1.
Aviation in the pioneer era
–
Once the principles of powered controlled flight had been established there was a period in which many different aircraft configurations were experimented with. By 1914 the tractor configuration biplane had become the most popular form of aircraft design, consequently, attempts to achieve powered flight continued, principally in France. To publicize the aeronautical concourse at the upcoming Worlds Fair in St. Louis, Octave Chanute gave a number of lectures at aero-clubs in Europe and he showed slides of his own glider flying experiments as well as some of the Wrights glider flying in 1901 and 1902. All these talks were reproduced in club journals and you, the Maecenases, and you too, the Government, put your hands in your pockets—or else we are beaten. P. W. Boulton of the United Kingdom in 1868 and this was not successful and Esnault-Pelterie was later to use its failure to support the position that the Wright Brothers claims were unfounded. However his design was not a copy of the Wrights glider. Voisin and Blériot then constructed a tandem wing biplane, which was subjected to a number of modifications without any success. Full details of the Wright Brothers flight control system was published in lAérophile in the January 1906 issue, nevertheless, the crucial importance of lateral control in making controlled turns was not appreciated, and the French experimenters instead aimed to construct inherently stable aircraft. On 16 November 1907 he successfully flew his Blériot VII, a monoplane with tail surfaces moved differentially for roll control, the AEA produced a number of fundamentally similar biplane designs, greatly influenced by the Wrights work, and these were flown with increasing success during 1908. On 4 July 1908 their next aircraft, the June Bug piloted by Glenn Curtiss, after the AEAs disbandment at the end of March 1909, one of its American members went on to start a growing US-based aviation firm. I am not sufficiently calm after the event to express my opinion. My view can be best conveyed in the words, It is marvellous, leon Delagrange simply said We are beaten. His first design, the Farman III was one of the most successful designs of the pioneer era. 1909 can be regarded as the year in which aviation came of age, at the end of 1908 the first exhibition devoted to aircraft was held in the Grand Palais in Paris, and this was followed by the first London Aero Exhibition at Olympia in May 1909. The Aéro-Club de France issued its first pilots licences in January, the first British magazine to be devoted to the subject, Flight published its first issue in January. This was met by widespread derision, the satirical magazine Punch responded by offering a prize for a flight to Mars. In June 1909 Louis Blériot won their £1000 prize for the first flight across the English channel. One contemporary newspaper led its account of the event with the headline Britain is no longer an island, Blériot became world-famous, and the publicity resulted in over a hundred orders for copies of his design within a few weeks
Aviation in the pioneer era
–
Vue du Pont de Sévres, painted in 1908 by
Henri Rousseau
Aviation in the pioneer era
–
Wilbur Wright gliding, October 1902
Aviation in the pioneer era
–
Illustration of Santos-Dumont's 12 November 1906 flight on the cover of Le Petit Journal
Aviation in the pioneer era
–
Henri Farman winning the Grand Prix d'Aviation, 13 January 1908
2.
English Channel
–
The English Channel, also called simply the Channel, is the body of water that separates southern England from northern France, and links the southern part of the North Sea to the Atlantic Ocean. It is about 560 km long and varies in width from 240 km at its widest to 33.3 km in the Strait of Dover and it is the smallest of the shallow seas around the continental shelf of Europe, covering an area of some 75,000 km2. The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the English Channel as follows, a line joining Isle Vierge to Lands End. The southwestern limit of the North Sea, the IHO defines the southwestern limit of the North Sea as a line joining the Walde Lighthouse and Leathercoat Point. The Walde Lighthouse is 6 km east of Calais, and Leathercoat Point is at the end of St Margarets Bay. The Strait of Dover, at the Channels eastern end, is its narrowest point and it is relatively shallow, with an average depth of about 120 m at its widest part, reducing to a depth of about 45 m between Dover and Calais. Eastwards from there the adjoining North Sea reduces to about 26 m in the Broad Fourteens where it lies over the watershed of the land bridge between East Anglia and the Low Countries. It reaches a depth of 180 m in the submerged valley of Hurds Deep,48 km west-northwest of Guernsey. The eastern region along the French coast between Cherbourg and the mouth of the Seine river at Le Havre is frequently referred to as the Bay of the Seine. There are several islands in the Channel, the most notable being the Isle of Wight off the English coast. The coastline, particularly on the French shore, is indented, several small islands close to the coastline, including Chausey. The Cotentin Peninsula in France juts out into the Channel, whilst on the English side there is a parallel channel known as the Solent between the Isle of Wight and the mainland. The Celtic Sea is to the west of the Channel, the Channel is of geologically recent origins, having been dry land for most of the Pleistocene period. The first flood would have lasted for months, releasing as much as one million cubic metres of water per second. The flood started with large but localized waterfalls over the ridge, the flow eroded the retaining ridge, causing the rock dam to fail and releasing lake water into the English Channel. The erosion of the Lobourg Channel was probably the final opening of the Strait, the time difference of about six hours between high water at the eastern and western limits of the Channel is indicative of the tidal range being amplified further by resonance. It was never defined as a border and the names were more or less descriptive. It was not considered as the property of a nation, strangely, before the development of the modern nations, British scholars very often referred to it as Gaulish and the French one as British or English
English Channel
–
English Channel
English Channel
–
Three French river mouths. Top to bottom: the
Somme, the
Authie and the
Canche
English Channel
–
The Hermitage of
St Helier lies in the bay off
Saint Helier and is accessible on foot at low tide.
English Channel
–
British radar facilities during the
Battle of Britain 1940
3.
The Daily Express
–
The Daily Express is a daily national middle market tabloid newspaper in the United Kingdom. It is the title of Express Newspapers, a subsidiary of Northern & Shell. It was first published as a broadsheet in 1900 by Sir Arthur Pearson and its sister paper The Sunday Express was launched in 1918. As of December 2016, it had a daily circulation of 391,626. The paper was acquired by Richard Desmond in 2000, hugh Whittow has served as the papers editor since February of 2011. The papers editorial stances are often seen as aligned to the UK Independence Party, in addition to its sister paper, Express Newspapers also publishes the red top newspapers the Daily Star and Daily Star Sunday. The Daily Express was founded in 1900 by Sir Arthur Pearson, Pearson, who had lost his sight to glaucoma in 1913, sold the title to the future Lord Beaverbrook in 1916. It was one of the first papers to place instead of advertisements on its front page along with carrying gossip, sports. It was also the first newspaper in Britain to have a crossword puzzle, the Express began printing copies in Manchester in 1927 and in 1931, the publication moved to 120 Fleet Street, a specially commissioned art deco building. Under Beaverbrook, the newspaper achieved a high circulation, setting records for newspaper sales several times throughout the 1930s. Its success was due to its aggressive marketing campaign and a vigorous circulation war with other populist newspapers. Beaverbrook also discovered and encouraged an editor named Arthur Christiansen who, at an early age, showed talent for writing. Christiansen became editor in October 1933, under his editorial direction sales climbed from two million in 1936 to four million in 1949. The paper also featured Alfred Bestalls Rupert Bear cartoon and satirical cartoons by Carl Giles which it began publishing in the 1940s, on 24 March 1933, a front page headline titled Judea Declares War on Germany was published by the Daily Express. During the late thirties, the paper was an advocate of the appeasement policies of the Chamberlain government. The ruralist author Henry Williamson wrote for the paper on many occasions for half a century and he also wrote for the Sunday Express at the beginning of his career. In 1938, the moved to the Daily Express Building. It opened a building in Glasgow in 1936 in Albion Street
The Daily Express
–
Front page, 19 November 2011
The Daily Express
–
Exterior of
Owen Williams '
Daily Express Building in Manchester.
The Daily Express
–
Exterior of
Daily Express Building in London, designed by Ellis and Clark.
The Daily Express
–
In 2000, Express Newspapers was bought by
Richard Desmond (left)
4.
World War I
–
World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
World War I
–
Clockwise from the top: The aftermath of shelling during the
Battle of the Somme,
Mark V tanks cross the
Hindenburg Line,
HMS Irresistible sinks after hitting a
mine in the
Dardanelles, a British
Vickers machine gun crew wears
gas masks during the Battle of the Somme,
Albatros D.III fighters of
Jagdstaffel 11
World War I
–
Sarajevo citizens reading a poster with the proclamation of the
Austrian annexation in 1908.
World War I
–
This picture is usually associated with the arrest of
Gavrilo Princip, although some believe it depicts Ferdinand Behr, a bystander.
World War I
–
Serbian Army
Blériot XI "Oluj", 1915.
5.
United Kingdom
–
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
United Kingdom
–
Stonehenge, in
Wiltshire, was erected around 2500 BC.
United Kingdom
–
Flag
United Kingdom
–
The
Bayeux Tapestry depicts the
Battle of Hastings, 1066, and the events leading to it.
United Kingdom
–
The
Treaty of Union led to a single united kingdom encompassing all Great Britain.
6.
United States
–
Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
United States
–
Native Americans meeting with Europeans, 1764
United States
–
Flag
United States
–
The signing of the
Mayflower Compact, 1620.
United States
–
The
Declaration of Independence: the
Committee of Five presenting their draft to the
Second Continental Congress in 1776
7.
Tractor configuration
–
Through common usage, the word propeller has come to mean any airscrew, whether it actually propels or pulls the plane. In the early years of powered aviation both tractor and pusher designs were common, however, by the midpoint of the First World War, interest in pushers declined and the tractor configuration dominated. Today, propeller-driven aircraft are assumed to be tractors unless it is stated otherwise, as early as 1910, in the early years of flying, a distinction was made between a propeller and a tractor-screw. The Royal Flying Corps called the tractors Bleriot type after Louis Bleriot to distinguish them from pushers, from a military perspective, the problem with single-engine tractor aircraft was that it was not possible to fire a gun through the propeller arc without striking the propeller blades with bullets. It was employed with success by French aviator Roland Garros and was also used on at least one Sopwith Tabloid of the Royal Naval Air Service. The final solution was the gear, more properly known as a gun synchronizer, developed by Anthony Fokker. The first British tractor to be designed to be fitted with synchronization gear was the Sopwith 1½ Strutter which did not enter service until early 1916. The latter solution was used from the early 1930s until the beginning of the jet age
Tractor configuration
–
Aerotechnik EV97A Eurostar, a tractor configuration aircraft, being pulled into position by its pilot for refuelling.
Tractor configuration
–
A
Britten-Norman Trislander aircraft (with a 3rd tractor engine on the tail) at
Guernsey Airport, Channel Islands.
8.
Monoplane
–
A monoplane is a fixed-wing aircraft with a single main wing plane, in contrast to a biplane or other multiplane, each of which has multiple planes. A monoplane has inherently the highest efficiency and lowest drag of any wing configuration and is the simplest to build, however, during the early years of flight, these advantages were offset by its greater weight and lower manoeuvrability, making it relatively rare until the 1930s. Since then, the monoplane has been the most common form for a fixed-wing aircraft, although the first successful aircraft were biplanes, the first attempts at heavier-than-air flying machines were monoplanes, and many pioneers continued to develop monoplane designs. For example, the first aeroplane to be put into production was the 1907 Santos-Dumont Demoiselle, while the Blériot XI flew across the English Channel in 1909, throughout 1909–1910, Hubert Latham set multiple altitude records in his Antoinette IV monoplane, eventually reaching 1,384 m. The equivalent German language term is Eindecker, as in the mid-wing Fokker Eindecker fighter of 1915 which for a time dominated the skies in what known as the Fokker scourge. The German military Idflieg aircraft designation system prior to 1918 prefixed monoplane type designations with an E, however, the success of the Fokker was short-lived, and World War I was dominated by biplanes. Towards the end of the war, the parasol monoplane became popular, nonetheless, relatively few monoplane types were built between 1914 and the late 1920s, compared with the number of biplanes. The reasons for this were primarily practical, towards the end of the First World War, the inherent high drag of the biplane was beginning to restrict performance. Engines were not yet enough to make the heavy cantilever-wing monoplane viable. It remained popular throughout the 1920s, on flying boats with a shallow hull, a parasol wing allows the engines to be mounted above the spray from the water when taking off and landing. It was popular on flying boats during the 1930s, an example being the Consolidated PBY Catalina. It died out when taller hulls became the norm during World War II, most military aircraft of WW II were monoplanes, as have been virtually all aircraft since. Jet and rocket engines have more power, and all modern high-speed aircraft. The inherent efficiency of the monoplane can best be realised in the cantilever wing which carries all structural forces internally. By contrast, a wing has additional drag from the exposed bracing struts and/or wires. On the other hand, the wing has greater structural efficiency. This in turn means that for a wing of a size, bracing allows it to fly slower with a lower-powered engine, while a heavy cantilever wing needs a more powerful engine. A cantilever wing can be lighter by making it thicker
Monoplane
–
du Temple Monoplane 1874
Monoplane
–
Low wing on a
Curtiss P-40
Monoplane
–
Mid wing on a
de Havilland Vampire T11.
Monoplane
–
Shoulder wing on an
ARV Super2.
9.
Fuselage
–
The fuselage is an aircrafts main body section. It holds crew, passengers, and cargo, the fuselage also serves to position control and stabilization surfaces in specific relationships to lifting surfaces, which is required for aircraft stability and maneuverability. This type of structure is still in use in lightweight aircraft using welded steel tube trusses. A box truss fuselage structure can also be out of wood—often covered with plywood. Simple box structures may be rounded by the addition of supported lightweight stringers, allowing the fabric covering to form an aerodynamic shape. Geodesic structural elements were used by Barnes Wallis for British Vickers between the wars and into World War II to form the whole of the fuselage, including its aerodynamic shape. In this type of construction multiple flat strip stringers are wound about the formers in opposite spiral directions and this proved to be light, strong, and rigid and had the advantage of being made almost entirely of wood. A similar construction using aluminum alloy was used in the Vickers Warwick with less materials than would be required for other structural types, the geodesic structure is also redundant and so can survive localized damage without catastrophic failure. A fabric covering over the completed the aerodynamic shell. The logical evolution of this is the creation of fuselages using molded plywood, in this method, the exterior surface of the fuselage is also the primary structure. A typical early form of this was built using molded plywood, a later form of this structure uses fiberglass cloth impregnated with polyester or epoxy resin, instead of plywood, as the skin. An example of a larger molded plywood aircraft is the de Havilland Mosquito fighter/light bomber of World War II, no plywood-skin fuselage is truly monocoque, since stiffening elements are incorporated into the structure to carry concentrated loads that would otherwise buckle the thin skin. The use of molded fiberglass using negative molds is prevalent in the production of many modern sailplanes. The use of molded composites for fuselage structures is being extended to large aircraft such as the Boeing 787 Dreamliner. This is the method of constructing an all-aluminum fuselage. First, a series of frames in the shape of the cross sections are held in position on a rigid fixture. These frames are then joined with lightweight longitudinal elements called stringers and these are in turn covered with a skin of sheet aluminum, attached by riveting or by bonding with special adhesives. The fixture is then disassembled and removed from the fuselage shell, which is then fitted out with wiring, controls
Fuselage
–
Piper PA-18 welded tube truss fuselage structure
Fuselage
–
Fuselage of a
Boeing 737 shown in brown
Fuselage
–
The
Van's Aircraft RV-7 of semi-monocoque construction.
Fuselage
–
Sectioned fuselage showing frames, stringers and skin all made of
aluminium
10.
Fraxinus excelsior
–
Fraxinus excelsior — known as the ash, or European ash or common ash to distinguish it from other types of ash — is a flowering plant species in the olive family Oleaceae. It is native throughout mainland Europe east to the Caucasus and Alborz mountains, the northernmost location is in the Trondheimsfjord region of Norway. The species is cultivated and reportedly naturalised in New Zealand and in scattered locales in the United States. It is a deciduous tree growing to 12–18 m tall with a trunk up to 2 m diameter, with a tall. The bark is smooth and pale grey on young trees, becoming thick, the shoots are stout, greenish-grey, with jet black buds. These features distinguish ash from ash in which the leaves are alternate with paired stipules. The leaves are often among the last to open in spring, the flowers are borne in short panicles, open before the leaves, and have no perianth. The female flowers are longer than the male flowers, dark purple, without petals. Both male and female flowers can occur on the same tree, a tree that is all male one year can produce female flowers the next, and similarly a female tree can become male. The fruit is a samara 2. 5–4.5 cm long and 5–8 mm broad, often hanging in bunches through the winter, European Ash rarely exceeds 250 years of age. However, there are numerous specimens estimated between 200 and 250 years old and there are a few over 250, the largest is in Clapton Court, England and is 9 m in girth. There are several examples over 4.5 metres in Derbyshire alone, Fraxinus excelsior is native to Europe from northern Spain to Russia, and from southern Scandinavia to northern Greece. It is also considered native in southwestern Asia from northern Turkey east to the Caucasus, the northernmost location is in the Trondheimsfjord region of Norway. It is native throughout the British Isles, particularly on limestone, as in northern Scotland, Ash occurs on a wide range of soil types, but is particularly associated with basic soils on calcareous substrates. As a young seedling it is tolerant, but as an older tree is light demanding. It is an early succession species and may well out compete beech and oak, unlike other Fraxinus species, F. excelsior does not form ectomycorrhizas. A number of Lepidoptera use the species as a food source, see Lepidoptera which feed on ashes. In the UK, many invertebrates have also been found to feed on Ash
Fraxinus excelsior
–
European ash
Fraxinus excelsior
–
Male flowers
Fraxinus excelsior
–
Veneer of Common Ash Wood.
Fraxinus excelsior
–
Replica of the body frame from the
Volvo ÖV 4 car, made primarily from ash wood.
11.
Wing warping
–
Wing warping was an early system for lateral control of a fixed-wing aircraft. The technique, used and patented by the Wright brothers, consisted of a system of pulleys, in many respects, this approach is similar to that used to trim the performance of a paper airplane by curling the paper at the back of its wings. Many birds use wing warping to achieve control and this was a significant influence on early aircraft designers. In practice, since most wing warping designs involved flexing of structural members, they were difficult to control, ailerons had begun to replace wing warping as the most common means of achieving lateral control as early as 1911, especially in biplane designs. Monoplane wings of the period were more flexible, and proved more amenable to wing warping –. Lateral control in aircraft was problematic at best. The wing warping of the Avro Triplane proved surprisingly successful, whereas on the reproduction Antoinette, since the original Antoinette-style ailerons would have probably been even less effective, unobtrusive modern ailerons were inserted – even with these, lateral control remained very poor. Wing morphing is a extension of wing warping in which the aerodynamic shape of the wing is modified under computer control. The technique, it is hoped, will give improved control at flying speeds near the speed of sound, wing warping and wing morphing are also currently used to get extra control over an aircraft during difficult times such as in a storm. Research into this field is conducted by NASA. Aileron M. P. W. Boulton, the British inventor of the aileron Elevon – a combination used on Bleriots earliest designs and more recently on flying wing. Flight demo of Owls Head Transportation Museums Etrich Taube reproduction, demonstrating warping wingtips and stabilizer
Wing warping
–
Diagram of the
Wright brothers' 1899 kite, showing wing bracing and strings attached to hand-held sticks used for warping the wing while in flight.
12.
Balanced rudder
–
Balanced rudders are used by both ships and aircraft. Both may indicate a portion of the surface ahead of the hinge. For aircraft the method can also be applied to elevators and ailerons, a balanced rudder is a rudder in which the axis of rotation of the rudder is behind its front edge. A degree of semi-balance is normal to avoid rudder instability i. e. the area in front of the pivot is less than that behind and this allows the rudder to be moved with less effort than is necessary with an unbalanced rudder. The balanced rudder was invented by Isambard Kingdom Brunel and first used on the SS Great Britain and this is referred to as aerodynamical balance. This is called mass balancing The principle is used on rudders, elevators and ailerons, two illustrations of aircraft rudders, published by Flight Magazine in 1920, illustrate early forms, both with curved leading and trailing edges. Both are mounted so that the area of the surface ahead of the hinge is less than that of the rudder behind. Various layouts have been tried over the years, generally with smaller balance/rudder areas, frise ailerons use a variant of the latter balance, with the nose of the up-going surface projecting below the wing, but not vice versa, to provide both balancing and asymmetric drag. Irving balanced ailerons have no projections but harness the aileron deflection induced change of pressure above and below the wing, sensed via the hinge gap, flutter occurs when the control surface is displaced from its intended deflection. Because the ailerons are on the long, narrow wings which can twist under load, if the centre of gravity is behind the hinge, the surface can move like a pendulum and undergo forced simple harmonic motion with increasing amplitude. Adding balancing weights which make the centre of gravity and hinge line coincident solves the problem and these weights may be in the nose of the surface, or lighter masses attached further ahead of the hinge externally
Balanced rudder
–
Rudder of S.S Great Britain
Balanced rudder
–
Different types of balanced rudder shown:1 ordinary rudder;2 hanging rudder; 3 over-balanced; 4 balanced; 5 unbalanced (hinge line shown as axis 'A')
Balanced rudder
–
Schematic of a horn balanced aircraft rudder; horn shaded paler blue
Balanced rudder
–
Schematic of an inset balanced aircraft rudder; balance surface shaded paler blue
13.
Rudder
–
A rudder is a primary control surface used to steer a ship, boat, submarine, hovercraft, aircraft, or other conveyance that moves through a fluid medium. On an aircraft the rudder is used primarily to counter adverse yaw, a rudder operates by redirecting the fluid past the hull or fuselage, thus imparting a turning or yawing motion to the craft. In basic form, a rudder is a plane or sheet of material attached with hinges to the crafts stern, tail. Often rudders are shaped so as to minimize hydrodynamic or aerodynamic drag, on simple watercraft, a tiller—essentially, a stick or pole acting as a lever arm—may be attached to the top of the rudder to allow it to be turned by a helmsman. In larger vessels, cables, pushrods, or hydraulics may be used to link rudders to steering wheels, in typical aircraft, the rudder is operated by pedals via mechanical linkages or hydraulics. Generally, a rudder is part of the apparatus of a boat or ship that is fastened outside the hull, that is denoting all different types of oars, paddles. More specifically, the gear of ancient vessels can be classified into side-rudders and stern-mounted rudders. A third term, steering oar, can denote both types, in a Mediterranean context, side-rudders are more specifically called quarter-rudders as the later term designates more exactly the place where the rudder was mounted. Stern-mounted rudders are uniformly suspended at the back of the ship in a central position. S, a steering oar was used at this time because the rudder had not yet been invented. With a single sail, a frequent movement of the oar was required to steer a straight course. The steering oar or steering board is an oar or board to control the direction of a ship or other watercraft prior to the invention of the rudder. It is normally attached to the side in larger vessels, though in smaller ones it is rarely, if ever. Rowing oars set aside for steering appeared on large Egyptian vessels long before the time of Menes, in the Old Kingdom as much as five steering oars are found on each side of passenger boats. The tiller, at first a small pin run through the stock of the steering oar, both the tiller and the introduction of an upright steering post abaft reduced the usual number of necessary steering oars to one each side. In Iran, oars mounted on the side of ships for steering are documented from the 3rd millennium BCE in artwork, wooden models, the strength of the steering oar lay in its combination of effectiveness, adaptability and simpleness. Roman quarter steering oar mounting systems survived mostly intact through the medieval period, by the first half of the 1st century AD, steering gear mounted on the stern were also quite common in Roman river and harbour craft as proved from reliefs and archaeological finds. A tomb plaque of Hadrianic age shows a harbour tug boat in Ostia with a long stern-mounted oar for better leverage, interestingly, the boat already featured a spritsail, adding to the mobility of the harbour vessel. Further attested Roman uses of stern-mounted steering oars includes barges under tow, transport ships for wine casks, also, the well-known Zwammerdam find, a large river barge at the mouth of the Rhine, featured a large steering gear mounted on the stern
Rudder
–
Modern ship rudder (the long red rectangle behind the
propeller)
Rudder
–
RMS Titanic 's rudder turned
Rudder
–
Stern-mounted steering oar of an Egyptian riverboat depicted in the Tomb of Menna (c. 1422-1411 BC)
Rudder
–
Steering oar of a Roman boat, 1st century AD (RG-Museum, Cologne).
14.
Tailplane
–
Not all fixed-wing aircraft have tailplanes. The function of the tailplane is to provide stability and control, in particular, the tailplane helps adjust for changes in the center of pressure or center of gravity caused by changes in speed and attitude, fuel consumption, or dropping cargo or payload. The tailplane comprises the fixed horizontal stabiliser and movable elevator. Besides its planform, it is characterised by, Number of tailplanes - from 0 to 3 Location of tailplane - mounted high, mid or low on the fuselage, fixed stabilizer and movable elevator surfaces, or a single combined stabilator or flying tail. This means that any disturbance which raises the nose produces a pitching moment which tends to raise the nose further. The longitudinal stability of an aircraft may change when it is flown hands-off, i. e. when the controls are subject to aerodynamic forces. In addition to giving a restoring force a tailplane gives damping and this is caused by the relative wind seen by the tail as the aircraft rotates around the center of mass. For example, when the aircraft is oscillating, but is aligned with the overall vehicles motion. Depending on the design and flight regime, its tailplane may create positive lift or negative lift. It is sometimes assumed that on an aircraft this will always be a net down force. On some pioneer designs, such as the Bleriot XI, the center of gravity was between the center of pressure from the wings and the tailplane, which provided positive lift. However this arrangement can be unstable and these often had severe handling issues. Later examples of aircraft from World War I and onwards into the years that had positive lift tailplanes include, chronologically. But with care a lifting tailplane can be made stable, an example is provided by the Bachem Ba 349 Natter VTOL rocket-powered interceptor, which had a lifting tail and was both stable and controllable in flight. In many modern aircraft, the center of gravity is placed ahead of the center of pressure of the main wing. The wing lift then exerts a pitch-down moment around the centre of gravity, a disadvantage is that it generates trim drag. Using a computer to control the elevator allows aerodynamically unstable aircraft to be flown in the same manner, aircraft such as the F-16 are flown with artificial stability. The advantage of this is a significant reduction drag caused by the tailplane, at transonic speeds, an aircraft can experience a shift rearwards in the center of pressure due to the buildup and movement of shockwaves
Tailplane
–
The tailplane of this
P-51 is shown in pink.
Tailplane
–
Tailplane (in shadow) of an
easyJet Airbus A319
15.
Longeron
–
In aircraft and launch vehicle construction, a longeron, or stringer or stiffener, is a thin strip of material to which the skin of an aircraft or propellant tank may be fastened. In aircraft fuselage, stringers are attached to formers and run in the direction of the aircraft. They are primarily responsible for transferring the aerodynamic loads acting on the skin onto the frames, in the wings or horizontal stabilizer, longerons run spanwise and attach between the ribs. The primary function here also is to transfer the bending loads acting on the wings onto the ribs, sometimes the terms longeron and stringer are used interchangeably. Historically, though, there is a difference between the two terms. If the longitudinal members in a fuselage are few in number and run all along the fuselage length, the longeron system also requires that the fuselage frames be closely spaced. If the longitudinal members are numerous and are placed just between two formers/frames, then they are called stringers, in the stringer system the longitudinal members are smaller and the frames are spaced farther apart. Generally, longerons are of larger cross-section when compared to stringers, on large modern aircraft the stringer system is more common because it is more weight-efficient, despite being more complex to construct and analyze. Some aircraft use a combination of both stringers and longerons, longerons often carry larger loads than stringers and also help to transfer skin loads to internal structure. Longerons nearly always attach to frames or ribs, stringers often are not attached to anything but the skin, where they carry a portion of the fuselage bending moment through axial loading. It is not uncommon to have a mixture of longerons and stringers in the major structural component. Stringers are also used in the construction of launch vehicle propellant tanks. For example, the Falcon 9 launch vehicle uses stringers in the Kerosene tanks, but not in the Liquid Oxygen tanks, on both the first and second stages
Longeron
–
Interior of a Boeing/Stearman PT-17 showing small channel section stringers.
16.
Elevator (aircraft)
–
Elevators are flight control surfaces, usually at the rear of an aircraft, which control the aircrafts pitch, and therefore the angle of attack and the lift of the wing. The elevators are usually hinged to the tailplane or horizontal stabilizer and they may be the only pitch control surface present, sometimes located at front or integrated into a rear all-moving tailplane also called a slab elevator or stabilator. The effects of drag and engine thrust may also result in pitch moments that need to be compensated with the horizontal stabilizer, both the horizontal stabilizer and the elevator contribute to pitch stability, but only the elevators provide pitch control. They do so by decreasing or increasing the force created by the stabilizer, an increased downward force, produced by up elevator, forces the tail down. At constant speed, the wing angle of attack causes a greater lift to be produced by the wing, accelerating the aircraft upwards. The drag and power demand also increase, a downward force at the tail, produced by down elevator, allows the tail to rise. At constant speed, the decrease in angle of attack reduces the lift, on many low-speed aircraft, a trim tab is present at the rear of the elevator, which the pilot can adjust to eliminate forces on the control column at the desired attitude and airspeed. Supersonic aircraft have all-moving tailplanes, because shock waves generated on the horizontal stabilizer greatly reduced the effectiveness of hinged elevators, delta winged aircraft combine ailerons and elevators –and their respective control inputs– into one control surface called elevon. Elevators are usually part of the tail, at the rear of an aircraft, in some aircraft, pitch-control surfaces are in the front, ahead of the wing, in a two-surface aircraft, this type of configuration is called a canard or a tandem wing. The Wright Brothers early aircraft were of type, Mignet Pou-du-Ciel. Some early three surface aircraft had front elevators, modern three surface aircraft may have both front and rear elevators and these may be used in many unmanned aerial vehicles and 6th generation fighter aircraft. Two promising approaches are flexible wings, and fluidics, in flexible wings, much or all of a wing surface can change shape in flight to deflect air flow. The X-53 Active Aeroelastic Wing is a NASA effort, the Adaptive Compliant Wing is a military and commercial effort. In this use, fluidics promises lower mass, costs, and very low inertia and response times, and simplicity
Elevator (aircraft)
–
Elevator and pitch trim tab of a
light aircraft
Elevator (aircraft)
–
Elevators' effect on pitch
Elevator (aircraft)
–
A drooped elevator, nearly touching the grass, on the horizontal stabilizer of this Currie Wot biplane.
Elevator (aircraft)
–
Pre-installed elevators for a small
Airbus. The elevator is the silver surface on the right hand side of the picture, immediately below the red pipes on the factory wall
17.
Gable roof
–
A gable roof is the classic, most commonly occurring roof shape in those parts of the world with cold or temperate climates. It consists of two sections sloping in opposite directions and placed such that the highest, horizontal edges meet to form the roof ridge. The design of type of roof is achieved using rafters. The pitch of the roof and the height of the gutters can vary greatly, the reason why the gable roof is so common is the simple design of the roof timbers and the rectangular shape of the roof sections. This avoids details which require a great deal of work or cost, if the pitch or the rafter lengths of the two roof sections are different, it is described as an asymmetrical gable roof. A gable roof on a tower is usually called a cheese wedge roof in Switzerland. Its versatility means that the roof is used in many regions of the world. In regions with strong winds and heavy rain, gable roofs are built with a pitch in order, for example. By comparison, in mountain and alpine regions, gable roofs have a shallow pitch, because this supports snow better. Gable roofs have several advantages, They are inexpensive They may be designed in different ways. They are based on a design principle. They are very weather-resistant They can be constructed in a way through the use of natural materials. But gable roofs also have disadvantages, Only roof windows. Low-pitch gable roofs result in a loss of living space and this may be partly compensated for e. g. by the installation of dormers. Gable roofs may be constructed with different pitches and these are sometimes categorised by different names
Gable roof
–
A single-story house with three gables, although only two can be seen (highlighted in yellow). This intersection of gables is a cross gable roof
Gable roof
–
Decorative gable roof at 176-178 St. John's Place between Sixth and Seventh Avenue in the
Park Slope neighborhood of
Brooklyn, New York City
Gable roof
–
The cathedral in Amiens showing three portals with wimperg and pinnacles and rose window.
18.
Cabane strut
–
In aeronautics, bracing comprises additional structural members which stiffen the functional airframe to give it rigidity and strength under load. Bracing may be applied both internally and externally, and may take the form of strut, which act in compression or tension as the need arises, and/or wires, which act only in tension. Another disadvantage of bracing wires is that they require routine checking and adjustment, or rigging, during the early years of aviation, bracing was a universal feature of all forms of aeroplane, including the monoplanes and biplanes which were then equally common. Today, bracing in the form of lift struts is still used for light commercial designs where a high wing. Bracing works by creating a triangulated truss structure which resists bending or twisting, by comparison, an unbraced cantilever structure bends easily unless it carries a lot of heavy reinforcement. Making the structure allows it to be much lighter and stiffer. To reduce weight and air resistance, the structure may be made hollow, for example, a high-wing monoplane may be given a diagonal lifting strut running from the bottom of the fuselage to a position far out towards the wingtip. This increases the depth of the wing root to the height of the fuselage. Typically, the ends of bracing struts are joined to the internal structural components such as a wing spar or a fuselage bulkhead. Bracing may be used to resist all the forces which occur in an airframe, including lift, weight, drag. A strut is a bracing component stiff enough to resist these forces whether they place it under compression or tension, a wire is a bracing component able only to resist tension, going slack under compression, and consequently is nearly always used in conjunction with struts. A square frame made of bars is not rigid but tends to bend at the corners. Bracing it with a diagonal bar would be heavy. A wire would be much lighter but would stop it collapsing only one way, to hold it rigid, two cross-bracing wires are needed. This method of cross-bracing can be clearly on early biplanes. Another way of arranging a rigid structure is to make the cross pieces solid enough to act in compression and this method was once common on monoplanes, where the wing and a central cabane or a pylon form the cross members while wire bracing forms the outer diamond. Most commonly found on biplane and other aircraft, wire bracing was also common on early monoplanes. Unlike struts, bracing wires always act in tension The thickness and profile of a wire affect the drag it causes, wires may be made of multi-stranded cable, a single strand of piano wire, or aerofoil sectioned steel
Cabane strut
–
Cabane struts of a
de Havilland Tiger Moth
19.
Wingspan
–
The wingspan of a bird or an airplane is the distance from one wingtip to the other wingtip. For example, the Boeing 777 has a wingspan of about 60 metres, and a wandering albatross caught in 1965 had a wingspan of 3.63 metres, the official record for a living bird. The term wingspan, more technically extent, is used for other winged animals such as pterosaurs, bats, insects, etc. In humans, the term also refers to the distance between the length from one end of an individuals arms to the other when raised parallel to the ground at shoulder height at a 90º angle. Former professional basketball player Manute Bol stands at 77 and owns one of the largest wingspans at 86, the wingspan of an aircraft is always measured in a straight line, from wingtip to wingtip, independently of wing shape or sweep. The lift from wings is proportional to their area, so the heavier the animal or aircraft the bigger that area must be. The area is the product of the times the width of the wing, so either a long. For efficient steady flight, the ratio of span to chord, long-ranging birds, like albatrosses, and most commercial aircraft maximize aspect ratio. Alternatively, animals and aircraft which depend on maneuverability need to be able to roll fast to turn, for them, short-span, broad wings are preferred. The highest aspect ratio wings are aircraft propellers, in their most extreme form as helicopter rotors. In basketball and gridiron football, a measurement is used to determine the players wingspan. This is called reach in boxing terminology, the wingspan of Manute Bol, at 8 feet 6 inches, is the longest in NBA history, and his vertical reach was 10 feet 5 inches
Wingspan
–
The distance A to B is the wingspan of this
Saudi Arabian Airlines Boeing 777-200ER
20.
Bungee cord
–
A bungee cord, also known as a shock cord, is an elastic cord composed of one or more elastic strands forming a core, usually covered in a woven cotton or polypropylene sheath. Specialized bungees, such as used in bungee jumping, may be made entirely of elastic strands. Bungee cords have been used to provide a lightweight suspension for aircraft undercarriages from before World War I, bungee cords were also used in parachuting to assist in opening the old-style parachute container after the ripcord was pulled. Today, bungee cords are most often used to secure objects without tying knots, inexpensive bungee cords, with metal or plastic hooks on each end, are marketed as a general utility item. This form is known as kangaroo, octopus, or occy. Bungee cords have also used to make bungee chairs and for other purposes. The origin of the name bungee, bungie or bungy is uncertain, the Oxford English Dictionary records the use in 1938 of the phrase bungee-launching of gliders using an elasticized cord. Bungee cords are a source of eye injury and doctors suggest not using them
Bungee cord
–
Bungee cords equipped with metal hooks
Bungee cord
–
A child on a bungee cord device in Moscow, Russia
21.
Crosswind landing
–
In aviation, a crosswind landing is a landing maneuver in which a significant component of the prevailing wind is perpendicular to the runway center line. Aircraft in flight are subject to the direction of the winds in which the aircraft is operating, for example, an aircraft in flight that is pointed directly north along its longitudinal axis will, generally, fly in that northerly direction. However, if there is a west wind, the track of the aircraft will be slightly to the east of north. If the aircraft was landing north on a runway, it would need to compensate for this easterly drift caused by the west crosswind. In situations where a crosswind is present, the aircraft will drift laterally as it approaches the runway and this drift poses significant safety issues because safe operation of the undercarriage requires the body and track of the aircraft to be aligned with the runway at touch down. If the crosswind landing is not executed safely, the aircraft may experience wingstrike, the following guidelines are advised by Boeing for a crosswind landing. These winds are measured at 10 m tower height for a runway 45 m in width, basically, there are 3 landing techniques which may be used to correct for cross winds, de-crab, crab, and sideslip. The objective of this technique is to maintain wings level and the position near the runway centerline during approach. The nose points into the wind so that the approaches the runway slightly skewed with respect to the runway centerline. This gives the impression of approaching the runway flying sideways, which can be disorienting for the pilot, position is maintained by balancing the crosswind component, or more accurately the drag force arising from it, with engine thrust. Wings are maintained throughout the approach. The airplane can land using crab only up to the landing crosswind guideline, on dry runways, upon touchdown the airplane tracks towards the upwind edge of the runway while de-crabbing to align with the runway. Immediate upwind aileron is needed to ensure the wings remain level while rudder is needed to track center line, the greater the amount of crab at touchdown, the larger the lateral deviation from the point of touchdown. For this reason, touchdown in a crab only condition is not recommended when landing on a dry runway, however, proper rudder and upwind aileron must be applied after touchdown to ensure directional control is maintained. This sideslip crosswind technique is to maintain the aircrafts heading aligned with the runway centerline, the initial phase of the approach is flown using the Crab technique to correct for drift. The aircraft heading is adjusted using opposite rudder and ailerons into the wind to align with the runway and this places the aircraft at a constant sideslip angle, which its natural stability will tend to correct. Sufficient rudder and aileron must be applied continuously to maintain the sideslip at this value, the dihedral action of the wings has a tendency to cause the aircraft to roll, so aileron must be applied to check the bank angle. With a slight residual bank angle, a touchdown is typically accomplished with the main wheels touching down just before the downwind wheels
Crosswind landing
–
XB-52 performing a crab landing having nose pointed toward incoming wind, but undercarriage aligned along the runway
Crosswind landing
–
Boeing 737 performing crosswind landing with right wing down
22.
Alessandro Anzani
–
Anzani was an engine manufacturer founded by the Italian Alessandro Anzani, which produced proprietary engines for aircraft, cars, boats, and motorcycles in factories in Britain, France and Italy. From his native Italy, Anzani moved to France where he involved in cycle racing. He moved on to motorcycles and designed and built a record breaking lightweight engine, in 1907, he set up a small workshop in Paris with three staff and while they were building his engines, he designed a hydrofoil powered by one of his engines and propellers. He supplied one of his engines to Enrico Forlanini and developed it further into a three-cylinder, air-cooled, radial engine ideal for the new aeroplanes. One of the engines, the 25 hp Anzani W-3 or Fan type, was supplied to Louis Blériot who used it on his successful crossing of the English Channel in 1909. Fan 10-12 hp 3.35 x 3.35 Anzani 3-cyl, Fan 12-15 hp 3.35 x 3.94 Anzani 3-cyl. Fan 25-30 hp 4.13 x 5.12 Anzani 3-cyl, Fan 30-35 hp 4.73 x 5.12 Anzani 3-cyl. Fan 40-45 hp 5.32 x 5.92 Anzani 3-cyl, V 30-35 hp 35 hp at 1,600 rpm Anzani 4-cyl. Radial 45hp at 1,300 rpm Anzani 6-cyl, another factory at Monza, Italy was added in 1914. In 1920, Anzani turned to racing and built a small car with one of his 750 cc two-cylinder engines, air-cooled of course. They also made a 1098 cc cyclecar between 1923 and 1924, as used in the T. B. On his 50th birthday in 1927, Anzani decided to sell his factories in Paris and London, keeping only the Monza works for sentimental reasons, in the UK, British Anzani outsourced the manufacture of their engines to Coventry Ordnance Works Ltd. In the 1920s, it was refinanced as British Vulpine Engine Company and they supplied AC Cars with the 1496cc side-valve four-cylinder, Frazer-Nash with a 1496cc side valve engine, Morgan Motor Company with a V-twin, and Squire with the R1 twin cam engine. Berkeley Cars used small Anzani motorcycle engines in some models, British Anzanis best known products were motorcycle, lawnmower and outboard engines. Cotton, Tandon and Greeves motorcycles used Anzani motors, in later years, the company diversified. In the years after World War II, the main product was the Iron Horse - a two-wheeled pedestrian-controlled ploughing engine. In time, four-wheeled versions with the sitting on the front of the vehicle were produced. The company became the British Anzani Group, and was trading under that name when it went into liquidation in 1980, the trademark British Anzani was re-registered in 2003 and the company, Anzani Ltd, in 2006
Alessandro Anzani
–
Anzani Military Model Fan (W-) type aero engine
Alessandro Anzani
–
Alessandro Anzani in 1906, on his Fan type-engined motorbike
Alessandro Anzani
–
Installed replica of an Anzani W-3 Motor.
Alessandro Anzani
–
Anzani Y type aero engine in Deperdussin
23.
Anzani 3-cylinder
–
From 1905 to 1915, Alessandro Anzani built a number of three-cylinder fan and radial engines, one of which powered Louis Blériots 1909 cross-channel flight. An Anzani three-cylinder engine that powers a Blériot XI based in England is thought to be the oldest airworthy engine in the world, Alessandro Anzani began building motorcycle engines in France around 1905. Unusually, his motors were air- rather than water-cooled, making them light and his first designs were two-cylinder V-engines, and he rode machines powered by them to records and race success in 1905 and 1906. In the same period he had developed a version, more powerful than the twins. As the image shows, the engine fitted neatly into the cycle frame, three-cylinder fans were alternatively known as W or W-3 engines. The appeal of the fan configuration was that, because all the cylinder were above the horizontal there was danger of the plugs being fouled by the lubricating oil. The disadvantage, particularly for an engine, was the extra weight required to counterbalance the pistons. In response to the growing interest in aviation in France after the Wright brothers visit in 1908, the cylinders were each a single iron casting and the one-piece crankcase was aluminium. Pistons were steel with cast rings, in most of these the outer cylinders were at 60° to the central one, though a contemporary diagram shows one, described as the cross channel engine, with a 55° angle. They were all air-cooled side-valve engines, each exhaust valve was controlled from below by a cam in the crankcase, most contemporary and pre-1921 sources agree that the bores of these early engines were between 100 and 105 mm, but strokes between 120 and 150 mm are quoted. Most put the output of engines at about 18 kW at around 1. It was an engine of this sort that famously powered Louis Blériots Type XI monoplane across La Manche on 25 July 1909, contemporary sources differ on its bore, stroke and swept volume. The first description of the machine in Flight describes the engine as having dimensions of 100 ×150 mm. However, a few months later they printed the engineering drawing of the 55° engine, if their identification was right, then Bleriot used a 3. 00-litre engine. A head-on photograph of the aircraft also shows a 55° engine. Even before the flight, Anzani was selling more powerful versions with larger bores, a 120 mm bore,4. 4-litre variant produced 26 kW. These fan engines remained in production until at least 1913, though there were important improvements, the exhaust valve was moved to the cylinder head and operated by rockers via push rods, and a mixing chamber was arranged in the crankcase. The 1913 three-cylinder Anzani fan engine had a separation of 72°
Anzani 3-cylinder
–
Anzani 3-cylinder
Anzani 3-cylinder
–
Installed replica of an Anzani 3W Motor
Anzani 3-cylinder
–
Anzani "Y"
radial engine
Anzani 3-cylinder
–
Anzani inverted Y-type aero engine in a Deperdussin (Shuttleworth Collection), and nearly identical to Old Rhinebeck's Bleriot XI engine
24.
W engine
–
Four banks of cylinders sharing a common crankshaft, also called a double-V Two banks of cylinders with two crankshafts. The classical W engine uses three banks of cylinders, all connected to one crankshaft, one of the first W engines was the Anzani 3-cylinder, built in 1906, to be used in Anzani motorcycles. It is this W3 engine which powered the Blériot XI. Shortly afterward the W3 configuration was changed to a 120°-angle, three-cylinder radial engine configuration as the original W3 engines replacement, the 1917 Napier Lion aircraft engine was an early W12 engine. At the same time the 500 horsepower Farman 12We wa used by many aircraft, a three-bank W12 design was also pursued by Audi, which later abandoned the project. Similar to the W3 built by Anzani in 1906, the Feuling W3 is a 180 horsepower, three-cylinder air-cooled engine for motorcycle cruisers, like radial aircraft engines it has a master connecting rod and two slave rods connected to the three 101.6 millimetres pistons. Motorcycle Cruiser Magazine reviewed Feulingss Warlock powered motorcycle in the October edition of 2000, cory Ness built his chopper using a Feuling W3 engine during a Biker Build Off episode. In 1937 Allison built the V-3420 by combining two of their V-1710s on a common crankcase, early in World War II, Daimler-Benz built the DB 606A/B power system, weighing 1.5 tonnes apiece. Based on the Daimler-Benz DB601 V12 aircraft engine and it was a pair of liquid-cooled inverted V12s coupled to work on a single gear shaft. The inboard rows of cylinders were oriented downward and almost parallel to each other, Volkswagen Group created the first successful automotive W engine, with the introduction of its W8. The W12 combines two narrow-angle VR6 engine cylinder heads around a single crankshaft for a total of four banks of cylinders. For this reason, the configuration is sometimes, and more accurately, referred to as a VV or WR. As a result, it considerably more power than the original version. The narrow angle between bank pairs makes this resemble a V12 engine, in that it has just two cylinder heads and two sets of camshafts, the W12 engine has bore-stroke of 84.0 millimetres and 90.2 millimetres. Volkswagen Group went on to produce a W16 engine prototype which produced 465 kilowatts for the Bentley Hunaudières concept car, a quad-turbocharged version of this engine went into production in 2005 powering the 736 kilowatts Bugatti Veyron EB16.4. The major advantage of these engines is packaging, they contain high numbers of cylinders but are relatively compact in their external dimensions, in 2006, the Volkswagen Group-owned Bugatti produced the Bugatti Veyron EB16.4 with an 8.0 litre W16 engine. This has four turbochargers, and it produces DIN rated motive power output of 736 kilowatts at 6,000 revolutions per minute. It uses four valves per cylinder,64 valves total, with four overhead camshafts arranged in an overhead camshaft layout
W engine
–
A
Napier Lion engine
W engine
–
Napier Lion VII
W engine
–
A
W16 engine from the
Bugatti Veyron
25.
Juglans
–
Walnut trees are any species of tree in the plant genus Juglans, the type genus of the family Juglandaceae, the seeds of which are referred to as walnuts. The common name derives from Old English wealhhnutu, literally foreign nut, because it was introduced from Gaul. The Latin name for the walnut was nux Gallica, Gallic nut, the generic name comes from Latin jūglans, meaning walnut, walnut tree, jūglans in turn is a contraction of Jōvis glans, nut of Jupiter. Tradition has it that a tree should be beaten. The old saying runs, A woman, a dog and a tree, the harder theyre beaten. The saying is believed to originate from the mainland European practice of harvesting by beating with long poles and this would have the added benefits of removing dead wood and stimulating shoot formation. The two most commercially important species are J. regia for timber and nuts, and J. nigra for timber, both species have similar cultivation requirements and are widely grown in temperate zones. Walnuts are light-demanding species that benefit from protection from wind, walnuts are also very hardy against drought. Interplanting walnut plantations with a nitrogen fixing plant, such as Elaeagnus × ebbingei or Elaeagnus umbellata, many different cultivars are available for growers, and offer different growth habits, flowering and leafing, kernel flavours and shell thicknesses. A key trait for more northerly latitudes of North America and Europe is phenology, some cultivars have been developed for novel ‘hedge’ production systems developed in Europe and would not suit more traditional orchard systems. The leaves and blossoms of the walnut tree normally appear in spring, the male cylindrical catkins are developed from leafless shoots from the past year, they are about 10 cm in length and have a large number of little flowers. Female flowers appear in a cluster at the peak of the current year’s leafy shoots. The fruits of the walnut are a type of fruit known as a pseudodrupe. The nut kernels of all the species are edible, but the walnuts most commonly traded are from the J. regia, J. nigra kernels are also produced commercially in the US. Of the more than 30 varieties of J. regia grown there, Chandler, however, trees grafted on these rootstocks often succumb to black line. In some countries, immature nuts in their husks are preserved in vinegar, in the UK, these are called pickled walnuts and this is one of the major uses for fresh nuts from the small scale plantings. In Armenian cuisine, unripe walnuts, including husks, are preserved in sugar syrup, in Italy, liqueurs called Nocino and Nocello are flavoured with walnuts, while Salsa di Noci is a pasta sauce originating from Liguria. In Georgia, walnuts are ground with other ingredients to make walnut sauce, walnuts are heavily used in India
Juglans
–
Juglans
Juglans
–
Walnut is one of the main ingredients of
Baklava and
Turkish cuisine.
Juglans
–
Persian walnut (Juglans regia) seeds
Juglans
–
The shells of walnuts
26.
Wright Brothers
–
They made the first controlled, sustained flight of a powered, heavier-than-air aircraft on December 17,1903, four miles south of Kitty Hawk, North Carolina. In 1904–05 the brothers developed their flying machine into the first practical fixed-wing aircraft, although not the first to build and fly experimental aircraft, the Wright brothers were the first to invent aircraft controls that made fixed-wing powered flight possible. The brothers fundamental breakthrough was their invention of three-axis control, which enabled the pilot to steer the aircraft effectively and this method became and remains standard on fixed-wing aircraft of all kinds. From the beginning of their work, the Wright brothers focused on developing a reliable method of pilot control as the key to solving the flying problem. This approach differed significantly from other experimenters of the time who put emphasis on developing powerful engines. Using a small wind tunnel, the Wrights also collected more accurate data than any before, enabling them to design and build wings. Their first U. S. patent,821,393, did not claim invention of a machine, but rather. They gained the skills essential for their success by working for years in their shop with printing presses, bicycles, motors. Their work with bicycles in particular influenced their belief that a vehicle like a flying machine could be controlled and balanced with practice. From 1900 until their first powered flights in late 1903, they conducted extensive tests that also developed their skills as pilots. Their bicycle shop employee Charlie Taylor became an important part of the team, the Wright brothers status as inventors of the airplane has been subject to counter-claims by various parties. Much controversy persists over the competing claims of early aviators. The Wright brothers were two of seven born to Milton Wright, of English and Dutch ancestry, and Susan Catherine Koerner, of German. Wilbur was born near Millville, Indiana, in 1867, Orville in Dayton, Ohio, the other Wright siblings were Reuchlin, Lorin, Katharine, and twins Otis and Ida. In elementary school, Orville was given to mischief and was once expelled, the direct paternal ancestry goes back to a Samuel Wright who sailed to America and settled in Massachusetts in 1636. In 1878 their father, who traveled often as a bishop in the Church of the United Brethren in Christ, the device was based on an invention of French aeronautical pioneer Alphonse Pénaud. Made of paper, bamboo and cork with a band to twirl its rotor. Wilbur and Orville played with it until it broke, and then built their own, in later years, they pointed to their experience with the toy as the spark of their interest in flying
Wright Brothers
–
Orville and Wilbur Wright in 1905
Wright Brothers
Wright Brothers
–
Wilbur (left) and Orville (right) as children in 1876
Wright Brothers
27.
Calais
–
Calais is a town and major ferry port in northern France in the department of Pas-de-Calais, of which it is a sub-prefecture. Although Calais is by far the largest city in Pas-de-Calais, the prefecture is its third-largest city of Arras. The population of the area at the 2010 census was 126,395. Calais overlooks the Strait of Dover, the narrowest point in the English Channel, which is only 34 km wide here, the White Cliffs of Dover can easily be seen on a clear day from Calais. Calais is a port for ferries between France and England, and since 1994, the Channel Tunnel has linked nearby Coquelles to Folkestone by rail. Due to its position, Calais since the Middle Ages has been a major port and it was annexed by Edward III of England in 1347 and grew into a thriving centre for wool production. The town came to be called the brightest jewel in the English crown owing to its importance as the gateway for the tin, lead, lace. Calais was a possession of England until its capture by France in 1558. In 1805 it was an area for Napoleons troops for several months during his planned invasion of the United Kingdom. The town was razed to the ground during World War II. During World War II, the Germans built massive bunkers along the coast in preparation for launching missiles on England, the old part of the town, Calais proper, is situated on an artificial island surrounded by canals and harbours. The modern part of the town, St-Pierre, lies to the south, south east of the Place is the church of Notre-Dame, built during the English occupancy of Calais. It is arguably the only built in the English perpendicular style in all of France. In this church former French President Charles de Gaulle married his wife Yvonne Vendroux, south of the Place and opposite the Parc St Pierre is the Hôtel-de-ville, and the belfry from the 16th and early 17th centuries. Today, Calais is visited by more than 10 million annually, although the early history of habitation in the area is limited, the Romans called the settlement Caletum. Julius Caesar mustered 800 to 1,000 sailing boats, five legions, as the pebble and sand ridge extended eastward from Calais, the haven behind it developed into fen, as the estuary progressively filled with silt and peat. Calais was improved by the Count of Flanders in 997 and fortified by the Count of Boulogne in 1224, in 1189, Richard the Lionheart is documented to have landed at Calais on his journey to the Third Crusade. Angered, the English king demanded reprisals against the citizens for holding out for so long
Calais
–
Port of Calais
Calais
–
"Le Devouement des Bourgeois de Calais 1347", "The Devotion of the Burghers of Calais".
Philippa of Hainault begs King Edward III to spare the lives of the six volunteers for martyrdom. 19th-century mural in Council Chamber, Hôtel de Ville, Calais
Calais
–
The Burghers of Calais, by Rodin, with the Hôtel de Ville behind.
Calais
–
The Marches of Calais temp. Henry VIII. (Top: south, bottom:north): "Cales Market" within citadel, shown at bottom, top "
Gyenes Castel ", bottom left "
Graveling ", bottom right "
Sand Gat "
28.
Dover
–
Dover is a town and major ferry port in the home county of Kent, in South East England. The town is the centre of the Dover District and home of the Dover Calais ferry through the Port of Dover. The surrounding chalk cliffs are known as the White Cliffs of Dover and its strategic position has been evident throughout its history, archaeological finds have revealed that the area has always been a focus for peoples entering and leaving Britain. The name of the town derives from the name of the river flows through it. There was a barracks in Dover, which was closed in 2007. Although many of the ferry services have declined, services related to the Port of Dover provide a great deal of the town’s employment. Local residents had clubbed together to propose buying it for the community, first recorded in its Latinised form of Portus Dubris, the name derives from the Brythonic word for waters. The same element is present in the towns French and Modern Welsh forms, subsequent name forms included Doverre, The current name was in use at least by the time of Shakespeares King Lear, in which the town and its cliffs play a prominent role. The sight of the cliffs when approaching Dover may have given the island of Britain its ancient name of Albion. Dover’s history, because of its proximity to France, has always been of strategic importance to Britain. Archaeological finds have shown there were Stone Age people in the area. Some Iron Age finds exist also, but the coming of the Romans made Dover part of their communications network, like Lemanis and Rutupiae Dover was connected by road to Canterbury and Watling Street, and it became Portus Dubris, a fortified port. Forts were built above the port, lighthouses were constructed to guide passing ships, Dover figured largely in the Domesday Book as an important borough. It also served as a bastion against various attackers, notably the French during the Napoleonic Wars and it was one of the Cinque Ports during medieval times. Dover is near the extreme south-east corner of Britain between Deal and Folkestone and this led to the silting up of the river mouth by the action of longshore drift, the town was then forced into making artificial breakwaters to keep the port in being. These breakwaters have been extended and adapted so that the port lies almost entirely on reclaimed land. The higher land on either side of the valley – the Western Heights, the town has gradually extended up the river valley, encompassing several villages in doing so. Little growth is possible along the coast, since the cliffs are on the sea’s edge, the railway, being tunnelled and embanked, skirts the foot of the cliffs
Dover
–
Aerial view of Dover Harbour
Dover
–
Dover Castle seen from Castle Street.
Dover
–
A very early Photograph showing a Dover Street Scene c.1860
Dover
–
1945 Ordnance Survey map of Dover, showing the harbour
29.
Daily Mail aviation prizes
–
Between 1907 and 1925, the Daily Mail newspaper, initially on the initiative of its proprietor, Alfred Harmsworth, 1st Viscount Northcliffe, awarded numerous prizes for achievements in aviation. The newspaper would stipulate the amount of a prize for the first aviators to perform a task in aviation. The prizes are credited with advancing the course of aviation during the early years, in addition, four consolation prizes were awarded, Scott Collection, a collection of aerophilately items relating to the 1912 flights
Daily Mail aviation prizes
–
Curtis "Jenny" JN-4
Norway
New Zealand
Romania
