1.
Law enforcement agency
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A law enforcement agency, in North American English, is a government agency responsible for the enforcement of the laws. Outside North America, such organizations are usually called police services, LEAs which have their ability to apply their powers restricted in some way are said to operate within a jurisdiction. LEAs will have some form of restriction on their ability to apply their powers. Sometimes a LEA’s jurisdiction is determined by the complexity or seriousness of the non compliance with a law, differentiation of jurisdiction based on the seriousness and complexity of the non compliance either by law or by policy and consensus can coexist in countries. Other LEAs have a jurisdiction defined by the type of laws they enforce or assist in enforcing, for example, Interpol does not work with political, military, religious, or racial matters. A LEA’s jurisdiction usually also includes the bodies they support. Jurisdictionally, there can be an important difference between international LEAs and multinational LEAs, even though both are referred to as international, even in official documents. An international law enforcement agency has jurisdiction and or operates in countries and across State borders. International LEAs are typically also multinational, for example Interpol, within a country, the jurisdiction of law enforcement agencies can be organized and structured in a number of ways to provide law enforcement throughout the country. A law enforcement agency’s jurisdiction can be for the country or for a division or sub-division within the country. In Australia for example, each state has its own LEAs, in the United States for example, typically each state and county or city has its own LEAs. Often a LEA’s jurisdiction will be divided into operations areas for administrative. An operations area is called a command or an office. Sometimes the one jurisdiction is covered by more than one LEA, again for administrative and logistical efficiency reasons, or arising from policy. The primary difference between separate agencies and operational areas within the one jurisdiction is the degree of flexibility to move resources between versus within agencies. When multiple LEAs cover the one legal jurisdicition, each agency still typically organises itself into operations areas, when a LEA’s jurisdiction is for the whole country, it is usually one of two broad types, either federal or national. When the country has a constitution a whole of country LEA is referred to as a federal law enforcement agency. The responsibilities of a federal LEA vary from country to country. S, a federal police agency is a federal LEA which also has the typical police responsibilities of social order and public safety as well as federal law enforcement responsibilities
2.
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was established as a sovereign state on 1 January 1801 by the Acts of Union 1800, which merged the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland. The growing desire for an Irish Republic led to the Irish War of Independence, Northern Ireland remained part of the United Kingdom, and the state was consequently renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Britain financed the European coalition that defeated France in 1815 in the Napoleonic Wars, the British Empire thereby became the foremost world power for the next century. The Crimean War with Russia and the Boer wars were relatively small operations in a largely peaceful century, rapid industrialisation that began in the decades prior to the states formation continued up until the mid-19th century. A devastating famine, exacerbated by government inaction in the century, led to demographic collapse in much of Ireland. It was an era of economic modernization and growth of industry, trade and finance. Outward migration was heavy to the colonies and to the United States. Britain also built up a large British Empire in Africa and Asia, India, by far the most important possession, saw a short-lived revolt in 1857. In foreign policy Britain favoured free trade, which enabled its financiers and merchants to operate successfully in many otherwise independent countries, as in South America. Britain formed no permanent military alliances until the early 20th century, when it began to cooperate with Japan, France and Russia, and moved closer to the United States. A brief period of limited independence for Ireland came to an end following the Irish Rebellion of 1798, the British governments fear of an independent Ireland siding against them with the French resulted in the decision to unite the two countries. This was brought about by legislation in the parliaments of both kingdoms and came into effect on 1 January 1801, however, King George III was bitterly opposed to any such Emancipation and succeeded in defeating his governments attempts to introduce it. When the Treaty of Amiens ended the war, Britain agreed to return most of the territories it had seized, in May 1803, war was declared again. In 1806, Napoleon issued the series of Berlin Decrees, which brought into effect the Continental System and this policy aimed to eliminate the threat from the British by closing French-controlled territory to foreign trade. Frances population and agricultural capacity far outstripped that of the British Isles, Napoleon expected that cutting Britain off from the European mainland would end its economic hegemony. The Spanish uprising in 1808 at last permitted Britain to gain a foothold on the Continent, after Napoleons surrender and exile to the island of Elba, peace appeared to have returned. The Allies united and the armies of Wellington and Blucher defeated Napoleon once, simultaneous with the Napoleonic Wars, trade disputes, arming hostile Indians and British impressment of American sailors led to the War of 1812 with the United States. The war was little noticed in Britain, which could devote few resources to the conflict until the fall of Napoleon in 1814, American frigates inflicted a series of defeats on the Royal Navy, which was short on manpower due to the conflict in Europe
3.
Irish language
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Irish, also referred to as Gaelic or Irish Gaelic, is a Goidelic language of the Indo-European language family originating in Ireland and historically spoken by the Irish people. Irish is spoken as a first language by a minority of Irish people. Irish enjoys constitutional status as the national and first official language of the Republic of Ireland and it is also among the official languages of the European Union. The public body Foras na Gaeilge is responsible for the promotion of the language throughout the island of Ireland and it has the oldest vernacular literature in Western Europe. The fate of the language was influenced by the power of the English state in Ireland. Elizabethan officials viewed the use of Irish unfavourably, as being a threat to all things English in Ireland and its decline began under English rule in the 17th century. In the latter part of the 19th century, there was a decrease in the number of speakers. Irish-speaking areas were hit especially hard, by the end of British rule, the language was spoken by less than 15% of the national population. Since then, Irish speakers have been in the minority, efforts have been made by the state, individuals and organisations to preserve, promote and revive the language, but with mixed results. Around the turn of the 21st century, estimates of native speakers ranged from 20,000 to 80,000 people. In the 2011 Census, these numbers had increased to 94,000 and 1.3 million, there are several thousand Irish speakers in Northern Ireland. It has been estimated that the active Irish-language scene probably comprises 5 to 10 per cent of Irelands population, there has been a significant increase in the number of urban Irish speakers, particularly in Dublin. In Gaeltacht areas, however, there has been a decline of the use of Irish. Údarás na Gaeltachta predicted that, by 2025, Irish will no longer be the language in any of the designated Gaeltacht areas. Survey data suggest that most Irish people think highly of Irish as a marker of identity. It has also argued that newer urban groups of Irish speakers are a disruptive force in this respect. In An Caighdeán Oifigiúil the name of the language is Gaeilge, before the spelling reform of 1948, this form was spelled Gaedhilge, originally this was the genitive of Gaedhealg, the form used in Classical Irish. Older spellings of this include Gaoidhealg in Classical Irish and Goídelc in Old Irish, the modern spelling results from the deletion of the silent dh in the middle of Gaedhilge, whereas Goidelic languages, used to refer to the language family including Irish, comes from Old Irish
4.
Special constable
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A special constable or special police constable is a law enforcement officer. Many police departments are complemented by a Special Constabulary which are referred to as constables or informally as specials. Special constables hold full police powers and hold the office of constable, Special Constables, as appointed under the Police Act 1901, have the same powers as Constables of the New South Wales Police Force. Similar provisions apply in other Australian states, inspectors of the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals are generally appointed as Special Constables. Members of police bands are also appointed as Special Constables, the NSW Police Force employs Special Constables as an armed internal security force. They also protect covert police locations and have a rapid deployment team with advanced firearms and defensive tactics training. Special Constables were used extensively in Canada prior to the Second World War to quell labour unrest, after the war, industrial relations became far less militant and many of the larger urban police forces created permanent auxiliary units. The most notorious use of Special Constables in Canadian history was during the Winnipeg General Strike of 1919, today, in Canada, the term Special Constable does not signify a police volunteer. Depending on the department some are members of a Special Constable Service as University, Housing, Special Constables for Federal Agencies are typically investigators for the Competition Bureau and Canadian Food Inspection Agency. Special Constable appointment is not a replacement for a police officer, the appointment confers limited authority and the jurisdictional police will still have overall law enforcement authority and responsibility regardless of the Special Constable. For example, on a university campus or a system, Special Constables may deal with crimes. Special Constables have the powers of an officer to enforce Federal Statutes. Special Constables are also utilized at many Ontario universities to provide a hybrid police-security service to their respective communities, in Ontario, Special Constables are generally not armed with firearms, the exception being police services and Niagara Parks Police. At times, provinces may need to swear in a police service to allow peace officer status. This is frequent with RCMP in Ontario as well as Sûreté du Québec in Quebec, cross jurisdictional issues can be alleviated with special constable appointments. The government may also appoint Special Constables, who only need the authority to serve summons and subpoenas, the Independent Investigations Office of British Columbia has entered into a Memorandum of Understanding with all of the agencies which use Special Constables across British Columbia. Volunteers with provincial and municipal police departments in Canada are called Reserve or Auxiliary Constables, Hong Kong Police Force and the Hong Kong Auxiliary Police Force are the only two police forces in Hong Kong during peacetime. However, the Chief Executive of Hong Kong can, pursuant to HK Laws, however, under section 41 of the same ordinance, Special Constables are not entitled to benefits, pays or pensions
5.
Royal Irish Constabulary
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The Royal Irish Constabulary was the armed police force of the United Kingdom in Ireland from the early nineteenth century until 1922. About seventy-five percent of the RIC were Roman Catholic and about twenty-five percent were of various Protestant denominations, the Catholics mainly constables and the Protestants officers. In consequence of the Anglo-Irish Treaty, the RIC was disbanded in 1922 and was replaced by the Garda Síochána in the Irish Free State and the Royal Ulster Constabulary in Northern Ireland. The 1822 Act established a force in each province with chief constables, by 1841 this force numbered over 8,600 men. The original force had been reorganised under The Act of 1836, the discipline was strict and the pay low. The police faced civil unrest among the Irish rural poor, and was involved in bloody confrontations during the period of the Tithe War, other deployments were against organisations like the Ribbonmen, which attacked landlords, their property and stock. This was followed by a period of relative calm, the advent of the Irish Republican Brotherhood, founded in 1858, brought a plan for an armed uprising. Direct action began with the Fenian Rising of 1867, Fenians attacked on the more isolated police barracks and smaller stations. This rebellion was put down with ruthless efficiency, the police had infiltrated the Fenians with informers. The RIC presided over a decline in general crime around the country. The unstable rural unrest of the nineteenth century characterised by secret organisations. Policing generally became a routine of controlling misdemeanours such as moonshine distilling, public drunkenness, minor theft, a Land War broke out in the 1879–82 Depression period, causing some general unrest. In Belfast, with its boom, the working population mushroomed. Much of the increase arose from Catholic migration and there were serious riots in 1857,1864,1872 and 1886. As a result, the small Belfast Town Police civic force was disbanded, likewise in 1870, the RIC took over the duties of the Londonderry Borough Police. About 70% of the force in Belfast declared their support of the strikers and were encouraged by Larkin to carry out their own strike for higher wages. It never came to fruition, however, as dissident policemen were transferred out of Belfast four days before the strike was to begin, barrett and six other constables were dismissed and extra British Army troops were deployed to Belfast. The dock strike ended on 28 August 1907, the RICs existence was, increasingly troubled by the rise of the Home Rule campaign in the early twentieth century period prior to World War I
6.
Irish War of Independence
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The Irish War of Independence or Anglo-Irish War or the Tan War was a guerrilla war fought from 1919 to 1921 between the Irish Republican Army and the British security forces in Ireland. It was an escalation of the Irish revolutionary period into armed conflict, in the December 1918 election, the Irish republican party Sinn Féin won a landslide victory in Ireland. On 21 January 1919 they formed a government and declared independence from Britain. Later that day, two members of the British-organized armed police force, the Royal Irish Constabulary, were dead in County Tipperary by IRA members acting on their own initiative. This is often seen as the beginning of the conflict, for much of 1919, IRA activity primarily involved capturing weapons and freeing republican prisoners. In September that year the British government outlawed the Dáil and Sinn Féin, the IRA began ambushing RIC and British Army patrols, attacking their barracks and forcing isolated barracks to be abandoned. The British government bolstered the RIC with recruits from Britain—the Black and Tans and Auxiliaries—who became notorious for ill-discipline, the conflict as a result is often referred to as the Black and Tan War or simply the Tan War. While around 300 people had killed in the conflict up to late 1920. A week later, seventeen Auxiliaries were killed by the IRA in an ambush at Kilmichael in County Cork, the British government declared martial law in much of southern Ireland. The centre of Cork City was burnt out by British forces in December 1920, violence continued to escalate over the next seven months, when 1,000 people were killed and 4,500 republicans were interned. The fighting was concentrated in Munster, Dublin and Belfast. These three locations saw over 75% of the conflicts fatalities, violence in Ulster, especially Belfast, was notable for its sectarian character and its high number of Catholic civilian victims. Both sides agreed to a truce on 11 July 1921, the post-ceasefire talks led to the signing of the Anglo-Irish Treaty on 6 December 1921. However, six counties remained within the United Kingdom. After the ceasefire, political and sectarian violence between republicans and loyalists continued in Northern Ireland for many months, in June 1922, disagreement among republicans over the Anglo-Irish Treaty led to an eleven-month civil war. The Irish Free State awarded 62,868 medals for service during the War of Independence, since the 1880s, Irish nationalists in the Irish Parliamentary Party had been demanding Home Rule, or self-government, from Britain. Fringe organisations, such as Arthur Griffiths Sinn Féin instead argued for some form of Irish independence, in turn, nationalists formed their own paramilitary organisation, the Irish Volunteers. But a significant minority of the Irish Volunteers opposed Irelands involvement in the war, the Volunteer movement split, a majority leaving to form the National Volunteers under Redmond
7.
Winston Churchill
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Sir Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill KG OM CH TD PC DL FRS RA was a British statesman who was the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1940 to 1945 and again from 1951 to 1955. Churchill was also an officer in the British Army, a historian. He won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1953 for his overall, in 1963, he was the first of only eight people to be made an honorary citizen of the United States. Churchill was born into the family of the Dukes of Marlborough and his father, Lord Randolph Churchill, was a charismatic politician who served as Chancellor of the Exchequer, his mother, Jennie Jerome, was an American socialite. As a young officer, he saw action in British India, the Anglo–Sudan War. He gained fame as a war correspondent and wrote books about his campaigns, at the forefront of politics for fifty years, he held many political and cabinet positions. Before the First World War, he served as President of the Board of Trade, Home Secretary, during the war, he continued as First Lord of the Admiralty until the disastrous Gallipoli Campaign caused his departure from government. He then briefly resumed active service on the Western Front as commander of the 6th Battalion of the Royal Scots Fusiliers. He returned to government under Lloyd George as Minister of Munitions, Secretary of State for War, Secretary of State for Air, at the outbreak of the Second World War, he was again appointed First Lord of the Admiralty. Following the resignation of Neville Chamberlain on 10 May 1940, Churchill became Prime Minister and he led Britain as Prime Minister until victory over Nazi Germany had been secured. After the Conservative Party suffered a defeat in the 1945 general election. He publicly warned of an Iron Curtain of Soviet influence in Europe, after winning the 1951 election, Churchill again became Prime Minister. His second term was preoccupied by foreign affairs, including the Malayan Emergency, Mau Mau Uprising, Korean War, domestically his government laid great emphasis on house-building. Churchill suffered a stroke in 1953 and retired as Prime Minister in 1955. Upon his death aged ninety in 1965, Elizabeth II granted him the honour of a state funeral and his highly complex legacy continues to stimulate intense debate amongst writers and historians. Born into the family of the Dukes of Marlborough, a branch of the noble Spencer family, Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill, like his father. His ancestor George Spencer had changed his surname to Spencer-Churchill in 1817 when he became Duke of Marlborough, to highlight his descent from John Churchill, Churchill was born on 30 November 1874, two months prematurely, in a bedroom in Blenheim Palace, Woodstock, Oxfordshire. From age two to six, he lived in Dublin, where his grandfather had been appointed Viceroy, Churchills brother, John Strange Spencer-Churchill, was born during this time in Ireland
8.
Secretary of State for War
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The position of Secretary of State for War, commonly called War Secretary, was a British cabinet-level position, first held by Henry Dundas. In 1801 the post became that of Secretary of State for War, the position was re-instated in 1854. In 1946, with the creation of a cabinet-level Minister of Defence separate from the Prime Minister, the Secretary of State for War ceased to be a cabinet position. On 1 April 1964, with the creation of the Secretary of State for Defence position, in charge of a new united Ministry of Defence, for 1801–1854 see Secretary of State for War and the Colonies
9.
British Army
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The British Army is the principal land warfare force of the United Kingdom. As of 2017 the British Army comprises just over 80,000 trained Regular, or full-time, personnel and just over 26,500 trained Reserve, or part-time personnel. Therefore, the UK Parliament approves the continued existence of the Army by passing an Armed Forces Act at least once every five years, day to day the Army comes under administration of the Ministry of Defence and is commanded by the Chief of the General Staff. Repeatedly emerging victorious from these decisive wars allowed Britain to influence world events with its policies and establish itself as one of the leading military. In 1660 the English, Scottish and Irish monarchies were restored under Charles II, Charles favoured the foundation of a new army under royal control and began work towards its establishment by August 1660. The Royal Scots Army and the Irish Army were financed by the Parliament of Scotland, the order of seniority of the most senior line regiments in the British Army is based on the order of seniority in the English army. At that time there was only one English regiment of dragoons, after William and Marys accession to the throne, England involved itself in the War of the Grand Alliance, primarily to prevent a French invasion restoring Marys father, James II. Spain, in the two centuries, had been the dominant global power, and the chief threat to Englands early transatlantic ambitions. The territorial ambitions of the French, however, led to the War of the Spanish Succession and the Napoleonic Wars. From the time of the end of the Seven Years War in 1763, Great Britain was the naval power. As had its predecessor, the English Army, the British Army fought the Kingdoms of Spain, France, and the Netherlands for supremacy in North America and the West Indies. With native and provincial assistance, the Army conquered New France in the North American theatre of the Seven Years War, the British Army suffered defeat in the American War of Independence, losing the Thirteen Colonies but holding on to Canada. The British Army was heavily involved in the Napoleonic Wars and served in campaigns across Europe. The war between the British and the First French Empire of Napoleon Bonaparte stretched around the world and at its peak, in 1813, the regular army contained over 250,000 men. A Coalition of Anglo-Dutch and Prussian Armies under the Duke of Wellington, the English had been involved, both politically and militarily, in Ireland since being given the Lordship of Ireland by the Pope in 1171. The campaign of the English republican Protector, Oliver Cromwell, involved uncompromising treatment of the Irish towns that had supported the Royalists during the English Civil War, the English Army stayed in Ireland primarily to suppress numerous Irish revolts and campaigns for independence. Having learnt from their experience in America, the British government sought a political solution, the British Army found itself fighting Irish rebels, both Protestant and Catholic, primarily in Ulster and Leinster in the 1798 rebellion. The Haldane Reforms of 1907 formally created the Territorial Force as the Armys volunteer reserve component by merging and reorganising the Volunteer Force, Militia, Great Britains dominance of the world had been challenged by numerous other powers, in the 20th century, most notably Germany
10.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
11.
Irish Republic
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The Irish Republic was a revolutionary state that declared its independence from Britain in January 1919. Its origins date back to the Easter Rising of 1916, when Irish republicans seized key locations in Dublin, the insurrection was crushed, but the survivors united under a reformed Sinn Féin party to campaign for a republic. The party won a majority of largely uncontested seats in the 1918 general election. Republicans then established a government, a system and a police force. At the same time, the Irish Volunteers, who came under the control of the Dáil and became known as the Irish Republican Army, the War of Independence ended with the Anglo-Irish Treaty, signed on 6 December 1921 and narrowly approved by Dáil Éireann on 7 January 1922. In English, the state was to be known as the Irish Republic. Two different Irish language titles were used, Poblacht na hÉireann and Saorstát Éireann, the word poblacht was a new word, coined by the writers of the Easter Proclamation in 1916. Saorstát was a word, based on the Irish words saor. Its literal translation was free state, the term Poblacht na hÉireann is the one used in the Proclamation of 1916, but the Declaration of Independence and other documents adopted in 1919 used Saorstát Éireann. Since then, the word saorstát has fallen out of use as a translation of republic, after the Irish state had changed its name to Ireland, in 1949 the description of the state was declared Republic of Ireland, while in Irish it was translated as Poblacht na hÉireann. In The Aftermath, Winston Churchill gives an account of the first meeting of Éamon de Valera with David Lloyd George on 14 July 1921, Lloyd George was a native speaker of Welsh and a noted Welsh linguist and as such was interested in the literal meaning of Saorstát. De Valera replied that it meant Free State, Lloyd George asked. what is your Irish word for Republic. After some delay and no reply, Lloyd George commented, Must we not admit that the Celts never were Republicans and have no word for such an idea. In 1916, nationalist rebels participating in the Easter Rising issued the Proclamation of the Republic, the Easter Rising was short-lived, largely limited to Dublin and, at the time it occurred, enjoyed little support from the Irish general public. The leaders of the Easter Rising had proclaimed a republic, Arthur Griffiths Sinn Féin organisation, which had favoured the establishment of a form of dual monarchy between Ireland and Britain, had not taken part in the Rising. In 1917, Griffiths Sinn Féin and republicans under Éamon de Valera and this agreement was subject to the condition that if the people chose monarchy, no member of the British royal family would be invited to serve as monarch. It also said it would boycott the British Parliament and instead establish a new Irish assembly in Dublin. Sinn Féin candidates won a majority of the seats,73 out of 105,25 of them uncontested
12.
Khaki
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Khaki is a color, a light shade of yellow-brown. Khaki is a loanword incorporated from Hindustani ख़ाकी/خاکی and is derived from the Persian, خاک. Khaki has been used by armies around the world for uniforms. A khaki uniform is referred to as khakis. In Western fashion, it is a color for smart casual dress trousers for civilians. For the first year no attempt was made at uniformity and it was only at a later date, when supplies of drab material was unavailable, did they improvise by dying material locally with a dye prepared from the native mazari palm. Some believe the gray drab/khaki color it produced was used historically by Afghan tribals for camouflaging themselves, the mazari could not, however, dye leather jackets and an alternative was sought, Cloth was dyed in mulberry juice which gave a yellowish drab shade. Subsequently, all regiments, whether British or Indian, serving in the region had adopted khaki uniforms for active service, the original khaki fabric was a closely twilled cloth of linen or cotton. The impracticality of the scarlet coat, especially for skirmishing, was recognised early in the 19th century. Subsequently, the British Army adopted khaki for colonial campaign dress and it was used in the Mahdist War, during the Second Boer War, the British forces became known as Khakis because of their uniforms. The United States Army adopted khaki during the Spanish–American War, the United States Navy and United States Marine Corps followed suit. When khaki was adopted for the continental British Service Dress in 1902 and this color was adopted with minor variations by all the British Empire Armies and the US expeditionary force of World War I, in the latter under the name olive drab. This shade of brown-green remained in use by many throughout the two World Wars. Khaki was devised to protect soldiers against the dangers of the industrialized battlefield, a response to surveillance technologies and smokeless guns, khaki could camouflage soldiers in the field of battle. The trousers known as khakis, which became popular following World War II, were initially military-issue khaki-colored chino cloth twill, used in uniforms and invariably khaki in color. Today, the term is used refer to the style of trousers based on these trousers, properly called chinos. At right is displayed the color light khaki and it corresponds to Khaki in the X11 color names. This is the web color called khaki in HTML/CSS, the color shown at right matches the color designated as khaki in the 1930 book A Dictionary of Color, the standard for color nomenclature before the introduction of computers
13.
Shades of green
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Varieties of the color green may differ in hue, chroma or lightness, or in two or three of these qualities. Variations in value are also called tints and shades, a tint being a green or other hue mixed with white, a large selection of these various colors is shown below. Green is common in nature, especially in plants, many plants are green mainly because of a complex chemical known as chlorophyll which is involved in photosynthesis. Many shades of green have been named after plants or are related to plants, due to varying ratios of chlorophylls, the plant kingdom exhibits many shades of green in both hue and value. Artichoke is a color that is a representation of the color of a raw fresh uncooked artichoke, another name for this color is artichoke green. The first recorded use of green as a color name in English was in 1905. This is the color called green in Pantone. The source is Pantone 18-0125 TPX Asparagus is a tone of green that is named after the vegetable, Crayola created this color in 1993 as one of the 16 to be named in the Name the Color Contest. It is also the color of a wild asparagus plant blowing in the wind of the 1949 classic film Sands of Iwo Jima, another name for this color is asparagus green. The first recorded use of green as a color name in English was in 1805. Avocado is a color that is a representation of the color of the surface of an avocado. The color avocado is a dark yellow-green color, avocado was a common color for metal surfaces, as well as the color harvest gold, during the whole decade of the 1970s. They were both also popular colors for shag carpets, both colors went out of style by the early 1980s. Dark green is a shade of green. A different shade of green has been designated as green for certain computer uses. Fern green is a color that resembles ferns, a Crayola crayon named fern was created in 1998, which is a lighter shade of the top color shown on the right. The first recorded use of green as a color name in English was in 1902. Forest green refers to a green color said to resemble the color of the trees, the first recorded use of forest green as the name of a color in the English language was in 1810
14.
Auxiliary Division
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The Auxiliary Division of the Royal Irish Constabulary, generally known as the Auxiliaries or Auxies, was a paramilitary unit of the Royal Irish Constabulary during the Irish War of Independence. It was set up in July 1920 and made up of former British Army officers and its role was to conduct counter-insurgency operations against the Irish Republican Army. The Auxiliaries became infamous for their reprisals on civilians and civilian property in revenge for IRA actions, the Auxiliaries were distinct from the so-called Black and Tans, former soldiers recruited into the RIC as Temporary Constables. The Auxiliaries and the RIC were disbanded in early 1922, following the Anglo-Irish Treaty, Churchills proposal was referred to a committee chaired by General Sir Nevil Macready, Commander-in-Chief of the British forces in Ireland. Macreadys committee rejected Churchills proposal, but it was revived two months later, in July, by the Police Adviser to the Dublin Castle administration in Ireland, Major-General H H Tudor. In a memo dated 6 July 1920, Tudor justified the scheme on the grounds that it would take too long to reinforce the Royal Irish Constabulary with ordinary recruits. Tudors new Auxiliary Force would be temporary, its members would enlist for a year, their pay would be £7 per week, plus a sergeants allowances. At this time a London advertisement for ex-officers to manage coffee stalls at two pounds ten shillings a week received five thousand applicants, the ADRIC was recruited in Great Britain from among ex-officers who had served in World War I, especially those who had served in the British Army. Most recruits were from Britain, although some were from Ireland, many had been highly decorated in the war and three, James Leach, James Johnson, and George Onions, had been awarded the Victoria Cross. Recruiting began in July 1920, and by November 1921, the division was 1,900 strong, the Auxiliaries were nominally part of the RIC, but actually operated more or less independently in rural areas. Divided into companies, each one hundred strong, heavily armed and highly mobile, they operated in ten counties, mostly in the south and west. They wore either RIC uniforms or their old army uniforms with appropriate police badges and they were commanded by Brigadier-General F P Crozier, a former officer of the loyalist paramilitary group, the Ulster Volunteers. The elite ex-officer division proved to be more effective than the Black. Auxiliary companies were intended as mobile striking and raiding forces, on 20 November, the night before Bloody Sunday, they captured Dick McKee and Peadar Clancy, the commandant and vice-commandant of the IRAs Dublin Brigade, and murdered them in Dublin Castle. That same night, they caught William Pilkington, commandant of the Sligo IRA, in his memoirs, the commandant of the Clare IRA, Michael Brennan, describes how the Auxiliaries nearly captured him three nights in a row. IRA commanders became concerned about the morale of their units as to many Volunteers the Auxiliaries seemed to be super fighters and all and those victories which were won over the Auxiliaries are among the most celebrated in the Irish War of Independence. On 28 November 1920, for example, a platoon of Auxiliaries was ambushed and wiped out in the Kilmichael Ambush by Tom Barry and the West Cork IRA. A little more than two months later, on 2 February 1921, another platoon of Auxiliaries was ambushed by Seán MacEoin and the Longford IRA in the Clonfin Ambush
15.
Counter-insurgency
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According to the U. S. Insurgency is the organized use of subversion and violence to seize, nullify or challenge political control of a region. As such, it is primarily a struggle, in which both sides use armed force to create space for their political, economic and influence activities to be effective. Counter-insurgency is normally conducted as a combination of military operations and other means, such as demoralization in the form of propaganda, psy-ops. Counter-insurgency operations include many different facets, military, paramilitary, political, economic, psychological, to understand counter-insurgency, one must understand insurgency to comprehend the dynamics of revolutionary warfare. Insurgents capitalize on societal problems, often called gaps, counter-insurgency addresses closing the gaps, when the gaps are wide, they create a sea of discontent, creating the environment in which the insurgent can operate. He defines this distinction as Maoist and post-Maoist insurgency, caldwell wrote, The law of armed conflict requires that, to use force, combatants must distinguish individuals presenting a threat from innocent civilians. This basic principle is accepted by all disciplined militaries, in the counterinsurgency, disciplined application of force is even more critical because our enemies camouflage themselves in the civilian population. The third Marques of Santa Cruz de Marcenado is probably the earliest author who dealt systematically in his writings with counter-insurgency, strikingly, Santa Cruz recognized that insurgencies are usually due to real grievances, A state rarely rises up without the fault of its governors. Consequently, he advocated clemency towards the population and good governance, to seek the peoples heart, the majority of counter-insurgency efforts by major powers in the last century have been spectacularly unsuccessful. This may be attributed to a number of causes and he showed as a prime example the French occupation of Spain during the Napoleonic wars. Whenever Spanish forces managed to constitute themselves into a fighting force. However, once dispersed and decentralized, the nature of the rebel campaigns proved a decisive counter to French superiority on the battlefield. Counter-insurgency efforts may be successful, especially when the insurgents are unpopular, the Philippine–American War, the Shining Path in Peru, and the Malayan Emergency in Malaya have been the sites of failed insurgencies. Hart also points to the experiences of T. E. Lawrence, in both the preceding cases, the insurgents and rebel fighters were working in conjunction with or in a manner complementary to regular forces. Such was also the case with the French Resistance during World War II, the strategy in these cases is for the irregular combatant to weaken and destabilize the enemy to such a degree that victory is easy or assured for the regular forces. However, in many rebellions, one does not see rebel fighters working in conjunction with regular forces. Rather, they are home-grown militias or imported fighters who have no unified goals or objectives save to expel the occupier, according to Liddell Hart, there are few effective counter-measures to this strategy. So long as the insurgency maintains popular support, it will all of its strategic advantages of mobility, invisibility, and legitimacy in its own eyes
16.
Ireland
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Ireland is an island in the North Atlantic. It is separated from Great Britain to its east by the North Channel, the Irish Sea, Ireland is the second-largest island of the British Isles, the third-largest in Europe, and the twentieth-largest on Earth. Politically, Ireland is divided between the Republic of Ireland, which covers five-sixths of the island, and Northern Ireland, in 2011, the population of Ireland was about 6.4 million, ranking it the second-most populous island in Europe after Great Britain. Just under 4.6 million live in the Republic of Ireland, the islands geography comprises relatively low-lying mountains surrounding a central plain, with several navigable rivers extending inland. The island has lush vegetation, a product of its mild, thick woodlands covered the island until the Middle Ages. As of 2013, the amount of land that is wooded in Ireland is about 11% of the total, there are twenty-six extant mammal species native to Ireland. The Irish climate is moderate and classified as oceanic. As a result, winters are milder than expected for such a northerly area, however, summers are cooler than those in Continental Europe. Rainfall and cloud cover are abundant, the earliest evidence of human presence in Ireland is dated at 10,500 BC. Gaelic Ireland had emerged by the 1st century CE, the island was Christianised from the 5th century onward. Following the Norman invasion in the 12th century, England claimed sovereignty over Ireland, however, English rule did not extend over the whole island until the 16th–17th century Tudor conquest, which led to colonisation by settlers from Britain. In the 1690s, a system of Protestant English rule was designed to materially disadvantage the Catholic majority and Protestant dissenters, with the Acts of Union in 1801, Ireland became a part of the United Kingdom. Northern Ireland saw much civil unrest from the late 1960s until the 1990s and this subsided following a political agreement in 1998. In 1973 the Republic of Ireland joined the European Economic Community while the United Kingdom, Irish culture has had a significant influence on other cultures, especially in the fields of literature. Alongside mainstream Western culture, an indigenous culture exists, as expressed through Gaelic games, Irish music. The culture of the island shares many features with that of Great Britain, including the English language, and sports such as association football, rugby, horse racing. The name Ireland derives from Old Irish Eriu and this in turn derives from Proto-Celtic *Iveriu, which is also the source of Latin Hibernia. Iveriu derives from a root meaning fat, prosperous, during the last glacial period, and up until about 9000 years ago, most of Ireland was covered with ice, most of the time
17.
Irish nationalism
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Irish nationalism asserts that the Irish people are a nation. Since the partition of Ireland, the term refers to support for a united Ireland. Irish nationalists assert that rule from London has been to the detriment of Irish interests and this vision sought to overcome the old ethnic divide between Gaeil and Gaill which had been a feature of Irish life since the 12th century. Protestantism in England introduced an element to the 16th century Tudor conquest of Ireland, as many of the native Gaels. The Plantations of Ireland dispossessed many native Catholic landowners in favour of Protestant settlers from England and Scotland, in addition, the Plantation of Ulster, begun in 1609, planted a sizeable colony of English and Scottish Protestant settlers into the north of Ireland. Irish aristocrats waged many campaigns against the English presence, a prime example is the rebellion of Hugh ONeill which became known as the Nine Years War of 1594–1603, which aimed to expel the English and make Ireland a Spanish protectorate. The Confederate Catholics of Ireland, also known as the Confederation of Kilkenny, emphasised the idea of Ireland as a Kingdom independent from England and they demanded autonomy for the Irish Parliament, full rights for Catholics and an end to the confiscation of Catholic-owned land. The Cromwellian conquest of Ireland destroyed the Confederate cause and resulted in the permanent dispossession of the old Catholic landowning class. A similar Irish Catholic monarchist movement emerged in the 1680s and 1690s, the Jacobites demanded that Irish Catholics have a majority in an autonomous Irish Parliament, the restoration of confiscated Catholic land, and an Irish-born Lord Deputy of Ireland. Like the Confederates, they suffered defeat, in the Williamite War in Ireland. Thereafter, the largely English Protestant Ascendancy dominated Irish government and landholding, the Penal Laws discriminated against non-Anglicans. However, the Irish Catholic movements of the 16th century were led by a small landed. Professor Kevin Whelan has traced the emergence of the modern Catholic-nationalist identity that formed in 1760–1830, parliamentarians who wanted more self-government formed the Irish Patriot Party, led by Henry Grattan, who achieved substantial legislative independence in 1782–83. Grattan and radical elements of the Irish Whig party campaigned in the 1790s for Catholic political equality and he wanted useful links with Britain to remain, best understood by his comment, The channel forbids union, the ocean forbids separation. Grattans movement was notable for being both inclusive and nationalist as many of its members were descended from the Anglo/Irish minority, many other nationalists such as Samuel Neilson, Theobald Wolfe Tone and Robert Emmet were also descended from plantation families which had arrived in Ireland since 1600. From Grattan in the 1770s to Parnell up to 1890, nearly all the leaders of Irish separatism were Protestant nationalists, modern Irish nationalism with democratic aspirations began in the 1790s with the founding of the Society of the United Irishmen. It sought to end discrimination against Catholics and Presbyterians and to found an independent Irish republic and they were sponsored by the French Republic, which was then the enemy of the Holy See. The United Irishmen led the Irish Rebellion of 1798, which was repressed with great bloodshed, as a result, the Irish Parliament voted to abolish itself in the Act of Union of 1800–01 and thereafter Irish MPs sat in London
18.
Irish republicanism
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Irish republicanism is an ideology based on the belief that all of Ireland should be an independent republic. This followed hundreds of years of British conquest and Irish resistance through rebellion and it launched the 1798 Rebellion with the help of French troops. The rebellion had some success, especially in County Wexford, before it was suppressed, a second rising in 1803, led by Robert Emmet, was quickly put down, and Emmet was hanged. The Young Ireland movement, formed in the 1830s, was initially a part of the Repeal Association of Daniel OConnell, primarily a political and cultural organisation, some members of Young Ireland staged an abortive rising, the Young Irelander Rebellion of 1848. Its leaders were transported to Van Diemens Land, some of these escaped to the United States, where they linked up with other Irish exiles to form the Fenian Brotherhood. They staged another rising, the Fenian Rising, in 1867, in the early 20th century IRB members, in particular Tom Clarke and Seán MacDermott, began planning another rising. The execution of the Risings leaders, including Clarke, MacDermott, Patrick Pearse and James Connolly, the elected members did not take their seats but instead set up the First Dáil. Between 1919 and 1921 the Irish Republican Army, who were loyal to the Dáil, fought the British Army and Royal Irish Constabulary in the Irish War of Independence. Talks between the British and Irish in late 1921 led to a treaty by which the British conceded, not a 32-county Irish Republic and this led to the Irish Civil War, in which the republicans were defeated by their former comrades. That same year, the movement took the decision to focus on Northern Ireland thereafter. The Border Campaign, which lasted from 1956 to 1962, involved bombings, the failure of this campaign led the republican leadership to concentrate on political action, and to move to the left. Following the outbreak of The Troubles in 1968-9, the movement split between Officials and Provisionals at the beginning of 1970. The Provisional IRA, except during brief ceasefires in 1972 and 1975, kept up a campaign of violence for nearly thirty years, directed against security forces and civilian targets. This began to change with a speech by Danny Morrison in 1981, advocating what became known as the Armalite. Under the leadership of Gerry Adams, Sinn Féin began to focus on the search for a political settlement. When the party voted in 1986 to take seats in legislative bodies within Ireland, there was a walk-out of die-hard republicans, who set up Republican Sinn Féin and the Continuity IRA. Following the Hume–Adams dialogue, Sinn Féin took part in the Northern Ireland peace process led to the IRA ceasefires of 1994 and 1997. However, another split occurred, with anti-Agreement republicans setting up the 32 County Sovereignty Movement, today, Irish republicanism is divided between those who support the institutions set up under the Good Friday Agreement and the later St Andrews Agreement, and those who oppose them
19.
Easter Rising
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The Easter Rising, also known as the Easter Rebellion, was an armed insurrection in Ireland during Easter Week, April 1916. The Rising was launched by Irish republicans to end British rule in Ireland and it was the most significant uprising in Ireland since the rebellion of 1798, and the first armed action of the Irish revolutionary period. Organised by a seven-man Military Council of the Irish Republican Brotherhood, the Rising began on Easter Monday,24 April 1916, the British Army brought in thousands of reinforcements as well as artillery and a gunboat. There was fierce fighting on the routes into the city centre. Elsewhere in Dublin, the fighting consisted of sniping and long-range gun battles. The main rebel positions were surrounded and bombarded with artillery. Germany had sent a shipment of arms to the rebels, Volunteer leader Eoin MacNeill had then issued a countermand in a bid to halt the Rising, which greatly reduced the number of rebels who mobilised. With much greater numbers and heavier weapons, the British Army suppressed the Rising, Pearse agreed to an unconditional surrender on Saturday 29 April, although sporadic fighting continued until Sunday, when word reached the other rebel positions. After the surrender the country remained under martial law, about 3,500 people were taken prisoner by the British, many of whom had played no part in the Rising, and 1,800 of them were sent to internment camps or prisons in Britain. Most of the leaders of the Rising were executed following courts-martial, the Rising brought physical force republicanism back to the forefront of Irish politics, which for nearly 50 years had been dominated by constitutional nationalism. It, and the British reaction to it, led to increased support for Irish independence. In December 1918, republicans, represented by the reconstituted Sinn Féin party and they did not take their seats, but instead convened the First Dáil and declared the independence of the Irish Republic, which led to the War of Independence. 485 people were killed in the Easter Rising, about 54% were civilians, 30% were British military and police, and 16% were Irish rebels. Many of the civilians were killed as a result of the British using artillery and heavy machine guns, others were caught in the crossfire in a crowded city. The shelling and the fires it caused left parts of inner city Dublin in ruins, from early on, many Irish nationalists opposed the union and the ensuing exploitation and impoverishment of the island, which led to a high level of depopulation. Opposition took various forms, constitutional, social and revolutionary, the Irish Home Rule movement sought to achieve self-government for Ireland, within the United Kingdom. In 1886, the Irish Parliamentary Party under Charles Stewart Parnell succeeded in having the First Home Rule Bill introduced in the British parliament, the Second Home Rule Bill of 1893 was passed by the House of Commons but rejected by the House of Lords. After the fall of Parnell, younger and more radical nationalists became disillusioned with parliamentary politics, the Gaelic Athletic Association, the Gaelic League and the cultural revival under W. B
20.
Irish general election, 1918
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The Irish general election of 1918 was that part of the 1918 United Kingdom general election which took place in Ireland. In Ulster, however, the Unionist Party was the most successful party, the Irish War of Independence was conducted under this revolutionary government which sought international recognition, and set about the process of state-building. In 1918 the whole of Ireland was a part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, the IPP strove for Home Rule, that is, limited self-government for Ireland within the United Kingdom, and had been supported by most Irish people, especially the Catholic majority. The Unionists were supported by the Conservative Party, whereas from 1885 the Liberal Party was committed to enacting some form of Home Rule, Unionists eventually formed their own representation, first the Irish Unionist Party then the Ulster Unionist Party. Home Rule appeared to have finally achieved with the passing of the Home Rule Act 1914. However the implementation of the Act was however temporarily postponed with the outbreak of World War I, as the war prolonged and with the failure to make any progress on the issue, the more radical Sinn Féin began to grow in strength. Sinn Féin was founded by Arthur Griffith in 1905, prior to 1916, Sinn Féin had been a fringe movement having a limited cooperative alliance with William OBriens All-for-Ireland League and enjoyed little electoral success. However, between the Easter Rising of that year and the 1918 general election, the popularity increased dramatically. In one case there were allegations of electoral fraud. Overall, however, the party would benefit from a number of factors in the 1918 elections, the Irish electorate in 1918, as with the entire electorate throughout the United Kingdom, had changed in two major ways since the preceding general election. Firstly, there was a generational change because of World War I. As a result, no election took place between 1910 and 1918, the longest such spell in modern British and Irish constitutional history, thus the 1918 election saw, in particular, All voters between the age of 21 and 29 were first time general election voters. A generation of voters, most of them IPP supporters, had died in that eight-year period. Emigration had been almost impossible during the war because of the sea lanes. As Ireland had not had conscription, Unionists and moderate Nationalists had predominantly made up the volunteers for the duration of the war. Consequently, there was a loss in the age range of young Unionists and moderate Nationalists. Secondly, the franchise had been extended by the Representation of the People Act 1918. This granted voting rights to women for the first time, and gave all men over 21, the Irish electorate increased from around 700,000 to about two million
21.
David Lloyd George
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David Lloyd George, 1st Earl Lloyd-George of Dwyfor, OM, PC was a British Liberal politician and statesman. As Chancellor of the Exchequer, Lloyd George was a key figure in the introduction of reforms which laid the foundations of the modern welfare state. His most important role came as the highly energetic Prime Minister of the Wartime Coalition Government, during and he was a major player at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 that reordered Europe after the defeat of the Central Powers. He made an impact on British public life than any other 20th-century leader. Furthermore, in foreign affairs he played a role in winning the First World War, redrawing the map of Europe at the peace conference. His main political problem was that he was not loyal to his Liberal party—he was always a political maverick, while he was Prime Minister he favoured the Conservatives in his coalition in the 1918 elections, leaving the Liberal party as a hopeless minority. He became leader of the Liberal Party in the late 1920s, by the 1930s he was a marginalised and widely mistrusted figure. He gave weak support to the Second World War amidst fears that he was favourable toward Germany, Lloyd George was born on 17 January 1863 in Chorlton-on-Medlock, Manchester, to Welsh parents, and was brought up as a Welsh-speaker. He is so far the only British Prime Minister to have been Welsh and his father, William George, had been a teacher in both London and Liverpool. He also taught in the Hope Street Sunday Schools, which were administered by the Unitarians, in March of the same year, on account of his failing health, William George returned with his family to his native Pembrokeshire. He took up farming but died in June 1864 of pneumonia, Lloyd George was educated at the local Anglican school Llanystumdwy National School and later under tutors. He added his uncles surname to become Lloyd George and his surname is usually given as Lloyd George and sometimes as George. The influence of his childhood showed through in his entire career, brought up a devout evangelical, as a young man he suddenly lost his religious faith. Biographer Don Cregier says he became a Deist and perhaps an agnostic, though he remained a chapel-goer and he kept quiet about that, however, and was hailed as one of the foremost fighting leaders of a fanatical Welsh Nonconformity. It was also during this period of his life that Lloyd George first became interested in the issue of land ownership, by the age of twenty-one, he had already read and taken notes on Henry Georges Progress and Poverty. This strongly influenced Lloyd Georges politics later in life through the Peoples Budget which heavily drew on the georgist tax reform ideas, the practice flourished, and he established branch offices in surrounding towns, taking his brother William into partnership in 1887. Although many Prime Ministers have been barristers, Lloyd George is to date the only solicitor to have held that office, by then he was politically active, having campaigned for the Liberal Party in the 1885 election, attracted by Joseph Chamberlains unauthorised programme of reforms. The election resulted firstly in a stalemate with neither the Liberals nor the Conservatives having a majority, William Gladstones proposal to bring about Irish Home Rule split the party, with Chamberlain eventually leading the breakaway Liberal Unionists
22.
Government of Ireland Act 1920
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The Government of Ireland Act 1920 was an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. The Acts long title was An Act to provide for the government of Ireland. Both areas of Ireland were to continue as a part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and provision was made for their future reunification under common Home Rule institutions. Home Rule never took effect in Southern Ireland, due to the Irish War of Independence, which resulted instead in the Anglo-Irish Treaty and the establishment in 1922 of the Irish Free State. However, the set up under this Act for Northern Ireland continued to function until they were suspended by the British parliament in 1972 as a consequence of the Troubles. The remaining provisions of the Act still in force in Northern Ireland were repealed under the terms of the 1998 Good Friday Agreement, various attempts had been made to give Ireland limited regional self-government, known as Home rule, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The Third Home Rule Bill introduced in 1912 by the Irish Parliamentary Party could no longer be vetoed after the passing of the Parliament Act 1911 which removed the power of the Lords to veto bills and they could merely be delayed for two years. Because of the threat of civil war in Ireland, King George V called the Buckingham Palace Conference in July 1914 where Irish Nationalist and Unionist leaders failed to reach agreement. A few weeks after the British entry into the war, the Act received Royal Assent, however, the Suspensory Act 1914 meant that implementation would be suspended for the duration of what was expected to be only a short European war. A delay ensued because of the end of the First World War in November 1918, the Paris Peace Conference,1919. Long proposed the creation of two Irish home rule entities, Northern Ireland and Southern Ireland, each with unicameral parliaments, the Bills second reading debates in late March 1920 revealed that already a large number of Irish members of parliament present felt that the proposals were unworkable. After considerable delays in debating the financial aspects of the measure, a considerable number of the Irish Members present voted against the Bill, including Southern Unionists such as Maurice Dockrell, and Nationalists like Joe Devlin. During the Great War Irish politics moved decisively in a different direction, sinn Féin, standing for an independent sovereign Ireland, won 73 of the 105 parliamentary seats on the island in the 1918 general election. Its elected members established their own parliament, Dáil Éireann, which declared the independence as the Irish Republic. Dáil Éireann, after a number of meetings, was declared illegal in September 1919 by the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, also for a variety of reasons all the Ulster Unionist MPs at Westminster voted against the Act. They preferred that all or most of Ulster would remain fully within the United Kingdom, thus, when the Act became law on 23 December 1920 it was already out of touch with realities in Ireland. The long-standing demand for home rule had been replaced among Nationalists by a demand for complete independence, the Republics army was waging the Irish War of Independence against British rule, which had reached a nadir in late 1920. Northern Ireland as defined by the Act, amounting to six of the nine counties of Ulster, was seen as the area within which Unionists could be expected to have a safe majority
23.
Lewis gun
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The Lewis gun is a First World War-era light machine gun of US design that was perfected and mass-produced in the United Kingdom, and widely used by British and British Empire troops during the war. With its distinctive barrel cooling shroud and top-mounted pan magazine, the Lewis served to the end of the Korean War and it was also widely used as an aircraft machine gun, almost always with the cooling shroud removed, during both world wars. The Lewis gun was invented by U. S. Army colonel Isaac Newton Lewis in 1911, Lewis became frustrated with trying to persuade the U. S. Army to adopt his design, so, retired from the army. He left the United States in 1913 and went to Belgium, Lewis had been working closely with British arms manufacturer the Birmingham Small Arms Company Limited in an effort to overcome some of the production difficulties of the weapon. Lewis and his moved to England before 1914, away from possible seizure in the event of a German invasion. The Belgian army acquired only a handful of his guns and they were not on general issue in the Belgian Army, and were used only in a few forays by motor vehicles, south of Antwerp, against the flank of the invading German Army. The onset of the First World War increased demand for the Lewis gun, the design was officially approved for service on 15 October 1915 under the designation Gun, Lewis. 303-cal. No Lewis guns were produced in Belgium during the war, all manufacture was carried out by BSA in England, Savage did make Lewis guns in.303 British calibre, though. The Model 1916 and Model 1917 were exported to Canada and the United Kingdom, the Savage Model 1917 was generally produced in. 30-06 caliber. A number of guns were supplied to the UK under lend-lease during the Second World War. The Lewis gun was gas operated, a portion of the expanding propellant gas was tapped off from the barrel, driving a piston to the rear against a spring. The piston was fitted with a vertical post at its rear which rode in a helical cam track in the bolt and this allowed the three locking lugs at the rear of the bolt to engage in recesses in the guns body to lock it into place. The post also carried a fixed firing pin, which protruded through an aperture in the front of the bolt, only the Royal Navy retained the tube on their deck-mounted AA-configuration Lewis guns. The Lewis gun used a pan magazine holding 47 or 97 rounds, pan magazines hold the rounds, bullet-noses inwards toward the center, in a radial fan. Unlike the more common drum magazines, which hold the rounds parallel to the axis and are fed by spring tension, the Lewis magazine was driven by a cam on top of the bolt which operated a pawl mechanism via a lever. The operating rod had a toothed underside, which engaged with a cog which wound the spring, when the gun fired, the bolt recoiled and the cog was turned, tightening the spring until the resistance of the spring had reached the recoil force of the bolt assembly. At that moment, as the gas pressure in the fell, the spring unwound, turning the cog. As with a spring, the Lewis gun recoil spring had an adjustment device to alter the recoil resistance for variations in temperature
24.
Law enforcement in the United Kingdom
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Law enforcement in the United Kingdom is organised separately in each of the legal systems of the United Kingdom, England and Wales, Northern Ireland and Scotland. Most law enforcement is carried out by police serving in regional police services within one of these jurisdictions. Police officers are granted powers to enable them to execute their duties. Their primary duties are the protection of life and property, preservation of the peace, in the British model of policing, officers exercise their powers to police with the implicit consent of the public. Policing by consent is the used to describe this. In England and Wales, the vast majority of attested constables enjoy full powers of arrest and search as granted by the Police, all police officers are constables in law, irrespective of rank. Although police officers have wide ranging powers, they are subject to the same laws as members of the public. However, there are additional legal restrictions on police officers such as the illegality of taking industrial action. There are 45 territorial police services as of 2013 that cover an area and have an independent police authority or local authority or joint police board. Some territorial police services host specialist bodies that operate in more than one area of the United Kingdom, National law enforcement bodies, including the National Crime Agency and British Transport Police. The Serious Organised Crime and Police Act 2005 refers to these as special police forces, the National Crime Agency operates across the United Kingdom against organised crime and acts as the UK point of contact for foreign agencies. There are also non-police law enforcement agencies whose officers, while not police constables, miscellaneous police services, mostly having their foundations in older legislation or common law. Until the passing of Railways and Transport Safety Act 2003, the British Transport Police was such a force, the list of law enforcement agencies in the United Kingdom details the various services. Territorial police constables have certain powers of arrest in one of the UKs three legal jurisdictions than they were attested in. Detention under these powers, which in Scotland normally lasts for twelve hours, a constable from one legal jurisdiction has, in the other jurisdictions, the same powers of arrest as a constable of that jurisdiction would have. When a constable arrests a person in England & Wales, the constable is subject to the requirements of section 28, section 30, when a constable arrests a person in Northern Ireland, the constable is subject to the requirements of Article 30, Article 32 and Article 34. Referred to as aid, constables loaned from one force to another have the powers. Constables from the Metropolitan Police who are on protection duties in Scotland or Northern Ireland have all the powers, a constable who is taking a person to or from a prison retains all the powers, authority, protection and privileges of his office regardless of his location
25.
Limerick Junction railway station
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Limerick Junction is the interchange railway station for trains originating in Limerick, Dublin Heuston, Cork, Waterford, Tralee and Ennis stations. It is located in County Tipperary, Ireland and was originally named Tipperary Junction, Tipperary town is about 2 miles away to the south-east. Limerick Junction, with a cluster of cottages and a pub, is a small hamlet. Because of its complex layout it has a place in railway lore. One route is the Dublin-Cork main line, while the other is the line from Limerick to Waterford, trains from all four locations are served, some connecting to Ennis in County Clare and Tralee in County Kerry. The layout consists of four platforms, but only two are in use, both north of the station building, the main line platform, number 1, is a through platform. Access to Platforms 2 and 3 for trains from other than Limerick requires reversing. A train coming from Waterford must cross the Dublin-Cork main line towards Limerick and it can then stop at the Limerick bay. Other places in the Ireland that required some or all trains to reverse include, the tracks were rearranged in the mid-1960s to overcome this. Trains using the curve cannot stop at Limerick Junction. The curve is used by three trains each way per day since the most recent timetable changes in December 2009. Through running from Limerick to Mallow and Cork is possible, the station opened on 3 July 1848. The station at Limerick Junction is surrounded by track, trains accessing the Waterford bay from Limerick or Waterford must reverse into the platform. Trains from Waterford also reverse back from Keanes points, where the curve out from the station joins the line, the track layout here has been reduced to now only two platforms. The bay platform to the north is used for trains to Limerick and Waterford/Rosslare, the Waterford bay, which was located at the south end of the station, is now lifted and the so has the line that ran behind the station. The scissor crossover which is located halfway down the platform is due to be lifted. The Cork half of the platform has also been removed. Limerick Junction was also the name of the racecourse at the same location, in 1986 it was renamed Tipperary Racecourse
26.
Fox hunting
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In Australia, the term also refers to the hunting of foxes with firearms, similar to deer hunting or spotlighting. In much of the world, hunting in general is understood to relate to any animals or weapons, in Britain and Ireland, hunting without qualification implies fox hunting. Proponents of fox hunting view it as an important part of rural culture, the use of scenthounds to track prey dates back to Assyrian, Babylonian, and ancient Egyptian times, and was known as venery. Many Greek- and Roman- influenced countries have traditions of hunting with hounds. Hunting with Agassaei hounds was popular in Celtic Britain, even before the Romans arrived, introducing the Castorian, norman hunting traditions were brought to Britain when William the Conqueror arrived, along with the Gascon and Talbot hounds. The first use of specifically trained to hunt foxes was in the late 1600s, with the oldest fox hunt being, probably. By the end of the century, deer hunting was in decline. The Inclosure Acts brought fences to separate formerly open land into smaller fields, deer forests were being cut down. With the onset of the Industrial Revolution, people began to move out of the country and into towns, roads, railway lines, and canals all split hunting countries, but at the same time they made hunting accessible to more people. Shotguns were improved during the century and the shooting of gamebirds became more popular. Fox hunting developed further in the century when Hugo Meynell developed breeds of hound. In Germany, hunting with hounds was first banned on the initiative of Hermann Göring on July 3,1934, in 1939, the ban was extended to cover Austria after Germanys annexation of the country. Also around this time, numbers of European red foxes were introduced into the Eastern seaboard of North America for hunting, the first organised hunt for the benefit of a group was started by Thomas, sixth Lord Fairfax in 1747. In the United States, George Washington and Thomas Jefferson both kept packs of fox hounds before and after the American Revolutionary War, in Australia, the European red fox was introduced solely for the purpose of fox hunting in 1855. Native animal populations have been badly affected, with the extinction of at least 10 species attributed to the spread of foxes. Fox hunting with hounds is mainly practised in the east of Australia, in the state of Victoria there are thirteen hunts, with more than 1000 members between them. Fox hunting with hounds results in around 650 foxes being killed annually in Victoria, however, exemptions stated in Schedule 1 of the 2004 Act permit some previously unusual forms of hunting wild mammals with dogs to continue, such as hunting. For the purpose of enabling a bird of prey to hunt the wild mammal, scotland, which has its own Parliament, restricted fox hunting in 2002, more than two years before the ban in England and Wales
27.
Kerry Beagle
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The Kerry Beagle is one of the oldest Irish hound breeds, believed to be descendant from the Old Southern Hound or Celtic Hounds. It is unclear why the name beagle has been applied, as the Kerry Beagle is a medium-sized hound, height is between 56–61 cm, weight is up to 27 kg, sharing little in common with the Beagle. The Kerry Beagle has a head, a short coat and long ears, black and tan is the more common colour but the coat may be tan and white, blue mottled. The breeds looks suggests speed and endurance and this breed of dog is a pack hound and does hold the hunting instinct strong. They do however make good pets as they are good with children. They require a lot of exercise, regular twice to three times daily walks and free runs, the Kerry Beagle is an ancient breed, believed to date back to the 16th century, detailed pedigrees date back as far as 1794. Local legend has it that when Noahs ark came to rest against Galtymore, by the 1800s the Kerry Beagles numbers had dwindled in Ireland, with only one major pack maintained, the famous Scarteen of County Limerick belonging to the Ryan family, which still exists today. Originally bred as Stag hounds, today they are used to hunt fox and hare, the Kerry Beagle was taken by many Irish immigrants to the Americas, and is considered a foundation breed in development of the Coonhound. Alderton, David, Hounds of the World, Swan Hill Press, Shrewsbury,2000, cunliffe, Juliette, The Encyclopedia of Dog Breeds Parragon,2001, ISBN 0-7525-6561-3. Fogle, Bruce, The Encyclopedia of the Dog, DK Publishing, New York,2009, hancock, David, Hounds, Hunting by Scent, The Crowood Press Ltd, Marlborough,2014, ISBN 978-1-84797-601-7. Holland, Anne, Hunting, portrait, Little Brown, London,2003, ISBN 0-316-86069-7
28.
County Dublin
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County Dublin is a former county in Ireland. It is conterminous with the Dublin Region and is in the province of Leinster and it is named after the city of Dublin, which is the regional capital and the capital city of Ireland. County Dublin was one of the first parts of Ireland to be shired by John, prior to 1994 County Dublin was also an administrative unit covering the whole county outside of Dublin City Council. In 1994 Dublin County Council was abolished and replaced with three separate administrative county councils, Dún Laoghaire–Rathdown, Fingal and South Dublin, the total population of the three aforementioned counties and Dublin city was 1,345,402 according to the census of 2016. Since the abolition of the Dublin Regional Assembly by statutory instrument No, 573/2014, the Eurostat statistical region known as Dublin Region falls under the remit of the wider Eastern and Midland Regional Authority. There are four local authorities whose remit collectively encompasses the area of the county and city of Dublin. These are Dublin City Council, South Dublin County Council, Dún Laoghaire-Rathdown County Council, prior to the enactment of the Local Government Act 1993, the county was a unified whole even though it was administered by two local authorities - Dublin County Council and Dublin Corporation. They rank equally as first level administrative units of the NUTS3 Dublin Region for Eurostat purposes. There are 34 LAU1 entities in the Republic of Ireland, each local authority is responsible for certain local services such as sanitation, planning and development, libraries, the collection of motor taxation, local roads and social housing. Dublin County Council was abolished in 1994 and the area divided among the counties of Dún Laoghaire–Rathdown, Fingal. To these areas may be added the area of Dublin city which collectively comprise the Dublin Region, the area lost its administrative county status in 1994, with Section 9 Part 1 of the Local Government Act,1993 stating that the county shall cease to exist. I am not sure whether Dubliners realise that that is what we are about today, the county is part of the Dublin constituency for the purposes of European elections. Together they return 44 deputies to the Dáil, despite the legal status of the Dublin Region, the term County Dublin is still in common usage. Many organisations and sporting teams continue to organise on a County Dublin or Dublin Region basis, the term Greater Dublin Area, which might consist of some or all of the Dublin Region along with counties of Kildare, Meath and Wicklow, has no legal standing. The Dublin Region is a NUTS Level III region of Ireland, the region is one of eight regions of the Republic of Ireland for the purposes of Eurostat statistics. It is co-extensive with the old county, the regional capital is Dublin City which is also the national capital. The latest Ordnance Survey Ireland Discovery Series 1,50,000 map of the Dublin Region, Sheet 50, shows the boundaries of the city and three surrounding counties of the region. Extremities of the Dublin Region, in the north and south of the region, Local radio stations include 98FM, FM104,103.2 Dublin City FM, Q102, SPIN1038, Sunshine 106.8, TXFM, Raidió Na Life and Radio Nova
29.
Munster
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Munster is one of the provinces of Ireland situated in the south of Ireland. In early Ireland, it was one of the fifths ruled by a king of over-kings Irish, following the Norman invasion of Ireland, the ancient kingdoms were shired into counties for administrative and judicial purposes. In later centuries, local government legislation has seen further sub-division of the historic counties, Munster has no official function for local government purposes. For the purposes of the ISO, the province is listed as one of the provincial sub-divisions of the State, geographically, Munster covers a total area of 24,675 km2 and has a population of 1,246,088 with the most populated city being Cork. Other significant urban centres in the province include Limerick and Waterford, in the early centuries AD, Munster was the domain of the Iverni peoples and the Clanna Dedad familial line, led by Cú Roí and to whom the king Conaire Mór also belonged. In the 5th century, Saint Patrick spent several years in the area and founded Christian churches, during the Early Middle Ages, most of the area was part of the Kingdom of Munster, ruled by the Eóganachta dynasty. Prior to this, the area was ruled by the Dáirine and Corcu Loígde overlords from the early 7th century onwards, later rulers from the Eóganachta who would dominate a greater part of Ireland were Cathal mac Finguine and Feidlimid mac Cremthanin. Notable regional kingdoms and lordships of Early Medieval Munster were Iarmuman, Osraige, Uí Liatháin, Uí Fidgenti, Éile, Múscraige, Ciarraige Luachra, Corcu Duibne, Corcu Baiscinn, around this period Ossory broke away from Munster. The 10th century saw the rise of the Dalcassian clan, who had earlier annexed Thomond and their leaders were the ancestors of the OBrien dynasty and spawned Brian Boru, perhaps the most noted High King of Ireland, and several of whose descendants were also High Kings. By 1118 Munster had fractured into the Kingdom of Thomond under the OBriens, the Kingdom of Desmond under the MacCarthy dynasty, the three crowns of the flag of Munster represent these three late kingdoms. The OBrien of Thomond and MacCarthy of Desmond surrendered and regranted sovereignty to the Tudors in 1543 and 1565, the impactful Desmond Rebellions, led by the FitzGeralds, soon followed. By the mid-19th century much of the area was hit hard in the Great Famine, the province was affected by events in the Irish War of Independence in the early 20th century, and there was a brief Munster Republic during the Irish Civil War. The Irish leaders Michael Collins and earlier Daniel OConnell came from families of the old Gaelic Munster gentry, noted for its traditions in Irish folk music, and with many ancient castles and monasteries in the province, Munster is a tourist destination. During the fifth century, St. Patrick spent seven years founding churches and ordaining priests in Munster, but a fifth century bishop named Ailbe is the patron saint of Munster. In Irish mythology, a number of goddesses are associated with the province including Anann, Áine, Grian, Clíodhna, Aimend, Mór Muman, Bébinn, Aibell. Each is historically associated with certain septs of the nobility, the druid-god of Munster is Mug Ruith. The province has long had trading and cultural links with continental Europe, the tribe of Corcu Loígde had a trading fleet active along the French Atlantic coast, as far south as Gascony, importing wine to Munster. The Eóganachta had ecclesiastical ties with Germany, which show in the architecture of their capital at the Rock of Cashel
30.
Connacht
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Connacht /ˈkɒnɔːt/ or Connaught is one of the provinces of Ireland, situated in the west of the country. Two of its greatest kings, Tairrdelbach Ua Conchobair and his son Ruaidri Ua Conchobair greatly expanded the kingdoms dominance, the English colony in Connacht shrank from c. Only with in the late 1500s, during the Tudor conquest of Ireland, was Connacht shired into its present counties, the province of Connacht has the greatest number of Irish language speakers at between 5–10% of the population. There are Gaeltacht areas in Counties Galway and Mayo, the province of Connacht has no official function for local government purposes, but it is an officially recognised subdivision of the Irish state. It is listed on ISO-3166-2 as one of the four provinces of Ireland, along with counties from other provinces, Connacht lies in the Midlands-North-West constituency for elections to the European Parliament. The Irish language is spoken in the Gaeltacht areas of Counties Mayo and Galway, the Galway Gaeltacht is the largest Irish-speaking region in Ireland covering Cois Fharraige, parts of Connemara, Conamara Theas, Aran Islands, Dúithche Sheoigeach and Galway City Gaeltacht. Irish-speaking areas in County Mayo can be found in Iorras, Acaill, according to the 2011 census Irish is spoken outside of the education system on a daily basis by 14,600 people. There are between 40, 000–55,000 Irish speakers in the province, over 30,000 in Galway, there is also the 4,265 attending the 18 Gaelscoils and three Gaelcholáiste outside the Gaeltacht across the province. The GDP of the province of Connacht is around 15 billion euro, the province is divided into five counties, Galway, Leitrim, Mayo, Roscommon and Sligo. Connacht is the smallest of the four Irish provinces, with a population of 542,547, Galway is the only official city in the province. The highest point of Connacht is Mweelrea, in County Mayo, the largest island in Connacht is Achill. The biggest lake is Lough Corrib, much of the west coast is ruggedly inhospitable and not conducive for agriculture. It contains the main areas in Connacht, including the Twelve Bens, Maumturks, Mweelrea, Croagh Patrick, Nephin Beg, Ox Mountains. Killary Harbour, Irelands only true fjord, is located at the foot of Mweelrea, Connemara National Park is in County Galway. The Aran Islands, featuring prehistoric forts such as Dún Aonghasa, have been a regular tourist destination since the 19th century, inland areas such as east Galway, Roscommon and Sligo have enjoyed greater historical population density due to better agricultural land and infrastructure. Rivers and lakes include the River Moy, River Corrib, the Shannon, Lough Mask, Lough Melvin, Lough Allen, the largest urban area in Connacht is Galway, with a population of 76,778. Other large towns in Connacht are Sligo, Castlebar and Ballina, the name Connacht comes from the medieval ruling dynasty, the Connacht, later Connachta, whose name means descendants of Conn, from the mythical king Conn of the Hundred Battles. Before the Connachta dynasty, the province was known as Cóiced Ol nEchmacht, in Modern Irish, the province is usually called Cúige Chonnacht, the Province of Connacht, where Chonnacht is plural genitive case with lenition of the C to Ch
31.
Timeline of the Irish War of Independence
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This is a timeline of the Irish War of Independence of 1919-21. The Irish War of Independence was a conflict and most of the fighting was conducted on a small scale by the standards of conventional warfare. The war began with an ambush by IRA volunteers Dan Breen and Seán Treacy at Soloheadbeg in 1919. However, violence continued, particularly in the territory of Northern Ireland. In the rest of Ireland, the war was followed by the Irish Civil War between supporters and opponents of the Anglo-Irish Treaty,21 January, Sinn Féin TDs assembled in Dublin forming the First Dáil and adopted a Declaration of Independence. The constables were accompanying and guarding a transport of 160 lbs of gelignite, the two constables were accompanied by Patrick Flynn, a Tipperary County Council employee and the cart driver Edward Godfrey. 3 February 1919, Éamon de Valera escaped from Lincoln Gaol, along with Seán McGarry, the escape was masterminded by Harry Boland and Michael Collins. All were members of Sinn Féin,19 March 1919, IRA volunteers raid Collinstown airfield outside Dublin. They captured 75 rifles and 4,000 rounds of ammunition,29 March 1919, Resident Magistrate John Charles Milling shot dead in Westport, County Mayo for having sent IRA volunteers to prison for unlawful assembly and drilling. 1 April 1919, second meeting of Dáil Éireann – Éamon de Valera was elected President of Dáil Éireann, De Valera issued a statement saying that There is in Ireland at this moment only one lawful authority, and that authority is the elected Government of the Irish Republic. 6 April 1919, Limerick City IRA volunteers attempted to free a prisoner from Limerick Prison workhouse, Constable Martin OBrien was killed, and another policeman was seriously injured. The prisoner, Robert Byrne, was wounded and died later that same day. 10 April 1919, third meeting of Dáil Éireann – Dáil passed a motion calling on Irish people to ostracise the RIC. De Valera stated, The Minister of National Defense is, of course and this covered most of Limerick city and a part of the surrounding area. Special permits were to be issued by the RIC, and would have required to enter the city. The response was a strike and boycott of British troops. A special Strike Committee was set up to print money, control food prices,13 May 1919, two RIC men, Sergeant Peter Wallace and Constable Michael Enright, were shot in a shoot-out with members of the Third Tipperary and East Limerick Brigades. Enright was killed outright, Wallace died of his wounds the next day,17 May 1919, First of the Dáil Courts was set up at Ballinrobe, County Mayo
32.
Shilling
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The shilling is a unit of currency formerly used in the United Kingdom, Australia, United States, and other British Commonwealth countries. The word shilling comes from scilling, a term that dates back to Anglo-Saxon times, and from there back to Old Norse. Slang terms for the old shilling coins include bob and hog, while the derivation of bob is uncertain, John Camden Hotten in his 1864 Slang Dictionary says the original version was bobstick and wonders if it is connected with Sir Robert Walpole. One abbreviation for shilling is s, often it was represented by a solidus symbol, which may have originally stood for a long s or ſ, thus 1/9 would be one shilling and ninepence. A price with no pence was sometimes written with a slash, the solidus symbol is still used for the shilling currency unit in former British East Africa, rather than sh. During the Great Recoinage of 1816, the mint was instructed to coin one troy pound of silver into 66 shillings. This set the weight of the shilling, and its subsequent decimal replacement 5 new pence coin, at 87.2727 grains or 5.655 grams from 1816 until 1990, in the past, the English world has had various myths about the shilling. One myth was that it was deemed to be the value of a cow in Kent or a sheep elsewhere, a shilling was a coin used in England from the reign of Henry VII. The term shilling was in use in Scotland from early medieval times, the common currency created in 1707 by Article 16 of the Articles of Union continued in use until decimalisation in 1971. In the traditional pounds, shillings and pence system, there were 20 shillings per pound and 12 pence per shilling, three coins denominated in multiple shillings were also in circulation at this time. In the Irish Free State and Republic of Ireland the shilling was issued as scilling in Irish and it was worth 1/20th of an Irish pound, and was interchangeable at the same value to the British coin, which continued to be used in Northern Ireland. The coin featured a bull on the reverse side, the first minting, from 1928 until 1941, contained 75% silver, more than the equivalent British coin. The original Irish shilling coin ) was withdrawn from circulation on 1 January 1993, Australian shillings, twenty of which made up one Australian pound, were first issued in 1910, with the Australian coat of arms on the reverse and King Edward VII on the face. The coat of arms design was retained through the reign of King George V until a new head design was introduced for the coins of King George VI. This design continued until the last year of issue in 1963, in 1966, Australias currency was decimalised and the shilling was replaced by a ten cent coin, where 10 shillings made up one Australian dollar. The slang term for a coin in Australia was deener. The slang term for a shilling as currency unit was bob, after 1966, shillings continued to circulate, as they were replaced by 10-cent coins of the same size and weight. New Zealand shillings, twenty of which made up one New Zealand pound, were first issued in 1933, in 1967, New Zealands currency was decimalised and the shilling was replaced by a ten cent coin of the same size and weight
33.
Pound sterling
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It is subdivided into 100 pence. A number of nations that do not use sterling also have called the pound. At various times, the sterling was commodity money or bank notes backed by silver or gold. The pound sterling is the worlds oldest currency still in use, the British Crown dependencies of Guernsey and Jersey produce their own local issues of sterling, the Guernsey pound and the Jersey pound. The pound sterling is also used in the Isle of Man, Gibraltar, the Bank of England is the central bank for the pound sterling, issuing its own coins and banknotes, and regulating issuance of banknotes by private banks in Scotland and Northern Ireland. Sterling is the fourth most-traded currency in the exchange market, after the United States dollar, the euro. Together with those three currencies it forms the basket of currencies which calculate the value of IMF special drawing rights, Sterling is also the third most-held reserve currency in global reserves. The full, official name, pound sterling, is used mainly in formal contexts, otherwise the term pound is normally used. The abbreviations ster. or stg. are sometimes used, the term British pound is commonly used in less formal contexts, although it is not an official name of the currency. The pound sterling is also referred to as cable amongst forex traders, the origins of this term are attributed to the fact that in the 1800s, the dollar/pound sterling exchange rate was transmitted via transatlantic cable. Forex brokers are sometimes referred to as cable dealers, as another established source notes, the compound expression was then derived, silver coins known as sterlings were issued in the Saxon kingdoms,240 of them being minted from a pound of silver. Hence, large payments came to be reckoned in pounds of sterlings, in 1260, Henry III granted them a charter of protection. And because the Leagues money was not frequently debased like that of England, English traders stipulated to be paid in pounds of the Easterlings, and land for their Kontor, the Steelyard of London, which by the 1340s was also called Easterlings Hall, or Esterlingeshalle. For further discussion of the etymology of sterling, see sterling silver, the currency sign for the pound sign is £, which is usually written with a single cross-bar, though a version with a double cross-bar is also sometimes seen. The ISO4217 currency code is GBP, occasionally, the abbreviation UKP is used but this is non-standard because the ISO3166 country code for the United Kingdom is GB. The Crown dependencies use their own codes, GGP, JEP, stocks are often traded in pence, so traders may refer to pence sterling, GBX, when listing stock prices. A common slang term for the pound sterling or pound is quid, since decimalisation in 1971, the pound has been divided into 100 pence. The symbol for the penny is p, hence an amount such as 50p properly pronounced fifty pence is more colloquially, quite often, pronounced fifty pee /fɪfti, pi and this also helped to distinguish between new and old pence amounts during the changeover to the decimal system
34.
Henry Hugh Tudor
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Born in Newton Abbot, Devon, England in 1871, he enrolled in the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich in 1888, and was commissioned in the Royal Horse Artillery in 1890. He was stationed in India from 1890 until 1897, when he returned to England and he was sent to South Africa during the Second Boer War where he was badly wounded at the Battle of Magersfontein, but recovered and returned to duty. His extensive service in South Africa was reflected by his campaign medals, the Queens South Africa Medal with four clasps, and the King’s South Africa Medal with two. After the South African war ended, Tudor went back to India for another five years, and then was posted to Egypt, where he stayed until the start of the First World War. He continued to command this formation after 11 November 1918, as part of the Army of the Rhine, Tudor was a professional and forward-looking artilleryman, historian Paddy Griffith has described him as an expert tactician. He was the first British general to use smoke shells to create screens and he suggested an attack in the Cambrai sector in July 1917, and his artillery ideas helped lay the foundation for the British breakthrough in the battle there in November. In addition, he was almost captured by the Germans during Operation Michael, after the 9th Division was disbanded, Tudor was posted once again to Egypt and India. In May 1920, however, he was appointed Police Adviser to the Dublin Castle administration in Ireland and his chief qualification for this post was his friendship with the Secretary of State for War, Winston Churchill. Tudor had met Churchill in Bangalore in 1895, and the two men became lifelong friends, during the brief period when Churchill had served as an infantry officer on the Western Front in early 1916, he was posted to the same sector as Tudor, near Ploegsteert Wood. When Tudor took up his new post, the Irish War of Independence was approaching a crisis, indeed, within a couple of months, railway workers went on strike, refusing to move trains that carried armed police or troops. Merchants refused to serve police customers, Police recruits and servants were being attacked and intimidated, and women who were friendly with police had their hair cut off. Police property was wrecked and stolen, in cases, police bicycles were taken away while their owners were in church. Hundreds of police officers resigned both as a result of intimidation and in protest at the governments repeated mass releases of IRA prisoners which continued up until the spring of 1920, meanwhile, Sinn Féin was building an alternative state—the Irish Republic proclaimed during the Easter Rising of 1916. Local governments were acknowledging the authority of the First Dáil, IRA Volunteers were acting as Republican police. Republican courts were adjudicating both civil and criminal cases, in some parts of Ireland, the Republic was becoming a reality. The whole country was intimidated, he said, and would thank God for strong measures, as Police Adviser, Tudor assumed control of Irelands police forces, and eventually styled himself Chief of Police. The beleaguered RIC was reinforced with British ex-soldiers and sailors—the notorious Black, P. Crozier and Brigadier-General E. A. Wood, its numbers peaked at 1,500 in July 1921. But while working hard to rebuild the RICs numbers and morale, Macready had been initially impressed by Tudor and thought he was getting rid of “incompetent idiots” from senior police positions
35.
Forfar
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Forfar /ˈfɔːrfər/ is the county town of Angus, Scotland and the administrative centre for Angus Council. Its population is 14,048 Forfar dates back to the temporary Roman occupation of the area, and was held by the Picts. It was occupied by the English before being recaptured by the Scots, Forfar has been both a traditional market town and a major manufacturing centre for linen and jute. Today the main activities are agriculture and tourism around the valley of Strathmore. The local glens are popular with hill-walkers, and there are ski-slopes in the mountains, the town has a second division football club, Forfar Athletic, and Rugby Union is represented by Strathmore Rugby Football Club. The Forfar Bridie, a popular Scottish meat pastry snack, is identified with the town. From Battledykes northward the Romans established a succession of camps including Stracathro, during the First War of Scottish Independence, the castle of Forfar was held by the English. He then yielded the castle to Bruce, who rewarded him, the Meffan Museum is in the heart of the town. It was built by a daughter of the Provost Meffan as a bequest in 1898 and it is home of the Forfar story. It is also an art gallery and a place for local speakers, summer clubs for children. The story of Forfar takes you from the history of the cobbler shops to the burning of the witch Helen Guthrie. There is also a selection of Pictish stones found in and around Forfar. The Large Class I Pictish stone, with a carving of a flower, is called the Dunnichen Stone. It was found in the early 19th century when a farmer from the East Mains of Dunnichen was ploughing and it was initially displayed at a church in the vicinity, then at Dunnichen House. In 1966 it was relocated at St Vigeans and finally moved to Dundee museum in 1972, after the Meffan Institute had been renovated it was brought to Forfar on a long term loan where it is displayed alongside the Kirriemuir Sculptured Stones. There is also a canoe, excavated from Forfar Loch, that dates back to the 11th century, like other parts of Angus, Forfar was home to a very successful textile industry during and after the Industrial Revolution. In the late 18th century the firm of William Don & Co. was founded in the town, the firm originally bought and sold webs of linen which were woven in local cottages, although it also operated a small weaving shed. In 1865 the firm merged with A J Buist, a Dundee based firm, the partnership also operated mills in Dundee and later built Station Works in Forfar, which contained some 300 looms
36.
Tuam
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Tuam, Irish, Tuaim is a town in Ireland and the second largest settlement in County Galway. It is situated west of the midlands of Ireland, approximately 35 km north of Galway city, human existence in the area dates to the Bronze Age while the historic period dates from the 6th century. The town became increasingly important in the 11th and 12th centuries in political, the market based layout of the town and square indicates the importance of commerce. The record of settlement in Tuam dates back to the Bronze Age when an area adjacent to Shop Street was used as a burial ground. The name Tuam is a cognate with the Latin term tumulus, the towns ancient name was Tuaim Dá Ghualann, i. e. the burial mound of two shoulders. The name probably refers to the ground on either side of the River Nanny. In 1875, a Bronze Age burial urn was discovered in the area by workmen, an early glass photograph still exists. The history of Tuam as a settlement dates from the sixth century. Legend states that a monk called Iarlaithe mac Loga who was a member of a community at Cloonfush some 6 km west of Tuam. Iarlaithes life became uncertain as he wished to travel, eventually, Iarlaithes abbot, Benignus of Armagh told him to Go, and where ever your chariot wheel breaks, there shall be the site of your new monastery and the place of your resurrection. Iarlaithes wheel broke at Tuam and he established a monastery there, as was typical with early settlements in Ireland, religious sites became established first and towns grew around them. Likewise, Tuam grew up around the monastery and has kept the broken chariot wheel as its heraldic symbol, in 1049, when Aedh OConnor defeated Amalgaid ua Flaithbertaigh, King of Iar Connacht, the OConnor kings became kings of Connacht. OConnor then built a castle at Tuam and made it his principal stronghold and this event was directly responsible for the subsequent rise in the importance of the town. Its position dominated the Iar Connacht heartland of Maigh Seóla, in the twelfth century, the town became the centre of Provincial power during the fifty-year reign of Tairrdelbach Ua Conchobair. He also brought Tuam its most prominent status as seat of the High King of Ireland which he achieved by force of arms during his long career. At the Synod of Kells in 1152, the centre of government also became the centre, as Tuam was erected into an Archbishopric. Tairrdelbach was succeeded by his son Ruaidrí Ua Conchobair, the last native High King of Ireland, in 1164, Ruaidrí had a wonderful castle erected, with a large courtyard defended by lofty and massive walls and a deep moat into which the adjacent river was diverted through. This was the first Irish built stone castle, a small part of the castle still stands
37.
County Galway
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County Galway is a county in Ireland. In the West of Ireland, it is part of the province of Connacht and is named after the city of Galway, there are several Irish-speaking areas in the west of the county. The population of the county is 258,552 according to the 2016 census, while it is named after the city of Galway, a different authority governs that territory. The county proper is administered by Galway County Council, the first inhabitants in the Galway area arrived over 7000 years ago. Shell middens indicate the existence of people as early as 5000 BC, the county originally comprised several kingdoms and territories which predate the formation of the county. These kingdoms included Aidhne, Uí Maine, Maigh Seóla, Conmhaícne Mara, Soghain, County Galway became an official entity around 1569 AD. In modern times, a number of inhabited islands are administered by the county. With the arrival of Christianity many monasteries were built in the county, monasteries kept written records of events in the area and of its people. These were followed by a number of law-tracts, genealogies, annals, extant manuscripts containing references to Galway include, Nearly 20% of the population of County Galway live in the Gaeltacht. County Galway is home to the largest Gaeltacht Irish-speaking region in Ireland, there are over 48,907 people living within this region which extends from Galway city westwards through Connemara. The region consists of the following Irish speaking areas, Galway City Gaeltacht, Gaeltacht Cois Fharraige, Conamara Theas, Aran Islands, all schools within the Gaeltacht use the Irish language for classroom instruction. There is also a constituent college of NUIG called Acadamh na hOllscolaíochta Gaeilge in Carraroe. Spiddal is the largest town in the region, Galway city is also home to Irelands only Irish-language theatre Taibhdhearc na Gaillimhe. There is a strong Irish-language media presence in this area too, the Aran Islands are also part of the Galway Gaeltacht. There are about 30,000 -40,000 Irish speakers in County Galway, there are 3,006 attending the ten Gaelscoil and three Gaelcholáiste outside of the Galway Gaeltacht. According to the Irish Census 2006 there are 10,788 in the county who identify themselves as being daily Irish speakers outside of the education system. Prior to the enactment of the Local Government Act 2001, the county was a whole despite the presence of two local authorities. Since that time, the administrative re-organisation has reduced the extent of the county by the extent of the area under the jurisdiction of Galway City Council
38.
Trim, County Meath
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Trim is a town in County Meath, Ireland. It is situated on the River Boyne and has a population of 8,268, the town is noted for Trim Castle - the largest Cambro-Norman castle in Ireland. It was once the county town but today that honour belongs to Navan, One of the two cathedrals of the United Dioceses of Meath and Kildare — St Patricks cathedral — is located north of the river. Trim won the Irish Tidy Towns Competition in 1972,1984, at an early date, a monastery was founded at Trim, which lay within the petty kingdom of the Cenél Lóegairi. When domestic politics endangered the position of Lommáns foundation, the church of Armagh assimilated Lommán into the dossier of St. Patrick, attackers burned the church several times in the twelfth century, during which it was refounded as an St. Marys Abbey under Augustinian rule. The abbey church was the sanctuary for Our Lady of Trim, the statue made Trim a major pilgrimage site from at least 1397. During the Reformation the statue was burned and Henry VIII dissolved the abbey, the abbeys bell tower, the Yellow Steeple, is the primary remnant of St. Marys. With the spelling Áth Truim, the bishopric is listed by the Catholic Church as a titular see. Its territory was joined to that of Meath Diocese, lying 61 m above sea level on the River Boyne, Trim became one of the most important Hiberno-Norman settlements in the Middle Ages. In the 15th century the Norman-Irish parliament met in Trim, Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington is reputed to have been born in Dangan Castle between Trim and Summerhill, and a large column to him was erected in the town in 1817. Trim Castle is Irelands largest Norman castle and it was built in the late 12th century following the Norman invasion of Ireland. Trim and the lands were granted to Hugh de Lacy, Lord of Meath. Richard II of England stayed there before being ousted from power, once a candidate to be the countrys capital, the town has also occupied a role as one of the outposts of the Pale, and sessions of the Irish Parliament were sometimes held here, as in 1542. It was also designated by Elizabeth I of England as the location for a Protestant Dublin University. However this was revised by Sir Francis Drake, who advocated the case for locating the University in Dublin, in 1649 after the sacking of Drogheda, the garrison of Trim fled to join other Irish forces and the town was occupied by the army of Oliver Cromwell. There were many disturbances in neighbouring villages in the Irish Rebellion of 1798, most infamously the battle on the Hill of Tara. Trim was represented by Arthur Wellesley in the Irish Parliament from 1790 to 1797, following the Great Irish Famine of 1846–1849, the practices of agriculture in the hinterland altered, with a change in emphasis from tillage to stock raising. This resulted in a change in the life of Trim
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Balbriggan
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Balbriggan is a large town in the northern part of Fingal, Ireland. The 2011 census population was 19,960 for Balbriggan and its environs, according to P. W. Joyce, the name arises from Baile Breacain which literally means Brecans Town. Brecan is a common medieval first name and there are several other Brackenstowns in Ireland, there is also a possible link to the local Bracken River, in which case the name could derive from breicín, meaning little trout. Many locals however have traditionally felt that Baile Brigín means Town of the Little Hills and this translation is not well founded as it appears to be derived from a phonetic deconstruction of a suggested spelling. There is no consensus about the foundation of the town, other than there may always have been a settlement of fishermen, weavers. An 18th century traveller described Balbriggan as, a small village situated in a small glin where the sea forms a little harbour – it is reckoned safe and is sheltered by a good pier. The village is resorted to in Summer time by several people for the benefit of bathing. More than 300 persons are employed in factories, to which are attached blue dye-works. The principal articles made at present are checks, jeans, calicoes, there are on the quay a large corn store belonging to Messrs. Frost & Co. of Chester, and some extensive salt-works, the fishery, since the withdrawing of the bounty, has very much diminished, there are at present only 10 wherries or small fishing boats belonging to the port. A jetty or pier,420 feet long from the N. W. Geo, at the end of the old pier there is a lighthouse. The Drogheda or Grand Northern Trunk railway from Dublin, for which an act has been obtained, is intended to pass along the close to the village. The market is on Monday, and is supplied with corn, of which great quantities are sent to Dublin and to Liverpool. Fairs are held on the 29th of April and September, chiefly for cattle, a market-house was erected in 1811, partly by subscription and partly at the expense of the Hamilton family. Petty sessions for the north-east division of the county are held every alternate Tuesday. The chapelry of St. George, Balbriggan, was founded by the late Rev. G. Hamilton, of Hampton Hall, who in 1813 granted some land and settled an endowment, under the 11th and 12th of Geo. III. for the establishment of a curacy, and an augmentation of £25 per annum has been recently granted by the Ecclesiastical Commissioners from Primate Boulters fund. This chapel, which was an edifice with a square embattled tower, and contained monuments to the memory of R. Hamilton, Esq
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Knockcroghery
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Knockcroghery is a village in County Roscommon, Ireland. It is located between Athlone and Roscommon town, near Lough Ree on the River Shannon and it is one of the closest populations centres to the geographical centre of Ireland. The village nestles at the foot of a ridge, which protects it from the east wind that sweeps in from Galey Bay. This accounts for the name of the village, Creggan. To mark this, the name of the village was changed to ‘Cnoc na Crocaire, ’ the Hill of the Hangings, in the early hours of 19 June 1921, the Black and Tans set Knockcroghery village alight. It was an act of vengeance for the killing of a British general in Glassan two days previously by the Westmeath Volunteers, British intelligence agents mistakenly believed that the killers had come from Knockcroghery. The Black and Tans arrived in four lorries and parked at St. Patricks Church, reportedly drunk, they fired shots into the air and ordered the people out of their homes. They easily set fire to the roofs of the cottages. They were less successful in setting Murrays, Flanagans and the priests houses alight, having no time to take their possessions with them, the people rushed from their houses onto the street, still in their nightshirts. Unable to set Murrays roof alight, the Black and Tans set fire to the back door, john Murray reacted quickly to put the fire out, saving the house. The occupants of the thatched houses did not have this opportunity, michael O Callaghan described the scene, the raiding forces drove up and down the village, firing shots at random, cursing loudly, and laughing at the plight of the people of Knockcroghery. The people were terrified, particularly the children, whose cries of fear added to the terrible scene, the flames above Knockcroghery alerted the people for miles around to what had happened, and by daylight, the street was full of people. Jamesie Murray remembered the assistance given to the now homeless people of Knockcroghery, people brought clothes, and a fund was soon set up. The families who were now homeless were accommodated in the vicinity, farm sheds were converted into temporary dwellings. Later, three or four new cottages were built on the Shrah road and given to bachelors, who then took people in, the village was rebuilt over the next few years, with help from government grants. The rebuilding provided employment locally, at a time when it was needed, for over 250 years the village was famous for the production of the tobacco clay pipe, or Dúidín. By the late 1800s there were up to 100 people involved in the manufacture, production ceased abruptly on 19 June 1921 when the village was burned down by the Black and Tans during the Irish War of Independence. Today, a centre and workshop are located on the original site of Andrew and P. J. Curley’s pipe factory
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Thurles
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Thurles is a town in County Tipperary, Ireland. It is located in the parish of same name in the barony of Eliogarty. The cathedral church of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Cashel and Emly is located in the town, Thurles is located in mid-County Tipperary and is surrounded by the Silvermine Mountains and the Slieveardagh Hills. The town itself is built on a crossing of the River Suir, the M8 motorway connects Thurles to Cork and Dublin via the N75 and N62 roads. The N62 also connects Thurles to the centre of Ireland via Templemore, the R498 links Thurles to Nenagh. Thurles railway station opened on 13 March 1848, the ancient territory of Éile obtained its name from pre-historic inhabitants called the Eli, about whom little is known beyond what may be gathered from legends and traditions. The extent of Éile varied throughout the centuries with the rise, before the 5th century A. D. the details of its history which can be gleaned from surviving records and literature are exceedingly meagre, obscure and confusing. During this century however Éile appears to have reached its greatest extent, the southern part of this territory embraced the baronies of Eliogarty and Ikerrin, a great part of Middle Third, the territory of Ileagh and a portion of the barony of Kilnamanagh Upper. The OFogartys gave their name to the town, in Irish, Durlas Éile means Strong Fort of Éile, or more correctly Durlas Éile Uí Fhogartaigh. The clan dominated the regions of Templemore and the Devils Bit stretching as far as the Tipperary/Kilkenny border. Towards the end of the century, the power of the ODonoghue clan began to wane and by the early part of the thirteenth century. It is to the Butlers that Thurles owes much of its early development and their architectural legacy may be seen today with two of the original family fortresses still standing. Theobald Walter, 1st Baron Butler was the ancestor of the Irish branch of the Butler dynasty and he was also granted a large section of the northeastern part of the kingdom of Limerick. Later in 1328, his descendant, James Butler, was created Earl of Ormond by King Edward III of England, Thurles was originally an agricultural market town. It is now a town having chain stores like Dunnes Stores, Heatons, Aldi, Boots UK and Holland. Thurles Shopping centre was extended and plans to open a new a Tesco store to replace the current store in Liberty Square have also been announced. Stakelums Hardware, which moved to the Nenagh road, is one of the biggest family owned business in the town. McKevitts Costcutter is another family business that operates two supermarkets in the town
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Templemore
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Templemore is a town in County Tipperary, Ireland. It is a parish in the historical barony of Eliogarty. It is part of the parish of Templemore, Clonmore and Killea in the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Cashel, the 2011 Census results show that the towns population decreased by 13. 8% from 2,255 in 2006 to 1,943 in 2011. Templemore is the eighth largest town in County Tipperary, the N62 national route connects the town to the main Dublin-Limerick motorway and Roscrea north of the parish. Travelling south, the connects to Thurles and then the main Dublin-Cork motorway. To the east, the R433 connects the town to the M8/N8 at a more northerly point via the villages of Clonmore, Errill, alternatively, the motorway may be accessed via the village of Templetuohy. To the west, the R501, tracking the Devils Bit mountain range, Templemore railway station is on the Dublin-Cork railway line operated by Iarnród Éireann. The extent of Éile varied throughout the centuries with the rise, before the 5th century AD the details of its history which can be gleaned from surviving records and literature are exceedingly meagre, obscure and confusing. During this century however Éile appears to have reached its greatest extent, the ancient name of the district on which the town now stands was Tuatha Corca Teine. Teine was supposed to have been the son of the King of Connacht, monastic settlements were located at the site of Teines fort, Land of the Monks. A holy man named Silean is reputed to have accompanied St Patrick, there is no townland called Templemore. The townland on which the town is built is Kiltillane, meaning Saint Sheelans Church, with the Norman invasion of Ireland in 1169, a powerful Norman family – the Butlers – became the new overlords. Early in the 14th century, they were raised to the Earldom of Ormond, as the holders of the County Palatine of Tipperary, they were entitled to appoint sheriffs and judges, and to gather certain classes of revenue that would normally have been due to the Crown. This privilege was withdrawn in 1715, the Blackcastle, as it is locally known, was built in the Town Park in 1450 by James Butler, 4th Earl of Ormond. This building and its lands were occupied by the Butlers and were later leased to the families of Purcell of Loughmore. The O′Fogarty clan held what is now the barony of Eliogarty, while to the north of them, the River Nore, at its position between Roscrea and Templemore, although just a small stream at this point, is usually taken as the southern limit of Ely OCarroll territory. Around 1695 the Butlers sold extensive lands to an English family called Carden from Cheshire, who settled in the area and also located at Barnane and Fishmoyne. Over the next 200 years, this family was to play a significant part in the development of the town and district which has the nickname of Cardens Wild Demesne, Templemore owes its improved state to the liberality and exertions of the John C
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Tralee
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Tralee is the county town of County Kerry in the south-west of Ireland. The town is on the side of the neck of the Dingle Peninsula. The towns population including suburbs was 23,693 as of the 2011 census making it the 7th largest town, Tralee is well known for the Rose of Tralee International Festival which has been held annually in August since 1959. On this old track is located a large boulder sometimes called Scotias Grave, anglo-Normans founded the town in the 13th century, which became a stronghold of the Earls of Desmond, who built a castle. John Fitz-Thomas FitzGerald founded the monastery of the Dominican order and was buried there in 1260, the medieval town was burnt in 1580 in retribution for the Desmond Rebellions against Elizabeth I. Elizabeth I in 1587 granted Tralee to Edward Denny and it was recognised in 1613 by Royal Charter, Sir Edward was the first of the Dennys to settle in Tralee, the Dennys did not occupy the castle of the Earls of Desmond until 1627. Sir Edwards son was Arthur Denny, in whose lifetime the towns charter was granted by King James, the third English settler, another Sir Edward, married Ruth Roper, whose father Thomas Roper was the lease holder of the Herbert estate centred on Castleisland. This Sir Edward was a royalist and he fought for the King in the wars of 1641. He died in 1646, before the triumph of Oliver Cromwell over affairs in England and Ireland and he granted the circuit of the Abbey to the corporation set up under the charter, in return for the fees of the town clerk. His son Arthur Denny married Ellen Barry, granddaughter of Richard Boyle, the latter held many land titles in West Kerry and also claimed property in Tralee. Sir Edward Denny, 4th Baronet was a landlord in his day, during the time of the Great Famine, he maintained rents to suit his tenants. He was a notable Plymouth Brother, the modern layout of Tralee was created in the 19th century. Denny Street, a wide Georgian street, was completed in 1826 on the site of the old castle, a monument commemorating the 1798 rebellion plus the rebellions of 1803,1848 and 1867 – a statue of a Pikeman - stands in Denny Street. First unveiled in 1905, the original Pikeman stood until the Irish War of Independence, in 1921 the Black and Tans dragged it from its pedestal and destroyed it. In June 1939 a replacement Pikeman was installed, created by renowned Dublin sculptor Albert Power, Tralee Courthouse was designed by Sir Richard Morrison and built in 1835. It has a monument of two cannons commemorating those Kerrymen who died in the Crimean War and the Indian Rebellion, ballymullen Barracks was the depot of the Royal Munster Fusiliers. The Tralee Ship Canal was built to accommodate larger ships sailing into Tralee, the House of Commons authorised an Act of Parliament in June 1829 for the canal, with work beginning in 1832. Issues with funding meant that the canal was not completed until 1846 when it was opened, the canal was 2 miles long with a new canal basin built in Tralee, and lock gates and a wooden swing bridge constructed in Blennerville
