1.
Munich massacre
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Shortly after the crisis began, they demanded 234 prisoners jailed in Israel and the German-held founders of the Red Army Faction be released. Black September called the operation Iqrit and Biram, after two Palestinian Christian villages whose inhabitants were expelled by the IDF in 1948, the attack was motivated by secular nationalism, with the commander of the terrorist group, Luttif Afif, having been born to Jewish and Christian parents. German neo-Nazis gave the attackers logistical assistance, police officers killed five of the eight Black September members during a failed rescue attempt. They captured the three survivors, whom West Germany released the month following the hijacking of Lufthansa Flight 615. Mossad responded to the release with the 1973 Israeli raid on Lebanon and Operation Wrath of God, tracking down and killing Palestinians suspected of involvement in the massacre. On 3 August 2016, two prior to the start of the 2016 Summer Olympics, the International Olympic Committee officially honored the eleven Israelis killed for the first time. At the time of the hostage-taking, the 1972 Summer Olympics was in their second week, the West German Olympic Organizing Committee had hoped to discard the military image of Germany. The Committee was wary of the image portrayed by the 1936 Summer Olympics, security personnel known as Olys were inconspicuous and only prepared to deal with ticket fraud and drunkenness. The documentary film One Day in September claims that security in the village was unfit for the Games. Athletes could sneak past security, and go to other countries rooms, the absence of armed personnel had worried Israeli delegation head Shmuel Lalkin even before his team arrived in Munich. In later interviews with journalists Serge Groussard and Aaron Klein, Lalkin said that he had expressed concern with the relevant authorities about his teams lodgings. The West German authorities apparently assured Lalkin that extra security would be provided to look after the Israeli team, Olympic organizers asked West German forensic psychologist Georg Sieber to create 26 terrorism scenarios to aid the organizers in planning security. Organizers balked against preparing for Situation 21 and the other scenarios, the German weekly news magazine Der Spiegel wrote in a cover story in 2012 that the West German authorities had a tip-off from a Palestinian informant in Beirut three weeks before the massacre. However, according to Der Spiegel, the failed to act on the tip. The magazine further adds that this is part of a 40-year cover-up by the German authorities of the mishandling of the massacre. The athletes were identified as Americans, but were claimed to be Canadians decades later. Once inside, the Black September members used stolen keys to enter two apartments being used by the Israeli team at Connollystraße 31. Yossef Gutfreund, a referee, was awakened by a faint scratching noise at the door of Apartment 1
2.
Arabic
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Arabic is a Central Semitic language that was first spoken in Iron Age northwestern Arabia and is now the lingua franca of the Arab world. Arabic is also the language of 1.7 billion Muslims. It is one of six languages of the United Nations. The modern written language is derived from the language of the Quran and it is widely taught in schools and universities, and is used to varying degrees in workplaces, government, and the media. The two formal varieties are grouped together as Literary Arabic, which is the language of 26 states. Modern Standard Arabic largely follows the standards of Quranic Arabic. Much of the new vocabulary is used to denote concepts that have arisen in the post-Quranic era, Arabic has influenced many languages around the globe throughout its history. During the Middle Ages, Literary Arabic was a vehicle of culture in Europe, especially in science, mathematics. As a result, many European languages have borrowed many words from it. Many words of Arabic origin are found in ancient languages like Latin. Balkan languages, including Greek, have acquired a significant number of Arabic words through contact with Ottoman Turkish. Arabic has also borrowed words from languages including Greek and Persian in medieval times. Arabic is a Central Semitic language, closely related to the Northwest Semitic languages, the Ancient South Arabian languages, the Semitic languages changed a great deal between Proto-Semitic and the establishment of the Central Semitic languages, particularly in grammar. Innovations of the Central Semitic languages—all maintained in Arabic—include, The conversion of the suffix-conjugated stative formation into a past tense, the conversion of the prefix-conjugated preterite-tense formation into a present tense. The elimination of other prefix-conjugated mood/aspect forms in favor of new moods formed by endings attached to the prefix-conjugation forms, the development of an internal passive. These features are evidence of descent from a hypothetical ancestor. In the southwest, various Central Semitic languages both belonging to and outside of the Ancient South Arabian family were spoken and it is also believed that the ancestors of the Modern South Arabian languages were also spoken in southern Arabia at this time. To the north, in the oases of northern Hijaz, Dadanitic and Taymanitic held some prestige as inscriptional languages, in Najd and parts of western Arabia, a language known to scholars as Thamudic C is attested
3.
Palestinians
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Despite various wars and exoduses, roughly one half of the worlds Palestinian population continues to reside in historic Palestine, the area encompassing the West Bank, the Gaza Strip and Israel. Of the Palestinian population who live abroad, known as the Palestinian diaspora, the history of a distinct Palestinian national identity is a disputed issue amongst scholars. Palestinian was used to refer to the nationalist concept of a Palestinian people by Palestinian Arabs in a limited way until World War I, Modern Palestinian identity now encompasses the heritage of all ages from biblical times up to the Ottoman period. Founded in 1964, the Palestine Liberation Organization is an organization for groups that represent the Palestinian people before the international community. Since 1978, the United Nations has observed an annual International Day of Solidarity with the Palestinian People, herodotus also employs the term as an ethnonym, as when he speaks of the Syrians of Palestine or Palestinian-Syrians, an ethnically amorphous group he distinguishes from the Phoenicians. Herodotus makes no distinction between the Jews and other inhabitants of Palestine, the Greek word reflects an ancient Eastern Mediterranean-Near Eastern word which was used either as a toponym or ethnonym. In Ancient Egyptian Peleset/Purusati has been conjectured to refer to the Sea Peoples, among Semitic languages, Akkadian Palaštu is used of Philistia and its 4 city states. Biblical Hebrews cognate word Plištim, is usually translated Philistines, the Arabic word Filastin has been used to refer to the region since the time of the earliest medieval Arab geographers. It appears to have used as an Arabic adjectival noun in the region since as early as the 7th century CE. The Arabic newspaper Falasteen, published in Jaffa by Issa and Yusef al-Issa, the first Zionist bank, the Jewish Colonial Trust, was founded at the Second Zionist Congress and incorporated in London in 1899. The JCT was intended to be the instrument of the Zionist Organization. On 27 February 1902, a subsidiary of this Trust called the Anglo-Palestine Company was established in London with the assistance of Zalman David Levontin and this Company was to become the future Bank Leumi. Following the 1948 establishment of Israel, the use and application of the terms Palestine and Palestinian by, for example, the English-language newspaper The Palestine Post, founded by Jews in 1932, changed its name in 1950 to The Jerusalem Post. Jews in Israel and the West Bank today generally identify as Israelis, Arab citizens of Israel identify themselves as Israeli and/or Palestinian and/or Arab. Anyone born, after that date, of a Palestinian father – whether in Palestine or outside it – is also a Palestinian. Thus, the Jews of Palestine were/are also included, although limited only to the Jews who had resided in Palestine until the beginning of the Zionist invasion. The Charter also states that Palestine with the boundaries it had during the British Mandate, is a territorial unit. The although the timing and causes behind the emergence of a distinctively Palestinian national consciousness among the Arabs of Palestine are matters of scholarly disagreement
4.
Jordan
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Jordan, officially The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, is an Arab kingdom in Western Asia, on the East Bank of the Jordan River. Jordan is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the east and south, Iraq to the north-east, Syria to the north, Israel, Palestine and the Dead Sea to the west, Jordan is strategically located at the crossroads of Asia, Africa and Europe. The capital, Amman, is Jordans most populous city as well as the countrys economic, what is now Jordan has been inhabited by humans since the Paleolithic period. Three stable kingdoms emerged there at the end of the Bronze Age, Ammon, Moab, later rulers include the Nabataean Kingdom, the Roman Empire, and the Ottoman Empire. After the Great Arab Revolt against the Ottomans in 1916 during World War I, the Emirate of Transjordan was established in 1921 by the then Emir Abdullah I and became a British protectorate. In 1946, Jordan became an independent state known as The Hashemite Kingdom of Transjordan. Jordan captured the West Bank, which it later lost in 1967, during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, Jordan is a founding member of the Arab League and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, and is one of two Arab states to have signed a peace treaty with Israel. The country is a monarchy, but the king holds wide executive and legislative powers. Jordan is a relatively-small, semi-arid, almost-landlocked country with a population numbering at 9.5 million, Sunni Islam, practiced by around 92% of the population, is the dominant religion in Jordan. It coexists with an indigenous Christian minority, Jordan is considered to be among the safest of Arab countries in the Middle East, and has avoided long-term terrorism and instability. The kingdom is also a refuge to thousands of Iraqi Christians fleeing the Islamic State, while Jordan continues to accept refugees, the recent large influx from Syria placed substantial strain on national resources and infrastructure. Jordan is classified as a country of high human development with a middle income economy. The Jordanian economy, one of the smallest economies in the region, is attractive to foreign investors based upon a skilled workforce, the country is a major tourist destination, and also attracts medical tourism due to its well developed health sector. Nonetheless, a lack of resources, large flow of refugees. Jordan is named after the Jordan River, where Jesus is said to have been baptized, the origin of the rivers name is debated, but the most common explanation is that it derives from the word yarad, found in Hebrew, Aramaic, and other Semitic languages. Others regard the name as having an Indo-Aryan origin, combining the words yor and don, another theory is that it is from the Arabic root word wrd, as in people coming to a major source of water. The name Jordan appears in an ancient Egyptian papyrus called Papyrus Anastasi I, the lands of modern-day Jordan were historically called Transjordan, meaning beyond the Jordan River. The name was Arabized into Al-Urdunn during the Muslim conquest of the Levant, during crusader rule, it was called Oultrejordain
5.
Wasfi al-Tal
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Wasfi al-Tal was Prime Minister of Jordan for three separate terms. In 1971, he was assassinated by the Black September unit of the Palestine Liberation Organization outside a Cairo hotel, Tal was prime minister and defense minister during the Black September uprising by Palestinian fighting groups in 1970. He earned the ire of PLO leaders for his role in repressing the uprising and he was the third senior Jordanian political figure assassinated between 1951 and 1971, the first two were King Abdullah and Hazza Majali, the Jordanian prime minister. Tal was born in Irbid, a city in northern Jordan and he served as a captain in the British Army during World War II. He also took part in the 1948 Palestine war, fighting for the Arab armies and he became a major in the Jordanian army shortly before graduating from American University of Beirut. After graduation, he began to work in the Jordanian civil service, next, he served as chief press officer. Later he was named as the Jordanian ambassador, and he served as an ambassador in Germany, Iran, Tal was married to Sadia Jabri, who had been former wife of the Palestinian leader of the 1940s, Musa Alami. On 28 November 1971, four Black September gunmen assassinated Tal in the lobby of the Sheraton Cairo Hotel in Egypt while he was attending an Arab League summit in the city. Among other acts, Black September accused Tal of personally torturing and executing Abu Ali Iyad, historian Patrick Seale claims that one of the assassins, Munshir al-Khalifa, was one of Abu Ali Iyads soldiers who sought to avenge his commanders death. As Tal lay dying, one of the assassins knelt and lapped with his tongue the blood flowing across the marble floor, tals reported last words were, Theyve killed me. Murderers, they believe only in fire and destruction, Tal was the first victim of the newly formed Black September Organization, a more militant offshoot of the Palestinian militant organization Fatah. His assassins were released on low bail and allowed to leave Egypt, yasser Arafat, Fatahs leader, claimed responsibility for the killing. Tals body was flown back to Amman on 28 November 1971 and he was buried in the royal cemetery after the prayers in the Royal Mosque in Amman on 29 November. net/ Susser, Asher. On both banks of the Jordan, a biography of Wasfi al-Tall
6.
Israel
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Israel, officially the State of Israel, is a country in the Middle East, on the southeastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea and the northern shore of the Red Sea. The country contains geographically diverse features within its small area. Israels economy and technology center is Tel Aviv, while its seat of government and proclaimed capital is Jerusalem, in 1947, the United Nations adopted a Partition Plan for Mandatory Palestine recommending the creation of independent Arab and Jewish states and an internationalized Jerusalem. The plan was accepted by the Jewish Agency for Palestine, next year, the Jewish Agency declared the establishment of a Jewish state in Eretz Israel, to be known as the State of Israel. Israel has since fought several wars with neighboring Arab states, in the course of which it has occupied territories including the West Bank, Golan Heights and it extended its laws to the Golan Heights and East Jerusalem, but not the West Bank. Israels occupation of the Palestinian territories is the worlds longest military occupation in modern times, efforts to resolve the Israeli–Palestinian conflict have not resulted in peace. However, peace treaties between Israel and both Egypt and Jordan have successfully been signed, the population of Israel, as defined by the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics, was estimated in 2017 to be 8,671,100 people. It is the worlds only Jewish-majority state, with 74. 8% being designated as Jewish, the countrys second largest group of citizens are Arabs, at 20. 8%. The great majority of Israeli Arabs are Sunni Muslims, including significant numbers of semi-settled Negev Bedouins, other minorities include Arameans, Armenians, Assyrians, Black Hebrew Israelites, Circassians, Maronites and Samaritans. Israel also hosts a significant population of foreign workers and asylum seekers from Africa and Asia, including illegal migrants from Sudan, Eritrea. In its Basic Laws, Israel defines itself as a Jewish, Israel is a representative democracy with a parliamentary system, proportional representation and universal suffrage. The prime minister is head of government and the Knesset is the legislature, Israel is a developed country and an OECD member, with the 35th-largest economy in the world by nominal gross domestic product as of 2016. The country benefits from a skilled workforce and is among the most educated countries in the world with one of the highest percentage of its citizens holding a tertiary education degree. The country has the highest standard of living in the Middle East and the third highest in Asia, in the early weeks of independence, the government chose the term Israeli to denote a citizen of Israel, with the formal announcement made by Minister of Foreign Affairs Moshe Sharett. The names Land of Israel and Children of Israel have historically used to refer to the biblical Kingdom of Israel. The name Israel in these phrases refers to the patriarch Jacob who, jacobs twelve sons became the ancestors of the Israelites, also known as the Twelve Tribes of Israel or Children of Israel. The earliest known artifact to mention the word Israel as a collective is the Merneptah Stele of ancient Egypt. The area is known as the Holy Land, being holy for all Abrahamic religions including Judaism, Christianity, Islam
7.
Athlete
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An athlete or sportsman is a person who is good at a sport and competes in one or more sports that involve physical strength, speed or endurance. The terms application to those who participate in activities, such as horse riding or driving, is somewhat controversial. Athletes may be professionals or amateurs, most professional athletes have particularly well-developed physiques obtained by extensive physical training and strict exercise accompanied by a strict dietary regimen. The word athlete is a romanization of the Greek, άθλητὴς, athlētēs, one who participates in a contest, from ἄθλος, áthlos, or ἄθλον, áthlon, athletes involved in isotonic exercises have an increased mean left ventricular end-diastolic volume and are less likely to be depressed. Due to their strenuous physical activities, athletes are far more likely than the population to visit massage salons and pay for services from massage therapists. An all-around athlete is a person who competes in sports at a high level. Examples of people who played numerous sports professionally include Jim Thorpe, Lionel Conacher, Deion Sanders, Danny Ainge and Babe Zaharias. Others include Ricky Williams, Bo Jackson, and Damon Allen, japanese athletes such as Kazushi Sakuraba, Kazuyuki Fujita, Masakatsu Funaki and Naoya Ogawa have successfully competed in both professional wrestling and mixed martial arts. The title of Worlds Greatest Athlete traditionally belongs to the worlds top competitor in the decathlon and heptathlon in track and field. The decathlon consists of 10 events,100 meters, long jump, shot put, high jump,400 meters,110 m hurdles, discus, pole vault, javelin, and 1500 m. The heptathlon consists of seven events, the 100 m hurdles, high jump, shot put,200 meters, long jump, javelin, and 800 meters. These competitions require an athlete to possess the whole spectrum of ability in order to be successful including speed, strength, coordination, jumping ability. Although the title Worlds Greatest Athlete seems a natural fit for these two events, its association with the decathlon/heptathlon officially began with Jim Thorpe. During the 1912 Olympics in Stockholm, Sweden, Thorpe won the medal in the Decathlon. Thorpe notably also competed professionally in soccer, baseball, American Football, and basketball, and competed collegiately in track and field, soccer, baseball, lacrosse, and did ballroom dancing. King Gustav V of Sweden, while awarding Thorpe the decathlon gold said, You and that title has become associated with the decathlon event ever since. Outdoor enthusiast Jock Athlete of the Year Suresh Joachim Multiple Guinness World Record holder
8.
West Germany
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West Germany is the common English name for the Federal Republic of Germany or FRG in the period between its creation on 23 May 1949 to German reunification on 3 October 1990. During this Cold War era, NATO-aligned West Germany and Warsaw Pact-aligned East Germany were divided by the Inner German border, after 1961 West Berlin was physically separated from East Berlin as well as from East Germany by the Berlin Wall. This situation ended when East Germany was dissolved and its five states joined the ten states of the Federal Republic of Germany along with the reunified city-state of Berlin. With the reunification of West and East Germany, the Federal Republic of Germany, enlarged now to sixteen states and this period is referred to as the Bonn Republic by historians, alluding to the interwar Weimar Republic and the post-reunification Berlin Republic. The Federal Republic of Germany was established from eleven states formed in the three Allied Zones of occupation held by the United States, the United Kingdom and France, US and British forces remained in the country throughout the Cold War. Its population grew from roughly 51 million in 1950 to more than 63 million in 1990, the city of Bonn was its de facto capital city. The fourth Allied occupation zone was held by the Soviet Union, as a result, West Germany had a territory about half the size of the interbellum democratic Weimar Republic. At the onset of the Cold War, Europe was divided among the Western and Eastern blocs, Germany was de facto divided into two countries and two special territories, the Saarland and divided Berlin. The Federal Republic of Germany claimed a mandate for all of Germany. It took the line that the GDR was an illegally constituted puppet state, though the GDR did hold regular elections, these were not free and fair. For all practical purposes the GDR was a Soviet puppet state, from the West German perspective the GDR was therefore illegitimate. Three southwestern states of West Germany merged to form Baden-Württemberg in 1952, in addition to the resulting ten states, West Berlin was considered an unofficial de facto 11th state. It recognised the GDR as a de facto government within a single German nation that in turn was represented de jure by the West German state alone. From 1973 onward, East Germany recognised the existence of two German countries de jure, and the West as both de facto and de jure foreign country, the Federal Republic and the GDR agreed that neither of them could speak in the name of the other. The first chancellor Konrad Adenauer, who remained in office until 1963, had worked for an alignment with NATO rather than neutrality. He not only secured a membership in NATO but was also a proponent of agreements that developed into the present-day European Union, when the G6 was established in 1975, there was no question whether the Federal Republic of Germany would be a member as well. With the collapse of communism in Central and Eastern Europe in 1989, symbolised by the opening of the Berlin Wall, East Germany voted to dissolve itself and accede to the Federal Republic in 1990. Its five post-war states were reconstituted along with the reunited Berlin and they formally joined the Federal Republic on 3 October 1990, raising the number of states from 10 to 16, ending the division of Germany
9.
Law enforcement in Germany
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Law enforcement in Germany is constitutionally vested solely with the states, which is one of the main features of the German political system. Policing has always been a responsibility of the German states even after 1871 when the country was unified, the police became a tool of the centralized state and the Nazi party. Following the defeat of 1945, Germany was divided, in 1949 the three western zones were turned into the Federal Republic of Germany, the Soviet zone became the German Democratic Republic, each country pursued a different path concerning law enforcement. The only policing allowed at the level was border control controlled by the Ministry of the Interior and originally organized along paramilitary lines. East Germany created a police force under the Ministry of the Interior. It also established a police force, initially an independent force, later integrated into the army. Established in 1951, the Bundespolizei is the federal police force. It is subordinate to the Federal Ministry of the Interior, the Bundespolizei was previously known as the Bundesgrenzschutz and had a more restricted role until July 1,2005 when the law renaming the BGS as the BPOL was enacted. Prior to 1994 BGS members also had military combatant status due to their historical foundation, all personnel on duty wear sidearms. Some units have light aircraft and helicopters to facilitate access to remote border areas and for patrol. A coast guard force forms a part of the GFP and it is equipped with fourteen large patrol craft and several helicopters. In addition to controlling Germanys border, the GFP serves as a reserve force to deal with major disturbances. The GFP guards airports and foreign embassies, and several highly trained detachments are available for crisis situations requiring demolition equipment, helicopters. The GSG-9 won world attention when it rescued eighty-six passengers on a Lufthansa airliner hijacked to Mogadishu, Somalia, a military rank structure similar to that of the Bundeswehr was replaced in the mid-1970s by civil service-type personnel grades. The service uniform was green but is now blue, the West German Railway Police, formerly an independent force, and the East German Transportpolizei were restructured under the BGS to form the Bundespolizei in 1990. Another central police agency, the Federal Criminal Investigation Office, with approximately 3,000 agents, the BKA is a clearinghouse for criminal intelligence records. It provides assistance to State Criminal Police Offices in forensic matters, research and it is also the national point of contact for the International Criminal Police Organization. The BKA enters cases only when requested by Land authorities, or in cases involving two or more Länder, the BKA is involved in combating various terrorist gangs, which have plagued the country since the 1960s
10.
1972 Summer Olympics
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The 1972 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the XX Olympiad, was an international multi-sport event held in Munich, West Germany, from August 26 to September 11,1972. The sporting nature of the event was overshadowed by the Munich massacre in which eleven Israeli athletes and coaches. Five Black September Palestinian terrorists died, the 1972 Summer Olympics were the second Summer Olympics to be held in Germany, after the 1936 Games in Berlin, which had taken place under the Nazi regime. The logo of the Games was a blue solar logo by Otl Aicher, the Olympic mascot, the dachshund Waldi, was the first officially named Olympic mascot. The Olympic Fanfare was composed by Herbert Rehbein, a companion of Bert Kaempfert, the Olympic Park is based on Frei Ottos plans and after the Games became a Munich landmark. The competition sites, designed by architect Günther Behnisch, included the Olympic swimming hall, the Olympics Hall and the Olympic Stadium, and an Olympic village very close to the park. The design of the stadium was considered revolutionary, with sweeping canopies of acrylic glass stabilized by metal ropes, Munich won its Olympic bid on April 26,1966, at the 64th IOC Session at Rome, Italy, over bids presented by Detroit, Madrid, and Montréal. Montreal would eventually host the following Olympic games in 1976, the Games were largely overshadowed by what has come to be known as the Munich massacre. Two of the hostages who resisted were killed in the first moments of the break-in, the German authorities planned to ambush them there, but underestimated the numbers of their opposition and were thus undermanned. During a botched attempt, all of the Israeli hostages were killed. Four of them were shot, then incinerated when one of the terrorists detonated a grenade inside the helicopter in which the hostages were sitting, the five remaining hostages were then machine-gunned to death. All but three of the terrorists were killed as well, although arrested and imprisoned pending trial, they were released by the West German government on October 29,1972, in exchange for a hijacked Lufthansa jet. Two of those three were supposedly hunted down and assassinated later by the Mossad, jamal Al-Gashey, who is believed to be the sole survivor, is still living today in hiding in an unspecified African country with his wife and two children. A memorial ceremony was held in the Olympic stadium. The attack prompted heightened security at subsequent Olympics beginning with the 1976 Winter Olympics, security at Olympics was heightened further beginning with the 2002 Winter Olympics, as they were the first to take place since September 11,2001. The massacre led the German federal government to re-examine its anti-terrorism policies and this led to the creation of the elite counter-terrorist unit GSG9, similar to the British SAS. It also led Israel to launch a campaign known as Operation Wrath of God, in which those suspected of involvement were systematically tracked down, the events of the Munich massacre were chronicled in the Oscar-winning documentary, One Day in September. An account of the aftermath is also dramatized in three films, the 1976 made-for-TV movie 21 Hours at Munich, the 1986 made-for-TV movie Sword of Gideon and Steven Spielbergs 2005 film Munich
11.
Munich
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Munich is the capital and largest city of the German state of Bavaria, on the banks of River Isar north of the Bavarian Alps. Munich is the third largest city in Germany, after Berlin and Hamburg, the Munich Metropolitan Region is home to 5.8 million people. According to the Globalization and World Rankings Research Institute Munich is considered an alpha-world city, the name of the city is derived from the Old/Middle High German term Munichen, meaning by the monks. It derives from the monks of the Benedictine order who ran a monastery at the place that was later to become the Old Town of Munich, Munich was first mentioned in 1158. From 1255 the city was seat of the Bavarian Dukes, black and gold—the colours of the Holy Roman Empire—have been the citys official colours since the time of Ludwig the Bavarian, when it was an imperial residence. Following a final reunification of the Wittelsbachian Duchy of Bavaria, previously divided and sub-divided for more than 200 years, like wide parts of the Holy Roman Empire, the area recovered slowly economically. In 1918, during the German Revolution, the house of Wittelsbach, which governed Bavaria since 1180, was forced to abdicate in Munich. In the 1920s, Munich became home to political factions, among them the NSDAP. During World War II, Munich was heavily bombed and more than 50% of the entire city, the postwar period was characterised by American occupation until 1949 and a strong increase of population and economic power during the years of the Wirtschaftswunder after 1949. The city is home to corporations like BMW, Siemens, MAN, Linde, Allianz and MunichRE as well as many small. Munich is home to national and international authorities, major universities, major museums. Its numerous architectural attractions, international events, exhibitions and conferences. Munich is one of the most prosperous and fastest growing cities in Germany and it is a top-ranked destination for migration and expatriate location, despite being the municipality with the highest density of population in Germany. Munich nowadays hosts more than 530,000 people of foreign background, the year 1158 is assumed to be the foundation date, which is the earliest date the city is mentioned in a document. The document was signed in Augsburg, by that time the Guelph Henry the Lion, Duke of Saxony and Bavaria, had built a bridge over the river Isar next to a settlement of Benedictine monks—this was on the Old Salt Route and a toll bridge. In 1175, Munich was officially granted city status and received fortification, in 1180, with the trial of Henry the Lion, Otto I Wittelsbach became Duke of Bavaria and Munich was handed over to the Bishop of Freising. In 1240, Munich was transferred to Otto II Wittelsbach and in 1255, Duke Louis IV, a native of Munich, was elected German king in 1314 and crowned as Holy Roman Emperor in 1328. He strengthened the position by granting it the salt monopoly
12.
Counter-terrorism
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Counter-terrorism strategies include attempts to counter financing of terrorism. If terrorism is part of an insurgency, counter-terrorism may employ counter-insurgency measures. Harcourt envisioned a permanent unit dedicated to the prevention of politically motivated violence through the use of techniques such as undercover infiltration. This pioneering branch was the first to be trained in counter-terrorism techniques and its name was changed to Special Branch as it had its remit gradually expanded to incorporate a general role in counterterrorism, combating foreign subversion and infiltrating organized crime. Law enforcement agencies, in Britain and elsewhere, established similar units, Counterterrorism forces expanded with the perceived growing threat of terrorism in the late 20th century. Most counter-terrorism strategies involve an increase in police and domestic intelligence. The central activities are traditional, interception of communications, and the tracing of persons, new technology has, however, expanded the range of military and law enforcement operations. Domestic intelligence is often directed at specific groups, defined on the basis of origin or religion, mass surveillance of an entire population raises objections on civil liberties grounds. Homegrown terrorists, especially lone wolves are often harder to detect because of their citizenship or legal status, good intelligence is at the heart of such preparation, as well as political and social understanding of any grievances that might be solved. Counterintelligence is a challenge with the security of cell-based systems, since the ideal. Financial tracking can play a role, as can communications intercept, in response to the growing legislation. United Kingdom The United Kingdom has had anti-terrorism legislation in place for more than thirty years, the Prevention of Violence Act 1939 was brought in response to an Irish Republican Army campaign of violence under the S-Plan. This act had allowed to expire in 1953 and was repealed in 1973 to be replaced by the Prevention of Terrorism Acts a response to the Troubles in Northern Ireland. From 1974 to 1989 the temporary provisions of the act were renewed annually, in 2000 the Acts were replaced with the more permanent Terrorism Act 2000, which contained many of their powers, and then the Prevention of Terrorism Act 2005. The Anti-terrorism, Crime and Security Act 2001 was formally introduced into the Parliament November 19,2001 two months after the September 11,2001 attacks in the United States and it received royal assent and went into force on December 13,2001. On December 16,2004 the Law Lords ruled that Part 4 was incompatible with the European Convention on Human Rights, but under the terms of the Human Rights Act 1998 it remained in force. The Prevention of Terrorism Act 2005 was drafted to answer the Law Lords ruling and the Terrorism Act 2006 creates new offences related to terrorism, and amends existing ones. The Act was drafted in the aftermath of the 7 July 2005 London bombings, since 1978 the UKs terrorism laws have been regularly reviewed by a security-cleared Independent Reviewer of Terrorism Legislation, whose reports are submitted to Parliament and published in full
13.
GSG 9
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Grenzschutzgruppe 9 der Bundespolizei, commonly abbreviated GSG9, is a counter-terrorism, hostage rescue and special operations police unit of the German federal police. The incident culminated when German police, neither trained or equipped for counter-terrorism operations, Police did not have a specialized tactical sniper team at that time. The army had snipers, but the German Constitution did not allow the use of German Armed Forces on German soil during peacetime, the police rescue failed and the operation led to the deaths of one policeman, five of the eight kidnappers and all of the remaining nine hostages. Apart from the tragedy, Germanys law enforcement found itself severely compromised, in part due to Germanys historic relationship to Jews. Many German politicians opposed its formation, fearing GSG9 would rekindle memories of the Nazi Partys Schutzstaffel, the decision was taken to form the unit from police forces on the ground that German federal law expressly forbids the use of the military forces against the civilian population. Composing the special force from police personnel would avoid this difficulty, the unit was officially established on April 17,1973 as a part of Germanys federal police agency, the Bundesgrenzschutz. The name GSG9 stood for Grenzschutzgruppe 9 and was simply because the BGS had eight regular border guard groups at the time. After the 2005 renaming, the abbreviation GSG9 was kept due to the fame of the unit and is now the way to refer to the unit. Its formation was based on the expertise of the British SAS Counter Terrorist Units, GSG9 is deployed in cases of hostage-taking, kidnapping, terrorism and extortion. The group may also be used to secure locations, neutralize targets, the unit is very active in developing and testing methods and tactics for these missions. The group may provide advice to the different Länder, ministries, the group assists the Bundespolizei and other federal and local agencies on request. At the time of the 1977 Mogadishu mission, the Commander of the Israeli Border Police Tzvi War described GSG9 as The best anti-terrorist group in the world, from 1972 to 2003 they reportedly completed over 1,500 missions, discharging their weapons on only five occasions. At the SWAT World Challenge in 2005, GSG9 won eight out of eight events, GSG9 defended its championship the following year, and placed fifth in 2007. Germany offered to render assistance to India in the wake of the November 2008 Mumbai attacks, GSG9 helped train and upgrade the National Security Guards, the primary Indian counter-terrorism unit. Further help was provided to the Mumbai Police so that they could raise a SWAT team and its first mission, Operation Feuerzauber, immediately established the GSG 9s reputation as an elite unit. The aircraft was flown to several destinations throughout the Middle East. During this time, the Lufthansa captain Jürgen Schumann was murdered by the leader of the hijackers in Aden, in the night between October 17 and October 18, Somalian ranger units created a distraction, while members of the GSG9 stormed the plane. The operation lasted seven minutes and was successful with all of the hostages rescued, Three hijackers died, the fourth was seriously injured
14.
GIGN
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Groupe dintervention de la Gendarmerie nationale, commonly abbreviated GIGN, is the elite law enforcement and special operations unit of the French National Gendarmerie. Its missions include counter-terrorism, hostage rescue, surveillance of national threats, protection of government officials, GIGN was established in 1974 following the Munich massacre. GIGN shares jurisdiction of French territory with the National Police special-response units, GIGN is headquartered in Versailles-Satory near Paris. Although most of its operations take place in France, the unit, as a component of the French Armed Forces, many of its missions are secret, and members are not allowed to be publicly photographed. Since its formation, GIGN has been involved in over 1,800 missions and rescued more than 600 hostages, the unit came into prominence following its successful assault on a hijacked Air France flight at Marseille Marignane airport in December 1994. GIGN was formed in 1973 in the wake of the Munich massacre and it became operational in March 1974, under the command of then-lieutenant Christian Prouteau and performed its first mission ten days later. Another unit was created simultaneously within the Gendarmerie parachute squadron in Mont-de-Marsan in southwest France, gIGNs initial complement was 15, later increased to 32 in 1976,78 by 1986, and 120 by 2005. On 1 September 2007, a reorganization took place. In effect, GSIGN was renamed GIGN and its former components became forces of the new GIGN which now reached a total complement of 380 operators. More than a simple name swap, the new organization aimed at, reinforcing command and control functions providing better integration through common selection, common training, improving the units capability to handle complex situations such as mass hostage-takings similar to the Beslan crisis. In 2009, the Gendarmerie, while remaining part of the French Armed Forces, was attached to the Ministry of the interior, under the new command structure, GIGN gendarmes can still be engaged in military operations outside of France due to their military status. Coordination between GIGN and RAID, the police elite team, is handled by a joint organization called Ucofi. A leader/follower protocol has been established for use when both units need to be engaged jointly, leadership belonging to the operating in its primary areas of responsibility. Since its creation, the group has taken part in over 1800 operations, liberated over 600 hostages and arrested over 1500 suspects, the two fatalities in action were sustained when dealing with armed deranged persons. Arrest of dangerous or deranged armed persons, surveillance and observation of criminals and terrorists. GIGN is currently organized in six forces, under two headquarters, Intervention force, Approx,100 men, serving as the main assault unit of the GIGN. It is divided into four platoons (French, sections, two of which are on permanent alert and these platoons are further divided into individual teams of operators. Two of the sections are specialized in high altitude jumps
15.
Special Air Service
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The Special Air Service is a special forces unit of the British Army. The SAS was founded in 1941 as a regiment, and later reconstituted as a corps in 1950, the unit undertakes a number of roles including covert reconnaissance, counter-terrorism, direct action and hostage rescue. The Special Air Service traces its origins to 1941 and the Second World War and it was reformed as part of the Territorial Army in 1947, named the 21st Special Air Service Regiment. It was conceived as a force to operate behind enemy lines in the North African Campaign. Its first mission, in November 1941, was a drop in support of the Operation Crusader offensive. Due to German resistance and adverse conditions, the mission was a disaster,22 men. Its second mission was a major success, transported by the Long Range Desert Group, it attacked three airfields in Libya, destroying 60 aircraft with the loss of 2 men and 3 Willys MB. In September 1942, it was renamed 1st SAS, consisting at that time of four British squadrons, one Free French, one Greek, in January 1943, Colonel Stirling was captured in Tunisia and Paddy Mayne replaced him as commander. In April 1943, the 1st SAS was reorganised into the Special Raiding Squadron under Maynes command and the Special Boat Squadron was placed under the command of George Jellicoe. The Special Raiding Squadron fought in Sicily and Italy along with the 2nd SAS, the Special Boat Squadron fought in the Aegean Islands and Dodecanese until the end of the war. In 1944 the SAS Brigade was formed from the British 1st and 2nd SAS, the French 3rd and 4th SAS and the Belgian 5th SAS. It was tasked with parachute operations behind the German lines in France and carried out supporting the Allied advance through Belgium, the Netherlands. As a result of Hitlers issuing of the Commando Order on 18 October 1942, in July 1944, following Operation Bulbasket,34 captured SAS commandos were summarily executed by the Germans. In October 1944, in the aftermath of Operation Loyton another 31 captured SAS commandos were summarily executed by the Germans, at the end of the war the British Government saw no further need for the force and disbanded it on 8 October 1945. The following year it was decided there was a need for a long-term deep-penetration commando unit, ultimately, the Artists Rifles, raised in 1860 and headquartered at Dukes Road, Euston, took on the SAS mantle as 21st SAS Regiment on 1 January 1947. In 1950, a 21 SAS squadron was raised to fight in the Korean War, after three months of training in Britain, it was informed that the squadron would no longer be required in Korea and so it instead volunteered to fight in the Malayan Emergency. Upon arrival in Malaya, it came under the command of Mike Calvert who was forming a new unit called the Malayan Scouts, the Rhodesians returned home after three years service and were replaced by a New Zealand squadron. By this time the need for a regular army SAS regiment had been recognised, in 1959 the third regiment, the 23rd SAS Regiment, was formed by renaming the Reserve Reconnaissance Unit, which had succeeded MI9 and whose members were experts in escape and evasion
16.
Black September
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The civil war determined if Jordan would be ruled by the Palestine Liberation Organisation or the Hashemite monarchy. The war resulted in the deaths of thousands of people, the vast majority Palestinian, armed conflict ended with the expulsion of the PLO leadership and thousands of Palestinian fighters to Lebanon. The United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine in late 1947 led to war, the end of British Mandate. With nationhood, the civil war was transformed into a state conflict between Israel and the Arab states. Egypt, Jordan and Syria, together with forces from Iraq. They took control of the Arab areas, and immediately attacked Israeli forces, the fighting was halted with the UN-mediated 1949 Armistice Agreements, as the remaining areas of former Mandatory Palestine came under the control of Egypt and Transjordan. In 1949, Transjordan officially changed its name to Jordan, in 1950, it annexed the West Bank of the Jordan River, and brought Palestinian representation into Jordanian government. Only one third of the population of the West Bank and Jordan consisted of Jordanians. However, Jordan had provided Palestinians with seats mounting to half the parliament, moshe Shemesh claims that this proved to be a mercurial element in internal Jordanian politics, and played a critical role in the political opposition. The West Bank had become the center of the national and territorial aspects of the Palestinian problem, According to King Hussein, the Palestinian problem spelled life or death for Jordan, and would remain the countrys overriding national security issue. King Hussein feared an independent West Bank under PLO administration would threaten the autonomy of his Hashemite kingdom, the Palestinian factions were supported variously by many Arab governments, most notably Egypts president Gamal Abdel Nasser, who gave political support. The Samu Incident was one such reprisal, Jordan had long maintained secret contacts with Israel concerning peace and security along their border. In June 1967, Israel captured the West Bank from Jordan during the Six-Day War, on 21 March 1968, Israel Defense Forces units entered Jordan and destroyed a PLO base camp in the village of Karameh. The PLO suffered some 200 killed and another 150 taken prisoner,40 Jordanian soldiers were also killed. Israeli casualties stood at 28–33 killed and 69–161 wounded, the Karameh operation highlighted the vulnerability of bases close to the Jordan River, so the PLO moved their bases farther into the mountains, which placed additional strains on their operations. Further Israeli attacks targeted Palestinian militants residing among the Jordanian civilian population, in Palestinian enclaves and refugee camps in Jordan, the Jordanian Police and army were losing their authority. Uniformed PLO militants openly carried weapons, set up checkpoints, the PLO did not live up to the agreement, and instead came to be seen more and more as a state within a state in Jordan. Discipline in the Palestinian militias was often poor, and there was no power to control the different groups
17.
Hussein of Jordan
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Hussein bin Talal was King of Jordan from the abdication of his father, King Talal, in 1952, until his death. Husseins rule extended through the Cold War and four decades of Arab–Israeli conflict and he recognized Israel in 1994, becoming the second Arab head of state to do so. Hussein claimed to be the 40th descendant of the Islamic prophet Muhammad through his belonging to the ancient Hashemite family, King Hussein was born in Amman on 14 November 1935 to King Talal bin Abdullah and Princess Zein al-Sharaf bint Jamil. After completing his education in Amman, he was educated at Victoria College in Alexandria. He proceeded to Harrow School in England, where he befriended his second cousin Faisal II of Iraq and he pursued further study at the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst. Abdullah was killed, but the 15-year-old Hussein survived the assassination attempt, witnesses reported that the gunman turned his weapon on the young prince, who was saved when the bullet was deflected by a medal on his uniform which had been given to him by his grandfather. Hussein was appointed Crown Prince of Jordan on 9 September 1951, abdullahs eldest son, Talal, became King of Jordan, but thirteen months later was forced to abdicate owing to his mental state. King Talals son, Crown Prince Hussein, was proclaimed King of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan on 11 August 1952, a Regency Council was appointed until he came of age. He was enthroned on 2 May 1953, in March 1956, Hussein asserted Jordanian independence by dismissing Glubb Pasha as the commander of the Jordanian Army, and replacing all the British officers with Jordanians. This now mainly Bedouin army was fiercely loyal to him, due to tribal connections, Husseins rule was marked by repeated efforts to secure peace in the region. Meetings between King Hussein and Israeli foreign ministers Abba Eban and Golda Meir began on or before 1963, Jordan, sharing Israels longest contiguous border, was interested in maintaining a peaceful coexistence with Israel. Avi Shlaim claims that Husseins intentions. throughout the 1960s was to see if there was any way to resolve the dispute with Israel peacefully, King Hussein sought to understand Israels position and preferred dialogue to the futility of war. Much of this desire grows out of the threat from other Arab states, specifically the Baathist regimes in Iraq and Syria and Nassers ideology of Arab nationalism which had heavily influenced the Army. The first secret meeting place on 24 September 1963 between King Hussein and Yaacov Herzog, a diplomat with wide experience and special emissary of prime minister Levi Eshkol. Among other things such as discussions regarding water rights, the purpose of the meetings were to plan and support Israeli and Jordanian initiatives in combating Fatah guerrillas. He would later state I told them I could not absorb a serious retaliatory raid, on 13 November 1966, Israeli military conducted a major incursion into Jordanian territory, violating their secret agreement with King Hussein, in what became known as the Samu Incident. Two days later, in response to the incident, in a memo to U. S. President Lyndon B, johnson, his Special Assistant Walt Rostow wrote, retaliation is not the point in this case. Weve spent $500 million to him up as a stabilizing factor on Israels longest border and vis-à-vis Syria
18.
Martial law
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It is usually imposed temporarily when the government or civilian authorities fail to function effectively. Martial law can be used by governments to enforce their rule over the public, such incidents may occur after a coup détat, when threatened by popular protest, to suppress political opposition, or to stabilize insurrections or perceived insurrections. Martial law may be declared in cases of natural disasters, however, most countries use a different legal construct. Martial law has also been imposed during conflicts, and in cases of occupations, examples of this form of military rule include post World War II reconstruction in Germany and Japan as well as the Southern Reconstruction following the U. S. Civil War. Civilians defying martial law may be subjected to military tribunal, the Black War was a period of violent conflict between British colonists and Aboriginal Australians in Tasmania from the mid-1820s to 1832. With an escalation of violence in the late 1820s, Lieutenant-Governor George Arthur declared martial law in November 1828—effectively providing legal immunity for killing Aboriginal people and it would remain in force for more than three years, the longest period of martial law in Australian history. Brunei has been under a law since a rebellion occurred on 8 December 1962 known as the Brunei Revolt and was put down by British troops from Singapore. e. The military does not administer justice, which remains in the hands of the courts, the Act has been invoked three times, During World War I, World War II, and the October Crisis of 1970. In 1988, the War Measures Act was replaced by the Emergencies Act, during the colonial era, martial law was proclaimed and applied in the territory of the Province of Quebec during the invasion of Canada by the army of the American Continental Congress in 1775–1776. It was also applied twice in the territory of Lower Canada during the 1837–1838 insurrections and it was imposed until April 27,1838. Martial law was proclaimed a second time on November 4,1838, this time by acting Governor John Colborne, in Egypt, a State of Emergency has been in effect almost continuously since 1967. Following the assassination of President Anwar el-Sadat in 1981, state of emergency was declared, Egypt has been under state of emergency ever since, the Parliament has renewed the emergency laws every three years since they were imposed. The legislation was extended in 2003 and were due to expire at the end of May 2006, but after the Dahab bombings in April of that year, state of emergency was renewed for another two years. In May 2008 there was an extension to June 2010. In May 2010, the state of emergency was extended, albeit with a promise from the government to be applied only to Terrorism. Public demonstrations are banned under the legislation, under martial law the source of power is not the people, not the parliament, not the constitution, not a Holy Text, but solely the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces. The military issued in its announcement the end of the State of Emergency as soon as order is restored in Egypt. Before martial law, the Egyptian parliament under the constitution had the power to declare a State of Emergency
19.
Fedayeen
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Fedayeen is a term used to refer to various military groups willing to sacrifice themselves. The term fedayi is derived from Arabic, فدائيون fidāīyūn IPA, literally meaning, hassan-i-Sabbah, who founded the Nizari Ismaili state in Persia and Syria, first coined the term to refer to the Hashshashins. Fidāʼīyīn is the plural of fidāʼī, which means sacrifice and it is widely understood as those willing to sacrifice themselves for God. The group carried out a struggle against enslavement. During the 1940s, a group of civilians volunteered to fight the British control of Egyptian land around the Suez Canal, the British had deployed military bases along the coast of the Suez Canal under the claim of protection. Many Egyptians viewed this as an invasion against their power over their country. Those groups were viewed very highly among the Egyptian population, in 1951 mobs of irregular self-sacrificers, or fedayeen some armed by the Muslim Brotherhood, attacked the British military base defending the Suez Canal Zone. Known by the name, they operated inside the capital city, Asmara. They operated secretly and eliminated people who were considered dangerous to the struggle to free Eritrea, two very different groups used the name Fedayeen in recent Iranian history. Fadayan-e Islam has been described as one of the first real Islamic fundamentalist organizations in the Muslim world and it was founded by Navab Safavi in 1946 for the purpose of demanding strict application of the sharia and assassinating those it believed to be apostates and enemies of Islam. After several successful assassinations it was suppressed in 1956 and several leading members were executed, a Marxist-leaning activist group known as the Fedayeen was founded in 1971 and based in Tehran. Operating between 1971 and 1983, the Fedayeen carried out a number of assassinations in the course of the struggle against the Shah. In 1979 the Iranian Peoples Fedâi Guerrillas split from the Organization of Iranian Peoples Fedaian, beginning in 1995, Iraq established a paramilitary group known as the Fedayeen Saddam, loyal to the then president Saddam Hussein and the Baathist government. The name was chosen to imply a connection with the Palestinian Fedayeen, in July 2003, personnel records for the Fedayeen organization in Iraq were discovered in the basement of the former Fedayeen headquarters in east Baghdad near the Rasheed Air Base. Palestinian fedayeen are militants of a nationalist orientation from among the Palestinian people, the fedayeen made efforts to infiltrate territory in Israel in order to strike military as well as civilian targets in the aftermath of the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. Members of these groups were living in the Gaza Strip and the West Bank or in neighboring Lebanon and Syria. Prior to Israels seizure of the West Bank and Gaza Strip in the Six-Day War, after Israels Operation Black Arrow in 1955, the Palestinian fedayeen were incorporated into an Egyptian army unit. During this time, the word entered international usage and was used in the Arab media as a synonym for great militancy
20.
Fatah
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Fataḥ, formerly the Palestinian National Liberation Movement is a Palestinian nationalist political party and the largest faction of the confederated multi-party Palestine Liberation Organization. Fatah is generally considered to have had an involvement in revolutionary struggle in the past and has maintained a number of militant groups. Fatah had been identified with the leadership of its founder Yasser Arafat. Since Arafats departure, factionalism within the ideologically diverse movement has become more apparent, in the 2006 parliamentary election, the party lost its majority in the Palestinian parliament to Hamas. However, the Hamas legislative victory led to a conflict between Fatah and Hamas, with Fatah retaining control of the Palestinian National Authority in the West Bank, the full name of the movement is حركة التحرير الوطني الفلسطيني ḥarakat al-taḥrīr al-waṭanī al-Filasṭīnī, meaning the Palestinian National Liberation Movement. From this was crafted the reverse acronym Fatḥ meaning opening, conquering, the word fatḥ or fatah is used in religious discourse to signify the Islamic expansion in the first centuries of Islamic history –as in Fatḥ al-Sham, the conquering of the Levant. Fatah also has significance in that it is the name of the 48th sura of the Quran which, according to major Muslim commentators. (During the peaceful two years after the Hudaybiyyah treaty, many converted to Islam, increasing the strength of the Muslim side and it was the breach of this treaty by the Quraysh that triggered the conquest of Mecca. This Islamic precedent was cited by Yasser Arafat as justification for his signing the Oslo Accords with Israel. The founders included Yasser Arafat, then head of the General Union of Palestinian Students at Cairo University, Salah Khalaf, Khalil al-Wazir, Fatah became the dominant force in Palestinian politics after the Six-Day War in 1967. Fatah joined the Palestine Liberation Organization in 1967 and it was immediately allocated 33 of 105 seats in the PLO Executive Committee. Founder Yasser Arafat became Chairman of the PLO in 1969, after the position was ceded to him by Yahya Hammuda. According to the BBC, Mr Arafat took over as chairman of the committee of the PLO in 1969. The towns name is the Arabic word for dignity, which elevated its symbolism to the Arab people, the operation was in response to attacks against Israel, including rockets strikes from Fatah and other Palestinian militias into the occupied West Bank. Knowledge of the operation was well ahead of time. On the night of 21 March, the IDF attacked Karameh with heavy weaponry, armored vehicles, Fatah held its ground, surprising the Israeli military. As Israels forces intensified their campaign, the Jordanian Army became involved, by the end of the battle, nearly 150 Fatah militants had been killed, as well as twenty Jordanian soldiers and twenty-eight Israeli soldiers. Despite the higher Arab death toll, Fatah considered themselves victorious because of the Israeli armys rapid withdrawal, after their victory in the Battle of Karameh, Fatah and other Palestinian militias began taking control of civil life in Jordan
21.
Jordanian Armed Forces
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The Jordanian Armed Forces, also referred to as the Arab Army, are the military forces of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan. They consist of the forces, air force, and navy and is under the direct control of the King of Jordan who is the Commander-in-Chief. The current Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff is Lieutenant General Mahmoud Freihat, first organized army in Jordan was established on 22 October 1920, and was named the Mobile Force, at the time it was 150 men strong. On its third anniversary in 1923, the force was renamed the Arab Legion, by the time Jordan became an independent state in 1946, Arab Legion numbered some 8,000 soldiers in 3 mechanized regiments. In 1956, all British generals were dismissed, and the name was changed into the Jordanian Army. The army fought in wars and battles, mostly against Israel. In the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, the capture of the West Bank by Jordan, several confrontations followed with Israel, Retribution operations, Six Day War, War of Attrition and Yom Kippor War. Jordan also had to face the PLO and the Syrian Army during the events of Black September, the signing of the Israel–Jordan peace treaty in 1994 ended the state of hostility between the two countries, and allowed them to resume normal functioning. It is today considered to be among the most professional in the region, the first organized army in Jordan was established on 22 October 1920, and was named the Mobile Force, at the time it was 150 man strong under the command of the British Captain Frederick Peake. On its third anniversary, in October 1923, the now 1000 man force was renamed the Arab Legion, in 1939, John Bagot Glubb, better known as Glubb Pasha, became the Legions commander, and continued in office until the dismissal of British officers in March 1956. On 1 April 1926, the Transjordan Frontier Force was formed, consisting of only 150 men, the Jordanian Armed Forces was formed on 1 March 1956 by renaming the Arab Legion. Then-King Hussein wanted at the time to himself from the British and disprove the contention of Arab nationalists that John Glubb. Glubb was dismissed on the date and replaced with Maj. -Gen. Radi Annab, the first Arab commander of the Arab Legion and these have been transformed into a lighter, more mobile forces, based largely on a brigade structure and considered better capable of rapid reaction in emergencies. An armoured division has become the element of a strategic reserve. The main objectives of the Jordanian Armed Forces are, Protect the Kingdom of Jordan borders from any invasion, Protect the people inside the Kingdom and their rights. In order to cope with a range of potential threats. There has been an emphasis on rapid reaction and special forces
22.
Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine
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The Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine is a secular Palestinian Marxist–Leninist and revolutionary socialist organization founded in 1967 by George Habash. It has consistently been the second-largest of the forming the Palestine Liberation Organization. Currently, the PFLP is boycotting participation in the committee of the PLO. PFLP is described as a terrorist organization by the United States, Canada, Australia, the relationship between the PFLP and the Islamic Republic of Iran has fluctuated – it strengthened as a result of Hamas moving away from Iran due to differing positions on the Syrian Civil War. Iran rewarded the PFLP for its pro-Assad stance with an increase in financial, the PFLP has generally taken a hard line on Palestinian national aspirations, opposing the more moderate stance of Fatah. It does not recognise the State of Israel and opposes negotiations with the Israeli government, the military wing of the PFLP is called the Abu Ali Mustapha Brigades. The PFLP is well known for pioneering armed aircraft hijackings in the late 1960s, the PFLP grew out of the Harakat al-Qawmiyyin al-Arab, or Arab Nationalist Movement, founded in 1953 by George Habash, a Palestinian Christian, from Lydda. In 1948, 19-year-old Habash, a student, went to his home town of Lydda during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War to help his family. While he was there, the Israel Defense Forces attacked the city and they marched for three days without food or water until they reached the Arab armies front lines. Habash finished his education in Lebanon at the American University in Beirut. In an interview with US journalist John K. Cooley, Habash identified the Arab defeat by the Zionists as the society of Israel as against our own backwardness in the Arab world. This called for the rebuilding of Arab society into a twentieth-century society. The ANM was founded in this nationalist spirit, held the Guevara view of the revolutionary human being, Habash told Cooley. A new breed of man had to emerge, among the Arabs as everywhere else and this meant applying everything in human power to the realization of a cause. The ANM formed underground branches in several Arab countries, including Libya, Saudi Arabia and Kuwait and it adopted secularism and socialist economic ideas, and pushed for armed struggle. In collaboration with the Palestinian Liberation Army, the ANM established Abtal al-Audah as a group in 1966. After the Six-Day War of June 1967, ANM merged in August with two groups, Youth for Revenge and Ahmed Jibrils Syrian-backed Palestine Liberation Front, to form the PFLP. By early 1968, the PFLP had trained between one and three thousand guerrillas and it had the financial backing of Syria, and was headquartered there, and one of its training camps was based in as-Salt, Jordan
23.
As-Sa'iqa
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As-Saiqa is a Palestinian Baathist political and military faction created and controlled by Syria. It is linked to the Palestinian branch of the Syrian-led Baath Party and its Secretary-General is Farhan Abu Al-Hayja. As-Saiqa was initially the second-largest group within the PLO, after Fatah, as-Saiqa was also used in the Bathist power struggle then in play in Syria, by Salah Jadid to counter the ambitions of Defence Minister Hafez al-Assad. When al-Assad seized power in the November 1970 Corrective Revolution, the organization was purged, as new Secretary-General, al-Assad chose Zuhayr Muhsin, a Palestinian Bathist who had come to Syria as a refugee from Jordan. He was repeatedly promoted by Syria as a candidate for the post as Chairman of the PLO, to replace Arafat, the organization was, and is, utilized by Syria as a proxy force in the Palestinian movement. While this has prevented as-Saiqa from gaining popularity among Palestinians, it became an important force in the Palestinian camps in Syria. The attacks on the PLO led to defections of Syrian-based Palestinians from the movement. As Saiqa was as responsible of the Damour Massacre in 1976. After Muhsins assassination in 1979, Isam al-Qadi became new Secretary-General and this again led to mass-defections of Palestinians from the movement, and reportedly its ranks were filled with non-Palestinian Syrian army recruits. After the end of the Civil War, the movement was out of contact with the PLO mainstream. It kept lobbying within the PLO against the peace proposals advanced by Arafat. Today, it is wholly insignificant outside Syria, although it retains a presence in Lebanon. It is extremely weak in the West Bank and Gaza Strip, non-existient in the Golan Heights, East Jerusalem and Israel within the Green Line and its importance to Syria has lessened, both because the PLO has diminished in importance compared to the Palestinian National Authority. As-Saiqa is led by a Secretary-General, Farhan Abu Al-Hayja since 2007 and it has a representative on the PLO Executive Committee, but he boycotts sessions of the PLO EC. Syrian backing in the 1970s gave as-Saiqa a military weight far greater than its political influence, during the Lebanese civil war was often the second largest Palestinian faction in fighting strength, after Yassir Arafats Fatah movement. Under the name Eagles of the Palestinian Revolution - possibly the name of the wing of as-Saiqa - the organization has committed a number of international terrorist attacks. Among these are the 1979 takeover of the Egyptian embassy in Ankara, Turkey, since the early 1990s, the organization has not committed any known attacks, and it is not listed on the U. S. State Department list of Foreign Terrorist Organizations. As-Saiqas political agenda is identical to that of Baathist Syria, i. e. Arab socialist, nationalist, thus, it rejected Palestinization of the conflict with Israel, insisting on the necessary involvement of the greater Arab nation
24.
Abu Ali Iyad
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Walid Ahmad Nimer al-Naser better known by his nom de guerre Abu Ali Iyad was a senior Palestinian field commander based in Syria and Jordan during the 1960s and early 1970s. A year later, he one of Fatahs first leaders in Syria along with al-Wazir. During his time there, Abu Ali Iyad gained a position on the top political body, supervised its main guerrilla training camp in Daraa. As a Fatah field commander, he fought Israeli forces at the Battle of Karameh, Abu Ali Iyad was also a leading organizer and participant in guerrilla raids against Israeli localities. He was one of the last Palestinian commanders to fight the Jordanian Army in the aftermath of the Black September conflict and he was killed in the countryside around Ajlun and Jerash by Jordanian forces in July 1971. His partisans claimed that he was executed, and as retaliation, in 1934, Abu Ali Iyad was born in Qalqilyah in the modern-day West Bank when Palestine was under the British Mandate. He was educated there, graduating high school in 1953 and taught at schools in the city. A year later, he moved to Baquba, Iraq where he enrolled in a training program. He left Iraq the same year, moving to Saudi Arabia to teach there afterward, in 1962, he had a job as a teacher in Algeria. However, he sought and received training by the Algerian Army. While in Algeria, Abu Ali Iyad was recruited into the Palestinian nationalist paramilitary organization Fatah by the leader of its armed wing Khalil al-Wazir and he adopted his nom de guerre after joining. Fatah at the time was divided politically with the more non-violent leadership based in Kuwait, Abu Ali Iyad, along with al-Wazir, Yasser Arafat, and three others in the Syrian camp, formed the organizations emergency field command in Damascus in 1965. As a result, Abu Ali Iyad, al-Wazirs wife Intissar al-Wazir, Abu Ali Iyad himself was arrested later by the Syrian authorities. He was released along with Arafat and two other Fatah leaders in August, Abu Ali Iyad then met al-Assad in person to sign an agreement on the terms of Fatahs presence and activities in Syria. Following the release of the rest of Fatahs leadership, the Central Committee of Fatah—the organizations highest decision-making body, was reformed, Abu Ali Iyads position gave him responsibility for al-Assifas operations against Israel from Syria and Lebanon. By the end of the year, he had personally led raids against a number of villages in northeastern Israel, including Kfar Giladi, Manara, Margaliot, in the latter village, his unit was responsible for wounding two civilians and destroying three houses by explosives. Also after his release, in 1966, Abu Ali Iyad became the military instructor of a training camp for Fatah recruits in the city of Hama in central Syria. He modeled it based on the Algerian training camp he graduated from, most of his pupils were university students who would soon form Fatahs new guerrilla force
25.
Palestine Liberation Organization
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The Palestine Liberation Organization is an organization founded in 1964 with the purpose of the liberation of Palestine through armed struggle, with much of its violence aimed at Israeli civilians. The PLO was considered by the United States and Israel to be a terrorist organization until the Madrid Conference in 1991, at its first summit meeting in Cairo in 1964, the Arab League initiated the creation of an organization representing the Palestinian people. The Palestinian National Council convened in Jerusalem on 28 May 1964, concluding this meeting the PLO was founded on 2 June 1964. Its stated goal was the liberation of Palestine through armed struggle, the ideology of the PLO was formulated in the founding year 1964 in the Palestinian National Covenant. The document is a combative anti-Zionist statement dedicated to the restoration of the Palestinian homeland and it has no reference to religion. In 1968, the Charter was replaced by a revised version. Until 1993, the only promoted option was armed struggle, from the signing of the Oslo Accords, negotiation and diplomacy became the only official policy. In April 1996, a number of articles, which were inconsistent with the Oslo Accords, were wholly or partially nullified. They demanded that Palestinian refugees should be allowed to return to their homes and this article was adapted in 1996 to meet the Oslo Accords. Article 20 states, ″The Balfour Declaration, the Mandate for Palestine, claims of historical or religious ties of Jews with Palestine are incompatible with the facts of history and the true conception of what constitutes statehood. Judaism, being a religion, is not an independent nationality, nor do Jews constitute a single nation with an identity of its own, they are citizens of the states to which they belong″. This article was nullified in 1996, the PLO has always labelled the Palestinian people as Arabs. This was a consequence of the fact that the PLO was an offshoot of the Arab League. It also has an element, as to keep the backing of Arab states. Over the years, the Arab identity remained the stated nature of the Palestinian State and it is a reference to the ″Arab State″ envisioned in the UN Partition Plan. The PLO and its dominating faction Fatah are often contrasted to more religious orientated factions like Hamas, all, however, represent a predominant Muslim population. Practically the whole population of the Territories is Muslim, most of them Sunni, the National Charter has no reference to religion. The draft Constitution, which never materialized, contains the same provisions, at the time, the PLC did not include a single Hamas member
26.
Yasser Arafat
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Mohammed Yasser Abdel Rahman Abdel Raouf Arafat al-Qudwa, popularly known as Yasser Arafat or by his kunya Abu Ammar, was a Palestinian political leader. He was Chairman of the Palestine Liberation Organization from 1969 to 2004, ideologically an Arab nationalist, he was a founding member of the Fatah political party, which he led from 1959 until 2004. Arafat was born to Palestinian parents in Cairo, Egypt, where he spent most of his youth, while a student, he embraced Arab nationalist and anti-Zionist ideas. Opposed to the 1948 creation of the State of Israel, he fought alongside the Muslim Brotherhood during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, returning to Cairo, he served as president of the General Union of Palestinian Students from 1952 to 1956. In the latter part of the 1950s he co-founded Fatah, an organisation seeking the disestablishment of Israel. Fatah operated within several Arab countries, from where it launched attacks on Israeli targets, in the latter part of the 1960s Arafats profile grew, in 1967 he joined the PLO and in 1969 was elected chair of the Palestinian National Council. Fatahs growing presence in Jordan resulted in clashes with King Husseins Jordanian government. There, Fatah assisted the Lebanese National Movement during the Lebanese Civil War and continued its attacks on Israel, from 1983 to 1993, Arafat based himself in Tunisia, and began to shift his approach from open conflict with the Israelis to negotiation. In 1988, he acknowledged Israels right to exist and sought a solution to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. In 1994 he returned to Palestine, settling in Gaza City and he engaged in a series of negotiations with the Israeli government to end the conflict between it and the PLO. These included the Madrid Conference of 1991, the 1993 Oslo Accords, in 1994 Arafat received the Nobel Peace Prize, together with Yitzhak Rabin and Shimon Peres, for the negotiations at Oslo. At the time, Fatahs support among the Palestinians declined with the growth of Hamas, in late 2004, after effectively being confined within his Ramallah compound for over two years by the Israeli army, Arafat fell into a coma and died. While the cause of Arafats death has remained the subject of speculation, investigations by Russian, the majority of the Palestinian people view him as a heroic freedom fighter and martyr who symbolized the national aspirations of his people. Arafat was born in Cairo, Egypt and his father, Abdel Raouf al-Qudwa al-Husseini, was a Palestinian from Gaza City, whose mother, Yassers paternal grandmother, was Egyptian. Arafats father battled in the Egyptian courts for 25 years to claim land in Egypt as part of his inheritance but was unsuccessful. He worked as a merchant in Cairos religiously mixed Sakakini District. Arafat was the second-youngest of seven children and was, along with his younger brother Fathi and his mother, Zahwa Abul Saud, was from a Jerusalem-based family. She died from an ailment in 1933, when Arafat was four years of age
27.
United States Department of State
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The Department was created in 1789 and was the first executive department established. The Department is headquartered in the Harry S Truman Building located at 2201 C Street, NW, the Department operates the diplomatic missions of the United States abroad and is responsible for implementing the foreign policy of the United States and U. S. diplomacy efforts. The Department is also the depositary for more than 200 multilateral treaties, the Department is led by the Secretary of State, who is nominated by the President and confirmed by the Senate and is a member of the Cabinet. The current Secretary of State is Rex Tillerson, beginning 1 February 2017, the Secretary of State is the second Cabinet official in the order of precedence and in the presidential line of succession, after the Vice President of the United States. This legislation remains the law of the Department of State. In September 1789, additional legislation changed the name of the agency to the Department of State and these responsibilities grew to include management of the United States Mint, keeper of the Great Seal of the United States, and the taking of the census. President George Washington signed the new legislation on September 15, most of these domestic duties of the Department of State were eventually turned over to various new Federal departments and agencies that were established during the 19th century. On September 29,1789, President Washington appointed Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, then Minister to France, from 1790 to 1800, the State Department had its headquarters in Philadelphia, the capital of the United States at the time. It occupied a building at Church and Fifth Streets, in 1800, it moved from Philadelphia to Washington, D. C. where it first occupied the Treasury Building and then the Seven Buildings at 19th Street and Pennsylvania Avenue. It moved into the Six Buildings in September 1800, where it remained until May 1801 and it moved into the War Office Building due west of the White House in May 1801. It occupied the Treasury Building from September 1819 to November 1866 and it then occupied the Washington City Orphan Home from November 1866 to July 1875. It moved to the State, War, and Navy Building in 1875, since May 1947, it has occupied the Harry S. Truman Building in the Foggy Bottom neighborhood of Washington, the State Department is therefore sometimes metonymically referred to as Foggy Bottom. Madeleine Albright became the first woman to become the United States Secretary of State, condoleezza Rice became the second female secretary of state in 2005. Hillary Rodham Clinton became the female secretary of state when she was appointed in 2009. In 2014, the State Department began expanding into the Navy Hill Complex across 23rd Street NW from the Truman Building, the Executive Branch and the U. S. Congress have constitutional responsibilities for U. S. foreign policy. Within the Executive Branch, the Department of State is the lead U. S, the Department advances U. S. objectives and interests in the world through its primary role in developing and implementing the Presidents foreign policy. It also provides an array of important services to U. S. citizens, the total Department of State budget, together with Other International Programs, costs about 45 cents a day for each resident of the United States. Keeping the public informed about U. S. foreign policy and relations with other countries, providing automobile registration for non-diplomatic staff vehicles and the vehicles of diplomats of foreign countries having diplomatic immunity in the United States
28.
John K. Cooley
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John Kent Cooley was an American journalist and author who specialized in terrorism and the Middle East. Based in Athens, he worked as a radio and off-air television correspondent for ABC News and was a contributing editor to the Christian Science Monitor. Cooley was one of only a handful of Western journalists widely regarded and trusted in the Middle East as an expert on the areas history and he interviewed several of the regions heads of state and was personally acquainted with the senior leadership of the PLO. He was a key part of the ABC News Prime Time Live team that won an Emmy in 1990 for its investigation into the December 21,1988 bombing of Pan Am Flight 103. A graduate of Dartmouth College, Cooley served with the U. S. Army in postwar Germany, returning to America, he undertook his postgraduate studies at the New School University in New York City, then began his journalistic career at the New York Herald Tribune. He lived in North Africa from 1953 to 1964, covering the Algerian War for UPI, NBC News and The Observer and he interviewed Yasser Arafat many times and was acquainted with the senior leadership of Fatah and the other secular Palestinian groups. A personal friend of Ardeshir Zahedi with whom he had a 50 years old friendship, Cooley worked with Pierre Salinger on the Investigation into the bombing of Pan Am Flight 103. S. It was also passed through an Arab intermediary to a German intelligence agent, the communication stated that a major attack was planned for inside the U. S. and that aircraft would be used. The code name of the operation, wrote Cooley, was Al Ourus al-Kabir — The Big Wedding. Baal, Christ, and Mohammed, Religion and revolution in North Africa, Holt, Rinehart and Winston,1965 Green March Black September, The Story of the Palestinian Arabs, Frank Cass & Co. S. Israel and Iraq, Pluto Press,2005, ISBN 0-7453-2282-4 How Hate Replaced Hope Cooleys response to 9/11, Christian Science Monitor, September 27,2001 Other unheeded warnings before 9/11
29.
Europe
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Europe is a continent that comprises the westernmost part of Eurasia. Europe is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, yet the non-oceanic borders of Europe—a concept dating back to classical antiquity—are arbitrary. Europe covers about 10,180,000 square kilometres, or 2% of the Earths surface, politically, Europe is divided into about fifty sovereign states of which the Russian Federation is the largest and most populous, spanning 39% of the continent and comprising 15% of its population. Europe had a population of about 740 million as of 2015. Further from the sea, seasonal differences are more noticeable than close to the coast, Europe, in particular ancient Greece, was the birthplace of Western civilization. The fall of the Western Roman Empire, during the period, marked the end of ancient history. Renaissance humanism, exploration, art, and science led to the modern era, from the Age of Discovery onwards, Europe played a predominant role in global affairs. Between the 16th and 20th centuries, European powers controlled at times the Americas, most of Africa, Oceania. The Industrial Revolution, which began in Great Britain at the end of the 18th century, gave rise to economic, cultural, and social change in Western Europe. During the Cold War, Europe was divided along the Iron Curtain between NATO in the west and the Warsaw Pact in the east, until the revolutions of 1989 and fall of the Berlin Wall. In 1955, the Council of Europe was formed following a speech by Sir Winston Churchill and it includes all states except for Belarus, Kazakhstan and Vatican City. Further European integration by some states led to the formation of the European Union, the EU originated in Western Europe but has been expanding eastward since the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991. The European Anthem is Ode to Joy and states celebrate peace, in classical Greek mythology, Europa is the name of either a Phoenician princess or of a queen of Crete. The name contains the elements εὐρύς, wide, broad and ὤψ eye, broad has been an epithet of Earth herself in the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European religion and the poetry devoted to it. For the second part also the divine attributes of grey-eyed Athena or ox-eyed Hera. The same naming motive according to cartographic convention appears in Greek Ανατολή, Martin Litchfield West stated that phonologically, the match between Europas name and any form of the Semitic word is very poor. Next to these there is also a Proto-Indo-European root *h1regʷos, meaning darkness. Most major world languages use words derived from Eurṓpē or Europa to refer to the continent, in some Turkic languages the originally Persian name Frangistan is used casually in referring to much of Europe, besides official names such as Avrupa or Evropa
30.
Leaderless resistance
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Leaderless resistance can encompass anything from non-violent protest and civil disobedience to vandalism, terrorism and other violent activity. Leaderless cells lack bidirectional, vertical command links and operate without hierarchal command, while it lacks a central command, the concept includes a common goal between the individual actor and the group or social movement from which the ideology was learned. A typical covert cell can be an individual or a small group. The basic characteristic of the structure is that there is no communication between cells which are otherwise acting toward the same goals. Members of one cell usually have little or no information on who else is agitating on behalf of their cause. Leaderless movements may have a symbolic figurehead and this can be a public figure or an inspirational author, who picks generic targets and objectives, but does not actually manage or execute plans. As a result, leaderless resistance cells are not susceptible to informants. The latter strategy, however, usually some form of organized. In some cases, a leaderless movement may evolve into a coherent insurgency or guerrilla movement. In the same conflict, the British leadership had extensive plans for the use of resistance in the event of a successful German invasion. While the concept of resistance is often based on resistance by violent means. The concept of resistance was developed by Col. Ulius Louis Amoss. An anti-communist, Amoss saw leaderless resistance as a way to prevent the penetration and destruction of CIA-supported resistance cells in Eastern European countries under Soviet control. The concept was revived and popularized in an essay published by the anti-government Ku Klux Klan member Louis Beam in 1983 and again in 1992. Beam advocated leaderless resistance as a technique for white nationalists to continue the struggle against the U. S. government, despite an overwhelming imbalance in power and resources. A more workable approach would be to convince the like-minded individuals to form independent cells, within a year, a leaderless model of hunt-sabotage groups was formed across the country. The Band of Mercy was then formed in 1972 using direct action to liberate animals, ronnie Lee and others then changed the name to the Animal Liberation Front in 1976 and the leaderless resistance model focusing broadly on animal liberation was born. Letter bombs were sent to the then British Prime Minister, Margaret Thatcher, the Earth Liberation Front was then formed in 1992, which broke from Earth First
31.
Benny Morris
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Benny Morris is an Israeli historian. He is a professor of history in the Middle East Studies department of Ben-Gurion University of the Negev in the city of Beersheba, Israel. He is a key member of the group of Israeli historians known as the New Historians, Morriss work on the Arab–Israeli conflict and especially the Israeli–Palestinian conflict has won praise and criticism from both sides of the political divide. He is accused by academics in Israel of only using Israeli and never Arab sources. Regarding himself as a Zionist, he writes, I embarked upon the research not out of commitment or political interest. I simply wanted to know what happened, Morris was born on 8 December 1948 in kibbutz Ein HaHoresh, the son of Jewish immigrants from the United Kingdom. He was born to Yaakov Morris, an Israeli diplomat, historian, and poet and Sadie Morris, according to The New Yorker, Benny Morris grew up in the heart of a left-wing pioneering atmosphere. His parents moved to Jerusalem when Morris was a year old, in the wake of his fathers diplomatic duties, the family spent four years in New York when Morris was nine, and another two years there when he was 15. Morris served in infantry, including in the paratroops, during 1967-1969 and he was wounded in 1969 by an Egyptian shell at the Suez Canal, and was released from the army four months later. He completed his studies in history at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. During the 2015–2016 academic year, Morris served as the Goldman Visiting Israeli Professor in Georgetown Universitys Department of Government and he lives in moshav Srigim and is married with three children. After graduation from the University of Cambridge he returned to Jerusalem, in 1982, he covered the Lebanon War, and also served as a reservist, taking part in the siege of Beirut in a mortar unit. In 1986, he did duty in the West Bank. In 1988, when his unit was called up for reserve duty in Nablus, he refused to serve. Mainstream Israeli historiography at the time explained the 1948 Palestinian exodus from their towns and villages as having been driven by fear, Morris found evidence that there had been expulsions in some cases. And there is a connection between the two, critics allege that Morriss first book is biased. Morris believes they failed to read his book with moral detachment, assuming that when he described Israeli actions as cruel or as atrocities, in fact, he supports Israeli actions during 1948 such as the uprooting of 700,000 Palestinians. In a 2004 interview in Haaretz with Ari Shavit he stated, therefore it was necessary to uproot them
32.
Ben-Gurion University of the Negev
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Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, is a public research university in Beer-Sheva, Israel. Ben-Gurion University was established in 1969 as the University of the Negev with the aim of promoting the development of the Negev desert that comprises more than sixty percent of Israel. The University was later renamed after Israels founder and first prime minister David Ben-Gurion, after Ben-Gurions death in 1973, the University was renamed Ben-Gurion University of the Negev. Today, Ben-Gurion University is a center for teaching and research with about 20,000 students and this was the genesis of Computer Science education at Ben-Gurion University which eventually lead to a separate Department of Computer Science. The Medical School for International Health grew out of collaborations between faculty at Ben-Gurion University and Columbia University, a joint global health and medical care program, it was established in 1997. The MSIH is a four-year, North American-style medical school that incorporates global health coursework into all four years of the school curriculum. It is an English-language collaboration between Ben-Gurion University of the Negev Faculty of Health Sciences and Columbia University Medical Center and is located in Beer-Sheva, the school enrolls more than 40 students each year. Most of the students are from the United States, with several from Canada, BGU has been ranked 320th in the world, 70th in Asia and 4th in Israel according to the 2016 QS World University Rankings. BGU also ranked 31st overall in the ranking of young universities according to the 2016 QS Top 50 Under 50, BGU is ranked between 101st and 150th overall in computer science accordong to the 2015 Academic Ranking of World Universities in Computer Science for four consecutive years. He previously served as the countrys Foreign Minister, Finance Minister, minister of science and deputy defense minister Eliezer Shkedi, CEO of the Israeli national airline, El Al. Sonnenfeldt, Owner and Chairman of TIGER21, Chairman of Magnolia Purchasing Advisors, the lead owner and Chairman of SOL, Inc. and Chairman of Carmanah Technologies, Ltd
33.
Damascus
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Damascus is the capital and likely the largest city of Syria, following the decline in population of Aleppo due to the ongoing battle for the city. It is commonly known in Syria as ash-Sham and nicknamed as the City of Jasmine, in addition to being one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world, Damascus is a major cultural and religious centre of the Levant. The city has an population of 1,711,000 as of 2009. Located in south-western Syria, Damascus is the centre of a metropolitan area of 2.6 million people. The Barada River flows through Damascus, first settled in the second millennium BC, it was chosen as the capital of the Umayyad Caliphate from 661 to 750. After the victory of the Abbasid dynasty, the seat of Islamic power was moved to Baghdad, Damascus saw a political decline throughout the Abbasid era, only to regain significant importance in the Ayyubid and Mamluk periods. Today, it is the seat of the government and all of the government ministries. The name of Damascus first appeared in the geographical list of Thutmose III as T-m-ś-q in the 15th century BC, the etymology of the ancient name T-m-ś-q is uncertain, but it is suspected to be pre-Semitic. It is attested as Dimašqa in Akkadian, T-ms-ḳw in Egyptian, Dammaśq in Old Aramaic, the Akkadian spelling is found in the Amarna letters, from the 14th century BC. Later Aramaic spellings of the name include a intrusive resh, perhaps influenced by the root dr. Thus, the English and Latin name of the city is Damascus which was imported from originated from the Qumranic Darmeśeq, and Darmsûq in Syriac, meaning a well-watered land. In Arabic, the city is called Dimašqu š-Šāmi, although this is shortened to either Dimašq or aš-Šām by the citizens of Damascus, of Syria and other Arab neighbours. Aš-Šām is an Arabic term for Levant and for Syria, the latter, the Anti-Lebanon mountains mark the border between Syria and Lebanon. The range has peaks of over 10,000 ft. and blocks precipitation from the Mediterranean sea, however, in ancient times this was mitigated by the Barada River, which originates from mountain streams fed by melting snow. Damascus is surrounded by the Ghouta, irrigated farmland where many vegetables, cereals, maps of Roman Syria indicate that the Barada river emptied into a lake of some size east of Damascus. Today it is called Bahira Atayba, the hesitant lake, because in years of severe drought it does not even exist, the modern city has an area of 105 km2, out of which 77 km2 is urban, while Jabal Qasioun occupies the rest. The old city of Damascus, enclosed by the city walls, to the south-east, north and north-east it is surrounded by suburban areas whose history stretches back to the Middle Ages, Midan in the south-west, Sarouja and Imara in the north and north-west. These neighbourhoods originally arose on roads leading out of the city and these new neighbourhoods were initially settled by Kurdish soldiery and Muslim refugees from the European regions of the Ottoman Empire which had fallen under Christian rule
34.
West Bank
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The West Bank shares boundaries to the west, north, and south with Israel, and to the east, across the Jordan River, with Jordan. The West Bank also contains a significant section of the western Dead Sea shore, the West Bank, including East Jerusalem, has a land area of 5,640 km2 plus a water area of 220 km2, consisting of the northwest quarter of the Dead Sea. As of July 2015 it has an population of 2,785,366 Palestinians, and approximately 371,000 Israeli settlers. The international community considers Israeli settlements in the West Bank, including East Jerusalem, illegal under international law and this annexation was recognized only by Britain, Iraq and Pakistan. The term was chosen to differentiate the west bank of the River Jordan from the east bank of this river, the neo-Latin name Cisjordan or Cis-Jordan is the usual name for the territory in the Romance languages and Hungarian. The name West Bank, however, has become the standard usage for this entity in English. The analogous Transjordan has historically used to designate the region now roughly comprising the state of Jordan. From 1517 through 1917, the now known as the West Bank was under Ottoman rule as part of the provinces of Syria. At the 1920 San Remo conference, the victorious Allied powers allocated the area to the British Mandate of Palestine, the San Remo Resolution adopted on 25 April 1920 incorporated the Balfour Declaration of 1917. It and Article 22 of the Covenant of the League of Nations were the basic documents upon which the British Mandate for Palestine was constructed. Faced with the determination of Emir Abdullah to unify Arab lands under the Hashemite banner, the West Bank area, was conquered by Jordan during the 1948 war with the new state of Israel. In 1947, it was designated as part of a proposed Arab state by the United Nations partition plan for Palestine. 1949 Armistice Agreements defined the boundary between Israel and Jordan. In 1950, Transjordan annexed the area west of the Jordan River, naming it West Bank or Cisjordan, Jordan ruled over the West Bank from 1948 until 1967. Jordans annexation was never recognized by the international community, with the exception of the United Kingdom. King Abdullah of Jordan had been crowned King of Jerusalem by the Coptic Bishop on 15 November 1948. and granted Palestinian Arabs in the West Bank, in June 1967, the West Bank and East Jerusalem were captured by Israel as a result of the Six-Day War. With the exception of East Jerusalem and the former Israeli-Jordanian no mans land, the Israeli settlements were, on the other hand, administered subsequently as Judea and Samaria Area directly by Israel. Since the 1993 Oslo Accords, the Palestinian Authority officially controls a geographically non-contiguous territory comprising approx, 11% of the West Bank which remains subject to Israeli incursions
35.
Gaza Strip
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Gaza, together with the West Bank, comprise the Palestinian territories claimed by the Palestinians as the State of Palestine. The territories of Gaza and the West Bank are separated from each other by Israeli territory, both fall under the jurisdiction of the Palestinian Authority, but Gaza has since June 2007 been governed by Hamas, a Palestinian Islamic organization which came to power in free elections in 2006. It has been placed under an Israeli and U. S. -led international economic, the territory is 41 kilometers long, and from 6 to 12 kilometers wide, with a total area of 365 square kilometers. With around 1.85 million Palestinians on some 362 square kilometers, an extensive Israeli buffer zone within the Strip renders much land off-limits to Gazas Palestinians. Gaza has a population growth rate of 2. 91%, the 13th highest in the world. The population is expected to increase to 2.1 million in 2020, by that time, Gaza may be rendered unliveable, if present trends continue. Due to the Israeli and Egyptian border closures and the Israeli sea and air blockade, Sunni Muslims make up the predominant part of the Palestinian population in the Gaza Strip. Israel maintains direct control over Gaza and indirect control over life within Gaza, it controls Gazas air and maritime space. It reserves the right to enter Gaza at will with its military, Gaza is dependent on Israel for its water, electricity, telecommunications, and other utilities. When Hamas won the Palestinian legislative election,2006, Fatah refused to join the proposed coalition, when this collapsed under joint Israeli and United States pressure, the Palestinian Authority instituted a non-Hamas government in the West Bank while Hamas formed a government on its own in Gaza. Further economic sanctions were imposed by Israel and the European Quartet against Hamas, a brief civil war between the two groups had broken out in Gaza when, apparently under a U. S. -backed plan, Fatah contested Hamas’s administration. Hamas emerged the victor and expelled Fatah-allied officials and members of the PAs security apparatus from the Strip, since 2007, the Gaza Strip has been de facto governed by Hamas, which claims to represent the Palestinian National Authority and the Palestinian people. Israel maintains direct control over Gaza and indirect control over life within Gaza, it controls Gazas air and maritime space. It reserves the right to enter Gaza at will with its military, Gaza is dependent on Israel for its water, electricity, telecommunications, and other utilities. The Gaza Strip acquired its current northern and eastern boundaries at the cessation of fighting in the 1948 war, article V of the Agreement declared that the demarcation line was not to be an international border. At first the Gaza Strip was officially administered by the All-Palestine Government, All-Palestine in the Gaza Strip was managed under the military authority of Egypt, functioning as a puppet state, until it officially merged into the United Arab Republic and dissolved in 1959. From the time of the dissolution of the All-Palestine Government until 1967, Israel captured the Gaza Strip from Egypt in the Six-Day War in 1967. In 2005, Israel withdrew from the Gaza Strip under their unilateral disengagement plan, in July 2007, after winning the 2006 Palestinian legislative election, Hamas became the elected government
36.
Iqrit
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Iqrit, was a Palestinian Christian village, located 25 kilometres northeast of Acre. In 1951, in response to a plea from the Iqrit villagers, however, before that happened, the IDF, despite awareness of the Supreme Court decision, destroyed the previously Christian village on Christmas Day,1951. Descendants to this day maintain an outpost in the village church, all attempts to cultivate its lands are uprooted by the Israeli Lands Administration. Iqrit contains mosaic floors, remains of a press, rock-hewn tombs, cisterns. The village also has many archaeological sites in its vicinity. The Canaanites erected a statue for the god Melqart of Tyre in the village, when the Crusaders occupied Iqrit, they called it Acref. Açref is a name commonly used for the village among surrounding Bedouin tribes. The village area contained numerous archaeological sites, there was a press used for olive or grape production. In 1875, Victor Guérin passed by the village and he was told it was very considerable and inhabited by Maronites and Greeks Orthodox. Like a number of villages in the neighborhood, Iqrit was linked to the coastal highway from Acre to Ras an-Naqura via a secondary road leading to Tarbikha. Of this,458 dunams were plantations and irrigable land,1,088 were used for cereals, at the moment of their eviction in November 1948, there were 491 citizens in Iqrit,432 of them Melkites, inhabiting the entire area of the village. Some of the 59 Muslims of the village rented their homes in Iqrit, only part of the village land was cultivated and the rest was covered with woods of oak, laurel and carob trees. By 1948, the village owned about 600 dunams of private property with groves of fig trees that served all inhabitants of Iqrit and the surroundings. The groves covered the hill of al-Bayad, and the cultivated land was used for crops of lentils, as well as tobacco. There were many threshing floors mainly located between the village lands and the cemetery. The large Melkite church remains standing, while some of the former inhabitants of Iqrit became refugees in Lebanon, most are now internally displaced Palestinians who are also citizens of Israel. Iqrit was captured on October 31,1948 by the Haganahs Oded Brigade during Operation Hiram, Iqrit and Tarbikha surrendered and the villagers stayed in their homes. That situation did not last for long, Iqrit and a number of other villages in the region were affected by a policy known as an Arabless border strip
37.
Kafr Bir'im
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The village was situated 750 meters above sea level, with a church overlooking it at an elevation of 752 meters. The church was built on the ruins of a church destroyed in the earthquake of 1837. In 1945,710 people lived in Kafr Birim, most of them Christians, by 1992, the only standing structure was the church and belltower. Kafr Birim is built on the site of the ancient Jewish village of Kfar Baram, the remains of the a 3rd-century Synagogue of Kfar Baram are still visible. Rabbi Phinehas ben Jair is said to have buried in Kfar Baram. A visitor in the thirteenth century described an Arab village containing the remains of two ancient synagogues, in 1596, Kafr Birim appeared in Ottoman tax registers as being in the Nahiya of Jira of the Liwa of Safad. It had a population of 114 Muslim households and 22 bachelors, Kafr Birim was badly damaged in the Galilee earthquake of 1837. The local church and a row of columns from the ancient synagogue collapsed, in 1852 it was estimated that the village had a population of 160 males, all Maronites and Melkites. During the 1860 civil war in Lebanon, Muslims and Druzes attacked the Christian village, in the 1922 census of Palestine, conducted by the British Mandate authorities, Kufr Berim had a population of 469, all Christians, all being Maronites. By the 1931 census there were 554 people in the village,547 Christians and 7 Muslims, in a total of 132 houses. In 1945, Kafr Birim had a population of 710, consisting of 10 Muslims and 700 Christians, with 12,250 dunams of land, according to an official land and population survey. Of this,1,101 dunams were irrigated or used for plantations,3,718 for cereals, the village population in 1948 was estimated as 1,050 inhabitants. Kafr Birim was captured by the Haganah on October 31,1948 during Operation Hiram, in November 1948 most of the inhabitants were expelled until the military operation was complete, and none were subsequently permitted to return. Today the villagers and their descendants number about 2,000 people in Israel, in addition, there are villagers and descendants in Lebanon and in western countries. In 1949, with cross-border infiltration a frequent occurrence, Israel did not allow the villagers to return to Birim on the grounds that Jewish settlement at the place would deter infiltration, kibbutz Baram was established by demobilized soldiers on the lands of the village. In 1953, the residents of former Kafr Birim appealed to the Supreme Court of Israel to return to their village, the court ruled that the authorities must answer to why they were not allowed to return. On September 16,1953 the village was razed and 1,170 hectares of land were expropriated by the state, the leader of Melkite Greek Catholics in Israel, Archbishop Georgios Hakim, alerted the Vatican and other church authorities, and the Israeli government offered the villagers compensation. Archbishop Hakim accepted compensation for the land belonging to the village church, in the summer of 1972, the villagers of Kafr Birim and Iqrit went back to repair their churches and refused to leave
38.
Arab Christians
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Arab Christians are Arabs of the Christian faith. Arab Christians, forming Greek Orthodox and Latin Christian communities, are estimated to be 520, 000–703,000 in Syria,221,000 in Jordan,127,000 in Israel and around 50,000 in Palestine. There is also a sizable Arab Christian Orthodox community in Lebanon and marginal communities in Iraq, Turkey, the first Arab tribes to adopt Christianity were likely Nabataeans and Ghassanids. The last king of the Lakhmids, al-Numan III ibn al-Mundhir, today Arab Christians still play important roles in the Arab world, and Christians are relatively wealthy, well educated, and politically moderate. Arab Christians are not the only Christian group in the Middle East, with significant non-Arab indigenous Christian communities of Chaldeans, Arameans, Armenians, Arab Christians are Indigenous peoples of Western Asia, with a presence there predating the seventh-century Early Muslim conquests in the Fertile Crescent. There were many Arab tribes which adhered to Christianity beginning with the 1st century, including the Nabateans, Nabateans were possibly among the first Arab tribes to arrive to the Southern Levant in the very late first millennium BC. The Nabataeans initially adopted pagan beliefs, but they became Christians by the time of the Byzantine period around the 4th century, the new Arab invaders, who soon pressed forward into their seats found the remnants of the Nabataeans transformed into peasants. Their lands were divided between the new Qahtanite Arab tribal kingdoms of the Byzantine vassals, the Ghassanids and the Himyarite Kingdom, the tribes of Tayy, Banu Abdul Qays, and Taghlib are also known to have included many Christians in the pre-Islamic period. The southern Arabian city of Najran was a center of Arabian Christianity, made famous by the persecution by one of the kings of Yemen, Dhu Nawas, who was himself an enthusiastic convert to Judaism. The leader of the Arabs of Najran during the period of persecution, some modern scholars suggest that Philip the Arab was the first Christian emperor of Rome. By the fourth century, a significant number of Christians occupied the Sinai Peninsula, Mesopotamia, the New Testament has a biblical account of Arab conversion to Christianity recorded in the book of Acts. When Saint Peter preaches to the people of Jerusalem, they ask, And how is it that we hear, both Jews and proselytes, Cretans and Arabians—we hear them telling in our own tongues the mighty works of God. Arab Christians are thus one of the oldest Christian communities, the first mention of Christianity in Arabia occurs in the New Testament as the Apostle Paul refers to his journey in Arabia following his conversion. Later, Eusebius discusses a bishop named Beryllus in the see of Bostra, Christians existed in Arab lands from at least the 3rd century onward. Following the fall of large portions of former Byzantine and Sasanian provinces to the Arab armies, historically, a number of minority Christian sects were persecuted as heretic under Byzantine rule. Those who refused war and refused to convert were deemed to have agreed to pay jizya and it is a common agreement that after the rapid expansion of Islam from the 7th century onward, many Christians chose not to convert to Islam. Many scholars and intellectuals like Edward Said believed Christians in the Arab world have made significant contributions to the Arab civilization since the 7th century AD and still do. Some of the top poets at times were Arab Christians, and many Arab Christians were physicians, writers, government officials
39.
Haganah
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Haganah was a Jewish paramilitary organization in the British Mandate of Palestine, which became the core of the Israel Defense Forces. The evolution went step by step from Bar-Giora, to Hashomer, to Haganah, the Jewish paramilitary organisations in the New Yishuv started with the Second Aliyah. The first such organization was Bar-Giora, founded in September 1907 and it consisted of a small group of Jewish immigrants who guarded settlements for an annual fee. At no time did Bar-Giora have more than 100 members and it was converted to Hashomer in April 1909, which operated until the British Mandate of Palestine came into being in 1920. Hashomer was an elitist organization with narrow scope, and was created to protect against criminal gangs seeking to steal property. During World War I, the forerunners of the Haganah/IDF were the Zion Mule Corps, after the Arab riots against Jews in April 1920, the Yishuvs leadership saw the need to create a nationwide underground defense organization, and the Haganah was founded in June of the same year. During World War II the successor to the Jewish Legion of World War I was the Jewish Brigade, at the beginning of the ensuing 1948-49 full-scale conventional war against regular Arab armies, the Haganah was reorganised to become the core of the new Israel Defense Forces. Believing that they could not rely on the British administration for protection from these gangs, in addition to guarding Jewish communities, the role of the Haganah was to warn the residents of and repel attacks by Palestinian Arabs. In the period between 1920–1929, the Haganah lacked a central authority or coordination. Haganah units were very localized and poorly armed, they consisted mainly of Jewish farmers who took turns guarding their farms or their kibbutzim, following the 1929 Palestine riots, the Haganahs role changed dramatically. It became a larger organization encompassing nearly all the youth and adults in the Jewish settlements. It also acquired foreign arms and began to develop workshops to create hand grenades and simple military equipment, many Haganah fighters objected to the official policy of havlagah that Jewish political leaders had imposed on the militia. Fighters had been instructed to defend communities and not initiate counterattacks against Arab gangs or their communities. This policy appeared defeatist to many who believed that the best defense is a good offense, in 1931, the more militant elements of the Haganah splintered off and formed the Irgun Tsvai-Leumi, better known as Irgun. During the 1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine, the Haganah worked to protect British interests and to quell Arab rebellion using the FOSH, at that time, the Haganah fielded 10,000 mobilized men along with 40,000 reservists. The battle experience gained during the training was useful in the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, by 1939, the British had issued the White Paper, which severely restricted Jewish immigration to Palestine, deeply angering the Zionist leadership. In reaction to the White Paper, the Haganah built up the Palmach as the Haganahs elite strike force, approximately 100,000 Jews were brought to Palestine in over one hundred ships during the final decade of what became known as Aliyah Bet. The Haganah also organized demonstrations against British immigration quotas, in 1940 the Haganah sabotaged the Patria, an ocean liner being used by the British to deport 1,800 Jews to Mauritius, with a bomb intended to cripple the ship
40.
Golda Meir
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Golda Meir was an Israeli teacher, kibbutznik, stateswoman and politician and the fourth elected Prime Minister of Israel. Meir was elected Prime Minister of Israel on March 17,1969, after serving as Minister of Labour and Foreign Minister. Former Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion used to call Meir the best man in the government, she was portrayed as the strong-willed, straight-talking. Meir resigned as minister in 1974, the year following the Yom Kippur War. She died in 1978 of lymphoma, Golda Mabovitch was born on May 3,1898, in Kiev, Russian Empire, present-day Ukraine, to Blume Neiditch and Moshe Mabovitch, a carpenter. Meir wrote in her autobiography that her earliest memories were of her father boarding up the front door in response to rumours of an imminent pogrom and she had two sisters, Sheyna and Tzipke, as well as five other siblings who died in childhood. She was especially close to Sheyna, Moshe Mabovitch left to find work in New York City in 1903. In his absence, the rest of the moved to Pinsk to join her mothers family. In 1905, Moshe moved to Milwaukee, Wisconsin, in search of higher-paying work, the following year, he had saved up enough money to bring his family to the United States. Blume ran a store on Milwaukees north side, where by age eight Golda had been put in charge of watching the store when her mother went to the market for supplies. Golda attended the Fourth Street Grade School from 1906 to 1912, a leader early on, she organised a fund raiser to pay for her classmates textbooks. After forming the American Young Sisters Society, she rented a hall and she went on to graduate as valedictorian of her class. At 14, she studied at North Division High School and worked part-time and her mother wanted her to leave school and marry, but she demurred. She bought a ticket to Denver, Colorado, and went to live with her married sister. The Korngolds held intellectual evenings at their home, where Meir was exposed to debates on Zionism, literature, womens suffrage, trade unionism, in her autobiography, she wrote, To the extent that my own future convictions were shaped and given form. Those talk-filled nights in Denver played a considerable role, in Denver, she also met Morris Meyerson, a sign painter, whom she later married on December 24,1917. In 1913 she returned to North Division High, graduating in 1915, while there, she became an active member of Young Poale Zion, which later became Habonim, the Labor Zionist youth movement. She spoke at meetings, embraced Socialist Zionism and hosted visitors from Palestine
41.
Mossad
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Mossad, short for HaMossad leModiʿin uleTafkidim Meyuḥadim, is the national intelligence agency of Israel. It is one of the entities in the Israeli Intelligence Community, along with Aman. Its director reports directly to the Prime Minister, the largest department of Mossad is Collections, tasked with many aspects of conducting espionage overseas. Employees in the Collections Department operate under a variety of covers, including diplomatic, the Political Action and Liaison Department is responsible for working with allied foreign intelligence services, and nations that have no normal diplomatic relations with Israel. Additionally, Mossad has a Research Department, tasked with production. Metsada is the unit responsible for attacking the enemy, which is different from the assassination unit. Mossad was formed on December 13,1949, as the Central Institute for Coordination at the recommendation of Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion to Reuven Shiloah, in March 1951, it was reorganized and made a part of the prime ministers office, reporting directly to the prime minister. Mossads former motto, be-tachbūlōt taaseh lekhā milchāmāh is a quote from the Bible, the motto was later changed to another Proverbs passage, be-éyn tachbūlōt yippol ām, ū-teshūāh be-rov yōéts. This is translated by NRSV as, Where there is no guidance, a nation falls, the Kidon is described by Yaakov Katz as an elite group of expert assassins who operate under the Caesarea branch of the espionage organization. Not much is known about this unit, details of which are some of the most closely guarded secrets in the Israeli intelligence community. The unit only recruits from former soldiers from the elite IDF special force units, a team of five Mossad agents led by Shimon Ben Aharon slipped into Argentina and through surveillance, confirmed that he had been living there under the name of Ricardo Klement. He was abducted on May 11,1960 and taken to a hideout and he was subsequently smuggled to Israel, where he was tried and executed. Mossad abandoned a second operation, intended to capture Josef Mengele, during the 1990s, Mossad discovered a Hezbollah agent operating within the United States in order to procure materials needed to manufacture IEDs and other weapons. In a joint operation with U. S. intelligence, the agent was kept under surveillance in hopes that he would betray more Hezbollah operatives, but was eventually arrested. Mossad informed the FBI and CIA in August 2001 that based on its intelligence as many as 200 terrorists were slipping into the United States and planning a major assault on the United States. The Israeli intelligence agency cautioned the FBI that it had picked up indications of a target in the United States. However, It is not known whether U. S. authorities thought the warning to be credible, a month later, terrorists struck at the World Trade Center and the Pentagon in the largest terrorist attack in history. Mossad assassinated Latvian Nazi collaborator Herberts Cukurs in 1965, Mossad gathered information on Austrian politician Jörg Haider using a mole
42.
Ali Hassan Salameh
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Ali Hassan Salameh was the chief of operations—code name Abu Hassan—for Black September, the organization responsible for the 1972 Munich massacre and other terror attacks. He was also the founder of Force 17 and he was assassinated by Mossad in January 1979. Salameh was born in the Palestinian town of Qula, near the city of Jaffa and he was the son of Shaykh Hassan Salameh, who was killed in action by the Israel Defense Forces during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, north of Jaffa. Ali Salameh was educated in Germany and is thought to have received his training in Cairo. He served as the security chief of Fatah, after the Munich Massacre during the 1972 Olympic Games, he was hunted by the Israeli Mossad during Operation Wrath of God. As a result of the failure of Lillehammer and his alleged CIA protection, Salameh felt relatively safe, and hence did not act like a man on the run. Having lived under cover in parts of the Middle East and Europe, in 1978 he married Georgina Rizk. The couple spent their honeymoon in Hawaii and then stayed at Disneyland, when Rizk became pregnant, she returned to her flat in Beirut where Salameh also rented a separate apartment. Rizk was six months pregnant at the time of his death and their son Ali Salameh is a political science graduate who studied in Canada. By a prior marriage he was a grandson-in-law of Mohammad Amin al-Husayni and he had two sons from his first marriage to Um Hassan. However, when asked by the Israelis, the relationship was denied by US officials and he helped protect US citizens in Beirut, and his role was to facilitate contacts between the Palestinians and the US, in hope of obtaining US support for the Palestinians. It is believed a Mossad agent, pseudonymously known as Erika Chambers and she travelled to the Middle East with a charity supporting Palestinian refugees and arranged a meeting with Salameh in Beirut, where Salameh was being harbored by the Lebanese government. On 22 January 1979, Salameh was in a convoy of two Chevrolet station wagons headed from Rizks flat to his mothers for a birthday party, Chambers was on her balcony painting, with her red Volkswagen parked below on Rue Verdun. The detonation left Salameh conscious, but severely wounded and in pain, having pieces of steel shrapnel embedded in his head. He was rushed to the American University Hospital, where he died on the table at 4,03 p. m. Salamehs four bodyguards were also killed in the explosion. In addition, at least 16 people were injured in the blast, immediately following the operation, the three Mossad officers escaped as well as up to 14 other Mossad agents believed to have been involved in the operation. Salameh was buried in Beirut after a funeral ceremony attended by Yasser Arafat. Ali Hassan Salameh was featured in the plot of the Steven Spielberg film Munich as one of the assassination targets and he is seen twice but was not assassinated until after the events of the film
43.
Sabena Flight 571
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Sabena Flight 571 was a scheduled passenger flight from Vienna to Tel Aviv operated by the Belgian national airline, Sabena. Following their instructions, Captain Levy landed the plane at Lod Airport and they were armed with two handguns, two hand grenades and two belts of explosives. Twenty minutes out of Vienna, the hijackers entered the cockpit, as you can see, Captain Levy told the 90 passengers, we have friends aboard. He concealed from the hijackers that his wife was a passenger on the plane, soon after taking command, the hijackers separated the Jewish hostages from the others and sent them to the back of the aircraft. When the plane had landed, the demanded the release of 315 convicted Palestinian terrorists imprisoned in Israel. Captain Levy managed to send the Israelis a coded message requesting help, Captain Levy said he talked to the hijackers about everything from navigation to sex” while the passengers and crew waited to be rescued. On 9 May 1972 at 4,00 p. m, having immobilized it during the preceding night, they convinced the hijackers that its hydraulic system needed repair. They then stormed the aircraft, killing both male hijackers within two minutes and they also captured the two women hijackers and rescued all 90 remaining passengers. Three passengers were wounded in the exchange of fire, one of whom, 22-year-old Miriam Anderson, netanyahu was also wounded during the rescue when another commando, Marko Ashkenazi, accidentally discharged his gun as he used it to hit Theresa Halsa. The bullet passed through her and penetrated Netanyahu’s bicep, Halsa and Rima Tannous were eventually sentenced to life imprisonment—Halsa for 220 years. They were freed in November 1983, in an exchange after the 1982 Lebanon War. Sabena continued to operate the aircraft for five years, until it was purchased by Israel Aircraft Industries. It was eventually sold to the Israeli Air Force, and served as a spy plane for many years, participating in most of the Air Forces long-range operations. Captain Levy, a Royal Air Force veteran who took part in bombing missions over Germany during World War II. He retired in 1982 and died of an attack, at a hospital near his home in Dover on 1 August 2010. The hijacking took place on his 50th birthday, from Night Flak to Hijack, Its A Small World, autobiography by Captain Reginald Levy DFC. Sabena Hijacking, My Version, Israeli docudrama depicting the hijacking and rescue, Israeli Special Forces History Dennis Heves. Reginald Levy Is Dead at 88, Hailed as a Hero in a 72 Hijacking
44.
Vienna
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Vienna is the capital and largest city of Austria and one of the nine states of Austria. Vienna is Austrias primary city, with a population of about 1.8 million, and its cultural, economic and it is the 7th-largest city by population within city limits in the European Union. Today, it has the second largest number of German speakers after Berlin, Vienna is host to many major international organizations, including the United Nations and OPEC. The city is located in the part of Austria and is close to the borders of the Czech Republic, Slovakia. These regions work together in a European Centrope border region, along with nearby Bratislava, Vienna forms a metropolitan region with 3 million inhabitants. In 2001, the city centre was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site, apart from being regarded as the City of Music because of its musical legacy, Vienna is also said to be The City of Dreams because it was home to the worlds first psycho-analyst – Sigmund Freud. The citys roots lie in early Celtic and Roman settlements that transformed into a Medieval and Baroque city and it is well known for having played an essential role as a leading European music centre, from the great age of Viennese Classicism through the early part of the 20th century. The historic centre of Vienna is rich in architectural ensembles, including Baroque castles and gardens, Vienna is known for its high quality of life. In a 2005 study of 127 world cities, the Economist Intelligence Unit ranked the city first for the worlds most liveable cities, between 2011 and 2015, Vienna was ranked second, behind Melbourne, Australia. Monocles 2015 Quality of Life Survey ranked Vienna second on a list of the top 25 cities in the world to make a base within, the UN-Habitat has classified Vienna as being the most prosperous city in the world in 2012/2013. Vienna regularly hosts urban planning conferences and is used as a case study by urban planners. Between 2005 and 2010, Vienna was the worlds number-one destination for international congresses and it attracts over 3.7 million tourists a year. The English name Vienna is borrowed from the homonymous Italian version of the name or the French Vienne. The etymology of the name is still subject to scholarly dispute. Some claim that the name comes from Vedunia, meaning forest stream, which produced the Old High German Uuenia. A variant of this Celtic name could be preserved in the Czech and Slovak names of the city, the name of the city in Hungarian, Serbo-Croatian and Ottoman Turkish has a different, probably Slavonic origin, and originally referred to an Avar fort in the area. Slovene-speakers call the city Dunaj, which in other Central European Slavic languages means the Danube River, evidence has been found of continuous habitation since 500 BC, when the site of Vienna on the Danube River was settled by the Celts. In 15 BC, the Romans fortified the city they called Vindobona to guard the empire against Germanic tribes to the north
