1.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
2.
U.S. state
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A U. S. state is a constituent political entity of the United States of America. There are 50 states, which are together in a union with each other. Each state holds administrative jurisdiction over a geographic territory. Due to the shared sovereignty between each state and the government, Americans are citizens of both the federal republic and of the state in which they reside. State citizenship and residency are flexible, and no government approval is required to move between states, except for persons covered by certain types of court orders. States range in population from just under 600,000 to over 39 million, four states use the term commonwealth rather than state in their full official names. States are divided into counties or county-equivalents, which may be assigned some local authority but are not sovereign. County or county-equivalent structure varies widely by state, State governments are allocated power by the people through their individual constitutions. All are grounded in principles, and each provides for a government. States possess a number of powers and rights under the United States Constitution, Constitution has been amended, and the interpretation and application of its provisions have changed. The general tendency has been toward centralization and incorporation, with the government playing a much larger role than it once did. There is a debate over states rights, which concerns the extent and nature of the states powers and sovereignty in relation to the federal government. States and their residents are represented in the federal Congress, a legislature consisting of the Senate. Each state is represented in the Senate by two senators, and is guaranteed at least one Representative in the House, members of the House are elected from single-member districts. Representatives are distributed among the states in proportion to the most recent constitutionally mandated decennial census, the Constitution grants to Congress the authority to admit new states into the Union. Since the establishment of the United States in 1776, the number of states has expanded from the original 13 to 50, alaska and Hawaii are the most recent states admitted, both in 1959. The Constitution is silent on the question of states have the power to secede from the Union. Shortly after the Civil War, the U. S. Supreme Court, in Texas v. White, as a result, while the governments of the various states share many similar features, they often vary greatly with regard to form and substance
3.
Colorado
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Colorado is a state in the United States encompassing most of the Southern Rocky Mountains as well as the northeastern portion of the Colorado Plateau and the western edge of the Great Plains. Colorado is part of the Western United States, the Southwestern United States, Colorado is the 8th most extensive and the 21st most populous of the 50 United States. The United States Census Bureau estimates that the population of Colorado was 5,540,545 on July 1,2016, the state was named for the Colorado River, which Spanish travelers named the Río Colorado for the ruddy silt the river carried from the mountains. The Territory of Colorado was organized on February 28,1861, Colorado is nicknamed the Centennial State because it became a state in the same year as the centennial of the United States Declaration of Independence. Colorado is noted for its landscape of mountains, forests, high plains, mesas, canyons, plateaus, rivers. Denver is the capital and the most populous city of Colorado, residents of the state are properly known as Coloradans, although the term Coloradoan has been used archaically and lives on in the title of Fort Collins newspaper, the Coloradoan. Colorado, Wyoming and Utah are the states which have boundaries defined solely by lines of latitude and longitude. The summit of Mount Elbert at 14,440 feet elevation in Lake County is the highest point in Colorado, Colorado is the only U. S. state that lies entirely above 1,000 meters elevation. The point where the Arikaree River flows out of Yuma County, Colorado and this point, which holds the distinction of being the highest low elevation point of any state, is higher than the high elevation points of 18 states and the District of Columbia. A little less than one half of the area of Colorado is flat, East of the Rocky Mountains are the Colorado Eastern Plains of the High Plains, the section of the Great Plains within Nebraska at elevations ranging from roughly 3,350 to 7,500 feet. The Colorado plains were mostly prairies, but they have many patches of forests, buttes. Eastern Colorado is presently covered in farmland and rangeland, along with small farming villages. Precipitation is fair, averaging from 15 to 25 inches annually, corn, wheat, hay, soybeans, and oats are all typical crops, and most of the villages and towns in this region boast both a water tower and a grain elevator. Irrigation water is available from the South Platte, the Arkansas River, and a few other streams, however, heavy use of ground water from wells for irrigation has caused underground water reserves to decline. As well as agriculture, eastern Colorado hosts considerable livestock, such as cattle ranches. Roughly 70% of Colorados population resides along the edge of the Rocky Mountains in the Front Range Urban Corridor between Cheyenne, Wyoming, and Pueblo, Colorado. This region is protected from prevailing storms that blow in from the Pacific Ocean region by the high Rockies in the middle of Colorado. The Front Range includes Denver, Boulder, Fort Collins, Loveland, Colorado Springs, Pueblo, Greeley and other townships, on the other side of the Rockies, the significant population centers in Western Colorado are the cities of Grand Junction, Durango, and Montrose
4.
Gilpin County, Colorado
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Gilpin County is the second-least extensive of the 64 counties of the U. S. state of Colorado, behind only the City and County of Broomfield. As of the 2010 census, the population was 5,441, the county seat is Central City. The county was formed in 1861, while Colorado was still a Territory, and was named after Colonel William Gilpin, Gilpin County is part of the Denver-Aurora-Lakewood, CO Metropolitan Statistical Area. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 150 square miles. It is the second-smallest county by area in Colorado, the population density was 32 people per square mile. There were 2,929 housing units at a density of 20 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 94. 37% White,0. 53% Black or African American,0. 82% Native American,0. 69% Asian,0. 19% Pacific Islander,1. 53% from other races, and 1. 87% from two or more races. 4. 25% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race,26. 80% of all households were made up of individuals and 3. 70% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.32 and the family size was 2.81. In the county, the population was out with 21. 10% under the age of 18,5. 80% from 18 to 24,37. 40% from 25 to 44,30. 00% from 45 to 64. The median age was 38 years, for every 100 females there were 112.70 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 116.10 males, the median income for a household in the county was $51,942, and the median income for a family was $61,859. Males had an income of $38,560 versus $30,820 for females. The per capita income for the county was $26,148, about 1. 00% of families and 4. 00% of the population were below the poverty line, including 1. 40% of those under age 18 and 6. 10% of those age 65 or over
5.
Municipal corporation
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A municipal corporation is the legal term for a local governing body, including cities, counties, towns, townships, charter townships, villages, and boroughs. Municipal incorporation occurs when such municipalities become self-governing entities under the laws of the state or province in which they are located, often, this event is marked by the award or declaration of a municipal charter. A city charter or town charter is a document establishing a municipality such as a city or town. The concept developed in Europe during the Middle Ages and is considered to be a version of a constitution. Traditionally the granting of a charter gave a settlement and its inhabitants the right to town privileges under the feudal system, townspeople who lived in chartered towns were burghers, as opposed to serfs who lived in villages. Towns were often free, in the sense that they were protected by the king or emperor. Today the process for granting charters is determined by the type of government of the state in question, in monarchies, charters are still often a royal charter given by the Crown or the state authorities acting on behalf of the Crown. In federations, the granting of charters may be within the jurisdiction of the level of government such as a state or province. In Brazil, municipal corporations are called municípios and are created by means of legislation at the state level. All municipal corporations must also abide by a municipal law which is passed and amended at the municipal level. In Canada charters are granted by provincial authorities, in Germany, municipal corporations existed since antiquity and through medieval times, until they became out of favour during the absolutism. In order to strengthen the spirit, the city law of Prussia dated 19 November 1808 picked up this concept. It is the basis of municipal law. In India, a Municipal Corporation is a local government body. This standard varies from state to state, according to laws passed by state legislatures, the Corporation of Chennai was the first Municipal Corporation in India. It was established on 29 September 1688 by the British East India Company, the second was Hyderabad Municipal Corporation established in 1869 by the Nizam rulers of Hyderabad State. The third was the Calcutta Municipal Corporation, established in 1876, the Bombay Municipal Corporation was established in 1888 by the Bombay Municipal Corporation Act. The Delhi Municipal Council was established in 1911 during the Delhi Durbar when New Delhi was proclaimed to be the new Capital of India and it was elevated to Municipal Corporation level on 7 April 1958 by an Act of Parliament which established the Municipal Corporation of Delhi
6.
Colorado municipalities
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Colorado is a state located in the Western United States. Colorado currently has 271 incorporated municipalities, comprising 196 towns,73 cities, Colorado municipalities operate under one of five types of municipal governing authority. Denver has a mayor and a city council of 13 members with 11 members elected from council districts. The City and County of Broomfield operates under Article XX, Sections 10–13 of the Constitution of the State of Colorado. Broomfield has a city and county manager, an elected mayor. The home rule charter determines the form of government, a Colorado home rule municipality may declare itself to be either a city or a town. Colorado has 12 statutory cities, Colorado statutory cities operate under Title 31, Article 1, Section 203 and Article 4, statutory cities have an elected mayor and a city council composed of the mayor and two members elected from each ward. A statutory city may petition to reorganize as a Section 200 statutory city with a city manager. The mayor may be the city council elected at large or the city council may appoint a mayor. Colorado has 160 statutory towns, Colorado statutory towns operate under Title 31, Article 1, Section 203 and Article 4, statutory towns have an elected mayor and a board of trustees composed of the mayor and four or six additional members elected at large. The town mayor is called the Police Judge and the council is called the Board of Selectmen. Colorado law makes relatively few distinctions between a city and a town, a Home Rule Municipality may declare itself either a city or a town. In general, cities are more populous towns, although the towns of Castle Rock and Parker have more than 49,000 residents each. The City of Central is the only Colorado municipality that does not place its full name at the end of its municipal name. The towns of Garden City, Lake City, Orchard City, the municipality of Creede uses the official title City of Creede despite its status as a Colorado statutory town. Several resort communities use the village to describe their central business district. In Colorado, a municipality may extend into multiple counties, the City of Castle Pines is the youngest municipality in Colorado. The Town of Georgetown is governed by the oldest municipal charter in Colorado, the Town of Lakeside is the least populous municipality in Colorado
7.
2010 United States Census
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The 2010 United States Census, is the twenty-third and currently most recent United States national census. National Census Day, the day used for the census, was April 1,2010. As part of a drive to increase the accuracy,635,000 temporary enumerators were hired. The population of the United States was counted as 308,745,538, as required by the United States Constitution, the U. S. census has been conducted every 10 years since 1790. The 2000 U. S. Census was the previous census completed, participation in the U. S. Census is required by law in Title 13 of the United States Code. On January 25,2010, Census Bureau Director Robert Groves personally inaugurated the 2010 Census enumeration by counting World War II veteran Clifton Jackson, more than 120 million census forms were delivered by the U. S. Post Office beginning March 15,2010, the number of forms mailed out or hand-delivered by the Census Bureau was approximately 134 million on April 1,2010. The 2010 Census national mail participation rate was 74%, from April through July 2010, census takers visited households that did not return a form, an operation called non-response follow-up. In December 2010, the Census Bureau delivered population information to the president for apportionment, personally identifiable information will be available in 2082. The Census Bureau did not use a form for the 2010 Census. In several previous censuses, one in six households received this long form, the 2010 Census used only a short form asking ten basic questions, How many people were living or staying in this house, apartment, or mobile home on April 1,2010. Were there any additional people staying here on April 1,2010 that you did not include in Question 1, mark all that apply, Is this house, apartment, or mobile home – What is your telephone number. What is Person 1s age and Person 1s date of birth, is Person 1 of Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin. Does Person 1 sometimes live or stay somewhere else, the form included space to repeat some or all of these questions for up to twelve residents total. In contrast to the 2000 census, an Internet response option was not offered, detailed socioeconomic information collected during past censuses will continue to be collected through the American Community Survey. The survey provides data about communities in the United States on a 1-year or 3-year cycle, depending on the size of the community, rather than once every 10 years. A small percentage of the population on a basis will receive the survey each year. In June 2009, the U. S. Census Bureau announced that it would count same-sex married couples, however, the final form did not contain a separate same-sex married couple option
8.
Mountain Time Zone
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The clock time in this zone is based on the mean solar time at the 105th meridian west of the Greenwich Observatory. In the United States, the specification for the location of time zones. In the United States and Canada, this zone is generically called Mountain Time. Specifically, it is Mountain Standard Time when observing standard time, the term refers to the fact that the Rocky Mountains, which range from northwestern Canada to the US state of New Mexico, are located almost entirely in the time zone. In Mexico, this zone is known as the Pacific Zone. In the United States and Canada, the Mountain Time Zone is one ahead of the Pacific Time Zone and one hour behind the Central Time Zone. Sonora in Mexico and most of Arizona in the United States do not observe daylight saving time, and during the spring, summer, and autumn months they are on the same time as Pacific Daylight Time. The Navajo Nation, most of which lies within Arizona, does observe DST, although the Hopi Nation, as well as some Arizona state offices lying within the Navajo Nation, the largest city in the Mountain Time Zone is Phoenix, Arizona. TV broadcasting in the Mountain Time Zone is typically tape-delayed one hour, sonora – no daylight saving time, always on MST. Sinaloa Revillagigedo Islands, three of the four islands have the time as Mountain Time Zone, Isla Socorro, San Benedicto Island. The following states or areas are part of the Mountain Time Zone, Arizona – no daylight saving time, always on MST, except on the Navajo Nation. Colorado Idaho – southern half, south of the Salmon River Kansas – only the counties of Sherman, Wallace, Greeley and Hamilton, the remaining three counties that border Colorado, Cheyenne, Morton and Stanton, observe Central Time, as do all other Kansas counties. However, the state of Oklahoma is officially in the Central Time Zone. Additionally, northwestern Culberson County, Texas unofficially observes Mountain Time
9.
Daylight saving time
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Daylight saving time is the practice of advancing clocks during summer months by one hour so that evening daylight lasts an hour longer, while sacrificing normal sunrise times. Typically, regions that use Daylight Savings Time adjust clocks forward one hour close to the start of spring, American inventor and politician Benjamin Franklin proposed a form of daylight time in 1784. New Zealander George Hudson proposed the idea of saving in 1895. The German Empire and Austria-Hungary organized the first nationwide implementation, starting on April 30,1916, many countries have used it at various times since then, particularly since the energy crisis of the 1970s. The practice has both advocates and critics, DST clock shifts sometimes complicate timekeeping and can disrupt travel, billing, record keeping, medical devices, heavy equipment, and sleep patterns. Computer software often adjusts clocks automatically, but policy changes by various jurisdictions of DST dates, industrialized societies generally follow a clock-based schedule for daily activities that do not change throughout the course of the year. The time of day that individuals begin and end work or school, North and south of the tropics daylight lasts longer in summer and shorter in winter, with the effect becoming greater as one moves away from the tropics. However, they will have one hour of daylight at the start of each day. Supporters have also argued that DST decreases energy consumption by reducing the need for lighting and heating, DST is also of little use for locations near the equator, because these regions see only a small variation in daylight in the course of the year. After ancient times, equal-length civil hours eventually supplanted unequal, so civil time no longer varies by season, unequal hours are still used in a few traditional settings, such as some monasteries of Mount Athos and all Jewish ceremonies. This 1784 satire proposed taxing window shutters, rationing candles, and waking the public by ringing church bells, despite common misconception, Franklin did not actually propose DST, 18th-century Europe did not even keep precise schedules. However, this changed as rail transport and communication networks came to require a standardization of time unknown in Franklins day. Modern DST was first proposed by the New Zealand entomologist George Hudson, whose shift work job gave him time to collect insects. An avid golfer, he also disliked cutting short his round at dusk and his solution was to advance the clock during the summer months, a proposal he published two years later. The proposal was taken up by the Liberal Member of Parliament Robert Pearce, a select committee was set up to examine the issue, but Pearces bill did not become law, and several other bills failed in the following years. Willett lobbied for the proposal in the UK until his death in 1915, william Sword Frost, mayor of Orillia, Ontario, introduced daylight saving time in the municipality during his tenure from 1911 to 1912. Starting on April 30,1916, the German Empire and its World War I ally Austria-Hungary were the first to use DST as a way to conserve coal during wartime, Britain, most of its allies, and many European neutrals soon followed suit. Russia and a few other countries waited until the year
10.
ZIP Code
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ZIP Codes are a system of postal codes used by the United States Postal Service since 1963. The term ZIP, an acronym for Zone Improvement Plan, was chosen to suggest that the travels more efficiently, and therefore more quickly. The basic format consists of five numerical digits, an extended ZIP+4 code, introduced in 1983, includes the five digits of the ZIP Code, a hyphen, and four additional digits that determine a more specific location within a given ZIP Code. The term ZIP Code was originally registered as a servicemark by the U. S. Postal Service, USPS style for ZIP is all caps and the c in code is also capitalized, although style sheets for some publications use sentence case or lowercase. The early history and context of postal codes began with postal district/zone numbers, the United States Post Office Department implemented postal zones for numerous large cities in 1943. For example, Mr. John Smith 3256 Epiphenomenal Avenue Minneapolis 16, by the early 1960s a more organized system was needed, and on July 1,1963, non-mandatory five-digit ZIP Codes were introduced nationwide. Three months later, on October 1,1963, the U. S, an earlier list in June had proposed capitalized abbreviations ranging from two to five letters. The abbreviations have remained unchanged, with one exception, according to the historian of the U. S. Robert Moon, an employee of the post office, is considered the father of the ZIP Code, he submitted his proposal in 1944 while working as a postal inspector. The post office gives credit to Moon only for the first three digits of the ZIP Code, which describe the sectional center facility or sec center, an SCF is a central mail processing facility with those three digits. The SCF sorts mail to all post offices with those first three digits in their ZIP Codes, the mail is sorted according to the final two digits of the ZIP Code and sent to the corresponding post offices in the early morning. Sectional centers do not deliver mail and are not open to the public, Mail picked up at post offices is sent to their own SCF in the afternoon, where the mail is sorted overnight. The United States Post Office used a character, which it called Mr. ZIP. He was often depicted with a such as USE ZIP CODE in the selvage of panes of stamps or on labels contained in, or the covers of. In 1983, the U. S. Postal Service introduced an expanded ZIP Code system that it called ZIP+4, often called plus-four codes, add-on codes, or add ons. But initial attempts to promote use of the new format met with public resistance. For Post Office Boxes, the rule is that each box has its own ZIP+4 code. However, there is no rule, so the ZIP+4 Code must be looked up individually for each box. It is common to use add-on code 9998 for mail addressed to the postmaster,9999 for general delivery, for a unique ZIP Code, the add-on code is typically 0001
11.
Post-office box
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A post-office box or post office box is a uniquely addressable lockable box located on the premises of a post office station. In many regions, particularly in Africa and the Middle East, there is no door to door delivery of mail, for example, consequently, renting a PO box has traditionally been the only way to receive mail in such countries. However, some, like Jordan, have introduced mail home delivery, generally, post office boxes are rented from the post office either by individuals or by businesses on a basis ranging from monthly to annual, and the cost of rent varies depending on the box size. Central business district PO boxes are more expensive than rural PO boxes. In the United States, the rate used to be uniform across the country. In the United Kingdom, Royal Mail PO boxes are often more than pigeon-holes in the secure section of a sorting office. In such cases, the renter of the PO box will be issued with a showing the PO box number and delivery office name. For an additional fee, the Royal Mail will deliver received items to the geographical address. Some private companies (e. g. United Parcel Service and commercial mail receiving agencies, the difference with an official PO box is that mail sent there is addressed to a street address, instead of just addressed to PO Box CSX. The quantity of post office boxes in a station varies widely, stations of small areas are often equipped with fewer than 100 boxes, while stations in a central business district area may offer a combined quantity of over 200,000 post office boxes. In many post offices in the U. S. the PO box lobby is separate from the window-service lobby, as a result, some box lobbies are accessible after-hours by customers who are provided a code to a door keypad. In addition, some post offices are located in rented facilities such as shopping malls, as a result, PO boxes can only be accessed while that facility is open. If a parcel does not fit in a PO box, the postmaster will leave a note advising that customer to pick up that parcel from the counter. In some post offices, a key will be left in the PO box that corresponds to a larger, locked box where the patron may pick up his or her package if a signature is not required. Most often, in case, once the key is used to open the larger, locked box, the key cannot be removed again by the patron. Notes will also be left in the PO box in respect of cash on delivery, in 2011, the United States Postal Service began a pilot program called gopost which installed larger boxes to handle package pickup from an unstaffed station. A given box can be used by multiple customers thanks to the integration of a computer which accepts a delivery code, patent 6,690,997, issued February 10,2004 to Michael A. Rivalto. Deutsche Post started a concept called a Packstation in 2001
12.
Geographic Names Information System
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It is a type of gazetteer. GNIS was developed by the United States Geological Survey in cooperation with the United States Board on Geographic Names to promote the standardization of feature names, the database is part of a system that includes topographic map names and bibliographic references. The names of books and historic maps that confirm the feature or place name are cited, variant names, alternatives to official federal names for a feature, are also recorded. Each feature receives a permanent, unique feature record identifier, sometimes called the GNIS identifier, the database never removes an entry, except in cases of obvious duplication. The GNIS accepts proposals for new or changed names for U. S. geographical features, the general public can make proposals at the GNIS web site and can review the justifications and supporters of the proposals. The Bureau of the Census defines Census Designated Places as a subset of locations in the National Geographic Names Database, U. S. Postal Service Publication 28 gives standards for addressing mail. In this publication, the postal service defines two-letter state abbreviations, street identifiers such as boulevard and street, department of the Interior, U. S. Geological Survey, National Mapping Division, Digital Gazeteer, Users Manual. Least Heat Moon, William, Blue Highways, A Journey Into America, standard was withdrawn in September 2008, See Federal Register Notice, Vol.73, No. 170, page 51276 Report, Principles, Policies, and Procedures, Domestic Geographic Names, U. S. Postal Service Publication 28, November 2000. Board on Geographic Names website Geographic Names Information System Proposals from the general public Meeting minutes
13.
Pike's Peak Gold Rush
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An estimated 100,000 gold seekers took part in one of the greatest gold rushes in North American history. The participants in the rush were known as Fifty-Niners after 1859. But in fact the location of the Pikes Peak Gold Rush was 85 miles north of Pikes Peak and it was only named Pikes Peak Gold Rush because of how well known and important Pikes Peak was. The rush was exemplified by the slogan Pikes Peak or Bust, a reference to the prominent mountain at the eastern edge of the Rocky Mountains that guided many early prospectors to the region westward over the Great Plains. The prospectors provided the first major European-American population in the region, the rush created a few mining camps such as Denver City and Boulder City that would develop into cities. Many smaller camps such as Auraria and Saint Charles City were absorbed by larger camps, scores of other mining camps have faded into ghost towns, but quite a few camps such as Central City, Black Hawk, Georgetown, and Idaho Springs survive. For many years people had suspected the mountains had numerous rich gold deposits, in 1835, a French trapper by the name of Eustace Carriere had ended up losing his party and wandered through the mountains for many weeks. During these weeks he found many gold specimens which he took back to New Mexico for examination. Upon examination, they turned out to be pure gold, but when he tried to lead an expedition back to the location of where he found the gold, they came up short because he could not quite remember the location. The Rocky Mountain gold failed to impress or delay men with visions of unlimited wealth in California, as the hysteria of the California Gold Rush faded, many discouraged gold seekers returned home. Rumors of gold in the Rocky Mountains persisted and several small parties explored the region, in the summer of 1857, a party of Spanish-speaking gold seekers from New Mexico worked a placer deposit along the South Platte River about 5 miles above Cherry Creek in what is today Denver. William Greeneberry Green Russell was a Georgian who worked in the California gold fields in the 1850s, Russell was married to a Cherokee woman, and through his connections to the tribe, he heard about an 1849 discovery of gold along the South Platte River. Green Russell organized a party to prospect along the South Platte River and they rendezvoused with Cherokee tribe members along the Arkansas River in present-day Oklahoma and continued westward along the Santa Fe Trail. Others joined the party along the way until their number reached 107, upon reaching Bents Fort, they turned to the northwest, reaching the confluence of Cherry Creek and the South Platte on May 23. The site of their initial explorations is in present-day Confluence Park in Denver and they began prospecting in the river beds, exploring Cherry Creek and nearby Ralston Creek but without success. The site of the discovery is in the present-day Denver suburb of Englewood, just north of the junction of U. S. Highway 285, by 1860, Denver City, Golden City, and Boulder City were substantial towns serving the mines. Rapid population growth led to the creation of the Colorado Territory in 1861, the Pikes Peak Gold Rush sent many into a frenzy, prompting them to pack up their belongings and head to Colorado. They gathered their supplies, wagons, mules, mining equipment, as early as the spring of 1859, people raced to the Pikes Peak country
14.
Denver metropolitan area
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Denver is the central city of a conurbation region in the U. S. state of Colorado. The conurbation includes one continuous region consisting of the six counties of Adams, Arapahoe, Broomfield, Denver, Douglas. The Denver region is part of the Front Range Urban Corridor, the continuously urbanized area extends northwest into the City and County of Broomfield, bordering Jefferson and Adams counties, and south into Douglas County, adjoining Arapahoe County. Also included in the federally defined MSA are four counties, Elbert County on the southeastern prairie and Clear Creek, Gilpin. The Denver-Aurora-Lakewood Metropolitan Statistical Area comprises ten counties, in 2005 the RTD developed a twelve-year comprehensive plan, called FasTracks, to build and operate rail transit lines and expand and improve bus service throughout the region. Electricity is provided by Xcel Energy, cable television is provided by Comcast. Severity of pollution in this area has varied enormously over the years, in the late 1980s the area was frequently in violation of multiple National Ambient Air Quality Standards established by the United States Environmental Protection Agency. The Regional Air Quality Council was formed in 1989 to create plans to address the problem, through a variety of measures the areas air quality was improved and in 2002 the EPA designated the area in compliance with all federal health-based air quality standards. Denver was the first major city in the United States to reach compliance with all six of these standards after previously violating five of them, since then the EPA introduced a new standard for small particulates and made the existing ozone standard stricter. In 2003 the new standard was frequently exceeded in the area and was occasionally exceeded as far away as Rocky Mountain National Park. The RAQC hopes to implement plans enabling the area to comply with the new standards by 2007. S
15.
Central City, Colorado
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The city population was 663 at the 2010 United States Census. The city is a mining settlement founded in 1859 during the Pikes Peak Gold Rush. Central City and the adjacent city of Black Hawk form the federally designated Central City/Black Hawk Historic District, the city is now a part of the Denver-Aurora-Lakewood, CO Metropolitan Statistical Area. On May 6,1859, during the Pikes Peak Gold Rush, within two months many other veins were discovered, including the Bates, Gunnell, Kansas, and Burroughs. By 1860, as many as 10,000 prospectors had flocked to the town, then known as Mountain City, and surrounding prospects, the 1900 census showed 3,114 people. The year 1863 brought the first attempt by hard rock miners to form a hard rock miners union, of 125 miners signing a union resolution in Central City, about fifty broke windows and doors at the Bob Tail mine, forcing other workers out. After a night of shooting and fighting, the union effort among Central City miners failed, many Chinese lived in Central City during the early days working the placer deposits of Gregory Gulch. They were forbidden work in the underground mines, most of them are believed to have returned to China after making their stake. The frontier gambler Poker Alice lived for a time in Central City, Gold mining in the Central City district decreased rapidly between 1900 and 1920, as the veins were exhausted. The district was enlivened in the 1950s by efforts to locate uranium deposits, the population of Central City and its sister city Black Hawk fell to a few hundred by the 1950s. In an effort to compete, Central City completed a four-lane,8. 4-mile parkway from Interstate 70 to Central City, to compete, Central City has recently eliminated height restrictions for building on undeveloped land. Buildings were previously limited to heights of 53 feet, so as not to overshadow the towns historic buildings, tax from the gambling revenue provides funding for the State Historical Fund, administered by the Colorado Office of Archaeology and Historic Preservation. Central City is located in southern Gilpin County, the city limits extend south along the Central City Parkway into Clear Creek County, as far as Interstate 70. The city is bordered by Black Hawk to the east and Idaho Springs to the south, according to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 2.4 square miles. None of the area is covered with water, the Black Hawk & Central City Tramway, operated by the cities of Black Hawk and Central City, provides a free shuttle between the two towns. Ramblin Express and Ace Express Coaches provides transportation from Denver, as of the census of 2000, there were 515 people,261 households, and 101 families residing in the city. The population density was 273.0 inhabitants per square mile, there were 394 housing units at an average density of 208.8 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 91. 84% White,0. 19% Black or African American,1. 55% Native American,1. 17% Asian,1. 17% Pacific Islander,2. 52% from other races, and 1. 55% from two or more races
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Central City/Black Hawk Historic District
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The Central City/Black Hawk Historic District is a National Historic Landmark District that encompasses Central City and Black Hawk, Colorado. They are adjacent former gold mining camps in the Front Range of the Rocky Mountains in Gilpin County, Colorado, for a time, the area was known as the Richest Square Mile on Earth. The district was designated a National Historic Landmark on July 4,1961, on May 5,1859, John H. Gregory discovered a rich deposit of gold in hard rock, the first such discovery in the Rocky Mountain region. Thousands of miners flooded into Gregory Gulch in the few months in the Pikes Peak Gold Rush. Several mining camps were thrown up near the Gregory Lode, the area around the Gregory Lode quickly came to be known as the Richest Square Mile on Earth. By the time the Territory of Colorado was formed on February 28,1861, Central City was already the largest city in the entire territory, recently, the area has approved casinos and has seen a resurgence in attention and funds as a result. National Register of Historic Places listings in Gilpin County, Colorado Black Hawk, Colorado Central City, Colorado Front Range Gilpin County, Colorado Pikes Peak Gold Rush State of Colorado
17.
Golden, Colorado
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Golden is the Home Rule Municipality that is the county seat of Jefferson County, Colorado, United States. Golden lies along Clear Creek at the base of the Front Range of the Rocky Mountains, founded during the Pikes Peak Gold Rush on 16 June 1859, the mining camp was originally named Golden City in honor of Thomas L. Golden. Golden City served as the capital of the provisional Territory of Jefferson from 1860 to 1861, in 1867, the territorial capital was moved about 12 miles east to Denver City. The United States Census Bureau estimates that the city population was 18,867 in 2010, the Colorado School of Mines, offering programs in engineering and science, is located in Golden. It is the birthplace of the Jolly Rancher, a candy bought out by the Hershey Foods Corporation, Buffalo Bill Cody is buried nearby on Lookout Mountain. Golden City was established on 16 June 1859 along Clear Creek west of Denver, important businessmen and prospectors such as William A. H. Loveland and George West were among the first to settle in Golden. By the end of 1860, Golden City had been elected the seat of Jefferson County and was capital of the provisional Jefferson Territory. Golden City was temporarily removed from the status of capital as a result of an act passed on 5 November 1861 by the territorial government. Colorado City, a town to the south of Denver became the new temporary territorial capital. This status was revoked, however, as on 4 August 1862. It was the period between 1862 and the early 1870s that a fierce railroad competition developed between Denver, ten miles to the east, and Golden. By the mid-1860s, Golden held only a status as territorial capital rather than serve as the legitimate source of territorial power. Loveland founded the Colorado Central Railroad on 9 February 1865 to do just this, with Golden beginning talk of creating a railroad, prominent Denver residents raced to do the same. If we defeat those bonds, all hope of a railroad for the two years is gone… Gentlemen of Denver, what will you do. The fate of city is in your own hands. ”The residents of Denver voted for the bonds. By 1869, the race to Cheyenne was becoming less and less of a race. Golden, having then sidetracked into servicing various close-by mountain communities, continued to fall behind the set by the Denver railroad. However, The Colorado Central Railroad connected directly with Cheyenne seven years later, in 1877, but by that point, during the 1870s, it became home to three institutions of higher education, the Colorado University Schools, of which the Colorado School of Mines remains today
18.
Casino
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A casino is a facility which houses and accommodates certain types of gambling activities. The industry that deals in casinos is called the gaming industry, casinos are most commonly built near or combined with hotels, restaurants, retail shopping, cruise ships or other tourist attractions. There is much debate whether or not the social and economic consequences of casino gambling outweigh the initial revenue that may be generated. Some casinos are also known for hosting live entertainment events, such as comedy, concerts. The term casino is a confusing linguistic false friend for translators, Casino is of Italian origin, the root casa originally meant a small country villa, summerhouse, or social club. In modern-day Italian, the term designates a bordello, while the gambling house is spelled casinò with an accent. Not all casinos were used for gaming, the Copenhagen Casino was a theatre, known for the mass public meetings often held in its hall during the 1848 Revolution, which made Denmark a constitutional monarchy. Until 1937, it was a well-known Danish theatre, the Hanko Casino in Hanko, Finland—one of that towns most conspicuous landmarks—was never used for gambling. Rather, it was a hall for the Russian nobility which frequented this spa resort in the late 19th century and is now used as a restaurant. In military and non-military usage in German and Spanish, a casino or kasino is an officers mess, in Italian—the source-language of the word—a casino is either a brothel, a mess, or a noisy environment, while a gaming house is called a casinò. The precise origin of gambling is unknown and it is generally believed that gambling in some form or another has been seen in almost every society in history. From the Ancient Greeks and Romans to Napoleons France and Elizabethan England and it was closed in 1774 as the city government felt it was impoverishing the local gentry. In American history, early gambling establishments were known as saloons, the creation and importance of saloons was greatly influenced by four major cities, New Orleans, St. Louis, Chicago and San Francisco. It was in the saloons that travelers could find people to talk to, drink with, during the early 20th century in America, gambling became outlawed and banned by state legislation and social reformers of the time. However, in 1931, gambling was legalized throughout the state of Nevada, Americas first legalized casinos were set up in those places. In 1976 New Jersey allowed gambling in Atlantic City, now Americas second largest gambling city, most jurisdictions worldwide have a minimum gambling age. Customers gamble by playing games of chance, in cases with an element of skill, such as craps, roulette, baccarat, blackjack. Most games played have mathematically determined odds that ensure the house has at all times an overall advantage over the players and this can be expressed more precisely by the notion of expected value, which is uniformly negative
19.
Colorado Supreme Court
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The Colorado Supreme Court is the highest court in the U. S. state of Colorado. Located in Denver, the Court consists of a Chief Justice, furthermore, the Colorado Supreme Court has general supervisory and budget authority over the judicial branch, the court rule making process, and the regulation of attorneys. At the end of term, Justices face a retention election at which voters can choose to retain or not retain a Justice. If a Justice were not retained, the vacancy would be filled by the Governor at the expiration of their current term, no appellate judge has ever lost a retention election since the system was put in place in 1966. The Justices are not elected as partisan officials, although they are appointed by a partisan elected official. The Chief Justice is selected by the Justices from amongst themselves, as of July 1,2006, the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court is paid $125,656 per year, and Associate Supreme Court Justices are paid $122,972 per year. In August 2010 the building was imploded to make way for a court building. Construction of the new building began in September 2010 and that new building, dubbed the Ralph L. Carr Colorado Judicial Center, opened in early 2013. Named for a governor of Colorado, the building is located at 2 East 14th Avenue in Denver. The State Supreme Court Building was a box-like structure raised off the ground by two columns located on the east and west ends of the building. The only parts of the building actually on the level were the columns. The underside of the featured a 150-foot mural designed by Colorado artist Angelo di Benedetto. It depicted several notable figures, including Hammurabi, Moses and Martin Luther King, the figures represented persons who are believed to have made significant contributions to law and justice. Directly beneath the mural was a large window embedded into the ground that looked down into the law library. Persons in the library were able to look up onto the mural via the ground level glass window, the mural was removed before the building was demolished, but its ultimate fate is uncertain. The courtroom itself was located on the floor of the building. The entrance to the courtroom consisted of two large brass colored metallic doors with a design on them. The courtroom was dimly lit with two glass windows depicting previous Supreme Court Justices
20.
Clear Creek (Colorado)
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Clear Creek is a tributary of the South Platte River, approximately 66 miles long, in north central Colorado in the United States. The creek flows through Clear Creek Canyon in the Rocky Mountains directly west of Denver, Clear Creek is unusual in that it is a stream named creek fed by a stream named river. Fall River empties into Clear Creek along I-70 west of Idaho Springs, the creek is famous as the location of the most intense early mining activity during the Colorado Gold Rush of 1859. Mountain man Jim Baker had a cabin on the creek from 1873 until his death in 1898, the creek provided the route of the Colorado Central Railroad, and later for U. S. Highway 6 and Interstate 70 as they ascend to the Continental Divide west of Denver. The creek rises at the divide near Loveland Pass in the Front Range. It descends eastward through Clear Creek Canyon past the towns of Silver Plume, Georgetown, within the canyon it receives numerous smaller tributary creeks that descend from the rugged mountains on either side. At the mouth of the canyon, the passes through the town of Golden. East of the foothills, it flows through the northwest part of the Denver Metropolitan Area, passing through north Lakewood and Wheat Ridge, along this section it is largely an ignored urban stream, with an undeveloped floodplain. Part of the path forms a wooded park with bicycle/foot path. It passes under Interstate 25 between its junction with Interstate 70 and U. S. Highway 36 and it joins the South Platte from the west in southeast Thornton, near the junction of Interstate 76 and State Highway 224. Clear Creek was originally named Cannonball Creek as early as 1820, called so by the French hunters of the expedition of Stephen H. Long, after the river rocks in its bed. In the 1830s it became known as Vasquez Fork, also Vasquez River, after the fur trader Louis Vasquez who had his fort at the mouth of the river and it gained its present name from the gold rushers in 1859. List of rivers of Colorado Crabtree Creek, another creek with a river tributary
21.
Amalgam (chemistry)
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An amalgam is an alloy of mercury with another metal. Almost all metals can form amalgams with mercury, the exceptions being iron, platinum, tungsten. Silver-mercury amalgams are important in dentistry, and gold-mercury amalgam is used in the extraction of gold from ore, zinc amalgam finds use in organic synthesis, e. g. for the Clemmensen Reduction. It is the agent in the Jones reductor, used in analytical chemistry. For the alkali metals, amalgamation is exothermic, and distinct chemical forms can be identified, such as KHg, KHg is a gold-coloured compound with a melting point of 178 °C, and KHg2 a silver-coloured compound with a melting point of 278 °C. These amalgams are very sensitive to air and water, but can be worked with under dry nitrogen, the Hg-Hg distance is around 300 picometres, Hg-K around 358 pm. Phases K5Hg7 and KHg11 are also known, rubidium, strontium and barium undecamercurides are known, sodium amalgam is produced as a by product of the chloralkali process and used as an important reducing agent in organic and inorganic chemistry. With water it decomposes into concentrated sodium hydroxide solution, hydrogen and mercury, if absolutely water-free alcohol is used instead of water, an alkoxide of sodium is produced instead of the alkali solution. Aluminium can form an amalgam through a reaction with mercury, aluminium amalgam may be prepared by either grinding aluminium pellets or wire in mercury, or by allowing aluminium wire or foil to react with a solution of mercuric chloride. This amalgam is used as a reagent to reduce compounds, such as the reduction of imines to amines, the aluminium is the ultimate electron donor, and the mercury serves to mediate the electron transfer. The reaction itself and the waste from it contain mercury, so safety precautions. As an environmentally friendlier alternative, hydrides or other reducing agents can often be used to accomplish the same synthetic result, another environmentally friendly alternative is an alloy of aluminium and gallium which similarly renders the aluminium more reactive by preventing it from forming an oxide layer. Tin amalgam was used in the middle of the 19th century as a mirror coating. A variety of amalgams are known that are of interest mainly in the research context, ammonium amalgam is a grey, soft, spongy mass discovered in 1808 by Humphry Davy and Jöns Jakob Berzelius. Dentistry has used alloys of mercury with metals such as silver, copper, indium, tin, Amalgam is an excellent and versatile restorative material and is used in dentistry for a number of reasons. It is inexpensive and relatively easy to use and manipulate during placement, it remains soft for a time so it can be packed to fill any irregular volume. Amalgam possesses greater longevity compared to other direct restorative materials. However, this difference has decreased with continual development of composite resins, Amalgam is typically compared to resin-based composites because many applications are similar and many physical properties and costs are comparable
22.
Nathaniel P. Hill
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Nathaniel Peter Hill was a United States Senator from Colorado. Born in Montgomery, Orange County, New York, at the Nathaniel Hill Brick House and he married Alice Hale of Providence, Rhode Island, on July 26,1860. Alices father was Isaac Hale, born in the town of Newbury County of Essex, Mass and he was a descendant of Thomas Hale, one of the first settlers in Newbury from England in 1635. Her mother, Harriet Johnson, daughter of David Johnson and Lucy Towne and she was born in the town of Newbury, VT, July 29,1814. David was a son of Col. Thomas Johnson who distinguished himself in the Revolutionary War, N. P and Alice had three children, Crawford, Isabel, and Gertrude. N. P. took over the farm in Montgomery, until he was 21. During this time he was a student at Montgomery Academy. He graduated from Brown University in 1856 and he was an instructor and later professor of chemistry at Brown from 1856 to 1864. He was the first to bring the idea of laboratories to Brown and his scientific eligibility led him to be invited by cotton manufacturer Colonel William Reynolds to search for mining areas in the West. The greater salary enticed him to journey West and he traveled to Colorado in the spring of 1865 to investigate mineral resources. In his search, he travelled alone and with fellow scientists and he returned home to Providence after having accomplished little, where he officially resigned from his teaching position and vowed to devote the rest of his life to the search for gold. Upon his return to the West, he bought several gold mines, the Sterling Gold Mining Company and the Hill Gold Mining Company were established around Central City in Colorado. The preferred method of extraction in those days was stamp milling, a stamp mill consisted of heavy iron blocks attached to wooden or steel rods that rose and fell in accordance with a horizontal beam. After the ore containing the gold was crushed sufficiently, the resulting dust was run over copper plates containing mercury, once miners got past the upper ore deposits, they found that the lower ores contained large amounts of complex sulfides. As a result, a drop in the recovery rate of gold occurred. Failed attemots at introducing alternative methods of extracting gold contributed to the tensions and financial turmoil of the West, until Hill popularized the method of smelting. Accordingly, he spent a portion of 1865 and 1866 in Swansea, Wales and Freiberg, Saxony studying metallurgy, Hill learned while abroad, especially in the coal mines, that the best method was that of copper matte. In this method- known as the Swansea process- copper sulfide ore was mixed with gold and silver ore, after returning, he took up a permanent residence in Black Hawk, Colorado
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Smelter
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Smelting is a form of extractive metallurgy, its main use is to produce a base metal from its ore. This includes production of silver, iron, copper and other metals from their ores. Smelting makes use of heat and a reducing agent to decompose the ore, driving off other elements as gases or slag. The reducing agent is commonly a source of such as coke. The carbon removes oxygen from the ore, leaving behind the elemental metal, the carbon is thus oxidized in two stages, producing first carbon monoxide and then carbon dioxide. As most ores are impure, it is necessary to use flux, such as limestone. Plants for the reduction of aluminium are also generally referred to as aluminium smelters. Smelting involves more than just melting the metal out of its ore, most ores are a chemical compound of the metal with other elements, such as oxygen, sulfur or carbon and oxygen together. To produce the metal, these compounds have to undergo a chemical reaction, smelting therefore consists of using suitable reducing substances that will combine with those oxidizing elements to free the metal. In the case of carbonates and sulfides, a process called roasting drives out the carbon or sulfur, leaving an oxide. Roasting is usually carried out in an oxidizing environment, a few practical examples, Malachite, a common ore of copper, is primarily copper carbonate hydroxide Cu22. This mineral undergoes thermal decomposition to 2CuO, CO2, and H2O in several stages between 250 °C and 350 °C, the carbon dioxide and water are expelled into the atmosphere, leaving copper oxide which can be directly reduced to copper as described in the following section titled Reduction. Galena, the most common mineral of lead, is primarily lead sulfide, the sulfide is oxidized to a sulfite which thermally decomposes into lead oxide and sulfur dioxide gas. The sulfur dioxide is expelled, and the oxide is reduced as below. Reduction is the final, high-temperature step in smelting and it is here that the oxide becomes the elemental metal. A reducing environment pulls the final oxygen atoms from the raw metal, the required temperature varies over a very large range, both in absolute terms and in terms of the melting point of the base metal. Fluxes are used in smelting for several purposes, chief among them catalyzing the desired reactions, of the seven metals known in antiquity, only gold occurred regularly in native form in the natural environment. The others – copper, lead, silver, tin, iron and mercury – occur primarily as minerals and these minerals are primarily carbonates, sulfides, or oxides of the metal, mixed with other components such as silica and alumina
24.
Idaho Springs, Colorado
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The City of Idaho Springs is a Statutory City which is the most populous municipality in Clear Creek County, Colorado, United States. As of the 2010 census it had a population of 1,717, Idaho Springs is located in Clear Creek Canyon, in the mountains upstream from Golden, some 30 miles west of Denver. Founded in 1859 by prospectors during the days of the Pikes Peak Gold Rush. The Argo Tunnel drained and provided access to many lodes of ore between Idaho Springs and Central City. During the late century, the town evolved into a tourist center along U. S. Highway 6 and U. S. Highway 40. It also serves as a community for workers at the Loveland Ski Area farther up the canyon. The town today is the largest community in Clear Creek County, but, for historical reasons, the county seat has remained at Georgetown. On January 5,1859, during the Colorado gold rush, prospector George A. Jackson discovered placer gold at the present site of Idaho Springs and it was the first substantial gold discovery in Colorado. Jackson, a Missouri native with experience in the California gold fields, was drawn to the area by clouds of steam rising from some nearby hot springs. Jackson kept his secret for several months, but after he paid for some supplies with gold dust. The location was known as Jacksons Diggings. Once the location became a permanent settlement, it was variously called Sacramento City, Idahoe, Idaho City, the first placer discoveries were soon followed by discoveries of gold veins in the rocks of the canyon walls on both sides of Clear Creek. Hard rock mining became the mainstay of the town long after the gold-bearing gravels were exhausted, a strike by Idaho Springs miners demanding the eight-hour day in May 1903 erupted into violence. This was a struggle in a much broader fight called the Colorado Labor Wars. The 1969 film Downhill Racer portrayed an alpine ski racer from Idaho Springs, played by Robert Redford, several scenes from the comedy film The Overbrook Brothers were filmed here in the spring of 2008. Idaho Springs is located in northeastern Clear Creek County at 39°44′33″N 105°30′52″W, along Clear Creek near the confluence of its tributary, Chicago Creek. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 2.2 square miles, of which 0.03 square miles. As of the census of 2010, there were 1,717 people and 934 housing units, as of the census of 2000, there were 485 families residing in the city
25.
Colorado Central Railroad
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The Colorado Central Railroad was a U. S. railroad company that operated in Colorado and southeastern Wyoming in the late 19th century. It was founded in the Colorado Territory in the wake of the Colorado Gold Rush to ship gold from the mountains and it expanded from its Golden–Denver line to form a crucial link connecting Colorado with the transcontinental railroad and the national rail network. The history of the railroad throughout the 1870s was driven at times by a struggle between local interests, led by W. A. H. Loveland, and outside investors of the Union Pacific Railroad led at times by Jay Gould, the early struggle of the company to build its lines was a major part of the early competition between Denver and Golden for supremacy as the principal metropolis of Colorado. The company built the first rail lines up connecting historic Colorado mining communities such as Black Hawk, Central City, through a series of reorganizations and acquisitions, it eventually became part of the Colorado and Southern Railway. Although its historic 3 ft narrow gauge lines were dismantled by the mid 20th century. Loveland and his partners desired to build a 4 ft 8 1⁄2 in standard gauge railroad up Clear Creek Canyon to Central City and other mining centers, during the three years before construction on the line began the company underwent several reorganizations. On January 20,1866, the name of the railroad was changed to the Colorado Central & Pacific Railroad, the following year, in June 1867, the company was reorganized, Union Pacific investors were in control, but provided no funds for construction. That year, the seat of government for Colorado was relocated from Golden to Denver. On January 1,1868, construction at last began on the first line connecting Denver, on January 14, the company changed its name to Colorado Central Railroad. Construction of the first line was slow, by the end of the year, only the small portion between Denver and Golden had been graded. The formation of the Denver Pacific Railway and Telegraph Company set off a struggle over the next two years between the two companies to complete their lines connecting to Union Pacific. The Denver Pacific line was complete in June 1870 and the first train arrived in Denver from Cheyenne, two months later, the Kansas Pacific completed its line to Denver, linking up with the Denver Pacific, and cementing the central role of Denver in Colorado. As a consequence, the Colorado Central turned its attention towards linking up with the Denver Pacific, in May 1871 local interests regained control of the railroad from Union Pacific investors. By the following September,150 men were at work in the mountains west of Golden to extend the line to the mining communities, in the spring of 1872 the company acquired critical right-of-way along Clear Creek to extend its line. West of Golden, the line built as 3 ft narrow gauge, in late August, the company took delivery of its first two locomotives, the General Sherman, No. 2, followed a week later by General Sheridan, No.1, on September 1, the track was completed 13.3 miles to Forks Creek. By mid-December, the line had been extended 7.7 miles further to Black Hawk, by February 24,1873, a second line from Forks Creek had been extended 3.3 miles to Floyd Hill
26.
Colorado State Highway 119
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State Highway 119 is a 63.7 mi long state highway in north central Colorado. It extends in a southwest to northeast direction, from a junction with U. S. Highway 6 in Clear Creek Canyon between Golden and Idaho Springs to a junction with I-25 east of Longmont. The southwest portion of the road is a scenic mountain drive providing dramatic vistas of the Front Range, the city of Boulder separates these two vastly different sections of SH119. Highway 119 begins at a signalized T intersection with U. S. Highway 6 in Clear Creek Canyon between Golden and Idaho Springs. It continues north from Blackhawk as the Peak to Peak Scenic and Historic Byway, east Portal Road in Rollinsville provides access to the east portal of the railroad tunnel, and to the Moffat Road historic railroad grade across Rollins Pass. SH119 continues northward, intersecting State Highway 72 with which it will be concurrent to Nederland and it provides access to the Eldora Mountain Resort ski area, about 3 miles west of Nederland. In Nederland, SH119 and SH72 diverge at an intersection where SH72 takes the Peak to Peak Highway designation with it to the north. Leaving Nederland, SH119 passes along the shore of Barker Meadow Reservoir and enters the scenic Boulder Canyon. In the canyon, the road experiences grades of up to 10%, the walls of the canyon are popular for rock climbing, and the scenic Boulder Falls is an easy walk from the highway. This busy section of State 119 and US36 on 28th Street serves Boulders main shopping area, the overlap with US36 ends at the northern edge of Boulder where US36 continues north to Rocky Mountain National Park, and SH119 turns east becoming Diagonal Highway. At Niwot it passes a large facility for the IBM Corporation at an intersection with State Highway 52. The Diagonal Highway expressway ends in Longmont, as SH119 becomes Ken Pratt Blvd. east of US287 in Longmont, a new expressway carries SH119 directly to its northeastern terminus at a diamond interchange at Interstate 25 exit 240. SH119 was established in the 1920s, extending from Idaho Springs to Boulder and it went up Virginia Canyon on the aptly named Oh My God Road, and then through Central City to Blackhawk. In 1939 SH119 was extended from Boulder to Longmont, zig-zagging along existing county roads, by 1960 it had been completely paved and straightened on a diagonal route alongside the railroad tracks between Boulder and Longmont. When Interstate 25 was built east of Longmont by 1963, SH119 was extended by overlapping US287 to Third Avenue, CDOT plans various safety upgrades for the section between US6 and Blackhawk. A diamond interchange is planned for the busy intersection with SH52 to ease the congestion at the large IBM facility. Peak to Peak Scenic and Historic Byway Boulder Country Transportation Master Plan
27.
Central City Parkway
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The Central City Parkway is a four-lane highway in Colorado, running from I-70 near Idaho Springs to the historic mining town and gambling area of Central City. Opened on November 19,2004, the Parkway provides direct access to Central City, the length of the Parkway is 8.4 miles, and it can be traveled in about twelve minutes. As part of the ceremonies in 2004,1996 Indianapolis 500 winner, Buddy Lazier. The parkway begins at I-70, which is concurrent with U. S. Highway 6 and U. S. Highway 40. At the interchange, CR314 serves as a frontage road, heading northward, the parkway abruptly turns left. After passing through hills in a forested area, the road curves around again and heads northeastward. At the Clear Creek/Gilpin county line, the road turns northward, then northeastward, through the drive, the road continues to wind between northward and westward before entering the vicinity of Central City, where it meets its terminus at Nevada Street. At the terminus, Nevada Street curves abruptly eastward, making both northward and eastward continuations at the named as Nevada Street. Limited-stakes gambling was approved by Colorado voters in 1990 in the towns of Central City, Black Hawk and Cripple Creek. In the mid-1990s, the city of Black Hawk backed a proposal for a widening of Highway 119 including a tunnel that would link to I-70 one mile closer to Denver than Central Citys off-ramp. Central City continued with its plans for an access highway despite the city of Black Hawk acquiring land in the path of the proposed road. The issue was brought before a Denver grand jury that decided Black Hawk officials had misspent taxpayer money, Central City then sued Black Hawk for $100 million, Black Hawk countersued. Prior to dropping the lawsuit, the road was funded by bonds with a 30-year tax levy on property to pay for the road. Six months before the parkway opened, a report issued by gambling industry consultant Gaming & Resort Development predicted the road would be beneficial to Black Hawk than to Central City. Central Citys gaming revenues have increased since the roads opening in November 2004 but have not reached industry. Since the Parkways opening, three casinos in Central City have opened and two, under the ownership, have closed. Century Casinos opened in July,2006, between I-70 and Central City, there is only one public exit road from the Central City Parkway, the Hidee Mine Road at mile 6.3. This road leads to the Hidee Gold Mine, which offers tours and gold panning
28.
Interstate 70 in Colorado
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Interstate 70 is a transcontinental Interstate Highway in the United States, stretching from Cove Fort, Utah to Baltimore, Maryland. In Colorado, the highway traverses an east–west route across the center of the state, in western Colorado, the highway connects the metropolitan areas of Grand Junction and Denver via a route through the Rocky Mountains. In eastern Colorado, the crosses the Great Plains, connecting Denver with metropolitan areas in Kansas. Bicycles and other non-motorized vehicles, normally prohibited on Interstate Highways, are allowed on those stretches of I-70 in the Rockies where no other through route exists. The Eisenhower Tunnel, with an elevation of 11,158 feet and length of 1.7 miles, is the longest mountain tunnel. The portion through Glenwood Canyon was completed on October 14,1992 and this was one of the final pieces of the Interstate Highway System to open to traffic, and is one of the most expensive rural highways per mile built in the United States. The Colorado Department of Transportation earned the 1993 Outstanding Civil Engineering Achievement Award from the American Society of Civil Engineers for the completion of I-70 through the canyon, when the Interstate Highway system was in the planning stages, the western terminus of I-70 was proposed to be at Denver. The portion west of Denver was included into the plans after lobbying by Governor Edwin C, Johnson, for whom one of the tunnels along I-70 is named. East of Idaho Springs, I-70 was built along the corridor of U. S. Highway 40, West of Idaho Springs, I-70 was built along the route of U. S. Highway 6, which was extended into Colorado during the 1930s. I-70 enters Colorado from Utah, concurrent with US6 and US50, the plateau ends just past the state line and the highway descends into the Grand Valley, formed by the Colorado River and its tributaries. The Grand Valley is home to several towns and small cities that form the Grand Junction Metropolitan Statistical Area, the highway directly serves the communities of Fruita, Grand Junction and Palisade. Grand Junction is the largest city between Denver and Salt Lake City and serves as the hub of the area. The freeway passes to the north of downtown, while US6 and 50 retain their original routes through downtown, US6 rejoins I-70 east of Grand Junction, US50 departs on a course toward Pueblo. I-70 exits the valley through De Beque Canyon, a path carved by the Colorado River that separates the Book Cliffs from Battlement Mesa, the river and its tributaries provide the course for the ascent up the Rocky Mountains. In the canyon, I-70 enters the Beavertail Mountain Tunnel, the first of several built to route the freeway across the Rockies. This tunnel design features a curved sidewall, unusual for tunnels in the United States, Engineers borrowed a European design to give the tunnel added strength. After the canyon winds past the Book Cliffs, the highway follows the Colorado River through a valley containing the communities of Parachute, approaching the city of Glenwood Springs, the highway enters Glenwood Canyon. A 12-mile section of roadway features the No Name Tunnel, Hanging Lake Tunnel, Reverse Curve Tunnel,40 bridges and viaducts, and miles of retaining walls
29.
History Colorado
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History Colorado is a twenty-first-century historical society that was established in 1879 as the State Historical Society of Colorado, also known as the Colorado Historical Society. History Colorado is a 501 organization and an agency of the State of Colorado under the Department of Higher Education, in 2012, the agency opened the new state history museum of Colorado, the History Colorado Center. As History Colorados headquarters, the History Colorado Center is designed to be a tourist destination, History Colorado is a Smithsonian Affiliate. At the buildings April 2012 opening ceremony, Smithsonian Affiliations Director Harold Closter described the History Colorado Center as “the first great history museum of the twenty-first century. Through the State Historical Fund historic preservation program, History Colorado has awarded millions in competitive grants to all 64 counties across Colorado. The Office of Archaeology and Historic Preservation oversees a number of program areas, the fund was created in 1990 through a state constitutional amendment allowing limited gaming in the towns of Black Hawk, Central City, and Cripple Creek. A proportion of the tax revenues from gaming is used for preservation in Colorado. Applications for projects for funding are assessed through a competitive process. It is both an agency and a part of the state department of higher education. The Colorado Historical Society is an affiliate within the Smithsonian Affiliations program and is accredited by the American Alliance of Museums, the central offices of History Colorado are based in Denver. Colorado 1870-2000 History of Colorado Pony Express bible History Colorado website History Colorado Center website Colorado Office of Archaeology and Historic Preservation website
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Bicycle
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A bicycle, often called a bike or cycle, is a human-powered, pedal-driven, single-track vehicle, having two wheels attached to a frame, one behind the other. A bicycle rider is called a cyclist, or bicyclist, Bicycles were introduced in the 19th century in Europe and as of 2003, more than 1 billion have been produced worldwide, twice as many as the number of automobiles that have been produced. They are the means of transportation in many regions. They also provide a form of recreation, and have been adapted for use as childrens toys, general fitness, military and police applications, courier services. The basic shape and configuration of an upright or safety bicycle, has changed little since the first chain-driven model was developed around 1885. But many details have been improved, especially since the advent of modern materials and these have allowed for a proliferation of specialized designs for many types of cycling. The bicycles invention has had an effect on society, both in terms of culture and of advancing modern industrial methods. The word bicycle first appeared in English print in The Daily News in 1868, to describe Bysicles and trysicles on the Champs Elysées, the word was first used in 1847 in a French publication to describe an unidentified two-wheeled vehicle, possibly a carriage. The design of the bicycle was an advance on the velocipede, Other words for bicycle include bike, pushbike, pedal cycle, or cycle. In Unicode, the point for bicycle is 0x1F6B2. The entity 🚲, in HTML produces
31.
United States Census Bureau
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The United States Census Bureau is a principal agency of the U. S. Federal Statistical System, responsible for producing data about the American people and economy. The Census Bureaus primary mission is conducting the U. S. Census every ten years, in addition to the decennial census, the Census Bureau continually conducts dozens of other censuses and surveys, including the American Community Survey, the U. S. Economic Census, and the Current Population Survey, furthermore, economic and foreign trade indicators released by the federal government typically contain data produced by the Census Bureau. The Bureaus various censuses and surveys help allocate over $400 billion in federal funds every year and help states, local communities, the Census Bureau is part of the U. S. Department of Commerce and its director is appointed by the President of the United States. The Census Bureau now conducts a population count every 10 years in years ending with a 0. Between censuses, the Census Bureau makes population estimates and projections, the Census Bureau is mandated with fulfilling these obligations, the collecting of statistics about the nation, its people, and economy. The Census Bureaus legal authority is codified in Title 13 of the United States Code, the Census Bureau also conducts surveys on behalf of various federal government and local government agencies on topics such as employment, crime, health, consumer expenditures, and housing. Within the bureau, these are known as surveys and are conducted perpetually between and during decennial population counts. The Census Bureau also conducts surveys of manufacturing, retail, service. Between 1790 and 1840, the census was taken by marshals of the judicial districts, the Census Act of 1840 established a central office which became known as the Census Office. Several acts followed that revised and authorized new censuses, typically at the 10-year intervals, in 1902, the temporary Census Office was moved under the Department of Interior, and in 1903 it was renamed the Census Bureau under the new Department of Commerce and Labor. The department was intended to consolidate overlapping statistical agencies, but Census Bureau officials were hindered by their role in the department. An act in 1920 changed the date and authorized manufacturing censuses every 2 years, in 1929, a bill was passed mandating the House of Representatives be reapportioned based on the results of the 1930 Census. In 1954, various acts were codified into Title 13 of the US Code, by law, the Census Bureau must count everyone and submit state population totals to the U. S. President by December 31 of any year ending in a zero. States within the Union receive the results in the spring of the following year, the United States Census Bureau defines four statistical regions, with nine divisions. The Census Bureau regions are widely used. for data collection, the Census Bureau definition is pervasive. Title 13 of the U. S. Code establishes penalties for the disclosure of this information, all Census employees must sign an affidavit of non-disclosure prior to employment. The Bureau cannot share responses, addresses or personal information with anyone including United States or foreign government, only after 72 years does the information collected become available to other agencies or the general public
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Denver
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Denver, officially the City and County of Denver, is the capital and most populous municipality of the U. S. state of Colorado. Denver is in the South Platte River Valley on the edge of the High Plains just east of the Front Range of the Rocky Mountains. The Denver downtown district is immediately east of the confluence of Cherry Creek with the South Platte River, Denver is nicknamed the Mile-High City because its official elevation is exactly one mile above sea level, making it the highest major city in the United States. The 105th meridian west of Greenwich, the reference for the Mountain Time Zone. Denver is ranked as a Beta- world city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network. With a 2015 estimated population of 682,545, Denver ranks as the 19th-most populous U. S. city, and with a 2. 8% increase in 2015, the city is also the fastest-growing major city in the United States. The 10-county Denver-Aurora-Lakewood, CO Metropolitan Statistical Area had an estimated 2015 population of 2,814,330 and ranked as the 19th most populous U. S. metropolitan statistical area. The 12-city Denver-Aurora, CO Combined Statistical Area had an estimated 2015 population of 3,418,876, which ranks as the 16th most populous U. S. metropolitan area. Denver is the most populous city of the 18-county Front Range Urban Corridor, Denver is the most populous city within a 500-mile radius and the second-most populous city in the Mountain West after Phoenix, Arizona. In 2016, Denver was named the best place to live in the USA by U. S. News & World Report and this was the first historical settlement in what was later to become the city of Denver. The site faded quickly, however, and by the summer of 1859 it was abandoned in favor of Auraria, Larimer named the townsite Denver City to curry favor with Kansas Territorial Governor James W. Denver. Larimer hoped the name would help make it the county seat of Arapaho County but, unbeknownst to him. The location was accessible to existing trails and was across the South Platte River from the site of seasonal encampments of the Cheyenne, the site of these first towns is now the site of Confluence Park near downtown Denver. Larimer, along with associates in the St. Charles City Land Company, sold parcels in the town to merchants and miners, Denver City was a frontier town, with an economy based on servicing local miners with gambling, saloons, livestock and goods trading. In the early years, land parcels were often traded for grubstakes or gambled away by miners in Auraria, in May 1859, Denver City residents donated 53 lots to the Leavenworth & Pikes Peak Express in order to secure the regions first overland wagon route. Offering daily service for passengers, mail, freight, and gold, in 1863, Western Union furthered Denvers dominance of the region by choosing the city for its regional terminus. The Colorado Territory was created on February 28,1861, Arapahoe County was formed on November 1,1861, Denver City served as the Arapahoe County Seat from 1861 until consolidation in 1902. In 1867, Denver City became the territorial capital, with its newfound importance, Denver City shortened its name to Denver
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1890 United States Census
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The Eleventh United States Census was taken beginning June 2,1890. The data was tabulated by machine for the first time, the data reported that the distribution of the population had resulted in the disappearance of the American frontier. Data was entered on a machine readable medium, punched cards, the total population of 62,947,714, the family, or rough, count, was announced after only six weeks of processing. The public reaction to this tabulation was disbelief, as it was believed that the right answer was at least 75,000,000. The United States census of 1890 showed a total of 248,253 Native Americans living in America, down from 400,764 Native Americans identified in the census of 1850. The 1890 census announced that the region of the United States no longer existed. Up to and including the 1880 census, the country had a frontier of settlement, by 1890, isolated bodies of settlement had broken into the unsettled area to the extent that there was hardly a frontier line. This prompted Frederick Jackson Turner to develop his Frontier Thesis, the original data for the 1890 Census is no longer available. Almost all the schedules were damaged in a fire in the basement of the Commerce Building in Washington. Some 25% of the materials were presumed destroyed and another 50% damaged by smoke, the damage to the records led to an outcry for a permanent National Archives. The Librarian was asked by the Bureau to identify any records which should be retained for historical purposes, congress authorized destruction of that list of records on February 21,1933, and the surviving original 1890 census records were destroyed by government order by 1934 or 1935. The other censuses for which information has been lost are the 1800 and 1810 enumerations. Mayo-Smith, Richmond, The Eleventh Census of the United States
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1910 United States Census
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The 1910 Census switched from a portrait page orientation to a landscape orientation. The column titles in the form are as follows, LOCATION. Number of dwelling house in order of visitation, Number of family in order of visitation. NAME of each person whose place of abode on April 15,1910, was in this family, enter surname first, then the given name and middle initial, if any. Include every person living on April 15,1910, omit children born since April 15,1910. Relationship of this person to the head of the family, whether single, married, widowed, or divorced. Number of years of present marriage, Mother of how many children, Number born. Mother of how children, Number now living. Place of birth of each person and parents of each person enumerated, if born in the United States, give the state or territory. If of foreign birth, give the country, place of birth of this Person. Place of birth of Father of this person, place of birth of Mother of this person. Year of immigration to the United States, whether able to speak English, or, if not, give language spoken. Trade or profession of, or particular kind of work done by person, as spinner, salesman, laborer. General nature of industry, business, or establishment in which this works, as cotton mill, dry goods store, farm. Whether as employer, employee, or work on own account, whether out of work on April 15,1910. Number of weeks out of work during year 1909, attended school any time since September 1,1909. Whether a survivor of the Union or Confederate Army or Navy, special Notation, In 1912, New Mexico and Arizona would become the 47th and 48th states admitted to the Union. The 1910 population count for each of these areas was 327,301 and 204,354 respectively
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1920 United States Census
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In 1929, Congress passed the Reapportionment Act of 1929 which provided for a permanent method of reapportionment and fixed the number of Representatives at 435. The original census enumeration sheets were microfilmed by the Census Bureau in the 1940s, the microfilmed census is available in rolls from the National Archives and Records Administration. Several organizations also host images of the census online. Microdata from the 1920 census are available through the Integrated Public Use Microdata Series. Aggregate data for small areas, together with electronic boundary files,1921 U. S Census Report Contains 1920 Census results Historic US Census data 1920 Census,1920 United States Census for Genealogy & Family History Research 1920 Census
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1930 United States Census
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The original census enumeration sheets were microfilmed by the Census Bureau in 1949, after which the original sheets were destroyed. The microfilmed census is located on 2,667 rolls of microfilm, several organizations also host images of the microfilmed census online, and digital indices. Microdata from the 1930 census are available through the Integrated Public Use Microdata Series. Aggregate data for small areas, together with electronic boundary files, can be downloaded from the National Historical Geographic Information System
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1940 United States Census
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The census date of record was April 1,1940. A number of new questions were asked including where people were 5 years before, highest educational grade achieved and this census introduced sampling techniques, one in 20 people were asked additional questions on the census form. Other innovations included a field test of the census in 1939, the 1940 census collected the following information, In addition, a sample of individuals were asked additional questions covering age at first marriage, fertility, and other topics. Full documentation on the 1940 census, including forms and a procedural history, is available from the Integrated Public Use Microdata Series. Following completion of the census, the original sheets were microfilmed. As required by Title 13 of the U. S. Code, non-personally identifiable information Microdata from the 1940 census is freely available through the Integrated Public Use Microdata Series. Also, aggregate data for small areas, together with electronic boundary files, on April 2, 2012—72 years after the census was taken—microfilmed images of the 1940 census enumeration sheets were released to the public by the National Archives and Records Administration. The records are indexed only by enumeration district upon initial release, several organizations are compiling indices, why the huge interest in the 1940 Census. 1940 Census Questions Hosted at CensusFinder. com
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1950 United States Census
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Full documentation on the 1950 census, including census forms and a procedural history, is available from the Integrated Public Use Microdata Series. Microdata from the 1950 census are available through the Integrated Public Use Microdata Series. Aggregate data for small areas, together with electronic boundary files, personally identifiable information will be available in 2022. Historic US Census data 1951 U. S Census Report Contains 1950 Census results
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Black Hawk travel guide from Wikivoyage
