1.
Trifoliate orange
–
The trifoliate orange, Citrus trifoliata or Poncirus trifoliata, is a member of the family Rutaceae in the Citrus genus. Whether the species should be considered to belong to its own genus, Poncirus or included in the genus Citrus is debated, the species is unusual in Citrus for having deciduous, compound leaves and pubescent fruit. It is native to northern China and Korea, and is known as the Japanese bitter-orange. The plant is a fairly cold-hardy citrus and will tolerate moderate frost and snow, because of its relative hardiness, citrus grafted onto Citrus trifoliata are usually hardier than when grown on their own roots. As with true citrus, the leaves give off a smell when crushed. The fruits are green, ripening to yellow, and 3–4 cm in diameter, resembling a small orange, the cultivar Flying Dragon is dwarfed in size and has highly twisted, contorted stems. It makes an excellent barrier hedge due to its density and strong curved thorns, such hedges have been grown for over 50 years at Oklahoma State University in Stillwater, and are highly student-proof. The plant is also highly deer resistant, the fruits are very bitter and most people consider them inedible fresh, but they can be made into marmalade. When dried and powdered, they can be used as a condiment, the fruits of Citrus trifoliata are widely used in Oriental medicine as a treatment for allergic inflammation
Trifoliate orange
–
Trifoliate orange Poncirus trifoliata
Trifoliate orange
–
Green fruits of Trifoliate orange in a botanical garden in
Prague
Trifoliate orange
–
Trifoliate Oranges
Trifoliate orange
–
Flower
2.
Taxonomy (biology)
–
Taxonomy is the science of defining groups of biological organisms on the basis of shared characteristics and giving names to those groups. The exact definition of taxonomy varies from source to source, but the core of the remains, the conception, naming. There is some disagreement as to whether biological nomenclature is considered a part of taxonomy, the broadest meaning of taxonomy is used here. The word taxonomy was introduced in 1813 by Candolle, in his Théorie élémentaire de la botanique, the term alpha taxonomy is primarily used today to refer to the discipline of finding, describing, and naming taxa, particularly species. In earlier literature, the term had a different meaning, referring to morphological taxonomy, ideals can, it may be said, never be completely realized. They have, however, a value of acting as permanent stimulants. Some of us please ourselves by thinking we are now groping in a beta taxonomy, turrill thus explicitly excludes from alpha taxonomy various areas of study that he includes within taxonomy as a whole, such as ecology, physiology, genetics, and cytology. He further excludes phylogenetic reconstruction from alpha taxonomy, thus, Ernst Mayr in 1968 defined beta taxonomy as the classification of ranks higher than species. This activity is what the term denotes, it is also referred to as beta taxonomy. How species should be defined in a group of organisms gives rise to practical and theoretical problems that are referred to as the species problem. The scientific work of deciding how to define species has been called microtaxonomy, by extension, macrotaxonomy is the study of groups at higher taxonomic ranks, from subgenus and above only, than species. While some descriptions of taxonomic history attempt to date taxonomy to ancient civilizations, earlier works were primarily descriptive, and focused on plants that were useful in agriculture or medicine. There are a number of stages in scientific thinking. Early taxonomy was based on criteria, the so-called artificial systems. Later came systems based on a complete consideration of the characteristics of taxa, referred to as natural systems, such as those of de Jussieu, de Candolle and Bentham. The publication of Charles Darwins Origin of Species led to new ways of thinking about classification based on evolutionary relationships and this was the concept of phyletic systems, from 1883 onwards. This approach was typified by those of Eichler and Engler, the advent of molecular genetics and statistical methodology allowed the creation of the modern era of phylogenetic systems based on cladistics, rather than morphology alone. Taxonomy has been called the worlds oldest profession, and naming and classifying our surroundings has likely been taking place as long as mankind has been able to communicate
Taxonomy (biology)
–
Title page of
Systema Naturae, Leiden, 1735
Taxonomy (biology)
–
Evolution of the
vertebrates at class level, width of spindles indicating number of families. Spindle diagrams are typical for
Evolutionary taxonomy
Taxonomy (biology)
–
The same relationship, expressed as a
cladogram typical for
cladistics
Taxonomy (biology)
–
Type specimen for
Nepenthes smilesii, a tropical
pitcher plant.
3.
Plant
–
Plants are mainly multicellular, predominantly photosynthetic eukaryotes of the kingdom Plantae. The term is generally limited to the green plants, which form an unranked clade Viridiplantae. This includes the plants, conifers and other gymnosperms, ferns, clubmosses, hornworts, liverworts, mosses and the green algae. Green plants have cell walls containing cellulose and obtain most of their energy from sunlight via photosynthesis by primary chloroplasts and their chloroplasts contain chlorophylls a and b, which gives them their green color. Some plants are parasitic and have lost the ability to produce amounts of chlorophyll or to photosynthesize. Plants are characterized by sexual reproduction and alternation of generations, although reproduction is also common. There are about 300–315 thousand species of plants, of which the great majority, green plants provide most of the worlds molecular oxygen and are the basis of most of Earths ecologies, especially on land. Plants that produce grains, fruits and vegetables form humankinds basic foodstuffs, Plants play many roles in culture. They are used as ornaments and, until recently and in variety, they have served as the source of most medicines. The scientific study of plants is known as botany, a branch of biology, Plants are one of the two groups into which all living things were traditionally divided, the other is animals. The division goes back at least as far as Aristotle, who distinguished between plants, which generally do not move, and animals, which often are mobile to catch their food. Much later, when Linnaeus created the basis of the system of scientific classification. Since then, it has become clear that the plant kingdom as originally defined included several unrelated groups, however, these organisms are still often considered plants, particularly in popular contexts. When the name Plantae or plant is applied to a group of organisms or taxon. The evolutionary history of plants is not yet settled. Those which have been called plants are in bold, the way in which the groups of green algae are combined and named varies considerably between authors. Algae comprise several different groups of organisms which produce energy through photosynthesis, most conspicuous among the algae are the seaweeds, multicellular algae that may roughly resemble land plants, but are classified among the brown, red and green algae. Each of these groups also includes various microscopic and single-celled organisms
Plant
–
Green algae from
Ernst Haeckel 's
Kunstformen der Natur, 1904.
Plant
–
Had'n
Plant
–
Dicksonia antarctica, a species of
tree fern
Plant
–
A petrified log in
Petrified Forest National Park.
4.
Flowering plant
–
The flowering plants, also known as Angiospermae or Magnoliophyta, are the most diverse group of land plants, with 416 families, approx. 13,164 known genera and a total of c.295,383 known species, etymologically, angiosperm means a plant that produces seeds within an enclosure, in other words, a fruiting plant. The term angiosperm comes from the Greek composite word meaning enclosed seeds, the ancestors of flowering plants diverged from gymnosperms in the Triassic Period, during the range 245 to 202 million years ago, and the first flowering plants are known from 160 mya. They diversified extensively during the Lower Cretaceous, became widespread by 120 mya, angiosperms differ from other seed plants in several ways, described in the table. These distinguishing characteristics taken together have made the angiosperms the most diverse and numerous land plants, the amount and complexity of tissue-formation in flowering plants exceeds that of gymnosperms. The vascular bundles of the stem are arranged such that the xylem and phloem form concentric rings, in the dicotyledons, the bundles in the very young stem are arranged in an open ring, separating a central pith from an outer cortex. In each bundle, separating the xylem and phloem, is a layer of meristem or active formative tissue known as cambium, the soft phloem becomes crushed, but the hard wood persists and forms the bulk of the stem and branches of the woody perennial. Among the monocotyledons, the bundles are more numerous in the stem and are scattered through the ground tissue. They contain no cambium and once formed the stem increases in diameter only in exceptional cases, the characteristic feature of angiosperms is the flower. Flowers show remarkable variation in form and elaboration, and provide the most trustworthy external characteristics for establishing relationships among angiosperm species, the function of the flower is to ensure fertilization of the ovule and development of fruit containing seeds. The floral apparatus may arise terminally on a shoot or from the axil of a leaf, occasionally, as in violets, a flower arises singly in the axil of an ordinary foliage-leaf. There are two kinds of cells produced by flowers. Microspores, which divide to become pollen grains, are the male cells and are borne in the stamens. The female cells called megaspores, which divide to become the egg cell, are contained in the ovule. The flower may consist only of parts, as in willow. Usually, other structures are present and serve to protect the sporophylls, the individual members of these surrounding structures are known as sepals and petals. The outer series is usually green and leaf-like, and functions to protect the rest of the flower, the inner series is, in general, white or brightly colored, and is more delicate in structure. It functions to attract insect or bird pollinators, attraction is effected by color, scent, and nectar, which may be secreted in some part of the flower
Flowering plant
Flowering plant
–
Bud of a pink
rose
Flowering plant
–
Flowers of
Malus sylvestris (crab apple)
Flowering plant
–
Flowers and leaves of
Oxalis pes-caprae (Bermuda buttercup)
5.
Eudicots
–
The eudicots, Eudicotidae or eudicotyledons are a monophyletic clade of flowering plants that had been called tricolpates or non-magnoliid dicots by previous authors. The close relationships among flowering plants with tricolpate pollen grains was initially seen in studies of shared derived characters. These plants have a trait in their pollen grains of exhibiting three colpi or grooves paralleling the polar axis. Later molecular evidence confirmed the basis for the evolutionary relationships among flowering plants with tricolpate pollen grains. The term means true dicotyledons, as it contains the majority of plants that have been considered dicots and have characteristics of the dicots, the term eudicots has subsequently been widely adopted in botany to refer to one of the two largest clades of angiosperms, monocots being the other. The remaining angiosperms are sometimes referred to as basal angiosperms or paleodicots, the other name for the eudicots is tricolpates, a name which refers to the grooved structure of the pollen. Members of the group have tricolpate pollen, or forms derived from it and these pollens have three or more pores set in furrows called colpi. In contrast, most of the seed plants produce monosulcate pollen. The name tricolpates is preferred by some botanists to avoid confusion with the dicots, numerous familiar plants are eudicots, including many common food plants, trees, and ornamentals. Most leafy trees of midlatitudes also belong to eudicots, with exceptions being magnolias and tulip trees which belong to magnoliids, and Ginkgo biloba. The name eudicots is used in the APG system, of 1998 and it is applied to a clade, a monophyletic group, which includes most of the dicots. The eudicots can be divided into two groups, the basal eudicots and the core eudicots, basal eudicot is an informal name for a paraphyletic group. The core eudicots are a monophyletic group, a 2010 study suggested the core eudicots can be divided into two clades, Gunnerales and a clade called Pentapetalae, comprising all the remaining core eudicots
Eudicots
–
Eudicots Temporal range:
Early Cretaceous - recent
Eudicots
–
Arabis pollen has three colpi.
6.
Rutaceae
–
The Rutaceae are a family, commonly known as the rue or citrus family, of flowering plants, usually placed in the order Sapindales. Species of the family generally have flowers that divide into four or five parts and they range in form and size from herbs to shrubs and small trees. The most economically important genus in the family is Citrus, which includes the orange, lemon, grapefruit, Boronia is a large Australian genus, some members of which are plants with highly fragrant flowers and are used in commercial oil production. Other large genera include Zanthoxylum, Melicope, and Agathosma, about 160 genera are in the family Rutaceae, List of Rutaceae genera. Most species are trees or shrubs, a few are herbs, the leaves are usually opposed and compound, and without stipules. Flowers are bractless, solitary or in cyme, rarely in raceme and they are radially or laterally symmetric, and generally hermaphroditic. They have four or five petals and sepals, sometimes three, mostly separate, eight to ten stamen, usually separate or in several groups, usually a single stigma with 2 to 5 united carpels, sometimes ovaries separate but styles combined. The fruit of the Rutaceae are very variable, berries, drupes, hesperidia, samaras, capsules, and follicles all occur. The family is related to the Sapindaceae, Simaroubaceae, and Meliaceae. The families Flindersiaceae and Ptaeroxylaceae are sometimes separate, but nowadays generally are placed in the Rutaceae. The subfamilial organization has not been resolved, but the subfamily Aurantioideae is well supported. Non-citrus fruits include the White sapote, Orangeberry, Clymenia, Limeberry, other plants are grown in horticulture, Murraya and Skimmia species, for example. Ruta, Zanthoxylum and Casimiroa species are medicinals, several plants are also used by the perfume industry, such as the Western Australian Boronia megastigma. The genus Pilocarpus has species from which the medicine pilocarpine, used to treat glaucoma, is extracted, spices are made from a number of species in the genus Zanthoxylum, notably Sichuan pepper. Chase, Mark W. Cynthia M. Morton, Jacquelyn A. Kallunki, phylogenetic relationships of Rutaceae, a cladistic analysis of the subfamilies using evidence from RBC and ATP sequence variation. Media related to Rutaceae at Wikimedia Commons Data related to Rutaceae at Wikispecies
Rutaceae
–
Rutaceae
Rutaceae
–
Various Citrus fruits
7.
Citrus
–
Citrus is a genus of flowering trees and shrubs in the rue family, Rutaceae. Plants in the genus produce citrus fruits, including important crops like oranges, lemons, grapefruit, pomelo, the most recent research indicates an origin in Australia, New Caledonia and New Guinea. Citrus fruit has been cultivated in an area since ancient times. At various times, citrus plants were thought to be native to Asia, Europe, but the European oranges were originally brought from India at around the time of Alexander the Great, and the native oranges of Florida actually originated with the Spanish Conquistadors. The lemon reached Europe during the time of classical Rome, the generic name originated from Latin, where it referred to either the plant now known as Citron or a conifer tree. It is somehow related to the ancient Greek word for cedar and this may be due to perceived similarities in the smell of citrus leaves and fruit with that of cedar. Collectively, Citrus fruits and plants are known by the Romance loanword agrumes. The large citrus fruit of today evolved originally from small, edible berries over millions of years, Citrus plants diverged from a common ancestor about 15 million years ago, which was about when it diverged from the closely related severinia, for example the Chinese box orange. These estimates are made using genetic mapping of plant chloroplasts, the three original species in the citrus genus that have been hybridized into most modern commercial citrus fruit are the mandarin orange, pummelo, and citron. Within the last few years, all common citrus fruits were created by crossing those original species. Something similar has occurred with the array of chili peppers originating in the hybridization of a few initial species. Natural and cultivated citrus hybrids include commercially important fruit such as oranges, grapefruit, lemons, limes, apart from these four core citrus species, there are Australian limes and the recently discovered Mangshanyegan. Kumquats and Clymenia sp. are now considered to belong within the citrus genus. Trifoliate orange, which is used as commercial rootstock, is an outgroup. Phylogenetic analysis suggests the species of Oxanthera from New Caledonia should be transferred to the genus Citrus and these plants are large shrubs or small to moderate-sized trees, reaching 5–15 m tall, with spiny shoots and alternately arranged evergreen leaves with an entire margin. The flowers are solitary or in corymbs, each flower 2–4 cm diameter, with five white petals and numerous stamens. The fruit is a hesperidium, a berry, globose to elongated, 4–30 cm long and 4–20 cm diameter. The outermost layer of the pericarp is a called the flavedo
Citrus
–
Citrus
Citrus
–
Slices of various citrus fruits
Citrus
–
Persian limes in a grocery store
Citrus
–
Mediterranean Mandarin (
Citrus ×deliciosa plantation, Son Carrió (
Mallorca)
8.
Binomial nomenclature
–
Such a name is called a binomial name, a binomen, binominal name or a scientific name, more informally it is also called a Latin name. The first part of the name identifies the genus to which the species belongs, for example, humans belong to the genus Homo and within this genus to the species Homo sapiens. The formal introduction of system of naming species is credited to Carl Linnaeus. But Gaspard Bauhin, in as early as 1623, had introduced in his book Pinax theatri botanici many names of genera that were adopted by Linnaeus. Although the general principles underlying binomial nomenclature are common to these two codes, there are differences, both in the terminology they use and in their precise rules. Similarly, both parts are italicized when a binomial name occurs in normal text, thus the binomial name of the annual phlox is now written as Phlox drummondii. In scientific works, the authority for a name is usually given, at least when it is first mentioned. In zoology Patella vulgata Linnaeus,1758, the original name given by Linnaeus was Fringilla domestica, the parentheses indicate that the species is now considered to belong in a different genus. The ICZN does not require that the name of the person who changed the genus be given, nor the date on which the change was made, in botany Amaranthus retroflexus L. – L. is the standard abbreviation used in botany for Linnaeus. – Linnaeus first named this bluebell species Scilla italica, Rothmaler transferred it to the genus Hyacinthoides, the ICN does not require that the dates of either publication be specified. Prior to the adoption of the binomial system of naming species. Together they formed a system of polynomial nomenclature and these names had two separate functions. First, to designate or label the species, and second, to be a diagnosis or description, such polynomial names may sometimes look like binomials, but are significantly different. For example, Gerards herbal describes various kinds of spiderwort, The first is called Phalangium ramosum, Branched Spiderwort, is aptly termed Phalangium Ephemerum Virginianum, Soon-Fading Spiderwort of Virginia. The Latin phrases are short descriptions, rather than identifying labels, the Bauhins, in particular Caspar Bauhin, took some important steps towards the binomial system, by pruning the Latin descriptions, in many cases to two words. The adoption by biologists of a system of binomial nomenclature is due to Swedish botanist and physician Carl von Linné. It was in his 1753 Species Plantarum that he first began using a one-word trivial name together with a generic name in a system of binomial nomenclature. This trivial name is what is now known as an epithet or specific name
Binomial nomenclature
–
Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778), a Swedish botanist, invented the modern system of binomial nomenclature.
9.
Carl Linnaeus
–
Carl Linnaeus, also known after his ennoblement as Carl von Linné, was a Swedish botanist, physician, and zoologist, who formalised the modern system of naming organisms called binomial nomenclature. He is known by the father of modern taxonomy. Many of his writings were in Latin, and his name is rendered in Latin as Carolus Linnæus, Linnaeus was born in the countryside of Småland, in southern Sweden. He received most of his education at Uppsala University. He lived abroad between 1735 and 1738, where he studied and also published a first edition of his Systema Naturae in the Netherlands and he then returned to Sweden, where he became professor of medicine and botany at Uppsala. In the 1740s, he was sent on journeys through Sweden to find and classify plants. In the 1750s and 1760s, he continued to collect and classify animals, plants, and minerals, at the time of his death, he was one of the most acclaimed scientists in Europe. The philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau sent him the message, Tell him I know no man on earth. The German writer Johann Wolfgang von Goethe wrote, With the exception of Shakespeare and Spinoza, Swedish author August Strindberg wrote, Linnaeus was in reality a poet who happened to become a naturalist. Among other compliments, Linnaeus has been called Princeps botanicorum, The Pliny of the North and he is also considered as one of the founders of modern ecology. In botany, the abbreviation used to indicate Linnaeus as the authority for species names is L. In older publications, sometimes the abbreviation Linn. is found, Linnæus was born in the village of Råshult in Småland, Sweden, on 23 May 1707. He was the first child of Nicolaus Ingemarsson and Christina Brodersonia and his siblings were Anna Maria Linnæa, Sofia Juliana Linnæa, Samuel Linnæus, and Emerentia Linnæa. One of a line of peasants and priests, Nils was an amateur botanist, a Lutheran minister. Christina was the daughter of the rector of Stenbrohult, Samuel Brodersonius, a year after Linnæus birth, his grandfather Samuel Brodersonius died, and his father Nils became the rector of Stenbrohult. The family moved into the rectory from the curates house, even in his early years, Linnæus seemed to have a liking for plants, flowers in particular. Whenever he was upset, he was given a flower, which calmed him. Nils spent much time in his garden and often showed flowers to Linnaeus, soon Linnæus was given his own patch of earth where he could grow plants
Carl Linnaeus
–
Carl von Linné,
Alexander Roslin, 1775. Oil painting in the portrait collection at
Gripsholm Castle
Carl Linnaeus
–
The
coat of arms of Carl von Linné.
Carl Linnaeus
–
Birthplace of Linnæus at
Råshult
Carl Linnaeus
–
Statue of Linnaeus as a University student in
Lund
10.
Synonym (taxonomy)
–
For example, Linnaeus was the first to give a scientific name to the Norway spruce, which he called Pinus abies. This name is no longer in use, it is now a synonym of the current scientific name which is Picea abies, unlike synonyms in other contexts, in taxonomy a synonym is not interchangeable with the name of which it is a synonym. In taxonomy, synonyms are not equals, but have a different status, for any taxon with a particular circumscription, position, and rank, only one scientific name is considered to be the correct one at any given time. A synonym cannot exist in isolation, it is always an alternative to a different scientific name, given that the correct name of a taxon depends on the taxonomic viewpoint used a name that is one taxonomists synonym may be another taxonomists correct name. Synonyms may arise whenever the same taxon is described and named more than once, independently. They may also arise when existing taxa are changed, as when two taxa are joined to one, a species is moved to a different genus. To the general user of scientific names, in such as agriculture, horticulture, ecology, general science. A synonym is a name that was used as the correct scientific name but which has been displaced by another scientific name. Thus Oxford Dictionaries Online defines the term as a name which has the same application as another. In handbooks and general texts, it is useful to have mentioned as such after the current scientific name. Synonyms used in this way may not always meet the strict definitions of the synonym in the formal rules of nomenclature which govern scientific names. Changes of scientific name have two causes, they may be taxonomic or nomenclatural, a name change may be caused by changes in the circumscription, position or rank of a taxon, representing a change in taxonomic, scientific insight. A name change may be due to purely nomenclatural reasons, that is, based on the rules of nomenclature, the earliest such name is called the senior synonym, while the later name is the junior synonym. One basic principle of zoological nomenclature is that the earliest correctly published name, synonyms are important because if the earliest name cannot be used, then the next available junior synonym must be used for the taxon. Objective synonyms refer to taxa with the type and same rank. For example, John Edward Gray published the name Antilocapra anteflexa in 1855 for a species of pronghorn, however, it is now commonly accepted that his specimen was an unusual individual of the species Antilocapra americana published by George Ord in 1815. Ords name thus takes precedence, with Antilocapra anteflexa being a subjective synonym. Objective synonyms are common at the level of genera, because for various reasons two genera may contain the type species, these are objective synonyms
Synonym (taxonomy)
–
The
Latin Caudata and
Greek Urodela both mean "tailed" and have been used as a scientific name at the rank of order for the
salamanders (as opposed to the tail-less
frogs). Thus they are synonyms.
Synonym (taxonomy)
–
The common dandelion
Taraxacum officinale sensu lato is an extremely widespread group of
apomictic lineages, and some scientists apply the "biological species concept" to divide it into many distinct species; other scientists regard all the names for those independent species as synonyms.
11.
Florida
–
Florida /ˈflɒrᵻdə/ is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States. It is bordered to the west by the Gulf of Mexico, to the north by Alabama and Georgia, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, Florida is the 22nd-most extensive, the 3rd-most populous, and the 8th-most densely populated of the U. S. states. Jacksonville is the most populous municipality in the state and is the largest city by area in the contiguous United States, the Miami metropolitan area is Floridas most populous urban area. The city of Tallahassee is the state capital, much of the state is at or near sea level and is characterized by sedimentary soil. The climate varies from subtropical in the north to tropical in the south, the American alligator, American crocodile, Florida panther, and manatee can be found in the Everglades National Park. It was a location of the Seminole Wars against the Native Americans. Today, Florida is distinctive for its large Cuban expatriate community and high population growth, the states economy relies mainly on tourism, agriculture, and transportation, which developed in the late 19th century. Florida is also renowned for amusement parks, orange crops, the Kennedy Space Center, Florida has attracted many writers such as Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings, Ernest Hemingway and Tennessee Williams, and continues to attract celebrities and athletes. It is internationally known for golf, tennis, auto racing, by the 16th century, the earliest time for which there is a historical record, major Native American groups included the Apalachee, the Timucua, the Ais, the Tocobaga, the Calusa and the Tequesta. Florida was the first part of the continental United States to be visited and settled by Europeans, the earliest known European explorers came with the Spanish conquistador Juan Ponce de León. Ponce de León spotted and landed on the peninsula on April 2,1513 and he named the region La Florida. The story that he was searching for the Fountain of Youth is a myth, in May 1539, Conquistador Hernando de Soto skirted the coast of Florida, searching for a deep harbor to land. He described seeing a wall of red mangroves spread mile after mile, some reaching as high as 70 feet. Very soon, many smokes appeared along the whole coast, billowing against the sky, the Spanish introduced Christianity, cattle, horses, sheep, the Spanish language, and more to Florida. Both the Spanish and French established settlements in Florida, with varying degrees of success, in 1559, Don Tristán de Luna y Arellano established a settlement at present-day Pensacola, making it the first attempted settlement in Florida, but it was abandoned by 1561. Spain maintained tenuous control over the region by converting the tribes to Christianity. The area of Spanish Florida diminished with the establishment of English settlements to the north, the English attacked St. Augustine, burning the city and its cathedral to the ground several times. Florida attracted numerous Africans and African-Americans from adjacent British colonies who sought freedom from slavery, in 1738, Governor Manuel de Montiano established Fort Gracia Real de Santa Teresa de Mose near St
Florida
–
St. Augustine is the oldest city in the U.S., established in 1565 by Spain.
Florida
–
Flag
Florida
–
Aerial view of
Castillo De San Marcos (Florida).
Florida
–
The five flags of Florida from the right,
Spain (1565–1763), the
Kingdom of Great Britain, Spain (1784–1821), the
Confederacy, and the United States. France (flag not shown) also controlled part of Florida.
12.
The Bahamas
–
The Bahamas, known officially as the Commonwealth of the Bahamas, is an archipelagic state within the Lucayan Archipelago. The capital is Nassau on the island of New Providence, the designation of the Bahamas can refer either to the country or to the larger island chain that it shares with the Turks and Caicos Islands. As stated in the mandate/manifesto of the Royal Bahamas Defence Force, the Bahamas is the site of Columbus first landfall in the New World in 1492. At that time, the islands were inhabited by the Lucayan, although the Spanish never colonised the Bahamas, they shipped the native Lucayans to slavery in Hispaniola. The islands were mostly deserted from 1513 until 1648, when English colonists from Bermuda settled on the island of Eleuthera, the Bahamas became a British Crown colony in 1718, when the British clamped down on piracy. After the American War of Independence, the Crown resettled thousands of American Loyalists in the Bahamas, they brought their slaves with them, Africans constituted the majority of the population from this period. Slavery in the Bahamas was abolished in 1834, Today the descendants of slaves and free Africans make up nearly 90% of the population, issues related to the slavery years are part of society. The Bahamas became an independent Commonwealth realm in 1973, retaining Queen Elizabeth II as its monarch, in terms of gross domestic product per capita, the Bahamas is one of the richest countries in the Americas, with an economy based on tourism and finance. The name Bahamas is derived from either the Taino ba ha ma, alternatively, it may originate from Guanahani, a local name of unclear meaning. In English, the Bahamas is one of two countries whose self-standing short name begins with the word the, along with The Gambia. Taino people moved into the uninhabited southern Bahamas from Hispaniola and Cuba around the 11th century and they came to be known as the Lucayan people. An estimated 30,000 Lucayan inhabited the Bahamas at the time of Christopher Columbus arrival in 1492, Columbuss first landfall in the New World was on an island he named San Salvador. Some researchers believe this site to be present-day San Salvador Island, an alternative theory holds that Columbus landed to the southeast on Samana Cay, according to calculations made in 1986 by National Geographic writer and editor Joseph Judge, based on Columbuss log. Evidence in support of this remains inconclusive, on the landfall island, Columbus made first contact with the Lucayan and exchanged goods with them. The Spanish forced much of the Lucayan population to Hispaniola for use as forced labour, the slaves suffered from harsh conditions and most died from contracting diseases to which they had no immunity, half of the Taino died from smallpox alone. The population of the Bahamas was severely diminished, in 1648, the Eleutherian Adventurers, led by William Sayle, migrated from Bermuda. These English Puritans established the first permanent European settlement on an island which they named Eleuthera—the name derives from the Greek word for freedom and they later settled New Providence, naming it Sayles Island after one of their leaders. To survive, the settlers salvaged goods from wrecks, in 1670 King Charles II granted the islands to the Lords Proprietors of the Carolinas in North America
The Bahamas
–
A depiction of Columbus' first landing, claiming possession of the
New World for Spain in
caravels; the
Niña and the
Pinta, on Watling Island, an island of The Bahamas that the natives called
Guanahani and that he named San Salvador, on October 12, 1492.
The Bahamas
–
Flag
The Bahamas
–
Sign at
Bill Baggs Cape Florida State Park commemorating hundreds of
African-American slaves who escaped to freedom in the early 1820s in the Bahamas.
The Bahamas
–
Edward VIII, the
Duke of Windsor and
Governor of the Bahamas from 1940 to 1945.
13.
Introduced species
–
Non-native species can have various effects on the local ecosystem. Introduced species that become established and spread beyond the place of introduction are called invasive species, some have a negative effect on a local ecosystem. Some introduced species may have no effect or only minor impact. Some species have been introduced intentionally to combat pests and they are called biocontrols and may be regarded as beneficial as an alternative to pesticides in agriculture for example. In some instances the potential for being beneficial or detrimental in the long run remains unknown, a list of some introduced species is given in a separate article. The effects of introduced species on natural environments have gained much scrutiny from scientists, governments, the terminology associated with introduced species is now in flux for various reasons. The term invasive refers only to those species that become established, for practical purposes, this term is applied only to invasive species that cause damage. With respect to plants, these latter are in this case defined as either ornamental or cultivated plants, also called an exotic or non-native species. Such species might be termed naturalized, established, wild non-native species, if they further spread beyond the place of introduction they are called invasive. The transition from introduction, to establishment and to invasion has been described in the context of plants, introduced species are essentially non-native species. Invasive species are introduced species that spreadwidely or quickly and cause harm, be that to the environment, human health. There have been calls from scientists to consider a species only in terms of their spread. According to a definition, an invasive species is one that has been introduced and become a pest in its new location. The term is used to both a sense of urgency and actual or potential harm. Executive Order 13112 defines invasive species as a species whose introduction does or is likely to cause economic or environmental harm or harm to human health. The biological definition of species, on the other hand, makes no reference to the harm they may cause. From a regulatory perspective, it is neither desirable nor practical to list as undesirable or outright ban all non-native species, regulations require a definitional distinction between non-natives that are deemed especially onerous and all others. Introduced pest species that are listed as invasive, best fit the definition of an invasive species
Introduced species
–
Sweet clover (Melilotus sp.), introduced and
naturalized to the U.S. from Eurasia as a forage and cover crop.
Introduced species
–
Male Lophura nycthemera (
silver pheasant), a native of East Asia that has been introduced into parts of
Europe for ornamental reasons.
Introduced species
–
General
Introduced species
–
Population ecology
14.
Spain
–
By population, Spain is the sixth largest in Europe and the fifth in the European Union. Spains capital and largest city is Madrid, other urban areas include Barcelona, Valencia, Seville, Bilbao. Modern humans first arrived in the Iberian Peninsula around 35,000 years ago, in the Middle Ages, the area was conquered by Germanic tribes and later by the Moors. Spain is a democracy organised in the form of a government under a constitutional monarchy. It is a power and a major developed country with the worlds fourteenth largest economy by nominal GDP. Jesús Luis Cunchillos argues that the root of the span is the Phoenician word spy. Therefore, i-spn-ya would mean the land where metals are forged, two 15th-century Spanish Jewish scholars, Don Isaac Abravanel and Solomon ibn Verga, gave an explanation now considered folkloric. Both men wrote in two different published works that the first Jews to reach Spain were brought by ship by Phiros who was confederate with the king of Babylon when he laid siege to Jerusalem. This man was a Grecian by birth, but who had given a kingdom in Spain. He became related by marriage to Espan, the nephew of king Heracles, Heracles later renounced his throne in preference for his native Greece, leaving his kingdom to his nephew, Espan, from whom the country of España took its name. Based upon their testimonies, this eponym would have already been in use in Spain by c.350 BCE, Iberia enters written records as a land populated largely by the Iberians, Basques and Celts. Early on its coastal areas were settled by Phoenicians who founded Western Europe´s most ancient cities Cadiz, Phoenician influence expanded as much of the Peninsula was eventually incorporated into the Carthaginian Empire, becoming a major theater of the Punic Wars against the expanding Roman Empire. After an arduous conquest, the peninsula came fully under Roman Rule, during the early Middle Ages it came under Germanic rule but later, much of it was conquered by Moorish invaders from North Africa. In a process took centuries, the small Christian kingdoms in the north gradually regained control of the peninsula. The last Moorish kingdom fell in the same year Columbus reached the Americas, a global empire began which saw Spain become the strongest kingdom in Europe, the leading world power for a century and a half, and the largest overseas empire for three centuries. Continued wars and other problems led to a diminished status. The Napoleonic invasions of Spain led to chaos, triggering independence movements that tore apart most of the empire, eventually democracy was peacefully restored in the form of a parliamentary constitutional monarchy. Spain joined the European Union, experiencing a renaissance and steady economic growth
Spain
–
Lady of Elche
Spain
–
Flag
Spain
–
Altamira Cave paintings, in
Cantabria.
Spain
–
Celtic castro in
A Guarda,
Galicia.
15.
Moors
–
Moors are not a distinct or self-defined people, and mainstream scholars observed in 1911 that The term Moors has no real ethnological value. Medieval and early modern Europeans variously applied the name to Arabs, Berber North Africans and Muslim Europeans. The term has also used in Europe in a broader, somewhat derogatory sense to refer to Muslims in general, especially those of Arab or Berber descent. During the colonial era, the Portuguese introduced the names Ceylon Moors and Indian Moors in Sri Lanka, in 711, troops mostly formed by Moors from North Africa led the Umayyad conquest of Hispania. The Iberian peninsula then came to be known in classical Arabic as Al-Andalus, in 827, the Moors occupied Mazara on Sicily, developing it as a port. They eventually consolidated the rest of the island and some of southern Italy, in 1224 the Muslims were expelled from Sicily to the settlement of Lucera, which was destroyed by European Christians in 1300. The fall of Granada in 1492 marked the end of Muslim rule in Iberia, the Berber tribes of the region were noted in Classical literature as Mauri, which was subsequently rendered as Moors in English and in related variations in other European languages. Mauri is recorded as the name by Strabo in the early 1st century. This appellation was also adopted into Latin, whereas the Greek name for the tribe was Maurusii, in medieval Romance languages, variations of the Latin word for the Moors developed different applications and connotations. During the context of the Crusades and the Reconquista, the term Moors included the suggestion of infidels. Apart from these associations and context, Moor and Moorish designate a specific ethnic group speaking Hassaniya Arabic. They inhabit Mauritania and parts of Algeria, Western Sahara, Tunisia, Morocco, Niger, in Niger and Mali, these peoples are also known as the Azawagh Arabs, after the Azawagh region of the Sahara. Some authors have pointed out that in modern colloquial Spanish use of the term moro is derogatory for Moroccans in particular, however, this designation has gained more acceptance in the south. In the Philippines, a former Spanish colony, many modern Filipinos call the large, local Muslim minority concentrated in Mindanao, the word is a catch-all term, as Moro may come from several distinct ethno-linguistic groups such as the Maranao people. The term was introduced by Spanish colonisers, and has since been appropriated by Filipino Muslims as an endonym, moreno can mean dark-skinned in Spain, Portugal, Brazil, and the Philippines. Also in Spanish, morapio is a name for wine, especially that which has not been baptized or mixed with water. Among Spanish speakers, moro came to have a broader meaning, Moro refers to all things dark, as in Moor, moreno, etc. It was also used as a nickname, for instance, the Milanese Duke Ludovico Sforza was called Il Moro because of his dark complexion, in Portugal, mouro may refer to supernatural beings known as enchanted moura, where moor implies alien and non-Christian
Moors
–
Depiction of Moors in
Iberia. Taken from the
Tale of Bayad and Riyad
Moors
–
Depiction of three Moorish knights found on
Alhambra 's Ladies Tower
Moors
–
Castillian ambassadors attempting to convince Moorish Almohad king
Abu Hafs Umar al-Murtada to join their alliance (contemporary depiction from The Cantigas de Santa María)
Moors
–
Reconstruction of costumes of Moorish
nobility from a German book published in 1880
16.
Pomelo
–
The pomelo is one of the four original citrus species from which the rest of cultivated citrus hybridized. Citrus maxima was originally called shaddock in English, after the captain of an East India Company ship who introduced it to Jamaica in 1696, the word pomelo has become the more common name, although pomelo has historically been used for grapefruit. The etymology of the pomelo is complex. In the Tamil languageit is called pampa limāsu, which means big citrus, the name was adopted by the Portuguese as pomposos limões and then by the Dutch as pompelmoes. The name can be found some deviations in many European languages, for example German, Latvian, Ido. This fruit is called by shedock by English authors from the name of a British captain. However, another proposed that pomelo is an alteration of a compound of English names pome + melon. Citrus maxima is native to Southeast Asia where it is known under a variety of names. In large parts of South East Asia, it is a dessert, often eaten raw sprinkled with, or dipped in. It is also eaten in salads and drinks and it is called in Maithili- टाभ नेबो that makes special अर्घ in छठ पूजा. The fruit is pale green to yellow when ripe, with sweet white flesh. It is a citrus fruit, 15–25 centimetres in diameter. The fruit tastes like a sweet, mild grapefruit, though the typical pomelo is much larger than the grapefruit, and also has a much thicker rind. It has none, or very little, of the common grapefruits bitterness, but the enveloping membranous material around the segments is bitter, considered inedible, the peel is sometimes used to make marmalade, can be candied, and is sometimes dipped in chocolate. In Brazil, the skin is often used for making a sweet conserve. In Sri Lanka, it is eaten as a dessert. Occasionally some Asian fat-heavy dishes use sliced pre-soaked pith to absorb the sauce, citrus maxima is usually grafted onto other citrus rootstocks but can be grown from seed, provided the seeds are not allowed to dry out before planting. The fruit is said to have introduced to Japan by a Cantonese captain in the Anei era
Pomelo
–
Pomelo
Pomelo
–
Flesh of a pomelo
Pomelo
–
Flowering and fruiting branch with numbered fruit segment and flower section. Chromolithograph by P. Depannemaeker, c. 1885, after B. Hoola van Nooten
Pomelo
–
Closeup of pomelo
petiole
17.
Mandarin orange
–
The mandarin orange, also known as the mandarin or mandarine, is a small citrus tree with fruit resembling other oranges. Mandarins are usually plain or in fruit salads. Specifically reddish-orange mandarin cultivars can be marketed as tangerines, but this is not a botanical classification, mandarins are smaller and oblate, rather than spherical like the common oranges. The taste is considered less sour, as well as sweeter and stronger, a ripe mandarin is firm to slightly soft, heavy for its size, and pebbly-skinned. The peel is very thin, with very little white mesocarp, so they are usually easier to peel. Hybrids generally have these traits to a lesser degree, the tree is more drought-tolerant than the fruit. The mandarin is tender and is damaged easily by cold and it can be grown in tropical and subtropical areas. The name mandarin orange is a calque of Swedish mandarin apelsin, the form mandarine derives from the French name for this fruit. The reason for the epithet mandarin is not clear, hypotheses ranging from the colour of some robes worn by mandarin dignitaries to the mandarin being an excellent kind of Chinese orange. Mandarins are generally peeled and eaten fresh, the fresh fruit is also used in salads, desserts and main dishes. Fresh tangerine juice and frozen juice concentrate are commonly available in the United States, the number of seeds in each segment varies greatly. The peel is used fresh, whole or zested, or dried as chenpi and it can be used as a spice for cooking, baking, drinks, or candy. Canned mandarin segments are peeled to remove the white pith prior to canning, otherwise, segments are peeled using a chemical process. First, the segments are scalded in hot water to loosen the skin, then they are bathed in a lye solution, finally, the segments undergo several rinses in plain water. They are often used in salads, desserts, and baking, in traditional Chinese medicine, the dried peel of the fruit is used in the regulation of chi, and also used to treat abdominal distension, to enhance digestion, and to reduce phlegm. Mandarins have also used in ayurveda. During Chinese New Year, mandarin oranges/tangerine/satsumas are considered symbols of abundance. During the two-week celebration, they are displayed as decoration and presented as gifts to friends, relatives
Mandarin orange
–
Mandarin orange
Mandarin orange
–
Thin, pebbly skin
Mandarin orange
–
Dried mandarin
peel used as a seasoning
Mandarin orange
–
Chocolate -coated
citrus peel.
18.
Essential oil
–
Not to be confused with Essential fatty acid An essential oil is a concentrated hydrophobic liquid containing volatile aroma compounds from plants. Essential oils are known as volatile oils, ethereal oils, aetherolea, or simply as the oil of the plant from which they were extracted. An oil is essential in the sense that it contains the essence of the plants fragrance—the characteristic fragrance of the plant from which it is derived, Essential oils are generally extracted by distillation, often by using steam. Other processes include expression, solvent extraction, absolute oil extraction, resin tapping and they are used in perfumes, cosmetics, soaps and other products, for flavoring food and drink, and for adding scents to incense and household cleaning products. Essential oils have been used throughout history. The earliest recorded mention of the techniques and methods used to produce essential oils is believed to be that of Ibn al-Baitar, rather than refer to essential oils themselves, modern works typically discuss specific chemical compounds of which the essential oils are composed. For example, methyl salicylate rather than oil of wintergreen, interest in essential oils has revived in recent decades with the popularity of aromatherapy, a branch of alternative medicine that uses essential oils and other aromatic compounds. Oils are volatilized, diluted in an oil and used in massage, diffused in the air by a nebulizer, heated over a candle flame. Claims for the efficacy of treatments, and treatment of cancers in particular, are now subject to regulation in most countries. Most common essential oils such as lavender, peppermint, tea oil, patchouli. Raw plant material, consisting of the flowers, leaves, wood, bark, roots, seeds, as the water is heated, the steam passes through the plant material, vaporizing the volatile compounds. The vapors flow through a coil, where they condense back to liquid, most oils are distilled in a single process. One exception is ylang-ylang which is purifed through a fractional distillation, the recondensed water is referred to as a hydrosol, hydrolat, herbal distillate, or plant water essence, which may be sold as another fragrant product. Popular hydrosols include rose water, lavender water, lemon balm, clary sage, the use of herbal distillates in cosmetics is increasing. Some plant hydrosols have unpleasant smells and are not sold. Most citrus peel oils are expressed mechanically or cold-pressed, due to the relatively large quantities of oil in citrus peel and low cost to grow and harvest the raw materials, citrus-fruit oils are cheaper than most other essential oils. Lemon or sweet orange oils are obtained as byproducts of the citrus industry, before the discovery of distillation, all essential oils were extracted by pressing. Most flowers contain too little oil to undergo expression, but their chemical components are too delicate
Essential oil
–
Sandalwood oil
19.
Perfume
–
Perfume is a mixture of fragrant essential oils or aroma compounds, fixatives and solvents - used to give the human body, animals, food, objects, and living-spaces a pleasant scent. Ancient texts and archaeological excavations show the use of perfumes in some of the earliest human civilizations, the word perfume derives from the Latin perfumare, meaning to smoke through. Perfumery, as the art of making perfumes, began in ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt, the worlds first-recorded chemist is considered a woman named Tapputi, a perfume maker mentioned in a cuneiform tablet from the 2nd millennium BC in Mesopotamia. She distilled flowers, oil, and calamus with other aromatics, then filtered, in India, perfume and perfumery existed in the Indus civilization. One of the earliest distillations of Ittar was mentioned in the Hindu Ayurvedic text Charaka Samhita and Sushruta Samhita, in 2004 –2005, archaeologists uncovered what are believed to be the worlds oldest surviving perfumes in Pyrgos, Cyprus. The perfumes date back more than 4,000 years and they were discovered in an ancient perfumery, a 4, 000-square-meter factory housing at least 60 stills, mixing bowls, funnels, and perfume bottles. In ancient times people used herbs and spices, such as almond, coriander, myrtle, conifer resin, the book also described 107 methods and recipes for perfume-making and perfume-making equipment, such as the alembic. The Persian chemist Ibn Sina introduced the process of extracting oils from flowers by means of distillation and he first experimented with the rose. Until his discovery, liquid perfumes consisted of mixtures of oil and crushed herbs or petals, rose water was more delicate, and immediately became popular. Both the raw ingredients and the technology significantly influenced western perfumery and scientific developments. The art of perfumery was known in western Europe from 1221, taking account the monks recipes of Santa Maria delle Vigne or Santa Maria Novella of Florence. In the east, the Hungarians produced in 1370 a perfume made of scented oils blended in an alcohol solution – best known as Hungary Water – at the behest of Queen Elizabeth of Hungary. The art of perfumery prospered in Renaissance Italy, and in the 16th century the personal perfumer to Catherine de Medici, Rene the Florentine and his laboratory was connected with her apartments by a secret passageway, so that no formulae could be stolen en route. Thanks to Rene, France quickly became one of the European centers of perfume, cultivation of flowers for their perfume essence, which had begun in the 14th century, grew into a major industry in the south of France. Between the 16th and 17th centuries, perfumes were used primarily by the wealthy to mask body odors resulting from infrequent bathing, partly due to this patronage, the perfume industry developed. In 1693, Italian barber Giovanni Paolo Feminis created a perfume water called Aqua Admirabilis, today best known as eau de cologne, by the 18th century the Grasse region of France, Sicily, and Calabria were growing aromatic plants to provide the growing perfume industry with raw materials. Even today, Italy and France remain the center of European perfume design, Perfume types reflect the concentration of aromatic compounds in a solvent, which in fine fragrance is typically ethanol or a mix of water and ethanol. Various sources differ considerably in the definitions of perfume types, the intensity and longevity of a perfume is based on the concentration, intensity and longevity of the aromatic compounds, or perfume oils, used
Perfume
–
"The perfume of this winter -
Vogue “;
poster by Jupp Wiertz, 1926/27
Perfume
–
Perfume Bottles
Perfume
–
Egyptian scene depicting the preparation of Lily perfume, 4th century BC
Perfume
–
Etruscan perfume vase shaped like a female head, 2nd century BC
20.
Marmalade
–
Marmalade generally refers to a fruit preserve made from the juice and peel of citrus fruits boiled with sugar and water. It can be produced from kumquats, lemons, limes, grapefruits, mandarins, sweet oranges, bergamots, the peel imparts a lively bitter taste to the marmalade. The term marmalade is not precise, universal, nor definitive, however, it also may be distinguished from jam by the choice of fruit. Historically, the term was often used in senses other than just citrus conserves. The Romans learned from the Greeks that quinces slowly cooked with honey would set when cool, Greek μελίμηλον transformed into Portuguese marmelo— from the Greek μῆλον stood for all globular fruits, and most quinces are too astringent to be used without honey. A Roman cookbook attributed to Apicius gives a recipe for preserving whole quinces, stems and leaves attached, in a bath of honey diluted with defrutum—Roman marmalade. Medieval quince preserves, which went by the French name cotignac, produced in a clear version, in the 17th century, La Varenne provided recipes for both thick and clear cotignac. In 1524, Henry VIII received a box of marmalade from Mr Hull of Exeter, as it was in a box, this was probably marmelada, a solid quince paste from Portugal, still made and sold in southern Europe. The Scots are credited with developing marmalade as a spread, with Scottish recipes in the 18th century using more water to produce a less solid preserve. The first printed recipe for orange marmalade, though without the chunks typically used now, was in Mary Kettilbys 1714 cookery book, A Collection of above Three Hundred Receipts. Kettilby called for whole oranges, lemon juice and sugar, with the acid in the lemon juice helping to create the set of marmalade, by boiling the lemon. Kettilby then directs, boil the whole pretty fast till it will jelly – the first known use of the word jelly in marmalade making, kettilby then instructs that the mixture is then poured into glasses, covered and left until set. The Scots moved marmalade to the breakfast table, and in the 19th century the English followed the Scottish example, marmalades place in British life appears in literature. James Boswell remarks that he and Samuel Johnson were offered it at breakfast in Scotland in 1773, when American writer Louisa May Alcott visited Britain in the 1800s, she described a choice pot of marmalade and a slice of cold ham as essentials of English table comfort. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, marmalade appeared in the English language in 1480, borrowed from French marmelade which, in turn, came from the Portuguese language marmelada. In Portuguese, according to the root of the word, which is marmelo, quince, marmelada is a made from quinces. Marmelo in turn derives from Latin melimelum, honey apple, which in turn comes from the earlier Greek μελίμηλον, from μέλι, honey + μήλον, apple. There is a story that Mary, Queen of Scots, ate it when she had a headache
Marmalade
–
Homemade English marmalade
Marmalade
–
Antique marmalade cutter, used to cut citrus fruit peel into thin slices
Marmalade
–
Marmalade spread on bread
Marmalade
–
Jars of marmalade
21.
Herbalism
–
Herbalism is the study of botany and use of plants intended for medicinal purposes or for supplementing a diet. Plants have been the basis for medical treatments through much of human history, modern medicine recognizes herbalism as a form of alternative medicine, as the practice of herbalism is not strictly based on evidence gathered using the scientific method. Modern medicine makes use of many plant-derived compounds as the basis for evidence-based pharmaceutical drugs, the scope of herbal medicine is sometimes extended to include fungal and bee products, as well as minerals, shells and certain animal parts. General practices include ancient methods of traditional Chinese medicine and Ayurveda, practitioners of herbalism or phytotherapy are referred to as herbalists or phytotherapists. Products used in herbalism may be called herbal medicines, botanicals, natural products, herbal remedies, herbal supplements. Archaeological evidence indicates that the use of plants dates back to the Paleolithic age. Written evidence of herbal remedies dates back over 5,000 years, to the Sumerians, a number of ancient cultures wrote about plants and their medical uses in books called herbals. In ancient Egypt, herbs are mentioned in Egyptian medical papyri, depicted in tomb illustrations, or on rare occasions found in medical jars containing trace amounts of herbs. Among the oldest, lengthiest, and most important medical papyri of ancient Egypt, the Ebers Papyrus dates from about 1550 BC, the earliest known Greek herbals come from Theophrastus of Eresos who in the 4th c. B. C. wrote in Greek Historia Plantarum, from Diocles of Carystus who wrote during the 3rd century B. C, only a few fragments of these works have survived intact, but from what remains scholars have noted a large amount of overlap with the Egyptian herbals. Seeds likely used for herbalism have been found in sites of Bronze Age China dating from the Shang Dynasty. Over a hundred of the 224 drugs mentioned in the Huangdi Neijing, herbs also commonly featured in the medicine of ancient India, where the principal treatment for diseases was diet. The World Health Organization estimates that 80 percent of the population of some Asian and African countries presently use herbal medicine for some aspect of health care. Pharmaceuticals are prohibitively expensive for most of the population, half of whom lived on less than $2 U. S. per day in 2002. In comparison, herbal medicines can be grown from seed or gathered from nature for little or no cost, many of the pharmaceuticals currently available to physicians have a long history of use as herbal remedies, including opium, aspirin, digitalis, and quinine. According to the World Health Organization, approximately 25% of modern drugs used in the United States have been derived from plants, at least 7,000 medical compounds in the modern pharmacopoeia are derived from plants. In a 2010 global survey of the most common 1000 plant-derived compounds, preclinical studies were reported for about one-half of the plant products, while 12% of the plants, although available in the Western market, had no substantial studies of their properties. Strong evidence was found that 5 were toxic or allergenic, so that their use ought to be discouraged or forbidden, according to Cancer Research UK, there is currently no strong evidence from studies in people that herbal remedies can treat, prevent or cure cancer
Herbalism
–
The bark of the
cinchona tree contains
quinine, which today is a widely prescribed treatment for
malaria, especially in countries that cannot afford to purchase the more expensive anti-malarial drugs produced by the
pharmaceutical industry.
Herbalism
–
Leaves of
Eucalyptus olida being packed into a steam
distillation unit to gather its
essential oil.
Herbalism
–
A herb shop in the
souk of
Marrakesh, Morocco
Herbalism
–
Datura stramonium is a highly effective treatment for asthma symptoms when smoked, because it contains
atropine, which acts as an antispasmodic in the lungs. However, datura is also an extremely powerful
hallucinogen and overdoses of the
tropane alkaloids in it can result in hospitalization or death.
22.
Stimulant
–
Stimulants is an overarching term that covers many drugs including those that increase activity of the body, drugs that are pleasurable and invigorating, or drugs that have sympathomimetic effects. Due to their rendering a characteristic up feeling, stimulants are also referred to as uppers. Depressants or downers, which decrease mental and/or physical function, are in stark contrast to stimulants and are considered to be the functionally opposite drug class, Stimulants are widely used throughout the world as prescription medicines as well as without a prescription as performance-enhancing or recreational drugs. The most frequently prescribed stimulants as of 2013 were lisdexamfetamine, methylphenidate and it is estimated that the percent of the population that has abused amphetamines, cocaine and MDMA combined is between. 8% and 2. 1%. Stimulants in therapeutic doses, such as given to patients with ADHD, increases ability to focus, vigor, sociability, libido. However, in higher doses stimulants may actually decrease the ability to focus, in higher doses stimulants may also produce euphoria, vigor, and decrease need for sleep. Many, but not all, stimulants have ergogenic effects, Drugs such as ephedrine, pseudoephedrine, amphetamine and methylphenidate have well documented ergogenic effects, while drugs such as cocaine and methamphetamine have the opposite effect. In some cases psychiatric phenomenon may emerge such as stimulant psychosis, paranoia, acute toxicity has been reportedly associated with a homicide, paranoia, aggressive behavior, motor dysfunction, and punding. The violent and aggressive behavior associated with acute stimulant toxicity may partially be driven by paranoia, most drugs classified as stimulants are sympathomimetics, that is they stimulate the sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system. This leads to such as mydriasis, increased heart rate, blood pressure, respiratory rate. When these changes become pathological, they are called arrhythmia, hypertension, and hyperthermia, however given the complexity of the mechanisms that underly these potentially fatal outcomes of acute stimulant toxicity, it is impossible to determine what dose may be lethal. Assessment of the effects of stimulants is relevant given the large population currently taking stimulants. A systematic review of cardiovascular effects of prescription stimulants found no association in children, a review over a four-year period found that there were few negative effects of stimulant treatment, but stressed the need for longer term studies. A review of a long period of prescription stimulate use in those with ADHD found that cardiovascular side effects were limited to transient increases in blood pressure only. Initiation of stimulant treatment in those with ADHD in early childhood appears to carry benefits into adulthood with regard to social and cognitive functioning, Abuse of prescription stimulants or of illicit stimulants carries many negative health risks. Abuse of cocaine, depending upon route of administration, increases risk of disease, stroke. Cocaine may also increase risk for disease, as well as damage nasal cartilage. Abuse of methamphetamine produces similar effects as well as marked degeneration of dopaminergic neurons, Drugs used to treat sleep disorders such as excessive daytime sleepiness are called eugeroics, and include notable stimulants such as modafinil
Stimulant
–
Ritalin sustained-release (SR) 20 mg tablets
Stimulant
–
Roasted coffee beans, a common source of caffeine.
Stimulant
–
Illicit tablets containing MDMA
Stimulant
–
Catha edulis
23.
Synephrine
–
This article will focus, insofar as possible, on synephrine itself, rather than on the drug mixtures containing it. P-Synephrine and m-synephrine are known for their longer acting adrenergic effects compared to norepinephrine and this substance is present at very low concentrations in common foodstuffs such as orange juice and other orange products, both of the sweet and bitter variety. The preparations used in Traditional Chinese Medicine, also known as Zhi Shi, are the immature, extracts of the same material or purified synephrine are also marketed in the US, sometimes in combination with caffeine, as a weight-loss-promoting dietary supplement for oral consumption. While the traditional preparations have been in use for millennia as a component of TCM-formulas, mixtures containing synephrine as only one of their chemical components should not be assumed to produce exactly the same biological effects as synephrine alone. In physical appearance, synephrine is a colorless, crystalline solid and is water-soluble and its molecular structure is based on a phenethylamine skeleton, and is related to those of many other drugs, and to the major neurotransmitters epinephrine and norepinephrine. A survey of the distribution of synephrine amongst the plants was published in 1970 by Wheaton. It has subsequently been detected in Evodia and Zanthoxylum species, all plants of the family Rutaceae, trace levels of synephrine have also been detected in the dried leaves of Pogostemon cablin. It is also found in certain species of the genera Coryphantha. However, this compound is found predominantly in a number of Citrus species, including bitter, synephrine has been found in marmalade made from Citrus unshiu obtained in Japan, at a concentration of ~0.12 mg/g. Most of the orange marmalades made in the US are produced using sweet oranges, whereas bitter or Seville oranges are used for making the more traditional, no synephrine was detected in, Rio Red grapefruit, Red-fleshed pummelo, or Wekiwa tangelo. Numerous additional comparable analyses of the content of Citrus fruits and products derived from them may be found in the research literature. Low levels of synephrine have been found in human urine. A recent study of synephrine in human blood platelets by DAndrea, earlier, the same research group had reported a normal human blood plasma level of synephrine of 0. 90–13.69 ng/mL. Unshiu, and low levels have been reported in fresh fruit from C. aurantium, there are indications that some d-synephrine may be formed by the racemization of l-synephrine as a result of the processing of fresh fruit, although this matter has not been completely clarified. Some dietary supplements, sold for the purposes of promoting weight-loss or providing energy, usually, the synephrine is present as a natural component of Citrus aurantium, bound up in the plant matrix, but could also be of synthetic origin, or a purified phytochemical. The concentration range found by Santana and co-workers in five different supplements purchased in the US was about 5–14 mg/g, as a synthetic drug, synephrine first appeared in Europe in the late 1920s, under the name of Sympatol. One of the earliest papers describing its pharmacological and toxicological properties was written by Lasch, by 1930, Sympatol was referred to as a Boehringer product, while one of the first US Patents describing its preparation and use was assigned to Frederick Stearns & Co. in 1933. Despite the date of patent, clinical and pharmacological research on synephrine obtained from Frederick Stearns & Co was being carried out in the US by 1930
Synephrine
–
Synephrine
24.
Dietary supplement
–
A dietary supplement is intended to provide nutrients that may otherwise not be consumed in sufficient quantities. Supplements as generally understood include vitamins, minerals, fiber, fatty acids, or amino acids, U. S. authorities define dietary supplements as foods, while elsewhere they may be classified as drugs or other products. There are more than 50,000 dietary supplements available, more than half of the U. S. adult population consume dietary supplements with most common ones being multivitamins. These products are not intended to prevent or treat any disease and in some circumstances are dangerous, for those who fail to consume a balanced diet, the agency says that certain supplements may have value. Most supplements should be avoided, and usually people should not eat micronutrients except people with clearly shown deficiency and those people should first consult a doctor. An exception is vitamin D, which is recommended in Nordic countries due to weak sunlight, the product is labeled as a dietary supplement. In the United States, the FDA has different monitoring procedures for substances depending on whether they are presented as drugs, food additives, food, or dietary supplements. Dietary supplements are eaten or taken by mouth, and are regulated in United States law as a type of rather than a type of drug. The intended use of dietary supplements is to ensure that a person gets enough essential nutrients, Dietary supplements should not be used to treat any disease or as preventive healthcare. An exception to this recommendation is the use of vitamins. Supplements may create harm in several ways, including over-consumption, particularly of minerals, the products may also cause harm related to their rapid absorption in a short period of time, quality issues such as contamination, or by adverse interactions with other foods and medications. There are many types of dietary supplements, Vitamin is an organic compound required by an organism as a vital nutrient in limited amounts. An organic chemical compound is called a vitamin when it cannot be synthesized in sufficient quantities by an organism, thus, the term is conditional both on the circumstances and on the particular organism. For example, ascorbic acid is a vitamin for humans, supplementation is important for the treatment of certain health problems but there is little evidence of benefit when used by those who are otherwise healthy. Amino acids are biologically important organic compounds composed of amine and carboxylic acid functional groups, the key elements of an amino acid are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, though other elements are found in the side-chains of certain amino acids. Amino acids can be divided into three categories, essential amino acids, non-essential amino acids, and conditional amino acids, essential amino acids cannot be made by the body, and must be supplied by food. Non-essential amino acids are made by the body from essential amino acids or in the breakdown of proteins. Conditional amino acids are not essential, except in times of illness, stress
Dietary supplement
–
Dietary supplements being mixed into food for pigs.
Dietary supplement
Dietary supplement
–
Some products make extraordinary claims and contain active ingredients which may not have been
proven effective.
25.
Citrus taxonomy
–
Cultivated citrus are derived from various forms of old citrus species found in the wild. Some are only selections of the wild types, while others are hybrids between two or more ancestors. Citrus plants hybridize easily between species with different morphologies, and similar-looking citrus fruits may have quite different ancestries. Most hybrids express different ancestral traits when planted from seeds and can continue a stable lineage only through vegetative propagation, others do reproduce true to type via nucellar seeds in a process called apomixis. Many different-looking varieties are nearly identical, and differ only by a bud mutation. Some differ only in disease resistance, clear genetic lineages are very important for breeding improved cultivars. Interbreeding seems possible between all citrus plants, and between plants and some plants which may or may not be categorized as citrus. The ability of citrus hybrids to self-pollinate and to reproduce sexually also helps create new varieties, the four core ancestral citrus taxa are citron, pummelo, mandarine, and papeda. These taxa all interbreed freely, despite being genetically distinct. They probably arose through allopatric speciation, with citrons evolving in northern Indochina, pummelos in the Malay Archipelago, and mandarines in Vietnam, southern China, the hybrids of these four taxa include familiar citrus fruits like oranges, grapefruit, lemons, limes, and some tangerines. In many cases, these crops are propagated asexually, and lose their characteristic traits if bred, however, some of these hybrids have interbred with one another and with the original taxa, making the citrus family tree a complicated network. There are also groups that interbreed with the four core taxa, the trifoliate orange and kumquats do not naturally interbreed with the four undisputed citrus taxa due to different flowering times, but hybrids exist. Humans have deliberately bred new citrus fruits by propagating wild-found seedlings, creating or selecting mutations of hybrids, genetic analysis is starting to make sense of this complex phylogeny. Two citrus fruits have had their genomes sequenced. Many different phylogenies for the non-hybrid citrus have been proposed, because citrus taxonomy is still understudied, there are many systems of classification that very often contradict each other. There are two main systems, that of Tanaka and that of Swingle, however, many citrus types were identified and named by individual taxonomists. The basis of the Tanaka system is to provide a name for each cultivar. The Swingle system works differently, in that it first divides the genus Citrus into species, secondly divides it further into varieties, the Swingle system is generally followed today with much modification, however, there are still huge differences in nomenclature between countries and even individual scientists
Citrus taxonomy
–
Various citrus types in cross section. Some of them are
somatic hybrids between two or more original species. The investigation of this matter and the
botanical classification of the species, varieties and cultivars belonging to the genus citrus, is called "citrus taxonomy".
Citrus taxonomy
–
The
Lumia
Citrus taxonomy
–
The
Limetta
Citrus taxonomy
–
The
common oranges as well as the
grapefruits are
somatic hybrids between the
mandarin and the
pummelo.
26.
Thorns, spines, and prickles
–
Leaf margins may also have teeth, and if those teeth are sharp, they are called spinose teeth on a spinose leaf margin. On a leaf apex, if there is a process, and if it is especially sharp, stiff. When the leaf epidermis is covered very long, stiff trichomes, it may be referred to as a hispid vestiture, if the trichomes are stinging trichomes. There can be found also spines or spinose structures derived from roots, the predominant function of thorns, spines and prickles is deterring herbivory in a mechanical form. For this reason they are classified as physical or mechanical defenses, not all functions of spines or glochids are limited to defense from physical attacks by herbivores and other animals. In some cases, spines have been shown to shade or insulate the plants that grow them, for example, saguaro cactus spines shade the apical meristem in summer, and in members of the Opuntioideae, glochids insulate the apical meristem in winter. Agrawal et al. found that seem to have little effect on specialist pollinators. Thorns are modified branches or stems and they may be simple or branched. Spines are modified leaves, stipules, or parts of leaves, some authors prefer not to distinguish spines from thorns because, like thorns, and unlike prickles, they commonly contain vascular tissue. The plants of the family are particularly well known for their dense covering of spines. Cacti often have a kind of spine called a glochidium or glochid. Prickles are comparable to hairs but can be quite coarse and they are extensions of the cortex and epidermis. Technically speaking, many plants commonly thought of as having thorns or spines actually have prickles, other similar structures are spinose teeth, spinose apical processes, and trichomes. Trichomes are often effective defenses against small insect herbivores, thorns, spines, spinescent is a term describing plants that bear any sharp structures that deter herbivory. It also can refer to the state of tending to be or become spiny in some sense or degree, there are also spines derived from roots, like the ones on the trunk of the Root Spine Palms. The trunk roots of Cryosophila guagara grow downwards to a length of 6–12 cm, then stop growing, the anatomy of crown roots on this species also alters during their life. They initially grow upwards and then turn down and finally they, too, lateral roots on these two types of roots, as well as those on the stilt roots on this species, also become spinous. Some authors believe that some of these short spiny laterals have a ventilating function so they are pneumorhizae, short spiny laterals that may have a ventilating funcion may also be found on roots of Iriartea exorrhiza
Thorns, spines, and prickles
–
(A) Thorn or spine (B) Prickle
Thorns, spines, and prickles
–
Smooth, featureless
Citrus thorn.
Thorns, spines, and prickles
–
Gymnosporia buxifolia thorn, its leaves, nodes, and emergence from an axillary bud demonstrating its nature as a branch.
Thorns, spines, and prickles
–
Carissa bispinosa showing characteristic branched thorns.
27.
Evergreen
–
In botany, an evergreen is a plant that has leaves throughout the year, always green. This contrasts with deciduous plants, which lose their foliage during the winter or dry season. There are many different kinds of plants, both trees and shrubs. Deciduous trees shed their leaves, usually as an adaptation to a cold or dry/wet season, evergreen trees do lose leaves, but each tree loses its leaves gradually and not all at once. Most warm temperate climate plants are also evergreen, in cool temperate climates, fewer plants are evergreen, with a predominance of conifers, as few evergreen broadleaf plants can tolerate severe cold below about −30 °C. In areas where there is a reason for being deciduous, being evergreen is usually an adaptation to low nutrient levels, deciduous trees lose nutrients whenever they lose their leaves. In warmer areas, species such as pines and cypresses grow on poor soils. In Rhododendron, a genus with many broadleaf evergreens, several species grow in forests but are usually found on highly acidic soil where the nutrients are less available to plants. In taiga or boreal forests, it is too cold for the matter in the soil to decay rapidly, so the nutrients in the soil are less easily available to plants. These conditions favour the growth of more evergreens and make it difficult for deciduous plants to persist. In addition, the shelter provided by existing evergreen plants can make it easier for younger evergreen plants to survive cold and/or drought
Evergreen
–
A
Silver Fir shoot showing three successive years of retained leaves.
Evergreen
–
A
Southern Live Oak in winter.
28.
Vietnam
–
Vietnam, officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, is the easternmost country on the Indochina Peninsula in Southeast Asia. With an estimated 92.7 million inhabitants as of 2016, it is the worlds 14th-most-populous country, and its capital city has been Hanoi since the reunification of North and South Vietnam in 1976, with Ho Chi Minh City as a historical city as well. The northern part of Vietnam was part of Imperial China for over a millennium, an independent Vietnamese state was formed in 939, following a Vietnamese victory in the Battle of Bạch Đằng River. Following a Japanese occupation in the 1940s, the Vietnamese fought French rule in the First Indochina War, thereafter, Vietnam was divided politically into two rival states, North Vietnam, and South Vietnam. Conflict between the two sides intensified in what is known as the Vietnam War, the war ended with a North Vietnamese victory in 1975. Vietnam was then unified under a communist government but remained impoverished, in 1986, the government initiated a series of economic and political reforms which began Vietnams path towards integration into the world economy. By 2000, it had established relations with all nations. Since 2000, Vietnams economic growth rate has been among the highest in the world and its successful economic reforms resulted in its joining the World Trade Organization in 2007. It is also a member of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation and the Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie, Vietnam remains one of the worlds four remaining one-party socialist states officially espousing communism. The name Việt Nam is a variation of Nam Việt, a name that can be traced back to the Triệu Dynasty of the 2nd century BC. The word Việt originated as a form of Bách Việt. The form Vietnam is first recorded in the 16th-century oracular poem Sấm Trạng Trình, the name has also been found on 12 steles carved in the 16th and 17th centuries, including one at Bao Lam Pagoda in Haiphong that dates to 1558. Then, as recorded, rewarded Yuenan/Vietnam as their nations name, to also show that they are below the region of Baiyue/Bach Viet. Between 1804 and 1813, the name was used officially by Emperor Gia Long and it was revived in the early 20th century by Phan Bội Châus History of the Loss of Vietnam, and later by the Vietnamese Nationalist Party. The country was usually called Annam until 1945, when both the government in Huế and the Viet Minh government in Hanoi adopted Việt Nam. Archaeological excavations have revealed the existence of humans in what is now Vietnam as early as the Paleolithic age, Homo erectus fossils dating to around 500,000 BC have been found in caves in Lạng Sơn and Nghệ An provinces in northern Vietnam. The oldest Homo sapiens fossils from mainland Southeast Asia are of Middle Pleistocene provenance, teeth attributed to Homo sapiens from the Late Pleistocene have also been found at Dong Can, and from the Early Holocene at Mai Da Dieu, Lang Gao and Lang Cuom. The Hồng Bàng dynasty of the Hùng kings is considered the first Vietnamese state, in 257 BC, the last Hùng king was defeated by Thục Phán, who consolidated the Lạc Việt and Âu Việt tribes to form the Âu Lạc, proclaiming himself An Dương Vương
Vietnam
–
A
Đông Sơn bronze drum, c.800 BC.
Vietnam
–
Flag
Vietnam
–
The
Imperial City in
Huế.
Vietnam
–
French Indochina in 1913.
. PMID 22991491. doi:10.7150/ijms.4446.
Data related to Citrus aurantium at Wikispecies
