landschaft. After 1830 there were political quarrels and armed conflict in the canton of Basel, some of these were concerned with the rights of the population in the agricultural areas. They ultimately led to the separation of the canton Basel-Landschaft from the city of Basel on 26 August 1833, since then, there has been a movement for reunification. This movement gained momentum after 1900 when many parts of Basel-Landschaft became industrialized, the two half cantons agreed in principle to merge, but in 1969 the people of Basel-Landschaft voted down a referendum on this proposal in favour of retaining their independence. It is thought that the economic gap between the two cantons was the main reason why the population changed their attitude. That vote was not the end of a relationship between the two Basels. The two half cantons have since signed a number of agreements to co-operate, the contribution of Basel-Landschaft to the University of Basel since 1976 is just one example. The canton of Basel-Landschaft lies in the north of Switzerland, the Jura mountain chain traverses the canton. The rivers Ergolz and Birs drain the lands of the canton, in 1988 the canton of Basel-Landschaft had this aim written into its constitution. The aim remains to change the Swiss constitution to recognize the two cantons of Basel as full members, ^a FDP before 2009, FDP. The Liberals after 2009 ^b * indicates that the party was not on the ballot in this canton
4.
Cell (biology)
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The cell is the basic structural, functional, and biological unit of all known living organisms. A cell is the smallest unit of life that can replicate independently, the study of cells is called cell biology. Cells consist of cytoplasm enclosed within a membrane, which contains many such as proteins. Organisms can be classified as unicellular or multicellular, while the number of cells in plants and animals varies from species to species, humans contain more than 10 trillion cells. Most plant and animal cells are only under a microscope. The cell was discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665, who named the unit for its resemblance to cells inhabited by Christian monks in a monastery. Cells emerged on Earth at least 3.5 billion years ago, Cells are of two types, eukaryotic, which contain a nucleus, and prokaryotic, which do not. Prokaryotes are single-celled organisms, while eukaryotes can be either single-celled or multicellular, prokaryotic cells were the first form of life on Earth, characterised by having vital biological processes including cell signaling and being self-sustaining. They are simpler and smaller than eukaryotic cells, and lack membrane-bound organelles such as the nucleus, prokaryotes include two of the domains of life, bacteria and archaea. The DNA of a prokaryotic cell consists of a chromosome that is in direct contact with the cytoplasm. The nuclear region in the cytoplasm is called the nucleoid, most prokaryotes are the smallest of all organisms ranging from 0.5 to 2.0 µm in diameter. Though most prokaryotes have both a cell membrane and a wall, there are exceptions such as Mycoplasma and Thermoplasma which only possess the cell membrane layer. The envelope gives rigidity to the cell and separates the interior of the cell from its environment, the cell wall consists of peptidoglycan in bacteria, and acts as an additional barrier against exterior forces. It also prevents the cell from expanding and bursting from osmotic pressure due to a hypotonic environment, some eukaryotic cells also have a cell wall. Inside the cell is the region that contains the genome, ribosomes. The genetic material is found in the cytoplasm. Prokaryotes can carry extrachromosomal DNA elements called plasmids, which are usually circular, linear bacterial plasmids have been identified in several species of spirochete bacteria, including members of the genus Borrelia notably Borrelia burgdorferi, which causes Lyme disease. Though not forming a nucleus, the DNA is condensed in a nucleoid, plasmids encode additional genes, such as antibiotic resistance genes
5.
Genomics
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Genomics is an interdisciplinary field of science focusing on genomes. A genome is a set of DNA within a single cell of an organism, and as such genomics is a branch of molecular biology concerned with the structure, function, evolution. Genomics aims at the collective characterization and quantification of genes, which direct the production of proteins with the assistance of enzymes, proteins in turn make up body structures like organs and tissues as well as control chemical reactions and carry signals between cells. If a cells DNA is mutated, a protein may be produced. Advances in genomics have triggered a revolution in discovery-based research to understand even the most complex systems such as the brain. The field includes efforts to determine the entire DNA sequence of organisms, the field also includes studies of intragenomic phenomena such as heterosis, epistasis, pleiotropy and other interactions between loci and alleles within the genome. From the Greek ΓΕΝ gen, gene meaning become, create, creation, birth, following Rosalind Franklins confirmation of the helical structure of DNA, James D. In 1964, Robert W. Holley and colleagues published the first nucleic acid sequence ever determined, extending this work, Marshall Nirenberg and Philip Leder revealed the triplet nature of the genetic code and were able to determine the sequences of 54 out of 64 codons in their experiments. In 1972, Walter Fiers and his team at the Laboratory of Molecular Biology of the University of Ghent were the first to determine the sequence of a gene, the gene for Bacteriophage MS2 coat protein. Fiers group expanded on their MS2 coat protein work, determining the complete nucleotide-sequence of bacteriophage MS2-RNA and Simian virus 40 in 1976 and 1978, in 1975, he and Alan Coulson published a sequencing procedure using DNA polymerase with radiolabelled nucleotides that he called the Plus and Minus technique. This involved two closely related methods that generated short oligonucleotides with defined 3 termini and these could be fractionated by electrophoresis on a polyacrylamide gel and visualised using autoradiography. The procedure could sequence up to 80 nucleotides in one go and was a big improvement, nevertheless, in 1977 his group was able to sequence most of the 5,386 nucleotides of the single-stranded bacteriophage φX174, completing the first fully sequenced DNA-based genome. For their groundbreaking work in the sequencing of nucleic acids, Gilbert, the advent of these technologies resulted in a rapid intensification in the scope and speed of completion of genome sequencing projects. The first complete genome sequence of an organelle, the human mitochondrion, was reported in 1981. In 1992, the first eukaryotic chromosome, chromosome III of brewers yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae was sequenced, the first free-living organism to be sequenced was that of Haemophilus influenzae in 1995. As of October 2011, the sequences are available for,2,719 viruses,1,115 archaea and bacteria. Of the other sequenced species, most were chosen because they were well-studied model organisms or promised to become good models, yeast has long been an important model organism for the eukaryotic cell, while the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster has been a very important tool. The worm Caenorhabditis elegans is an often used model for multicellular organisms
6.
Mathematics
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Mathematics is the study of topics such as quantity, structure, space, and change. There is a range of views among mathematicians and philosophers as to the exact scope, Mathematicians seek out patterns and use them to formulate new conjectures. Mathematicians resolve the truth or falsity of conjectures by mathematical proof, when mathematical structures are good models of real phenomena, then mathematical reasoning can provide insight or predictions about nature. Through the use of abstraction and logic, mathematics developed from counting, calculation, measurement, practical mathematics has been a human activity from as far back as written records exist. The research required to solve mathematical problems can take years or even centuries of sustained inquiry, rigorous arguments first appeared in Greek mathematics, most notably in Euclids Elements. Galileo Galilei said, The universe cannot be read until we have learned the language and it is written in mathematical language, and the letters are triangles, circles and other geometrical figures, without which means it is humanly impossible to comprehend a single word. Without these, one is wandering about in a dark labyrinth, carl Friedrich Gauss referred to mathematics as the Queen of the Sciences. Benjamin Peirce called mathematics the science that draws necessary conclusions, David Hilbert said of mathematics, We are not speaking here of arbitrariness in any sense. Mathematics is not like a game whose tasks are determined by arbitrarily stipulated rules, rather, it is a conceptual system possessing internal necessity that can only be so and by no means otherwise. Albert Einstein stated that as far as the laws of mathematics refer to reality, they are not certain, Mathematics is essential in many fields, including natural science, engineering, medicine, finance and the social sciences. Applied mathematics has led to entirely new mathematical disciplines, such as statistics, Mathematicians also engage in pure mathematics, or mathematics for its own sake, without having any application in mind. There is no clear line separating pure and applied mathematics, the history of mathematics can be seen as an ever-increasing series of abstractions. The earliest uses of mathematics were in trading, land measurement, painting and weaving patterns, in Babylonian mathematics elementary arithmetic first appears in the archaeological record. Numeracy pre-dated writing and numeral systems have many and diverse. Between 600 and 300 BC the Ancient Greeks began a study of mathematics in its own right with Greek mathematics. Mathematics has since been extended, and there has been a fruitful interaction between mathematics and science, to the benefit of both. Mathematical discoveries continue to be made today, the overwhelming majority of works in this ocean contain new mathematical theorems and their proofs. The word máthēma is derived from μανθάνω, while the modern Greek equivalent is μαθαίνω, in Greece, the word for mathematics came to have the narrower and more technical meaning mathematical study even in Classical times
7.
Physics
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Physics is the natural science that involves the study of matter and its motion and behavior through space and time, along with related concepts such as energy and force. One of the most fundamental disciplines, the main goal of physics is to understand how the universe behaves. Physics is one of the oldest academic disciplines, perhaps the oldest through its inclusion of astronomy, Physics intersects with many interdisciplinary areas of research, such as biophysics and quantum chemistry, and the boundaries of physics are not rigidly defined. New ideas in physics often explain the mechanisms of other sciences while opening new avenues of research in areas such as mathematics. Physics also makes significant contributions through advances in new technologies that arise from theoretical breakthroughs, the United Nations named 2005 the World Year of Physics. Astronomy is the oldest of the natural sciences, the stars and planets were often a target of worship, believed to represent their gods. While the explanations for these phenomena were often unscientific and lacking in evidence, according to Asger Aaboe, the origins of Western astronomy can be found in Mesopotamia, and all Western efforts in the exact sciences are descended from late Babylonian astronomy. The most notable innovations were in the field of optics and vision, which came from the works of many scientists like Ibn Sahl, Al-Kindi, Ibn al-Haytham, Al-Farisi and Avicenna. The most notable work was The Book of Optics, written by Ibn Al-Haitham, in which he was not only the first to disprove the ancient Greek idea about vision, but also came up with a new theory. In the book, he was also the first to study the phenomenon of the pinhole camera, many later European scholars and fellow polymaths, from Robert Grosseteste and Leonardo da Vinci to René Descartes, Johannes Kepler and Isaac Newton, were in his debt. Indeed, the influence of Ibn al-Haythams Optics ranks alongside that of Newtons work of the same title, the translation of The Book of Optics had a huge impact on Europe. From it, later European scholars were able to build the devices as what Ibn al-Haytham did. From this, such important things as eyeglasses, magnifying glasses, telescopes, Physics became a separate science when early modern Europeans used experimental and quantitative methods to discover what are now considered to be the laws of physics. Newton also developed calculus, the study of change, which provided new mathematical methods for solving physical problems. The discovery of new laws in thermodynamics, chemistry, and electromagnetics resulted from greater research efforts during the Industrial Revolution as energy needs increased, however, inaccuracies in classical mechanics for very small objects and very high velocities led to the development of modern physics in the 20th century. Modern physics began in the early 20th century with the work of Max Planck in quantum theory, both of these theories came about due to inaccuracies in classical mechanics in certain situations. Quantum mechanics would come to be pioneered by Werner Heisenberg, Erwin Schrödinger, from this early work, and work in related fields, the Standard Model of particle physics was derived. Areas of mathematics in general are important to this field, such as the study of probabilities, in many ways, physics stems from ancient Greek philosophy
8.
Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy
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Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, most commonly known as NMR spectroscopy, is a research technique that exploits the magnetic properties of certain atomic nuclei. This type of spectroscopy determines the physical and chemical properties of atoms or the molecules in which they are contained and it relies on the phenomenon of nuclear magnetic resonance and can provide detailed information about the structure, dynamics, reaction state, and chemical environment of molecules. Suitable samples range from small compounds analyzed with 1-dimensional proton or carbon-13 NMR spectroscopy to large proteins or nucleic acids using 3 or 4-dimensional techniques. The impact of NMR spectroscopy on the sciences has been substantial because of the range of information, NMR spectra are unique, well-resolved, analytically tractable and often highly predictable for small molecules. Thus, in organic chemistry practice, NMR analysis is used to confirm the identity of a substance, different functional groups are obviously distinguishable, and identical functional groups with differing neighboring substituents still give distinguishable signals. NMR has largely replaced traditional wet chemistry tests such as reagents or typical chromatography for identification. A disadvantage is that a large amount, 2–50 mg, of a purified substance is required. Preferably, the sample should be dissolved in a solvent, because NMR analysis of solids requires a dedicated MAS machine, the timescale of NMR is relatively long, and thus it is not suitable for observing fast phenomena, producing only an averaged spectrum. NMR spectrometers are relatively expensive, universities usually have them, modern NMR spectrometers have a very strong, large and expensive liquid helium-cooled superconducting magnet, because resolution directly depends on magnetic field strength. There are even benchtop NMR spectrometers, the Purcell group at Harvard University and the Bloch group at Stanford University independently developed NMR spectroscopy in the late 1940s and early 1950s. Edward Mills Purcell and Felix Bloch shared the 1952 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discoveries, when placed in a magnetic field, NMR active nuclei absorb electromagnetic radiation at a frequency characteristic of the isotope. The resonant frequency, energy of the absorption, and the intensity of the signal are proportional to the strength of the magnetic field, for example, in a 21 Tesla magnetic field, protons resonate at 900 MHz. It is common to refer to a 21 T magnet as a 900 MHz magnet, spinning the sample is necessary to average out diffusional motion. Whereas, measurements of diffusion constants are done the sample stationary and spinning off, the vast majority of nuclei in a solution would belong to the solvent, and most regular solvents are hydrocarbons and would contain NMR-reactive protons. The most used deuterated solvent is deuterochloroform, although deuterium oxide and deuterated DMSO are used for hydrophilic analytes, the chemical shifts are slightly different in different solvents, depending on electronic solvation effects. NMR spectra are often calibrated against the known solvent residual proton peak instead of added tetramethylsilane, to detect the very small frequency shifts due to nuclear magnetic resonance, the applied magnetic field must be constant throughout the sample volume. High resolution NMR spectrometers use shims to adjust the homogeneity of the field to parts per billion in a volume of a few cubic centimeters. In order to detect and compensate for inhomogeneity and drift in the magnetic field, in modern NMR spectrometers shimming is adjusted automatically, though in some cases the operator has to optimize the shim parameters manually to obtain the best possible resolution
9.
Biology
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Biology is a natural science concerned with the study of life and living organisms, including their structure, function, growth, evolution, distribution, identification and taxonomy. Modern biology is a vast and eclectic field, composed of branches and subdisciplines. However, despite the broad scope of biology, there are certain unifying concepts within it that consolidate it into single, coherent field. In general, biology recognizes the cell as the unit of life, genes as the basic unit of heredity. It is also understood today that all organisms survive by consuming and transforming energy and by regulating their internal environment to maintain a stable, the term biology is derived from the Greek word βίος, bios, life and the suffix -λογία, -logia, study of. The Latin-language form of the term first appeared in 1736 when Swedish scientist Carl Linnaeus used biologi in his Bibliotheca botanica, the first German use, Biologie, was in a 1771 translation of Linnaeus work. In 1797, Theodor Georg August Roose used the term in the preface of a book, karl Friedrich Burdach used the term in 1800 in a more restricted sense of the study of human beings from a morphological, physiological and psychological perspective. The science that concerns itself with these objects we will indicate by the biology or the doctrine of life. Although modern biology is a recent development, sciences related to. Natural philosophy was studied as early as the ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia, Egypt, the Indian subcontinent, however, the origins of modern biology and its approach to the study of nature are most often traced back to ancient Greece. While the formal study of medicine back to Hippocrates, it was Aristotle who contributed most extensively to the development of biology. Especially important are his History of Animals and other works where he showed naturalist leanings, and later more empirical works that focused on biological causation and the diversity of life. Aristotles successor at the Lyceum, Theophrastus, wrote a series of books on botany that survived as the most important contribution of antiquity to the plant sciences, even into the Middle Ages. Scholars of the medieval Islamic world who wrote on biology included al-Jahiz, Al-Dīnawarī, who wrote on botany, biology began to quickly develop and grow with Anton van Leeuwenhoeks dramatic improvement of the microscope. It was then that scholars discovered spermatozoa, bacteria, infusoria, investigations by Jan Swammerdam led to new interest in entomology and helped to develop the basic techniques of microscopic dissection and staining. Advances in microscopy also had a impact on biological thinking. In the early 19th century, a number of biologists pointed to the importance of the cell. Thanks to the work of Robert Remak and Rudolf Virchow, however, meanwhile, taxonomy and classification became the focus of natural historians
10.
University of Basel
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The University of Basel is located in Basel, Switzerland. Founded on 3 April 1460, it is Switzerland’s oldest university and is counted among the institutions of the country. The associated University Library of Basel is the largest and among the most important libraries in the whole of Switzerland, in 2016, the University boasted 12852 students and 377 professors. International students accounted for 25 percent of the student body, the University of Basel was founded in connection with the Council of Basel. The deed of foundation given in the form of a Papal bull by Pope Pius II on November 12,1459, originally the University of Basel was decreed to have four faculties—arts, medicine, theology, and jurisprudence. The faculty of arts served until 1818 as the foundation for the three academic subjects. In the eighteenth century as Basel became more commercial, the university, one of the centers of learning in the Renaissance, enrollment which had been over a thousand around 1600, dropped to sixty in 1785 with eighteen professors. The professors themselves were mostly sons of the elite, over the course of centuries as many scholars came to the city, Basel became an early center of book printing and humanism. Around the same time as the university itself, the Basel University Library was founded, today it has over three million books and writings and is the largest library in Switzerland. The city, Basel-Stadt, had to buy back this share, students were expected to continue their education after two years or so at a German university. The Student Advice Center provides advice on academic programs and career opportunities. The Student Administration Office provides information on applications, grants, mobility, exchanges, there are also a variety of organizations that cater to international students, such as local chapters of Toastmasters and AIESEC, and associations that perform community services. There is a foreign affairs association, a Model United Nations team, there are also various religious groups. A number of student groups exist out of formal venues. Such associations include the Akademische Turnerschaft Alemannia zu Basel, AKW Raurica, Helvetia Basel, Jurassia Basiliensis, Schwizerhüsli, membership in many is restricted to men, though A. V. University Sports provides a gym, fitness classes, and sport and dance camps to students, the Studentische Körperschaft der Universität Basel speaks on behalf of the students and represents their needs and interests. It acts as a student representative and has no political or religious affiliations. Information about the university Studierendenstatistik der Universität Basel University Rankings – University of Basel
11.
Biochemistry
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Biochemistry, sometimes called biological chemistry, is the study of chemical processes within and relating to living organisms. By controlling information flow through biochemical signaling and the flow of energy through metabolism. Biochemistry is closely related to biology, the study of the molecular mechanisms by which genetic information encoded in DNA is able to result in the processes of life. Depending on the definition of the terms used, molecular biology can be thought of as a branch of biochemistry, or biochemistry as a tool with which to investigate. The chemistry of the cell depends on the reactions of smaller molecules. These can be inorganic, for water and metal ions, or organic, for example the amino acids. The mechanisms by which cells harness energy from their environment via chemical reactions are known as metabolism, the findings of biochemistry are applied primarily in medicine, nutrition, and agriculture. In medicine, biochemists investigate the causes and cures of diseases, in nutrition, they study how to maintain health and study the effects of nutritional deficiencies. In agriculture, biochemists investigate soil and fertilizers, and try to discover ways to improve crop cultivation, crop storage and pest control. However, biochemistry as a scientific discipline has its beginning sometime in the 19th century, or a little earlier. Gowland Hopkins on enzymes and the nature of biochemistry. The term biochemistry itself is derived from a combination of biology, the German chemist Carl Neuberg however is often cited to have coined the word in 1903, while some credited it to Franz Hofmeister. Then, in 1828, Friedrich Wöhler published a paper on the synthesis of urea and these techniques allowed for the discovery and detailed analysis of many molecules and metabolic pathways of the cell, such as glycolysis and the Krebs cycle. Another significant historic event in biochemistry is the discovery of the gene and this part of biochemistry is often called molecular biology. In the 1950s, James D. Watson, Francis Crick, Rosalind Franklin, in 1958, George Beadle and Edward Tatum received the Nobel Prize for work in fungi showing that one gene produces one enzyme. In 1988, Colin Pitchfork was the first person convicted of murder with DNA evidence, mello received the 2006 Nobel Prize for discovering the role of RNA interference, in the silencing of gene expression. Around two dozen of the 92 naturally occurring elements are essential to various kinds of biological life. Most rare elements on Earth are not needed by life, while a few common ones are not used, most organisms share element needs, but there are a few differences between plants and animals
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Molecular biology
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Writing in Nature in 1961, William Astbury described molecular biology as. It is concerned particularly with the forms of biological molecules and is predominantly three-dimensional and structural—which does not mean, however and it must at the same time inquire into genesis and function. Researchers in molecular biology use specific techniques native to molecular biology but increasingly combine these techniques and ideas from genetics. There is not a line between these disciplines. Biochemists focus heavily on the role, function, and structure of biomolecules, the study of the chemistry behind biological processes and the synthesis of biologically active molecules are examples of biochemistry. Genetics is the study of the effect of differences on organisms. This can often be inferred by the absence of a normal component, the study of mutants – organisms which lack one or more functional components with respect to the so-called wild type or normal phenotype. Genetic interactions can often confound simple interpretations of such knockout studies, molecular biology is the study of molecular underpinnings of the processes of replication, transcription, translation, and cell function. This picture, however, is undergoing revision in light of emerging novel roles for RNA, much of molecular biology is quantitative, and recently much work has been done at its interface with computer science in bioinformatics and computational biology. In the early 2000s, the study of structure and function. There is also a tradition of studying biomolecules from the ground up in biophysics. One of the most basic techniques of molecular biology to study protein function is molecular cloning, in this technique, DNA coding for a protein of interest is cloned using PCR and/or restriction enzymes into a plasmid. A vector has 3 distinctive features, an origin of replication, a multiple cloning site, the origin of replication will have promoter regions upstream from the replication/transcription start site. This plasmid can be inserted into either bacterial or animal cells, introducing DNA into bacterial cells can be done by transformation via uptake of naked DNA, conjugation via cell-cell contact or by transduction via viral vector. Introducing DNA into eukaryotic cells, such as cells, by physical or chemical means is called transfection. Several different transfection techniques are available, such as calcium phosphate transfection, electroporation, microinjection, the plasmid may be integrated into the genome, resulting in a stable transfection, or may remain independent of the genome, called transient transfection. DNA coding for a protein of interest is now inside a cell, a variety of systems, such as inducible promoters and specific cell-signaling factors, are available to help express the protein of interest at high levels. Large quantities of a protein can then be extracted from the bacterial or eukaryotic cell, polymerase chain reaction is an extremely versatile technique for copying DNA
