1.
Copenhagen
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Copenhagen, Danish, København, Latin, Hafnia) is the capital and most populous city of Denmark. Copenhagen has an population of 1,280,371. The Copenhagen metropolitan area has just over 2 million inhabitants, the city is situated on the eastern coast of the island of Zealand, another small portion of the city is located on Amager, and is separated from Malmö, Sweden, by the strait of Øresund. The Øresund Bridge connects the two cities by rail and road, originally a Viking fishing village founded in the 10th century, Copenhagen became the capital of Denmark in the early 15th century. Beginning in the 17th century it consolidated its position as a centre of power with its institutions, defences. After suffering from the effects of plague and fire in the 18th century and this included construction of the prestigious district of Frederiksstaden and founding of such cultural institutions as the Royal Theatre and the Royal Academy of Fine Arts. Later, following the Second World War, the Finger Plan fostered the development of housing, since the turn of the 21st century, Copenhagen has seen strong urban and cultural development, facilitated by investment in its institutions and infrastructure. The city is the cultural, economic and governmental centre of Denmark, Copenhagens economy has seen rapid developments in the service sector, especially through initiatives in information technology, pharmaceuticals and clean technology. Since the completion of the Øresund Bridge, Copenhagen has become integrated with the Swedish province of Scania and its largest city, Malmö. With a number of connecting the various districts, the cityscape is characterized by parks, promenades. Copenhagen is home to the University of Copenhagen, the Technical University of Denmark, the University of Copenhagen, founded in 1479, is the oldest university in Denmark. Copenhagen is home to the FC København and Brøndby football clubs, the annual Copenhagen Marathon was established in 1980. Copenhagen is one of the most bicycle-friendly cities in the world, the Copenhagen Metro serves central Copenhagen while the Copenhagen S-train network connects central Copenhagen to its outlying boroughs. Serving roughly 2 million passengers a month, Copenhagen Airport, Kastrup, is the largest airport in the Nordic countries, the name of the city reflects its origin as a harbour and a place of commerce. The original designation, from which the contemporary Danish name derives, was Køpmannæhafn, meaning merchants harbour, the literal English translation would be Chapmans haven. The English name for the city was adapted from its Low German name, the abbreviations Kbh. or Kbhvn are often used in Danish for København, and kbh. for københavnsk. The chemical element hafnium is named for Copenhagen, where it was discovered, the bacterium Hafnia is also named after Copenhagen, Vagn Møller of the State Serum Institute in Copenhagen named it in 1954. Excavations in Pilestræde have also led to the discovery of a well from the late 12th century, the remains of an ancient church, with graves dating to the 11th century, have been unearthed near where Strøget meets Rådhuspladsen
2.
Danish art
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Danish art is the visual arts produced in Denmark or by Danish artists. It goes back thousands of years with significant artifacts from the 2nd millennium BC, for many early periods, it is usually considered as part of the wider Nordic art of Scandinavia. Art from what is today Denmark forms part of the art of the Nordic Bronze Age, Danish medieval painting is almost entirely known from church frescos such as those from the 16th-century artist known as the Elmelunde Master. The Reformation greatly disrupted Danish artistic traditions, and left the body of painters and sculptors without large markets. Thereafter for an extended period art in Denmark was either imported from Germany, from the late 18th century on, the situation changed radically and beginning with the Danish Golden Age, a distinct tradition of Danish art has continued to flourish until today. Due to generous art subsidies, contemporary Danish art has a big production per capita, lurs are a distinctive type of giant curving Bronze Age horn, of which 35 of the 53 known examples have been found in bogs in Denmark, very often in pairs. They are normally made of bronze, and often decorated, a possibly alien find in Denmark is the Gundestrup cauldron, a richly decorated silver vessel, thought to date to the 1st century BC. It was found in 1891 in a bog near the hamlet of Gundestrup in north-eastern Jutland. The silversmithing of the plates is very skilled, the bowl,70 cm across, was beaten from a single ingot. Now in the National Museum of Denmark, it is the largest known example of European silver work from the period, the style and workmanship suggest Thracian origin, while the imagery seems Celtic, so it may not reflect local styles. Danish sites have given their names to two of the six main styles of Viking or Norse art, Jelling style and its successor Mammen style, only one Danish ship burial is known, from Ladbyskibet. The images on the runestones at Jelling are probably the best known Danish works of the period, church wall paintings are to be found in some 600 churches across Denmark, probably representing the highest concentration of surviving church murals anywhere in the world. Most of them back to the Middle Ages. They lay hidden for centuries as after the Reformation in Denmark, of most interest to Danish art are the Gothic paintings from the 15th and 16th centuries as they were painted in a style typical of native Danish painters. Adopting the Biblia pauperum approach, they present many of the most popular stories from the Old, albrecht Dürers portrait of her father Christian II of Denmark, painted in Brussels in 1521, has not survived, though portraits of him by other foreign artists have. After a period of development its pupils were indeed to lead the creation of a distinct Danish style, leading Danish artists teaching at the Academy included Christian August Lorentzen and Jens Juel, also later Director. Among his works are the series of statues of Christ. Motifs for his works were mostly from Greek mythology, but he also created portraits of important personalities, as in his tomb monument for Pope Pius VII in St Peters Basilica
3.
Denmark
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The term Danish Realm refers to the relationship between Denmark proper, the Faroe Islands and Greenland—three countries constituting the Kingdom of Denmark. The legal nature of the Kingdom of Denmark is fundamentally one of a sovereign state. The Faroe Islands and Greenland have been part of the Crown of Denmark since 1397 when the Kalmar Union was ratified, legal matters in The Danish Realm are subject to the Danish Constitution. Beginning in 1953, state law issues within The Danish Realm has been governed by The Unity of the Realm, a less formal name for The Unity of the Realm is the Commonwealth of the Realm. In 1978, The Unity of The Realm was for the first time referred to as rigsfællesskabet. The name caught on and since the 1990s, both The Unity of The Realm and The Danish Realm itself has increasingly been referred to as simply rigsfællesskabet in daily parlance. The Danish Constitution stipulates that the foreign and security interests for all parts of the Danish Realm are the responsibility of the Danish government, the Faroes received home rule in 1948 and Greenland did so in 1979. In 2005, the Faroes received a self-government arrangement, and in 2009 Greenland received self rule, the Danish Realms unique state of internal affairs is acted out in the principle of The Unity of the Realm. This principle is derived from Article 1 of the Danish Constitution which specifies that constitutional law applies equally to all areas of the Danish Realm, the Constitutional Act specifies that sovereignty is to continue to be exclusively with the authorities of the Realm. The language of Denmark is Danish, and the Danish state authorities are based in Denmark, the Kingdom of Denmarks parliament, with its 179 members, is located in the capital, Copenhagen. Two of the members are elected in each of Greenland and the Faroe Islands. The Government ministries are located in Copenhagen, as is the highest court, in principle, the Danish Realm constitutes a unified sovereign state, with equal status between its constituent parts. Devolution differs from federalism in that the powers of the subnational authority ultimately reside in central government. The Self-Government Arrangements devolves political competence and responsibility from the Danish political authorities to the Faroese, the Faroese and Greenlandic authorities administer the tasks taken over from the state, enact legislation in these specific fields and have the economic responsibility for solving these tasks. The Danish government provides a grant to the Faroese and the Greenlandic authorities to cover the costs of these devolved areas. The 1948 Home Rule Act of the Faroe Islands sets out the terms of Faroese home rule, the Act states. the Faroe Islands shall constitute a self-governing community within the State of Denmark. It establishes the government of the Faroe Islands and the Faroese parliament. The Faroe Islands were previously administered as a Danish county, the Home Rule Act abolished the post of Amtmand and these powers were expanded in a 2005 Act, which named the Faroese home government as an equal partner with the Danish government
4.
Margrethe II of Denmark
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Margrethe II is the Queen of Denmark. She is also the authority of the Church of Denmark. Born into the House of Glücksburg, a house with origins in Northern Germany, she was the eldest child of Frederick IX of Denmark. She succeeded her father upon his death on 14 January 1972, having had become heir presumptive to her father in 1953, on her accession, Margrethe became the first female monarch of Denmark since Margaret I, ruler of the Scandinavian countries in 1375–1412 during the Kalmar Union. Having been on the Danish throne for 45 years, she is the second longest-reigning Danish monarch after her ancestor Christian IV, in 1967, she married Henri de Laborde de Monpezat, with whom she has two sons, Crown Prince Frederik and Prince Joachim. Princess Margrethe was born 16 April 1940 at Amalienborg Palace in Copenhagen as the first child of Crown Prince Frederick, later King Frederick IX and Crown Princess Ingrid and her birth took place just one week after Nazi Germanys invasion of Denmark on 9 April 1940. She was baptised on 14 May in the Church of Holmen in Copenhagen, since her paternal grandfather was also the King of Iceland, she was given an Icelandic name, Þórhildur. When Margrethe was four years old, in 1944, her first sister, Princess Benedikte later married Prince Richard of Sayn-Wittgenstein-Berleburg and lives some of the time in Germany. Her second sister Princess Anne Marie was born in 1946, anne-Marie later married Constantine II of Greece and now lives in Greece. Margrethe and her sisters grew up in apartments at Frederick VIIIs Palace at Amalienborg in Copenhagen and she spent summer holidays with the royal family in her parents summer residence at Gråsten Palace in Southern Jutland. On 20 April 1947, King Christian X died and Margrethes father ascended the throne as King Frederick IX. At the time of her birth, only males could ascend the throne of Denmark, as she had no brothers, it was assumed that her uncle Prince Knud would one day assume the throne. The process of changing the constitution started in 1947, not long after her father ascended the throne, the popularity of Frederick and his daughters and the more prominent role of women in Danish life started the complicated process of altering the constitution. The law required that the proposal be passed by two successive Parliaments and then by a referendum, which occurred 27 March 1953, Princess Margrethe therefore became heir presumptive. On her eighteenth birthday,16 April 1958, Margrethe was given a seat in the Council of State and she subsequently chaired the meetings of the Council in the absence of the King. Margrethe was educated at the private school N. Zahles School in Copenhagen from which she graduated in 1959 and she is a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of London. Queen Margrethe is fluent in Danish, French, English, Swedish and German, Princess Margrethe married a French diplomat, Count Henri de Laborde de Monpezat,10 June 1967, at the Church of Holmen in Copenhagen. Laborde de Monpezat received the style and title of His Royal Highness Prince Henrik of Denmark because of his new position as the spouse of the heir presumptive to the Danish throne, Margrethe gave birth to her first child 26 May 1968
5.
Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts
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The Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts has provided education in the arts for more than 250 years, playing its part in the development of the art of Denmark. The Royal Danish Academy of Portraiture, Sculpture, and Architecture in Copenhagen was inaugurated on 31 March 1754 and its name was changed to the Royal Danish Academy of Painting, Sculpture, and Architecture in 1771. The building boom resulting from the Great Fire of 1795 greatly profited from this initiative, in 1814 the name was changed again, this time to the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts. It is still situated in its building, the Charlottenborg Palace. The School of Architecture has been situated in former naval buildings on Holmen since 1996, the academy is larger and better funded than the Jutland Art Academy and Funen Art Academy, which offer similar programs. It teaches and conducts research on the subjects of painting, sculpting, architecture, graphics, photography, the academy is under the administration of the Danish Ministry of Culture. The academy’s School of Architecture offers education in the fields of design and restoration, urban and landscape planning and industrial, graphic. The school has nine departments, four research institutes and six affiliated research centres. The undergraduate course, leading to the Bachelor of Architecture diploma, in 2011, the Wall Street Journal named Ingels the Innovator of the Year for architecture. Hansen Medal Thorvaldsen Medal Eckersberg Medal Thorvald Bindesbøll Medal N. L. Høyen Medal The School of Visual Arts C. C
6.
Per Kirkeby
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Per Kirkeby is a Danish painter, poet, film maker and sculptor. Per Kirkeby is a Danish artist, kirkeby’s interest in geology and nature in general still plays a crucial role in his artistic expressions, these themes being therefore very characteristic in the works of the artist. Kirkeby has been teaching as a professor at the Art Academy in Karlsruhe and this marriage has proven extremely important for the continuation of his art and her research. Per Kirkeby currently lives and works in Hellerup, Læsø, Frankfurt am Main,2016 Kirkeby på Læsø - om Læsø i Per Kirkebys kunst, Læsø Kunsthal, Østerby 2015 Per Kirkeby komplet. Ohne Beweis, Niels Borch Jensen Galerie und Verlag, Berlin 2004 Per Kirkeby LA Louver Gallery, Venice, CA2004 Per Kirkeby, retrospektive der Zeichnungen und Aquarelle, Sinclair-Haus, Bad Homburg v. d. H. Monotypes, University Art Gallery, University Massachusetts Dartmouth, North Dartmouth 2002 DC,122 x 122 - Gemälde auf Masonit, Museum Ludwig, Cologne 2001 Per Kirkeby. Monotypien, Masonite, Bronzen, Deutsche Bank Luxembourg, Luxemburg 2000 Per Kirkeby, die Karlsruher Jahre, im Hallenbau A, Städtische Galerie Karlsruhe, Karlsruhe 2000 Per Kirkeby. Radierungen, Holzschnitte, Monotypien • 1980-2000, Niels Borch Jensen Galerie und Verlag, peintures 1992 -1996, Maison des Arts Georges Pompidou, Centre dart contemporain, Cajarc-Lot, France 1991 Per Kirkeby. Kaere Aby Warburg in MozArt - edited by Bruno Corà, Perugia, 3Arte - Ali&no editrice, n.12012, 28-39 - ISBN 978-88-6254-092-62003 Tøjner, Poul Erik, Per Kirkeby. Köln, König,20032003 Per Kirkeby, höhe, ALTANA,20031999 Per Kirkeby. Kopenhagen, Borgens,19971994 Per Kirkeby, großformatige Zeichnungen 1977-1994, Portikus, Frankfurt a. M. Münster, Kleinheinrich,19941990 Per Kirkeby, Gemälde, Arbeiten auf Papier, Skulpturen 1977-90, Frankfurt a. M. Städelsches Kunstinstitut,19901989 Per Kirkeby, pinturas, esculturas, grabados y escritos, Valencia, IVAM, Centre del Carme,19891984 Per Kirkeby. Übermalungen 1964-1984, München, Kunstraum,19841979 Hunov, John, oeuvrekatalog 1958-1977 over raderinger, linoleumssnit, træsnit, Kopenhagen, Borgens,19791977 Per Kirkeby
7.
Joseph Beuys
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Joseph Beuys was a German Fluxus, happening, and performance artist as well as a sculptor, installation artist, graphic artist, art theorist, and pedagogue. His career was characterized by passionate and only rarely acrimonious open public debates on a wide range of subjects including political, environmental, social. He is widely regarded as one of the most influential artists of the half of the 20th century. Joseph Beuys was born in Krefeld, the son of the merchant Josef Jakob Beuys, the parents had moved from Geldern to Krefeld in 1910, and Beuys was born there on 12 May 1921. In autumn of that year the family moved to Kleve, a town in the Lower Rhine region of Germany. There, Joseph attended primary school and secondary school and his teachers considered him to have a talent for drawing, he also took piano and cello lessons. On several occasions he visited the studio of the Flemish painter, other interests of note include Nordic history and mythology and especially the natural sciences. Beuys 1936 membership in the Hitler Youth is documented, the organization comprised a majority of German children and adolescents at that time. He participated in the Nuremberg rally in September 1936, when he was 15 years old, around 1939 he worked for a circus on the side, postering and taking care of animals for about a year. He graduated from school in the spring of 1941 with his Abitur, in 1941, Beuys volunteered for the Luftwaffe. It is also during this time that he began to consider a career as an artist. In 1942, Beuys was stationed in the Crimea and was a member of various combat bomber units, from 1943 on he was deployed as rear-gunner in the Ju 87 Stuka dive-bomber, initially stationed in Königgrätz, later in the eastern Adriatic region. Drawings and sketches from that time have been preserved and already show his characteristic style, on 16 March 1944, Beuyss plane crashed on the Crimean Front close to Znamianka. They were the nomads of the Crimea, in what was no mans land between the Russian and German fronts, and favoured neither side. I had already struck up a relationship with them. ‘Du nix njemcky’ they would say, ‘du Tartar, ’ and their nomadic ways attracted me of course, although by that time their movements had been restricted. Yet, it was they who discovered me in the snow after the crash, I was still unconscious then and only came round completely after twelve days or so, and by then I was back in a German field hospital. So the memories I have of that time are images that penetrated my consciousness, the last thing I remember was that it was too late to jump, too late for the parachutes to open
8.
Copenhagen Stock Exchange
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Nasdaq Copenhagen is one of the Nasdaq Nordic Exchanges. Nasdaq Nordic goes back to the 2003 merger of OM AB and HEX plc to form OMX and is, since February 2008, part of Nasdaq, Inc. The exchange was converted to a company in 1996 with share capital issued in a ratio of 60-20-20 to members, issuers of shares. In 1997 the FUTOP Clearing Center A/S, the Danish derivatives market, FUTOP issues, clears, and guarantees futures and options on shares, indices, and interest rate products. FUTOP products can be traded electronically, in 1998, the CSE and the Stockholmsbörsen formed the NOREX Alliance, a step toward developing a Nordic securities market. Normal trading sessions are from 09, 00am to 05, 00pm on all days of the week except Saturdays, Sundays and holidays declared by the exchange in advance. The C20 Index, a weighted, market value index comprising 20 Danish blue chips, launched for futures, the KFX Index comprises growth companies in the medical, telecommunications, biotechnology, and information technology sectors on the exchanges KVX Growth Market. The KAX Index is the exchanges all-share index, introduced in 2001 to replace the previous all-share index and it conforms to the Global Industry Classification Standard developed by Morgan Stanley Dean Witter and Standard & Poors
9.
Zealand
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Zealand is the largest and most populated island in Denmark with a population of 2,267,659. It is the 96th-largest island in the world by area and the 35th most populous and it is connected to Funen by the Great Belt Fixed Link, to Lolland, Falster by the Storstrøm Bridge and the Farø Bridges. Zealand is also linked to Amager by five bridges, Zealand is linked indirectly, through intervening islands by a series of bridges and tunnels, to southern Sweden. Copenhagen, the capital of Denmark, is located partly on the shore of Zealand. Other cities on Zealand include Roskilde, Hillerød, Næstved and Helsingør, the island is not connected historically to the Pacific nation of New Zealand, which is named after the Dutch province of Zeeland. In Norse mythology as told in the story of Gylfaginning, the island was created by the goddess Gefjun after she tricked Gylfi and she removed a piece of land and transported it to Denmark, which became Zealand. The vacant area was filled with water and became Mälaren, however, since modern maps show a similarity between Zealand and the Swedish lake Vänern, it is sometimes identified as the hole left by Gefjun. Zealand is the most populous Danish island and it is irregularly shaped, and is north of the islands of Lolland, Falster, and Møn. The small island of Amager lies immediately east, Copenhagen is mostly on Zealand but extends across northern Amager. A number of bridges and the Copenhagen Metro connect Zealand to Amager, Zealand is joined in the west to Funen, by the Great Belt Fixed Link, and Funen is connected by bridges to the countrys mainland, Jutland. Gyldenløveshøj, south of the city Roskilde, has a height of 126 metres, Zealand gives its name to the Selandian era of the Paleocene. Urban areas with 10, 000+ inhabitants, North Zealand Media related to Zealand at Wikimedia Commons Zealand travel guide from Wikivoyage
10.
Vietnam War
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It was the second of the Indochina Wars and was officially fought between North Vietnam and the government of South Vietnam. The war is considered a Cold War-era proxy war. As the war continued, the actions of the Viet Cong decreased as the role. U. S. and South Vietnamese forces relied on air superiority and overwhelming firepower to conduct search and destroy operations, involving ground forces, artillery, in the course of the war, the U. S. conducted a large-scale strategic bombing campaign against North Vietnam. The North Vietnamese government and the Viet Cong were fighting to reunify Vietnam and they viewed the conflict as a colonial war and a continuation of the First Indochina War against forces from France and later on the United States. The U. S. government viewed its involvement in the war as a way to prevent a communist takeover of South Vietnam and this was part the domino theory of a wider containment policy, with the stated aim of stopping the spread of communism. Beginning in 1950, American military advisors arrived in what was then French Indochina, U. S. involvement escalated in the early 1960s, with troop levels tripling in 1961 and again in 1962. Regular U. S. combat units were deployed beginning in 1965, despite the Paris Peace Accord, which was signed by all parties in January 1973, the fighting continued. In the U. S. and the Western world, a large anti-Vietnam War movement developed as part of a larger counterculture, the war changed the dynamics between the Eastern and Western Blocs, and altered North–South relations. Direct U. S. military involvement ended on 15 August 1973, the capture of Saigon by the North Vietnamese Army in April 1975 marked the end of the war, and North and South Vietnam were reunified the following year. The war exacted a huge human cost in terms of fatalities, estimates of the number of Vietnamese soldiers and civilians killed vary from 966,000 to 3.8 million. Some 240, 000–300,000 Cambodians,20, 000–62,000 Laotians, and 58,220 U. S. service members died in the conflict. Various names have applied to the conflict. Vietnam War is the most commonly used name in English and it has also been called the Second Indochina War and the Vietnam Conflict. As there have been several conflicts in Indochina, this conflict is known by the names of its primary protagonists to distinguish it from others. In Vietnamese, the war is known as Kháng chiến chống Mỹ. It is also called Chiến tranh Việt Nam, France began its conquest of Indochina in the late 1850s, and completed pacification by 1893. The 1884 Treaty of Huế formed the basis for French colonial rule in Vietnam for the seven decades
11.
Biafra
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Biafra, officially the Republic of Biafra, was a secessionist state in eastern Nigeria that existed from 30 May 1967 to January 1970. It took its name from the Bight of Biafra, the Atlantic bay to its south, the inhabitants were mostly the Igbo people who led the secession due to economic, ethnic, cultural and religious tensions among the various peoples of Nigeria. Other ethnic groups that constituted the republic were the Efik, Ibibio, Annang, Ejagham, Eket, Ibeno, the secession of the Biafran region was the primary cause of the Nigerian Civil War, also known as the Biafran War. The state was formally recognised by Gabon, Haiti, Ivory Coast, other nations which did not give official recognition, but provided support and assistance to Biafra included Israel, France, Spain, Portugal, Norway, Rhodesia, South Africa and the Vatican City. Biafra also received aid from non-state actors, including Joint Church Aid, Holy Ghost Fathers of Ireland, Caritas International, MarkPress, in 1960, Nigeria became independent of the United Kingdom. As with many other new African states, the borders of the country did not reflect earlier ethnic boundaries, thus, the northern region of the country is made up of Muslim majority, while the southern population is predominantly Christian. Following independence, Nigeria was divided primarily along ethnic lines with Hausa and Fulani majority in the north, Yoruba and Igbo majority in the south-west and south-east respectively. In January 1966, a coup occurred during which 30 political leaders including Nigerias Prime Minister, Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa. It was alleged to be an Igbo coup because Nnamdi Azikiwe, the President, of Igbo extraction, in July 1966 northern officers and army units staged a counter-coup. Muslim officers named a General from an ethnic group in central Nigeria, General Yakubu Jack Gowon. The two coups deepened Nigerias ethnic tensions, in September 1966, approximately 30,000 Igbo were killed in the north, and some Northerners were killed in backlashes in eastern cities. Biafra as a territory existed long before the amalgamation and independence of Nigeria as a republic, Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu in pursuit of a more agreeable arrangement for peaceful co-existence of all regions in Nigeria proposed for a confederated Nigeria. In January 1967, the leaders and senior police officials of each region met in Aburi, Ghana. After the federal and eastern governments failed to reconcile, on 26 May the Eastern region voted to secede from Nigeria, on 30 May, Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu, the South Eastern Regions military governor, announced the Republic of Biafra, citing the Easterners killed in the post-coup violence. The large amount of oil in the region created conflict, as oil was already becoming a component of the Nigerian economy. The Eastern region was very ill-equipped for war, out-manned and out-gunned by the military of the remainder of Nigeria and their advantages included fighting in their homeland and support of most South Easterners. The FMG launched police measures to annex the Eastern Region on 6 July 1967, the FMGs initial efforts were unsuccessful, the Biafrans successfully launched their own offensive, occupying areas in the mid-Western Region in August 1967. By October 1967, the FMG had regained the land after intense fighting, in September 1968, the federal army planned what Gowon described as the final offensive
12.
Happening
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A happening is a performance, event, or situation meant to be considered art, usually as performance art. The term was first used by Allan Kaprow during the 1950s to describe a range of art-related event or multiple events, Happenings occur anywhere and are often multi-disciplinary, with a nonlinear narrative and the active participation of the audience. Key elements of happenings are planned but artists sometimes retain room for improvisation and this new media art aspect to happenings eliminates the boundary between the artwork and its viewer. Allan Kaprow first coined the term happening in the spring of 1957 at an art picnic at George Segals farm to describe the art pieces that were going on. The first appearance in print was in Kaprows famous Legacy of Jackson Pollock essay that was published in 1958, Happening also appeared in print in one issue of the Rutgers University undergraduate literary magazine, Anthologist. The form was imitated and the term was adopted by artists across the U. S. Germany, and Japan. Jack Kerouac referred to Kaprow as The Happenings man, and an ad showing a woman floating in outer space declared, Happenings are difficult to describe, in part because each one is unique and completely different from one another. Another definition is, a purposefully composed form of theatre in which diverse alogical elements, Kaprow was a student of John Cage, who had experimented with musical happenings at Black Mountain College as early as 1952. Kaprow combined the theatrical and visual arts with discordant music and his happenings incorporated the use of huge constructions or sculptures similar to those suggested by Artaud, wrote Botting, who also compared them to the impermanent art of Dada. A happening explores negative space in the same way Cage explored silence and it is a form of symbolism, actions concerned with now or fantasies derived from life, or organized structures of events appealing to archetypal symbolic associations. A Happening of the performance will have different outcomes because each performance depends on the action of the audience. In New York City especially, Happenings became quite popular even though many had seen nor experienced them. Happenings can be a form of new media art, emphasizing an interaction between the performer and the audience. In his Water, Robert Whitman had the performers drench each other with coloured water, one girl squirmed between wet inner tubes, ultimately struggling through a large silver vulva. The idea was to break down the wall between performer and spectator, with the involvement of the spectator as performer, objective criticism is transformed into subjective support. Later happenings had no set rules, only vague guidelines that the performers follow based on surrounding props, unlike other forms of art, Happenings that allow chance to enter are ever-changing. When chance determines the path the performance will follow, there is no room for failure. As Kaprow wrote in his essay, Happenings in the New York Scene, Visitors to a Happening are now and then not sure what has taken place, for when something goes wrong, something far more right, more revelatory, has many times emerged
13.
Horsens
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Horsens is a Danish city in east Jutland. It is the site of the council of Horsens Municipality, the citys population is 57,517 and the municipalitys population is 87,736. The municipality is also a part of the East Jutland metropolitan area, Horsens is best known for its culture and entertainment events. Horsens New Theatre is a centre which holds over 200 events annually. It has managed to draw major names such as Bob Dylan, Madonna, Horsens lies at the end of Horsens Fjord in eastern Jutland. The city is surrounded by typical moraine landscape with low hills, Horsens is 50 km south of Aarhus and 30 km north of Vejle, and approximately 200 km from Copenhagen. It is believed the name Horsens derives from the old Danish words hors, from the 12th century the name Horsenes is known. The earliest traces of a city are remains of a burial site. In the 12th century, the kings Sweyn III and Valdemar I issued coins in the city, in the 13th century the city got its own legal code. Excavations have shown that the city was expanded around 1300, with a moat going around the city, industrialization started from the middle of the 19th century. The population rose dramatically when people from the moved to the city to work in the factories. The first Danish iron foundry outside of Copenhagen was opened as well as tobacco, the city is currently undergoing a positive development with new industry moving to Horsens, or expanding their activities already in Horsens. A lot of electronics and graphical companies are based there, Horsens also has the only Industrial Museum in Denmark. The city is home to VIA University College. In recent years, much effort has made to expand. Paul McCartney, Robbie Williams, The Rolling Stones, Dolly Parton, AC/DC, U2 and Snow Patrol have performed, hard Rock/Heavy Metal band Pretty Maids is from Horsens. One of the largest cultural events in Denmark is the annual European Medieval Festival on the last Friday and Saturday in August, the town centre of Horsens is transformed into the largest medieval market town in Northern Europe with activities and entertainment for families and children of all ages. Every March, Horsens hosts a Crime Festival, the Crime Festival - in Danish called Krimimessen - is an event for literary crime, mysteries and thrillers
14.
Hans Tausen
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Hans Tausen was the leading Lutheran theologian of the Danish Reformation in Denmark. He served as Bishop of Ribe and published the first translation of the Pentateuch into Danish in 1535, Hans Tausen was born at Birkende on Funen in Denmark. He was already a good linguist, understanding both Latin and Hebrew, subsequently, he translated the books of Moses from the original. In May 1523 Tausen went to Wittenberg, where he met Martin Luther and studied for a year and a half, when he was recalled to Antvorskov. At first he preached in the church of St John. When the Franciscans refused to him to preach in their large church. A compromise was at last arranged, whereby the friars were to preach in the forenoon, the bishop sent armed men to the church to arrest Tausen, but the burghers, who had brought their weapons with them, drove back the bishops men. Tausen found a fellow-worker and reformer in Jørgen Sadolin, whose sister, Dorothea Jensdatter Sadolin, he married and he was the first Danish priest to take a wife. He was also the first of the reformers who used the Danish languare instead of Latin in the church services, Tausen was certainly the most practically gifted of all the new native teachers. He continued to preach in the church of the Franciscan monastery, while Sadolin, whom he had consecrated a priest, officiated at the church of the Dominicans, the Franciscans only yielded to violence persistently applied by the soldiers whom their opponents quartered upon them. In 1529 Tausens mission at Viborg came to an end, king Frederick now recommended him to Copenhagen to preach at the church of St Nicholas, but here he found an able and intrepid opponent in Bishop Rønne. On the other hand, the failed to obtain the repeal of the Odense recess of 1527 which had subjected them to the spiritual jurisdiction of the prelates. Rønne thereupon, from gratitude, permitted Tausen to preach in all his churches on condition that he moderated his tone, on the final triumph of the Reformation Tausen was appointed Bishop of Ribe, an office he held for twenty years. Hans Tausens Church at Islands Brygge was inaugurated on 30 November 1924, a statue of Hans Tausen is located at the Ribe Cathedral in Viborg. A modern monument in memory of Hans Tausen was put up in 2004, the monument was made by the Danish artist Bjørn Nørgaard. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Tausen
15.
Viborg, Denmark
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Viborg, a city in central Jutland, Denmark, is the capital of both Viborg municipality and Region Midtjylland. Viborg is also the seat of the Western High Court, the High Court for the Jutland peninsula, Viborg Municipality is the second-largest Danish municipality, covering 3. 3% of that countrys total land area. Viborg is one of the oldest cities in Denmark, with Viking settlements dating back to the late 8th century and its central location gave the city great strategic importance, in political and religious matters, during the Middle Ages. A motte-and-bailey-type castle was located in the city. Viborg takes its name from a combination of two Old Norse words, vé, meaning a place, and borg, meaning a fort. Viborg is famous for Viborg Cathedral, the construction of the cathedral started in 1130 and took about 50 years. The building has burned to the ground and been re-built several times, only the crypt of the original cathedral is still preserved. The cathedral was and is the locus of cult of Saint Kjeld of Viborg who was dean of the chapter there and had a great shrine there in the Middle Ages. The newest parts of the church are from 1876, the cathedral is famous for its many paintings by Danish painter Joakim Skovgaard, which depict stories from the Bible. Next to the cathedral is the Skovgaard museum, founded in 1937, before the Protestant Reformation Viborg was the home of five monasteries, about 12 parish churches, several chapels and of course the cathedral. Today only the cathedral and a few remains of the Franciscan, Viborg has over the last decade won a reputation as one of Denmarks leading cities for sports. It started with the womens handball team, which continues to be one of Europes top-5 clubs. Subsequently, both the mens team and most notably the professional football team have established themselves at the top of the Danish leagues. From 1998 to 2008, Viborg FF was a constant member of the Danish Superliga, Viborg is home to a number of educational institutions, including Viborg Katedralskole. Denmarks oldest educational institution celebrated its 900th birthday in 2000, the school is believed to have been founded about 1060 - at the same time as the city became the seat of a bishop. The church needed to educate boys and young men to enter into the churchs service, although this role is now basically obsolete, the dorm continues to be a popular solution for many students wanting to get away from home or for a small number of students from Greenland. Viborg Katedralskole is today one of four gymnasiums in Viborg, Viborg is also home to The Animation Workshop, an art school based in a former army barracks on the outskirts of town. The school, which achieved official recognition from the Danish government in 2003, for international parents Viborg also has an international school where all teaching is in English based on the Cambridge International examinations
16.
Gladsaxe Municipality
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Gladsaxe Kommune is a municipality near Copenhagen in Region Hovedstaden on the island of Zealand in eastern Denmark. The municipality covers an area of 25 km2, and has a population of 66,693. Its mayor is Karin Søjberg Holst, a member of the Social Democrats political party, the site of its municipal council is the town of Buddinge. Other towns in the municipality are Gladsaxe, Bagsværd, and Mørkhøj –, Mørkhøj, Værebro in Bagsværd and Høje-Gladsaxe are larger housing projects and home to many immigrants and being typical for many concrete highrise suburbs in Copenhagen. Picture of Gladsaxe Heights, At Gladsaxe, there is a 206.5 metres tall guyed TV mast and it was the first TV transmission site in Denmark. Since 2014, Gladsaxe been home to Copenhagen gem and mineral show, the show is an annual two-day event that attracts exhibitors from all around the world and an audience of thousands from Denmark and Sweden. Gladsaxe municipality was not merged with other municipalities by 1 January 2007 as the result of nationwide Kommunalreformen, Gladsaxe municipality is home to many company headquarters, including those of Novo Nordisk, Novozymes and Scandinavian Tobacco Group and MT Højgaard
17.
Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum
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It is the permanent home of a continuously expanding collection of Impressionist, Post-Impressionist, early Modern and contemporary art and also features special exhibitions throughout the year. The museum was established by the Solomon R. Guggenheim Foundation in 1939 as the Museum of Non-Objective Painting, under the guidance of its first director and it adopted its current name after the death of its founder, Solomon R. Guggenheim, in 1952. In 1959, the museum moved from rented space to its current building, designed by Frank Lloyd Wright, the cylindrical building, wider at the top than the bottom, was conceived as a temple of the spirit. Its unique ramp gallery extends up from ground level in a long, the building underwent extensive expansion and renovations in 1992 and from 2005 to 2008. The museums collection has grown organically, over eight decades, and is founded several important private collections. The collection is shared with the museums sister museums in Bilbao, Spain, in 2013, nearly 1.2 million people visited the museum, and it hosted the most popular exhibition in New York City. Solomon R. Guggenheim, a member of a mining family, had been collecting works of the old masters since the 1890s. In 1926, he met artist Hilla von Rebay, who introduced him to European avant-garde art, in abstract art that she felt had a spiritual. Guggenheim completely changed his strategy, turning to the work of Wassily Kandinsky. He began to display his collection to the public at his apartment in the Plaza Hotel in New York City, as the collection grew, he established the Solomon R. Guggenheim Foundation, in 1937, to foster the appreciation of modern art. The foundations first venue for the display of art, the Museum of Non-Objective Painting, opened in 1939 under the direction of Rebay, in midtown Manhattan. By the early 1940s, the foundation had accumulated such a collection of avant-garde paintings that the need for a permanent museum building had become apparent. In 1943, Rebay and Guggenheim wrote a letter to Frank Lloyd Wright asking him to design a structure to house, Wright accepted the opportunity to experiment with his organic style in an urban setting. It took him 15 years,700 sketches, and six sets of working drawings to create the museum, in 1948, the collection was greatly expanded through the purchase of art dealer Karl Nierendorfs estate of some 730 objects, notably German expressionist paintings. By that time, the collection included a broad spectrum of expressionist and surrealist works, including paintings by Paul Klee, Oskar Kokoschka. Nevertheless, she left a portion of her collection to the foundation in her will, including works by Kandinsky, Klee, Alexander Calder, Albert Gleizes, Mondrian. The museum was renamed the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum in 1952, Rebay conceived of the space as a temple of the spirit that would facilitate a new way of looking at the modern pieces in the collection. She wrote to Wright that each of these great masterpieces should be organized into space, would test the possibilities to do so
18.
Uncle Sam
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Uncle Sam represents a manifestation of patriotic emotion. The first use of Uncle Sam in formal literature was in the 1816 allegorical book The Adventures of Uncle Sam in Search After His Lost Honor by Frederick Augustus Fidfaddy, Esq. An Uncle Sam is mentioned as early as 1775, in the original Yankee Doodle lyrics of the American Revolutionary War and it is not clear whether this reference is to Uncle Sam as a metaphor for the United States, or to an actual person named Sam. The lyrics as a whole celebrate the efforts of the young nation. The 13th stanza is, The earliest known personification of the United States was Columbia, with the American Revolutionary War came Brother Jonathan as another personification, and Uncle Sam finally appeared after the War of 1812. Here of late Uncle Sam alias Brother Jonathan has been doing a lot of complaining. The term Uncle Sam is reputedly derived from Samuel Wilson, a meat packer from Troy, there was a requirement at the time for contractors to stamp their name and where the rations came from onto the food they were sending. Wilsons packages were labeled E. A – US, when someone asked what that stood for, a coworker joked and said, Elbert Anderson and Uncle Sam, referring to Sam Wilson, though it actually stood for United States. Doubts have been raised as to this being the source of the term, additionally, the earliest reference to the term that has been found is from 1810, predating Wilsons contract with the government. Similarly, the appearance of both personifications varied wildly, more than four million copies of this image were printed between 1917 and 1918. Flaggs image also was used extensively during World War II, during which the U. S. was codenamed Samland by the German intelligence agency Abwehr, the term was central in the song The Yankee Doodle Boy, which was featured in 1942 in the musical Yankee Doodle Dandy. Wilsons boyhood home can still be visited in Mason, New Hampshire and he died on July 31,1854, aged 87, and is buried in Oakwood Cemetery, Troy, New York. In 1989, Uncle Sam Day became official, a Congressional joint resolution designated September 13,1989 as Uncle Sam Day, the birthday of Samuel Wilson. In 2015, the family history company MyHeritage researched Uncle Sams family tree, Uncle Sam billboard Mouraux, Cecile, and Jean-Pierre Mouraux. Who Was Uncle Sam, Illustrated Story of the Life of Our National Symbol, the Straight Dope Civil War Harpers Weekly newspapers
19.
Maya civilization
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The Maya civilization developed in an area that encompasses southeastern Mexico, all of Guatemala and Belize, and the western portions of Honduras and El Salvador. The Archaic period, prior to 2000 BC, saw the first developments in agriculture, the first Maya cities developed around 750 BC, and by 500 BC these cities possessed monumental architecture, including large temples with elaborate stucco façades. Hieroglyphic writing was being used in the Maya region by the 3rd century BC, in the Late Preclassic a number of large cities developed in the Petén Basin, and Kaminaljuyu rose to prominence in the Guatemalan Highlands. Beginning around 250 AD, the Classic period is defined as when the Maya were raising sculpted monuments with Long Count dates. This period saw the Maya civilization develop a number of city-states linked by a complex trade network. In the Maya Lowlands two great rivals, Tikal and Calakmul, became powerful, the Classic period also saw the intrusive intervention of the central Mexican city of Teotihuacan in Maya dynastic politics. In the 9th century, there was a political collapse in the central Maya region, resulting in internecine warfare, the abandonment of cities. The Postclassic period saw the rise of Chichen Itza in the north, in the 16th century, the Spanish Empire colonized the Mesoamerican region, and a lengthy series of campaigns saw the fall of Nojpetén, the last Maya city in 1697. Classic period rule was centred on the concept of the divine king, kingship was patrilineal, and power would normally pass to the eldest son. A prospective king was expected to be a successful war leader. Maya politics was dominated by a system of patronage, although the exact political make-up of a kingdom varied from city-state to city-state. By the Late Classic, the aristocracy had greatly increased, resulting in the reduction in the exclusive power of the divine king. Maya cities tended to expand haphazardly, and the city centre would be occupied by ceremonial and administrative complexes, different parts of a city would often be linked by causeways. The principal architecture of the city consisted of palaces, pyramid-temples, ceremonial ballcourts, the Maya elite were literate, and developed a complex system of hieroglyphic writing that was the most advanced in the pre-Columbian Americas. The Maya recorded their history and ritual knowledge in screenfold books, there are also a great many examples of Maya text found on stelae and ceramics. The Maya developed a complex series of interlocking ritual calendars. As a part of their religion, the Maya practised human sacrifice, the Maya civilization developed within the Mesoamerican cultural area, which covers a region that spreads from northern Mexico southwards into Central America. Mesoamerica was one of six cradles of civilization worldwide, the Mesoamerican area gave rise to a series of cultural developments that included complex societies, agriculture, cities, monumental architecture, writing, and calendrical systems
20.
Henri Matisse
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Henri-Émile-Benoît Matisse was a French artist, known for both his use of colour and his fluid and original draughtsmanship. He was a draughtsman, printmaker, and sculptor, but is primarily as a painter. Although he was labelled a Fauve, by the 1920s he was increasingly hailed as an upholder of the classical tradition in French painting. His mastery of the language of colour and drawing, displayed in a body of work spanning over a half-century. Matisse was born in Le Cateau-Cambrésis, in the Nord department in northern France and he grew up in Bohain-en-Vermandois, Picardie, France. In 1887 he went to Paris to study law, working as an administrator in Le Cateau-Cambrésis after gaining his qualification. He first started to paint in 1889, after his mother brought him art supplies during a period of following an attack of appendicitis. He discovered a kind of paradise as he described it. In 1891 he returned to Paris to study art at the Académie Julian and became a student of William-Adolphe Bouguereau, initially he painted still lifes and landscapes in a traditional style, at which he achieved reasonable proficiency. Chardin was one of the painters Matisse most admired, as an art student he made copies of four of Chardins paintings in the Louvre, in 1896 and 1897, Matisse visited the Australian painter John Peter Russell on the island Belle Île off the coast of Brittany. Russell introduced him to Impressionism and to the work of van Gogh and he later said Russell was my teacher, and Russell explained colour theory to me. In 1896 Matisse exhibited five paintings in the salon of the Société Nationale des Beaux-Arts, with the model Caroline Joblau, he had a daughter, Marguerite, born in 1894. In 1898 he married Amélie Noellie Parayre, the two raised Marguerite together and had two sons, Jean and Pierre, Marguerite and Amélie often served as models for Matisse. In 1898, on the advice of Camille Pissarro, he went to London to study the paintings of J. M. W. Turner and then went on a trip to Corsica. Upon his return to Paris in February 1899, he worked beside Albert Marquet and met André Derain, Jean Puy, Matisse immersed himself in the work of others and went into debt from buying work from painters he admired. The work he hung and displayed in his home included a plaster bust by Rodin, a painting by Gauguin, a drawing by van Gogh, in Cézannes sense of pictorial structure and colour, Matisse found his main inspiration. Many of Matisses paintings from 1898 to 1901 make use of a Divisionist technique he adopted after reading Paul Signacs essay and his paintings of 1902–03, a period of material hardship for the artist, are comparatively somber and reveal a preoccupation with form. Having made his first attempt at sculpture, a copy after Antoine-Louis Barye, in 1899, he devoted much of his energy to working in clay, fauvism as a style began around 1900 and continued beyond 1910
21.
National Gallery of Denmark
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National Gallery of Denmark is the Danish national gallery located in the centre of Copenhagen. The museum collects, registers, maintains, researches and handles Danish, the major part of the museums older collections comes from the art chambers of Danish kings. The display of European Art 1300–1800 is a collection of art over the 500-year period, featuring works by Mantegna, Cranach, Titian, Rubens. The art is spread over thirteen rooms, and is the oldest art collection in Denmark, with a emphasis on Danish, Dutch, Flemish, Italian, French, Spanish. Danish and Nordic Art 1750-1900 charts Scandinavian art from the beginnings of Danish painting through the ‘Golden Age’ to the birth of Modernism and it displays over 400 works through 24 galleries. It features work by Abildgaard, Eckersberg, Købke, Ring, SMK gained its modern French art collection in 1928 when it was donated by the late collector Johannes Rump. This collection features some of the museum’s most famous pieces from artists such as Matisse, Picasso, Derain and Braque. The collection was first offered to the SMK by Rump in 1923, housed in the museum’s 1993 extension, this 20th and 21st century collection is predominantly focused on the most important examples of modern Danish art. A long corridor of paintings looking onto Østre Anlæg park works as an overview of the work from this period. The beginnings of this collection were made around the time of Christian II, in his diary from 1521 the German painter Albrecht Dürer says he has given the King the best pieces of all my prints. In 1843 the various works, which had so far been the private collection, were displayed to the public. It was then moved into the Statens Museum for Kunst when the first building was completed in 1896, along with The Royal Collection of Paintings, although the papers contain a great number of foreign works, Danish art constitutes the main part of the collection. This collection is open to the public through the Print Room, the Royal Cast Collection is held at the West India Warehouse, Toldbodgade 40, between The Little Mermaid and Nyhavn in Copenhagen. It consists of over 2,000 naked plaster casts of statues and reliefs from collections, museums, temples, churches, the Royal Cast Collection is only open for special events. At the start of the Second World War the art of antiquity became increasingly unfashionable, associated with an archaic artistic tradition. In 1966, as abstract art became popular, the Royal Cast Collection was removed to a barn outside Copenhagen for storage. The collections of the Danish National Gallery originate in the Art Chamber of the Danish monarchs, when the German Gerhard Morell became Keeper of Frederick Vs Art Chamber about 1750, he suggested that the king create a separate collection of paintings. To ensure that the collection was not inferior to those of other European royal houses and local counts, the collection became particularly well provided with Flemish and Dutch art
22.
Jutland
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Jutland, also known as the Cimbric or Cimbrian Peninsula, is a peninsula of Northern Europe that forms the continental portion of Denmark and the northern portion of Germany. The names are derived from the Jutes and the Cimbri, respectively, jutlands terrain is relatively flat, with open lands, heaths, plains and peat bogs in the west and a more elevated and slightly hilly terrain in the east. Jutland is a peninsula bounded by the North Sea to the west, the Skagerrak to the north, geographically and historically, Jutland comprises the regions of South Jutland, West Jutland, East Jutland and North Jutland. There are several subdivisions and regional names, some of which are still occasionally encountered today. They include Nørrejyllland, Sydvestjylland, Nordvestjylland and Slesvig, historically, Jutland was regulated by the Law Code of Jutland. This civic code covered the Jutland Peninsula from the north of the River Eider to Funen as well as the North Jutlandic Island. The Danish part of Jutland is currently divided into three regions, North Denmark Region, Central Denmark Region and Region of Southern Denmark. These three regions have an area of 29,775 km2, a population of 2,599,104. The northernmost part of Jutland is separated from the mainland by the Limfjord and this area is called the North Jutlandic Island, Vendsyssel-Thy or simply Jutland north of the Limfjord, it is only partly co-terminous with the North Jutland region. Inhabitants of Als would agree to be South Jutlanders, but not necessarily Jutlanders, the Danish Wadden Sea Islands and the German North Frisian Islands stretch along the southwest coast of Jutland in the German Bight. Jutland has historically been one of the three lands of Denmark, the two being Scania and Zealand. Before that, according to Ptolemy, Jutland or the Cimbric Chersonese was the home of Teutons, Cimbri, many Angles, Saxons and Jutes migrated from Continental Europe to Great Britain starting in c.450 AD. The Angles themselves gave their name to the new emerging kingdoms called England and this is thought by some to be related to the invasion of Europe by the Huns from Asia. Saxons and Frisii migrated to the region in the part of the Christian era. Old Saxony was later on referred to as Holstein, during the First World War, the Battle of Jutland in the North Sea west of Jutland was one of the largest naval battles in history. In this pitched battle, the British Royal Navy engaged the Imperial German Navy, the British fleet sustained greater losses, but remained in control of the North Sea, so in strategic terms, most historians regard Jutland either as a British victory or as indecisive. The distinctive Jutish dialects differ substantially from standard Danish, especially West Jutlandic, dialect usage, although in decline, is better preserved in Jutland than in eastern Denmark, and Jutlander speech remains a stereotype among many Copenhageners and eastern Danes. Administratively, Danish Jutland comprises three of Denmarks five regions, namely the Region Nordjylland, Region Midtjylland and the half of Region of Southern Denmark
23.
Norse mythology
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The cosmos in Norse mythology consists of Nine Worlds that flank a central cosmological tree, Yggdrasil. Units of time and elements of the cosmology are personified as deities or beings, various forms of a creation myth are recounted, where the world is created from the flesh of the primordial being Ymir, and the first two humans are Ask and Embla. These worlds are foretold to be reborn after the events of Ragnarök, there the surviving gods will meet, and the land will be fertile and green, and two humans will repopulate the world. Norse mythology has been the subject of scholarly discourse since the 17th century, by way of comparative mythology and historical linguistics, scholars have identified elements of Germanic mythology reaching as far back as Proto-Indo-European mythology. In the modern period, the Romanticist Viking revival re-awoke an interest in the subject matter, the myths have further been revived in a religious context among adherents of Germanic Neopaganism. The majority of these Old Norse texts were created in Iceland and this occurred primarily in the 13th century. The Prose Edda was composed as a manual for producing skaldic poetry—traditional Old Norse poetry composed by skalds. Originally composed and transmitted orally, skaldic poetry utilizes alliterative verse, kennings, the Prose Edda presents numerous examples of works by various skalds from before and after the Christianization process and also frequently refers back to the poems found in the Poetic Edda. The Poetic Edda consists almost entirely of poems, with some prose narrative added, in comparison to skaldic poetry, Eddic poetry is relatively unadorned. Numerous further texts, such as the sagas, provide further information, the saga corpus consists of thousands of tales recorded in Old Norse ranging from Icelandic family histories to Migration period tales mentioning historic figures such as Attila the Hun. By way of historical linguistics and comparative mythology, comparisons to other attested branches of Germanic mythology may also lend insight, wider comparisons to the mythology of other Indo-European peoples by scholars has resulted in the potential reconstruction of far earlier myths. Of the mythical tales and poems that are presumed to have existed during the Middle Ages, Viking Age, Migration Period, numerous gods are mentioned in the source texts. In the mythology, Thor lays waste to numerous jötnar who are foes to the gods or humanity, the god Odin is also frequently mentioned in surviving texts. One-eyed, wolf and raven-flanked, and spear in hand, Odin pursues knowledge throughout the worlds, Odin has a strong association with death, Odin is portrayed as the ruler of Valhalla, where valkyries carry half of those slain in battle. Odins wife is the powerful goddess Frigg who can see the future but tells no one, and together they have a beloved son, Baldr. After a series of dreams had by Baldr of his death, his death is engineered by Loki, and Baldr thereafter resides in Hel. Odin must share half of his share of the dead with a powerful goddess and she is beautiful, sensual, wears a feathered cloak, and practices seiðr. She rides to battle to choose among the slain, and brings her chosen to her afterlife field Fólkvangr, Freyja weeps for her missing husband Óðr, and seeks after him in far away lands
24.
Thor
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In Norse mythology, Thor is a hammer-wielding god associated with thunder, lightning, storms, oak trees, strength, the protection of mankind, and also hallowing and fertility. The cognate deity in wider Germanic mythology and paganism was known in Old English as Þunor and in Old High German as Donar, into the modern period, Thor continued to be acknowledged in rural folklore throughout Germanic regions. Thor is frequently referred to in place names, the day of the week Thursday bears his name, in Norse mythology, largely recorded in Iceland from traditional material stemming from Scandinavia, numerous tales and information about Thor are provided. With Sif, Thor fathered the goddess Þrúðr, with Járnsaxa, he fathered Magni, with a mother whose name is not recorded, he fathered Móði, and he is the stepfather of the god Ullr. The same sources list Thor as the son of the god Odin and the earth, Jörð. Thor has two servants, Þjálfi and Röskva, rides in a cart or chariot pulled by two goats, Tanngrisnir and Tanngnjóstr, and is ascribed three dwellings. Thor wields the mountain-crushing hammer, Mjölnir, wears the belt Megingjörð and the iron gloves Járngreipr, Thor has inspired numerous works of art and references to Thor appear in modern popular culture. Like other Germanic deities, veneration of Thor is revived in the period in Heathenry. The name of the god is the origin of the weekday name Thursday, by employing a practice known as interpretatio germanica during the Roman Empire period, the Germanic peoples adopted the Roman weekly calendar, and replaced the names of Roman gods with their own. Latin dies Iovis was converted into Proto-Germanic *Þonares dagaz, from which stems modern English Thursday, beginning in the Viking Age, personal names containing the theonym Thórr are recorded with great frequency. Prior to the Viking Age, no examples are recorded, thórr-based names may have flourished during the Viking Age as a defiant response to attempts at Christianization, similar to the wide scale Viking Age practice of wearing Thors hammer pendants. They regard it as a duty to offer to him, on fixed days. Hercules and Mars they appease by animal offerings of the permitted kind, in this instance, Tacitus refers to the god Odin as Mercury, Thor as Hercules, and the god Týr as Mars, and the identity of the Isis of the Suebi has been debated. In Thors case, the identification with the god Hercules is likely at least in part due to similarities between Thors hammer and Hercules club. In his Annals, Tacitus again refers to the veneration of Hercules by the Germanic peoples, Donar, the southern Germanic form of the gods name. According to an account, the Christian missionary Saint Boniface felled an oak tree dedicated to Jove in the 8th century. Around the second half of the 8th century, Old English mentions of a figure named Thunor are recorded, gabriel Turville-Petre saw this as an invented origin for the placename demonstrating loss of memory that Thunor had been a gods name. Adam details that Thor, they reckon, rules the sky, he governs thunder and lightning, winds and storms, fine weather and fertility and that Thor, with his mace, looks like Jupiter
25.
Gobelins Manufactory
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The Manufacture des Gobelins is a tapestry factory located in Paris, France, at 42 avenue des Gobelins, near the Les Gobelins métro station in the 13th arrondissement. The factory is open for guided tours several afternoons per week by appointment as well as for casual visits every day except Mondays and some specific holidays. The Galerie des Gobelins is dedicated to exhibitions of tapestries from the French manufactures and furnitures from the Mobilier national. The Gobelins were a family of dyers who, in the middle of the 15th century, established themselves in the Faubourg Saint-Marcel, Paris, on the banks of the Bièvre. In 1629, their sons Charles de Comans and Raphaël de la Planche took over their fathers tapestry workshops and their partnership ended around 1650 and the workshops were split into two. Tapestries from this early, Flemish, period are sometimes called pre-gobelins, on account of Louis XIVs financial problems, the establishment was closed in 1694, but reopened in 1697 for the manufacture of tapestry, chiefly for royal use. It rivalled the Beauvais tapestry works until the French Revolution, when work at the factory was suspended, the factory was revived during the Bourbon Restoration and, in 1826, the manufacture of carpets was added to that of tapestry. In 1871 the building was burned down during the Paris Commune. The factory is still in operation today as a state-run institution, the Gobelins still produces some limited amount of tapestries for the decoration of French governmental institutions, with contemporary subjects. A branch of the manufactory was established in London probably in the early 18th-century in the area that is now Fulham High Street, around 1753 it appears to have been taken over by the priest and adventurer, Pierre Parisot, but closed only a few years later. Museums of Paris entry Paris. org entry This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh
26.
Christiansborg Palace
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Christiansborg Palace is a palace and government building on the islet of Slotsholmen in central Copenhagen, Denmark. It is the seat of the Danish Parliament, the Danish Prime Ministers Office, also, several parts of the palace are used by the Danish monarch, including the Royal Reception Rooms, the Palace Chapel and the Royal Stables. The palace is home to the three supreme powers, the executive power, the legislative power, and the judicial power. It is the building in the world that houses all three of a countrys branches of government. The name Christiansborg is thus also used as a metonym for the Danish political system. The present building, the third with this name, is the last in a series of castles and palaces constructed on the same site since the erection of the first castle in 1167. The palace today bears witness to three eras of Danish architecture, as the result of two serious fires, the first fire occurred in 1794 and the second in 1884. The main part of the current palace, finished in 1928, is in the historicist Neo-baroque style, the chapel dates to 1826 and is in a neoclassical style. The showgrounds were built 1738-46, in a baroque style, Christiansborg Palace is owned by the Danish state, and is run by the Palaces and Properties Agency. Several parts of the palace are open to the public, the first castle on the site was Absalons Castle. According to the Danish chronicler Saxo Grammaticus, Bishop Absalon of Roskilde built a castle in 1167 on an island outside Copenhagen Harbour. The castle was made up by a wall, encircling an enclosed courtyard with several buildings, such as the bishops palace. At the death of Absalon in 1201, possession of the castle, a few decades later, however, a bitter feud erupted between crown and church, and for almost two centuries the ownership of the castle and city was contested between kings and bishops. Furthermore, the castle was frequently under attack, for example by Wend pirates and the Hanseatic cities, in 1369, following a conflict with king Valdemar IV of Denmark, the Hanseatic League sent 40 stonemasons to demolish the castle stone by stone. The castle had long been a nuisance to the Hanseatic cities trade in the Sound. The castle had a wall and was surrounded by a moat and with a large. The castle was still the property of the Bishop of Roskilde until King Eric VII usurped the rights to the castle in 1417, from then on the castle in Copenhagen was occupied by the king. In the middle of the 15th century, the became the principal residence of the Danish kings
27.
Randers
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Randers is a city in Randers Municipality, Central Denmark Region on the Jutland peninsula. It is Denmarks sixth-largest city, with a population of 61,163, Randers is the municipalitys main town and the site of its municipal council. The municipality is also a part of the East Jutland metropolitan area, by road it is 38.5 kilometres north of Aarhus,43.8 kilometres east of Viborg, and 224 kilometres northwest of Copenhagen. Randers became a market town in medieval times, and many of its 15th-century half-timbered houses remain today, as does St Martins Church. Trade by sea was facilitated through the Gudenå River, entering Randers Fjord, most of the larger historic industries in Randers are gone today. From 1970, the population saw a decline from a peak of 58.500 citizens, the main tourist attraction is Randers Tropical Zoo thanks to its artificial rainforest, the largest in Northern Europe, its 350 varieties of plant and over 175 species of animals. The citys football team, Randers FC, play their homes games at the AutoC Park Randers, and are in Denmarks first league, the Superligaen. The town is home to Randers rugby union club and Jutland RLFC, a rugby league team, as well as Randers Cimbria. The oldest forms of the name appear on coins minted from the times of King George until those of Svend Grathe. The coins bear the names Ranrosia, Ransias, Radrusia, Rand, ancient written records include the Latin Randrusium, Icelandic Randrosi, and Rondrus, Randrøs. Other early forms provide Randersborg and Randershusen, the name appears to stem from Rand and Aros and probably means town on the hillside by the river mouth. The modern form Randers was first came into use at the end of the 17th century, Randers was formally established around the 12th century, but traces of activity date back to Viking times. Canute IV of Denmark, also known as Canute the Saint and Canute the Holy, the peasants of Randers who rose up against him and his plans to attack England and its ruler, William the Conqueror, assembled in this town. Their uprising led to the death of Canute, a chronicle written at Essenbæk Abbey tells of a fire that ravaged the city. The city was destroyed and rebuilt three times in the 13th century, in 1246, it was burned down by Abel of Denmarks troops during the civil uprising against Eric IV of Denmark. This action led to insurrection against the Germans. Ebbesen died in a battle at Skanderborg Castle in December 1340. A statue to Ebbesen stands in front of Randers Town Hall today, when King Valdemar IV of Denmark tried to assemble a government in 1350 after the mortgaging to the Holsteiners, the town was further reinforced with protection, and was often named as Randershus
28.
Holstebro
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Holstebro is the main town in Holstebro Municipality, Denmark. The town, bisected by the Storåen, has a population of 34,873, the town arose at a ford by the creek, and later a bridge was erected. The name probably derives from holdested ved broen, Holstebro was first mentioned in a letter from Bishop Thyge of Ribe in 1274. A large fire in 1552 destroyed many of the old buildings. The town is a trading, industrial and cultural center in western Jutland, industries include the manufacture of processed food, iron and machinery, wood and furniture, textiles and chemicals. Holstebro has a network of pedestrian walkways in the town centre either side of the River Storå. This area has a varied shopping environment, enhanced by outdoor sculptures and picturesque buildings, including the town church, the first sculpture purchased by Holstebro Municipality was Alberto Giacomettis sculpture Woman on the Cart purchased in 1966. Holstebro has a rich and varied cultural life, between 1997 and 2009 it hosted the internationally recognized ballet company Peter Schaufuss Ballet and the town still hosts the performance art theatre Odin Teatret. Several museums, including the Holstebro Art Museum with its collection of Danish and international art. The town holds an annual festival, the Holstebro Festive Week. The Holstebro Hall, rebuilt in 1966, houses a music theatre, more than 100 cultural events occur here every year, and the hall is visited by more than 100,000 people annually. The Jutland Dragoon Regiment, which can trace its history back to 1679 in the times of King Christian V, has made Holstebro its home since 1953, the regiment is Holstebros largest place of work with more than 1,800 employees. Holstebro is served by Holstebro railway station and it is located on the Vejle-Holstebro and Esbjerg-Struer railway lines and offers direct InterCity services to Copenhagen and Struer and regional train services to Fredericia and Skjern. Team Tvis Holstebro were founded in 1990 and play handball, representing Holstelbro in the mens Danish Handball League, the womens team has won the Womens European Handball Federation cup twice, in 2012–2013 and 2014–2015 and were runners up in 2010–2011. The mens handball team won the Danish Handball Cup in 2008 and have finished third in the league three times, most recently in 2008. They achieved third place in the mens 2012–13 EHF Cup, both teams play at Gråkjær Arena, a 3,250 capacity hall which can also be used for concerts. The arena is located to the north of the town centre, Holstebro Idrætspark, located to the north-east of the town centre, is a multi-use sports complex. A stadium on the site is home to Holstebro BK, the football club who play in the 4th tier of Danish football
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Auguste Rodin
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François Auguste René Rodin, known as Auguste Rodin, was a French sculptor. Although Rodin is generally considered the progenitor of modern sculpture, he did not set out to rebel against the past and he was schooled traditionally, took a craftsman-like approach to his work, and desired academic recognition, although he was never accepted into Pariss foremost school of art. Sculpturally, Rodin possessed an ability to model a complex, turbulent. Many of his most notable sculptures were roundly criticized during his lifetime and they clashed with predominant figurative sculpture traditions, in which works were decorative, formulaic, or highly thematic. Rodins most original work departed from traditional themes of mythology and allegory, modeled the human body with realism, Rodin was sensitive to the controversy surrounding his work, but refused to change his style. Successive works brought increasing favor from the government and the artistic community, by 1900, he was a world-renowned artist. Wealthy private clients sought Rodins work after his Worlds Fair exhibit and he married his lifelong companion, Rose Beuret, in the last year of both their lives. His sculptures suffered a decline in popularity after his death in 1917, Rodin remains one of the few sculptors widely known outside the visual arts community. Rodin was born in 1840 into a family in Paris, the second child of Marie Cheffer and Jean-Baptiste Rodin. He was largely self-educated, and began to draw at age ten, between ages 14 and 17, Rodin attended the Petite École, a school specializing in art and mathematics, where he studied drawing and painting. His drawing teacher, Horace Lecoq de Boisbaudran, believed in first developing the personality of his students so that they observed with their own eyes, Rodin still expressed appreciation for his teacher much later in life. It was at Petite École that he first met Jules Dalou, in 1857, Rodin submitted a clay model of a companion to the École des Beaux-Arts in an attempt to win entrance, he did not succeed, and two further applications were also denied. Given that entrance requirements at the Grande École were not particularly high, Rodins inability to gain entrance may have been due to the judges Neoclassical tastes, while Rodin had been schooled in light, 18th-century sculpture. Leaving the Petite École in 1857, Rodin earned a living as a craftsman, Rodins sister Maria, two years his senior, died of peritonitis in a convent in 1862. Rodin was anguished and felt guilty because he had introduced Maria to an unfaithful suitor, turning away from art, he briefly joined a Catholic order, the Congregation of the Blessed Sacrament. Saint Peter Julian Eymard, founder and head of the congregation, recognized Rodins talent and, sensing his lack of suitability for the order and he returned to work as a decorator, while taking classes with animal sculptor Antoine-Louis Barye. The teachers attention to detail – his finely rendered musculature of animals in motion – significantly influenced Rodin, in 1864, Rodin began to live with a young seamstress named Rose Beuret, with whom he would stay – with ranging commitment – for the rest of his life. The couple had a son, Auguste-Eugène Beuret and that year, Rodin offered his first sculpture for exhibition, and entered the studio of Albert-Ernest Carrier-Belleuse, a successful mass producer of objets dart
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The Burghers of Calais
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Les Bourgeois de Calais is one of the most famous sculptures by Auguste Rodin. It commemorates an occurrence during the Hundred Years War, when Calais, Calais commissioned Rodin to create the sculpture in 1884, and the work was completed in 1889. Englands Edward III, after a victory in the Battle of Crécy, laid siege to Calais, Philip failed to lift the siege, and starvation eventually forced the city to parley for surrender. According to medieval writer Jean Froissart, Edward offered to spare the people of the city if six of its top leaders would surrender themselves to him, Edward demanded that they walk out wearing nooses around their necks, and carrying the keys to the city and castle. One of the wealthiest of the leaders, Eustache de Saint Pierre, volunteered first. Saint Pierre led this envoy of volunteers to the city gates and it was this moment, and this poignant mix of defeat, heroic self-sacrifice, and willingness to face imminent death that Rodin captured in his sculpture, scaled somewhat larger than life. The City of Calais had attempted to erect a statue of Eustache de Saint Pierre, eldest of the burghers, since 1845. Two prior artists were prevented from executing the sculpture, the first, David dAngers, by his death, in 1884 the municipal corporation of the city invited several artists, Rodin amongst them, to submit proposals for the project. The public had a lack of appreciation for it because it didnt have overtly heroic antique references which were considered integral to public sculpture and it was not a pyramidal arrangement and contained no allegorical figures. It was intended to be placed at level, rather than on a pedestal. The burghers were not presented in an image of glory, instead, they display pain, anguish. To Rodin, this was nevertheless heroic, the heroism of self-sacrifice, only later was his vision realized, when the sculpture was moved in front of the newly completed town hall of Calais, where it now rests on a much lower base. Under French law no more than twelve original casts of works of Rodin may be made, the first cast of the group of six figures, cast in 1895 still stands in Calais. Other original casts stand at, Glyptoteket in Copenhagen, cast 1903, the Musée royal de Mariemont in Morlanwelz, Belgium, cast 1905. Victoria Tower Gardens in the shadow of the Houses of Parliament in London, cast 1908, installed on site in 1914. The inscription on the pedestal was carved by Eric Gill, the Rodin Museum in Philadelphia, cast 1925 and installed in 1929. The gardens of the Musée Rodin in Paris, cast 1926, kunstmuseum in Basel, cast 1943 and installed in 1948. The Smithsonian Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden in Washington, D. C. cast 1943, the National Museum of Western Art in Tokyo, cast 1953 and installed in 1959
31.
Bispebjerg Bakke (building)
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Bispebjerg Bakke is an apartment complex in the Bispebjerg district of Copenhagen, Denmark. It was designed by leading Danish sculptor Bjørn Nørgaard, both sat on the Committee for the Protection of Traditional Craftsmanship, which had been appointed by the Minister of Culture and the Minister of the Environment. The idea was to demonstrate that good buildings, in terms of design, craftsmanship and materials, the small architectural practice Boldsen & Holm, with which Nørgaard had previously collaborated on Dahlerups Plads on the Copenhagen waterfront, was brought in as architects. The first models were executed in clay and Nørgaard has mentioned music as a source of inspiration for the design, NCC was hired and concrete sections had to be introduced. Construction started in August 2004 and the building was completed in 2006, Bjørn Nørgaard was inspired by music when he made the first model of the complex which he moulded in clay. It consists of two buildings that wind like a serpent down the sloping site, the buildings are generally three to four storeys high, in places rising to eight storeys. The complex contains a total of 135 apartments, in accord with the ethos of the project, it is generally executed in high quality materials. The building has detailing in red and yellow glazed Chinese tiles on balconies, windows are made of wood and aluminium, roofs are capped with a combination of zinc or copper. Bispebjerg Bakke contains only rental apartments, although the apartments were originally envisioned as likely to attract Grey Gold, i. e. The complex also includes two purpose-built playgrounds, architecture of Denmark Official website The Story of the Bispebjerg Snake Bispebjerg Bakke at Copenhagen X Official website at Grontmij Carl Bro
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Bispebjerg
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Bispebjerg, more commonly referred to as Nordvest, is one of the 10 official districts of Copenhagen, Denmark. Located on the border of the municipality, it covers an area of 5.39 km². More specifically, Bispebjerg refers to a neighbourhood within the district. Bispebjerg covers an area of 5.39 km² and has a population of 40,033, the name Bispebjerg is known from 1681 as Biszebierg. A windmill was built in the area in 1808, Bispebjerg was together with the rest of Brønshøj merged with Copenhagen in 1901. Bispebjerg Cemetery opened in 1903 and Bispebjerg Hospital was built between 1908 and 1913, the district was generally built over with a combination of residential neighbourhoods and industry in the 1920s and 1930s. Bispebjerg station Bispebjerg Hospital City of Copenhagen’s statistical office Map of so-called ghetto areas in central Copenhagen
33.
Chemnitz
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Chemnitz, known from 1953 to 1990 as Karl-Marx-Stadt, is the third-largest city in the Free State of Saxony, Germany. Chemnitz is an independent city which is not part of any county, located in the northern foothills of the Ore Mountains, it is part of the Central German Metropolitan Region. The citys economy is based on the sector and manufacturing industry. Chemnitz University of Technology has around 10,000 students, Chemnitz is named after the river Chemnitz, a small tributary of the Zwickau Mulde. The word Chemnitz is from the Sorbian language, and means stony, the word is composed of the Slavic word kamen meaning stone and the feminine suffix -ica. It is known in Czech as Saská Kamenice and in Polish as Kamienica Saska, there are many other towns named Kamenica or Kamenice in areas with past or present Slavic settlement. An early Slavic tribes settlement was located at Kamienica, and the first documented use of the name Chemnitz was the 1143 site of a Benedictine monastery around which a settlement grew, circa 1170 Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor granted it the rights of an imperial city. In 1307, the town became subordinate to the Margraviate of Meissen, in medieval times, Chemnitz became a centre of textile production and trade. More than one third of the worked in textile production. By the early 19th century Chemnitz had become an industrial centre, in 1913, Chemnitz had a population of 320,000 and, like Leipzig and Dresden, was larger at that time than today. After losing inhabitants due to the first World War Chemnitz grew rapidly again, before the world economic crises, it was supposed that the city would keep on growing and would become a Millionenstadt by incorporating also fast growing smaller towns and municipalities around it. During World War II, Chemnitz contained factories that produced military hardware, 2/3–5 March, USAAF bombers attacked the marshalling yards. 5 March,760 RAF bombers attacked, the headquarters of the auto manufacturer Auto Union were also based in Chemnitz since 1932 and its buildings were also badly damaged. At the end of the war, the companys executives fled and relocated the company in Ingolstadt, Bavaria, the World War II bombings left most of the city in ruins, and post-war, the East German reconstruction included large low rise housing. Some tourist sites were reconstructed during the East German era and after German reunification and it was occupied by Soviet troops on 8 May 1945. After dissolution of the states in the GDR in 1952, Chemnitz became seat of a district, on 10 May 1953, the city was renamed by decision of the East German government to Karl-Marx-Stadt after Karl Marx. GDR Prime Minister Otto Grotewohl said, The people who live here, do not look back and they look with love and devotion to the founder of the socialist doctrine, the greatest son of the German people, to Karl Marx. I hereby fulfill about the governments decision, I carry out the solemn act of renaming the city and declare, From now on, this city bears the proud name and mandatory Karl-Marx-Stadt
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Wayback Machine
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The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network
35.
Integrated Authority File
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The Integrated Authority File or GND is an international authority file for the organisation of personal names, subject headings and corporate bodies from catalogues. It is used mainly for documentation in libraries and increasingly also by archives, the GND is managed by the German National Library in cooperation with various regional library networks in German-speaking Europe and other partners. The GND falls under the Creative Commons Zero license, the GND specification provides a hierarchy of high-level entities and sub-classes, useful in library classification, and an approach to unambiguous identification of single elements. It also comprises an ontology intended for knowledge representation in the semantic web, available in the RDF format
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Virtual International Authority File
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The Virtual International Authority File is an international authority file. It is a joint project of national libraries and operated by the Online Computer Library Center. The project was initiated by the US Library of Congress, the German National Library, the National Library of France joined the project on October 5,2007. The project transitions to a service of the OCLC on April 4,2012, the aim is to link the national authority files to a single virtual authority file. In this file, identical records from the different data sets are linked together, a VIAF record receives a standard data number, contains the primary see and see also records from the original records, and refers to the original authority records. The data are available online and are available for research and data exchange. Reciprocal updating uses the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting protocol, the file numbers are also being added to Wikipedia biographical articles and are incorporated into Wikidata. VIAFs clustering algorithm is run every month, as more data are added from participating libraries, clusters of authority records may coalesce or split, leading to some fluctuation in the VIAF identifier of certain authority records
