1.
African Americans
–
African Americans are an ethnic group of Americans with total or partial ancestry from any of the Black racial groups of Africa. The term may also be used to only those individuals who are descended from enslaved Africans. As a compound adjective the term is usually hyphenated as African-American, Black and African Americans constitute the third largest racial and ethnic group in the United States. Most African Americans are of West and Central African descent and are descendants of enslaved peoples within the boundaries of the present United States. On average, African Americans are of 73. 2–80. 9% West African, 18–24% European, according to US Census Bureau data, African immigrants generally do not self-identify as African American. The overwhelming majority of African immigrants identify instead with their own respective ethnicities, immigrants from some Caribbean, Central American and South American nations and their descendants may or may not also self-identify with the term. After the founding of the United States, black people continued to be enslaved, believed to be inferior to white people, they were treated as second-class citizens. The Naturalization Act of 1790 limited U. S. citizenship to whites only, in 2008, Barack Obama became the first African American to be elected President of the United States. The first African slaves arrived via Santo Domingo to the San Miguel de Gualdape colony, the ill-fated colony was almost immediately disrupted by a fight over leadership, during which the slaves revolted and fled the colony to seek refuge among local Native Americans. De Ayllón and many of the colonists died shortly afterwards of an epidemic, the settlers and the slaves who had not escaped returned to Haiti, whence they had come. The first recorded Africans in British North America were 20 and odd negroes who came to Jamestown, as English settlers died from harsh conditions, more and more Africans were brought to work as laborers. Typically, young men or women would sign a contract of indenture in exchange for transportation to the New World, the landowner received 50 acres of land from the state for each servant purchased from a ships captain. An indentured servant would work for years without wages. The status of indentured servants in early Virginia and Maryland was similar to slavery, servants could be bought, sold, or leased and they could be physically beaten for disobedience or running away. Africans could legally raise crops and cattle to purchase their freedom and they raised families, married other Africans and sometimes intermarried with Native Americans or English settlers. By the 1640s and 1650s, several African families owned farms around Jamestown and some became wealthy by colonial standards and purchased indentured servants of their own. In 1640, the Virginia General Court recorded the earliest documentation of slavery when they sentenced John Punch. One of Dutch African arrivals, Anthony Johnson, would own one of the first black slaves, John Casor
African Americans
–
An artist's conception of
Crispus Attucks (1723–1770), the first "
martyr " of the
American Revolution. He was of
Native American and African American descent.
African Americans
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Jesse Owens shook racial stereotypes both with Nazis and segregationists in the USA at the 1936 Berlin Olympics.
African Americans
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An African-American boy outside of
Cincinnati,
Ohio in the 1940s.
African Americans
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March on Washington, August 28, 1963, shows civil rights leaders and union leaders.
2.
African-American history
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African-American history is the branch of American history that specifically discusses the African-American or Black American ethnic groups in the United States. Most African Americans are the descendants of Africans forcibly brought to, African Americans have been known by various names throughout American history, including colored and Negro, which are no longer accepted in English. Instead the most usual and accepted terms nowadays are African American and Black, the term person of color usually refers not only to African Americans, but also to other non-white ethnic groups. African-American history is celebrated and highlighted annually in the United States during February, although previously marginalized, African-American history has gained ground in school and university curricula and gained wider scholarly attention since the late 20th century. The great majority of African Americans descend from Africans brought directly from Africa, originally these slaves were captured in African wars and transported via the Atlantic slave trade. The American slaves descended from the ethnic groups from mostly western and central Africa. A smaller minority were from eastern and southeastern Africa, some of the major ethnic groups the enslaved Africans belonged to included the Hausa, Bakongo, Igbo, Mandé, Wolof, Akan, Fon, Yoruba, and Makua. Although these different groups varied in customs, religious theology and language, slaves from specific African ethnic groups were more sought after and more dominant in numbers than others in certain regions of what later became the United States. Studies of contemporary documents reveal seven regions from which Africans were sold or taken during the Atlantic slave trade, the largest source of slaves to be shipped across the Atlantic Ocean for the New World was West Africa. Some West Africans were skilled workers and were therefore able to make tools that aided in their agricultural labor. While there were many tribes with their own customs and religions, by the tenth century, Islam had been soaked up by many of the residents. Those villages in West Africa that were enough to be in good conditions for growth and success. They also contributed their success to the slave trade, Origins and Percentages of African Americans imported into British North America and Louisiana Before the Atlantic Slave Trade there were already people of African descent in America. A few countries in Africa would buy, sell, and trade other enslaved Africans, the people of Mali and Benin are known for partaking in the event of selling their prisoners of war and other unwanted people off as slaves. In the account of Olaudah Equiano, he described the process of being transported to the colonies, on the ships, the slaves were separated from their family long before they boarded the ships. Once aboard the ships the captives were then segregated by gender, under the deck, the slaves were cramped and did not have enough space to walk around freely. Male slaves were kept in the ships hold, where they experienced the worst of crowding. Due to the lack of hygiene, malnourishment, and dehydration diseases spread wildly
African-American history
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"Landing Negroes at
Jamestown from Dutch man-of-war, 1619", 1901.
African-American history
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"Slaves working in 17th-century Virginia", by an unknown artist, 1670.
African-American history
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Peter aka
Gordon, a former slave displays the telltale criss-cross,
keloid scars from being
bullwhipped, 1863.
African-American history
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The Emancipation Proclamation.
3.
Timeline of African-American history
–
This is a timeline of the history of Africans and their descendants in what is now the United States, from 1565 to the present. 1565 The Spanish colony of St. Augustine in Florida became the first permanent European settlement in what would become the US centuries later, it included an unknown number of African slaves. 1619 The first record of Africans in English colonial America when men were brought to the Jamestown colony who had taken as prizes from a Spanish ship. They were treated as indentured servants, and at least one was recorded as owning land in the colony. 1640 John Punch, an indentured servant, ran away with two white indentured servants, James Gregory and Victor. After the three were captured, Punch was sentenced to serve Virginia planter Hugh Gwyn for life and this made John Punch the first legally documented slave in Virginia. 1654 John Casor, a man who claimed to have completed his term of indenture. The court ruled with his master who said he had an indefinite servitude for life and this was contrary to English common law for English subjects, which held that children took their fathers social status. 1672 Royal African Company is founded in England, allowing slaves to be shipped from Africa to the colonies in North America,1676 Both free and enslaved African Americans fought in Bacons Rebellion along with English colonists. 1712 April 6 – The New York Slave Revolt of 1712,1739 September 9 – In the Stono Rebellion, South Carolina slaves gather at the Stono River to plan an armed march for freedom. 1753 Benjamin Banneker designed and built the first clock in the British American colonies and he also created a series of almanacs. He corresponded with Thomas Jefferson and wrote that blacks were equal to whites. Banneker worked with Pierre LEnfant to survey and design a street and urban plan for Washington, D. C.1760 Jupiter Hammon has a poem printed, 1765–1767 Non-Importation Agreements – The First Continental Congress creates a multi-colony agreement to forbid importation of anything from British merchants. This implicitly includes slaves, and stops the slave trade in Philadelphia, the second similar act explicitly stops the slave trade. 1770 March 5 – Crispus Attucks is killed by British soldiers in the Boston Massacre,1773 Phillis Wheatley has her book Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral published. 1774 The first black Baptist congregations are organized in the South, Silver Bluff Baptist Church in South Carolina,1775 April 14 – The Society for the Relief of Free Negroes Unlawfully held in Bondage holds four meetings. It was re-formed in 1784 as the Pennsylvania Abolition Society, 1776–1783 American Revolution Thousands of enslaved African Americans in the South escape to British lines, as they were promised freedom to fight with the British. In South Carolina,25,000 enslaved African Americans, one-quarter of those held, still others go to Jamaica and the West Indies
Timeline of African-American history
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1863 Medical examination photo of
Gordon showing his scourged back, widely distributed by Abolitionists to expose the brutality of slavery.
Timeline of African-American history
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Jesse Owens wins gold medals in front of Hitler.
Timeline of African-American history
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Rosa Parks pictured in 1955
Timeline of African-American history
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The Edmund Pettus Bridge on "
Bloody Sunday " in 1965.
4.
Atlantic slave trade
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The Atlantic slave trade or transatlantic slave trade took place across the Atlantic Ocean from the 15th through the 19th centuries. This was crucial to those western European countries which, in the late 17th and 18th centuries, were vying with each other to create overseas empires, the Portuguese were the first to engage in the New World slave trade in the 16th century. In 1526, the Portuguese completed the first transatlantic voyage from Africa to the Americas. The first Africans imported to the English colonies were classified as indentured servants, like coming from England. By the middle of the 17th century, slavery had hardened as a caste, they and their offspring were legally the property of their owners. As property, the people were considered merchandise or units of labour, the major Atlantic slave trading nations, ordered by trade volume, were, the Portuguese, the British, the French, the Spanish, and the Dutch Empire. Several had established outposts on the African coast where they purchased slaves from local African leaders and these slaves were managed by a factor who was established on or near the coast to expedite the shipping of slaves to the New World. Slaves were kept in a factory while awaiting shipment, current estimates are that about 12 million Africans were shipped across the Atlantic, although the number purchased by the traders is considerably higher, as the passage had a high death rate. Near the beginning of the century, various governments acted to ban the trade. In the early twenty-first century, several governments issued apologies for the slave trade. The Atlantic slave trade arose after trade contacts were first made between the continents of the Old World and those of the New World, between 1600 and 1800, approximately 300,000 sailors engaged in the slave trade visited West Africa. In doing so, they came into contact with societies living along the west African coast, historian John Thornton noted, A number of technical and geographical factors combined to make Europeans the most likely people to explore the Atlantic and develop its commerce. That leadership later gave rise to the myth that the Iberians were the leaders of the exploration. Slavery was practiced in parts of Africa, Europe, Asia. There is evidence that people from some African states were exported to other states in Africa, Europe. The African slave trade provided a number of slaves to Europeans. The Atlantic slave trade was not the slave trade from Africa, although it was the largest in volume. As Elikia M’bokolo wrote in Le Monde diplomatique, The African continent was bled of its resources via all possible routes
Atlantic slave trade
–
Reproduction of a handbill advertising a slave auction in
Charleston, South Carolina, in 1769.
Atlantic slave trade
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Group of men, children, and women being taken to a slave market
Atlantic slave trade
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The
Portuguese presenting themselves before the
Manikongo. The Portuguese initially fostered a good relationship with the
Kingdom of Kongo. Civil War within Kongo would lead to many of its subjects ending up as enslaved people in Portuguese and other European vessels.
Atlantic slave trade
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Portrait of an African Slave Woman, probably painted by
Annibale Carracci in the 1580s
5.
Slavery in the United States
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Slavery had been practiced in British North America from early colonial days, and was legal in all Thirteen Colonies at the time of the Declaration of Independence in 1776. By the time of the American Revolution, the status of slave had been institutionalized as a racial caste associated with African ancestry, when the United States Constitution was ratified, a relatively small number of free people of color were among the voting citizens. During and immediately following the Revolutionary War, abolitionist laws were passed in most Northern states, most of these states had a higher proportion of free labor than in the South and economies based on different industries. They abolished slavery by the end of the 18th century, some with gradual systems that kept adults as slaves for two decades. But the rapid expansion of the industry in the Deep South after the invention of the cotton gin greatly increased demand for slave labor. Congress during the Jefferson administration prohibited the importation of slaves, effective in 1808, domestic slave trading, however, continued at a rapid pace, driven by labor demands from the development of cotton plantations in the Deep South. More than one million slaves were sold from the Upper South, which had a surplus of labor, New communities of African-American culture were developed in the Deep South, and the total slave population in the South eventually reached 4 million before liberation. As the West was developed for settlement, the Southern state governments wanted to keep a balance between the number of slave and free states to maintain a balance of power in Congress. The new territories acquired from Britain, France, and Mexico were the subject of major political compromises, by 1850, the newly rich cotton-growing South was threatening to secede from the Union, and tensions continued to rise. When Abraham Lincoln won the 1860 election on a platform of halting the expansion of slavery, the first six states to secede held the greatest number of slaves in the South. Shortly after, the Civil War began when Confederate forces attacked the US Armys Fort Sumter, four additional slave states then seceded. In the early years of the Chesapeake Bay settlements, colonial officials found it difficult to attract and retain laborers under the frontier conditions. Most laborers came from Britain as indentured servants, having signed contracts of indenture to pay with work for their passage, their upkeep and training and these indentured servants were young people who intended to become permanent residents. In some cases, convicted criminals were transported to the colonies as indentured servants, the indentured servants were not slaves, but were required to work for four to seven years in Virginia to pay the cost of their passage and maintenance. Historians estimate that more than half of all immigrants to the English colonies of North America during the 17th and 18th centuries came as indentured servants. The number of indentured servants among immigrants was particularly high in the South, many Germans, Scots-Irish, and Irish came to the colonies in the 18th century, settling in the backcountry of Pennsylvania and further south. The planters in the South found that the problem with indentured servants was that many left after several years, just when they had become skilled. In addition, an economy in England in the late 17th
Slavery in the United States
–
Slave auction block, Green Hill Plantation,
Campbell County, Virginia,
Historic American Buildings Survey
Slavery in the United States
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An animation showing when United States territories and states forbade or allowed slavery, 1789–1861.
Slavery in the United States
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Slaves processing tobacco in 17th-century Virginia
Slavery in the United States
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Slaves on a South Carolina plantation (
The Old Plantation, c. 1790)
6.
Military history of African Americans
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The Military history of African Americans spans from the arrival of the first black slaves during the colonial history of the United States to the present day. African-Americans as slaves and free blacks served on both sides during the war, ray Raphael notes that while thousands did join the Loyalist cause, A far larger number, free as well as slave, tried to further their interests by siding with the patriots. Black soldiers served in militias from the outset, but this was forbidden in the South. Over 100,000 slaves escaped to the British lines, although possibly as few as 1,000 served under arms, despite Dunmores promises, the majority were not given their freedom. Many Black Loyalists descendants now live in Canada and Sierra Leone, many of the Black Loyalists performed military service in the British Army, particularly as part of the only Black regiment of the war the Black Pioneers, and others served non-military roles. In response, and because of shortages, Washington lifted the ban on black enlistment in the Continental Army in January 1776. At least 5,000 African-American soldiers fought as Revolutionaries, peter Salem and Salem Poor are the most noted of the African American Patriots during this era, and Colonel Tye was perhaps the most noteworthy Black Loyalist. Black volunteers also served with various of the South Carolina guerrilla units, including that of the Swamp Fox, Francis Marion, half of whose force sometimes consisted of free Blacks. These Black troops made a difference in the fighting in the swamps. At least 12 other black men served with various American Marine units in 1776–1777, more may have been in service but not identified as blacks in the records. However, in 1798 when the United States Marine Corps was officially re-instituted, Secretary of War James McHenry specified in its rules, No Negro, Mulatto or Indian to be enlisted. Marine Commandant William Ward Burrows instructed his recruiters regarding USMC racial policy, You can make use of Blacks and Mulattoes while you recruit, the USMC maintained this policy until 1942. Hannibal Collins, a slave and Oliver Hazard Perrys personal servant, is thought to be the oarsman in William Henry Powells Battle of Lake Erie. Collins earned his freedom as a veteran of the Revolutionary War and he accompanied Perry for the rest of Perrys naval career, and was with him at Perrys death in Trinidad in 1819. No legal restrictions regarding the enlistment of blacks were placed on the Navy because of its shortage of manpower. The law of 1792, which generally prohibited enlistment of blacks in the Army became the United States Armys official policy until 1862, Louisiana permitted the existence of separate black militia units which drew its enlistees from freed blacks. A number of African Americans in the Army during the Mexican–American War were servants of the officers who received government compensation for the services of their servants or slaves, also, soldiers from the Louisiana Battalion of Free Men of Color participated in this war. African Americans also served on a number of vessels during the Mexican–American War, including the USS Treasure
Military history of African Americans
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The
332nd Fighter Group attends a briefing in Italy in 1945.
Military history of African Americans
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Crispus Attucks was an iconic patriot; engaging in a protest in 1770, he was shot by royal soldiers in the
Boston Massacre
Military history of African Americans
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Painting of Battle of Lake Erie depicting one of Perry's African American oarsmen in the boat and another African American sailor in the water.
Military history of African Americans
–
A company of 4th
USCT
7.
Jim Crow laws
–
Jim Crow laws were state and local laws enforcing racial segregation in the Southern United States. Enacted after the Reconstruction period, these continued in force until 1965. They mandated de jure segregation in all public facilities in the states of the former Confederate States of America, starting in 1890 with a separate. Facilities for African Americans were consistently inferior and underfunded compared to available to European Americans. This body of law institutionalized a number of economic, educational, the U. S. military was also segregated, as were federal workplaces, initiated in 1913 under President Woodrow Wilson. By requiring candidates to submit photos, his administration practiced racial discrimination in hiring and these Jim Crow laws followed the 1800–1866 Black Codes, which had previously restricted the civil rights and civil liberties of African Americans. The phrase Jim Crow Law can be found as early as 1892 in the title of a New York Times article about voting laws in the South, as a result of Rices fame, Jim Crow by 1838 had become a pejorative expression meaning Negro. When southern legislatures passed laws of racial segregation which were directed against blacks at the end of the 19th century, during the Reconstruction period of 1865–1877, federal laws provided civil rights protections in the U. S. South for freedmen, the African Americans who had formerly been slaves, extensive voter fraud was also used. Gubernatorial elections were close and had been disputed in Louisiana for years, in 1877, a national Democratic Party compromise to gain Southern support in the presidential election resulted in the governments withdrawing the last of the federal troops from the South. White Democrats had regained power in every Southern state. These Southern, white, Democratic Redeemer governments legislated Jim Crow laws, grandfather clauses temporarily permitted some illiterate whites to vote but gave no relief to most blacks. Voter turnout dropped drastically through the South as a result of such measures, in Louisiana, by 1900, black voters were reduced to 5,320 on the rolls, although they comprised the majority of the states population. By 1910, only 730 blacks were registered, less than 0. 5% of eligible black men, in 27 of the states 60 parishes, not a single black voter was registered any longer, in 9 more parishes, only one black voter was. The cumulative effect in North Carolina meant that voters were completely eliminated from voter rolls during the period from 1896–1904. The growth of their middle class was slowed. Alabama had tens of thousands of poor whites disenfranchised and those who could not vote were not eligible to serve on juries and could not run for local offices. They effectively disappeared from political life, as they could not influence the state legislatures, like schools, Jim Crow public libraries were underfunded and often stocked with secondhand books and other resources
Jim Crow laws
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Cover to an early edition of "
Jump Jim Crow " sheet music (c 1832)
Jim Crow laws
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Freedmen voting in New Orleans, 1867
Jim Crow laws
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Sign for the "colored" waiting room at a bus station in
Durham, North Carolina, 1940
Jim Crow laws
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1904 caricature of "White" and "Jim Crow" rail cars by
John T. McCutcheon. Despite Jim Crow's legal pretense that the races be "separate but equal" under the law, non-whites were given inferior facilities and treatment.
8.
Great Migration (African American)
–
The Great Migration was the movement of 5 million African-Americans out of the rural Southern United States to the urban Northeast, Midwest, and West that occurred between 1915 and 1960. Until 1910, more than 90 percent of the African-American population lived in the American South, in 1900, only one-fifth of African-Americans living in the South were living in urban areas. By 1970, more than 80 percent of African-Americans lived in cities, in sheer numbers it outranks the migration of any other ethnic group—Italians or Irish or Jews or Poles—to. For blacks, the migration meant leaving what had always been their economic and social base in America, some historians differentiate between a first Great Migration, which saw about 1. Since 1965, a migration has gathered strength. Dubbed the New Great Migration, it has seen many African-Americans move to the South, as early as 1975 to 1980, seven southern states were net African-American migration gainers. African-American populations have continued to drop much of the Northeast, especially the state of New York and northern New Jersey. James Gregory calculates decade-by-decade migration volumes in his book, The Southern Diaspora, Black migration picked up from the start of the new century, with 204,000 leaving in the first decade. The pace accelerated with the outbreak of World War I and continued through the 1920s, by 1930, there were 1.3 million former southerners living in other regions. The Great Depression wiped out job opportunities in the industrial belt, especially for African Americans. A second and larger Great Migration began around 1940 as defense industries geared up for World War II. 1.4 million black southerners moved north or west in the 1940s, followed by 1.1 million in the 1950s, by the late 1970s, as deindustrialization and the Rust Belt crisis took hold, the Great Migration came to an end. African-Americans moved from the 14 states of the South, especially Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas, based on the total populations in each of the four states, only Georgia showed a net decrease in its African American population in 1950 compared to 1920. Louisiana, Texas, Alabama, and Mississippi showed net increases in their African American populations in 1950 compared to 1920, big cities were the principal destinations of southerners throughout the two phases of the Great Migration. In the first phase, eight major cities attracted two-thirds of the migrants, New York and Chicago, followed in order by Philadelphia, St. Louis, Detroit, Pittsburgh, and Indianapolis. The Second great black migration increased the populations of cities while adding others as destinations. Cities such as Los Angeles, San Francisco, Oakland, Phoenix, Seattle, there were clear migratory patterns that linked particular states and cities in the South to corresponding destinations in the North. Almost half of those who migrated from Mississippi during the first Great Migration, for example, ended up in Chicago, for the most part, these patterns were related to geography, with the closest cities attracting the most migrants
Great Migration (African American)
–
During World War I there was a great migration north…, painting by
Jacob Lawrence (black-and-white reproduction of colored original).
Great Migration (African American)
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Graph showing the percentage of the African-American population living in the American South, 1790-2010.
Great Migration (African American)
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African-American youths play basketball in Chicago's
Stateway Gardens high-rise housing project in 1973.
Great Migration (African American)
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The Hub is the retail heart of the
South Bronx, New York City.
9.
Redlining
–
During the heyday of redlining, the areas most frequently discriminated against were black inner city neighborhoods. In the academic literature, redlining falls under the category of credit rationing. Reverse redlining occurs when a lender or insurer targets nonwhite consumers, not to deny them loans or insurance, racial segregation and discrimination against minorities and minority communities pre-existed this policy. The assumptions in redlining resulted in an increase in residential racial segregation. Urban planning historians theorize that the maps were used by private, on the maps, the newest areas—those considered desirable for lending purposes—were outlined in green and known as Type A. These were typically affluent suburbs on the outskirts of cities, Type B neighborhoods, outlined in blue, were considered Still Desirable, whereas older Type C were labeled Declining and outlined in yellow. Type D neighborhoods were outlined in red and were considered the most risky for mortgage support and these neighborhoods tended to be the older districts in the center of cities, often they were also black neighborhoods. Some redlined maps were created by private organizations, such as J. M. Private organizations created maps designed to meet the requirements of the Federal Housing Administrations underwriting manual, the lenders had to consider FHA standards if they wanted to receive FHA insurance for their loans. FHA appraisal manuals instructed banks to clear of areas with inharmonious racial groups. NPA embarked on an effort to build a coalition of urban community organizations to pass a national disclosure regulation or law to require banks to reveal their lending patterns. These actions addressed the issues of neighborhood decline. Neighborhood leaders began to learn that these issues and conditions were symptoms of a disinvestment that was the true and they changed their strategy as more data was gathered. With the help of NPA, a coalition of loosely affiliated community organizations began to form, at the Third Annual Housing Conference held in Chicago in 1974, eight hundred delegates representing 25 states and 35 cities attended. The strategy focused on the Federal Home Loan Bank Board, which oversaw S&Ls in cities all over the country, in Massachusetts, organizers allied with NPA confronted a unique situation. Over 90% of home mortgages were held by state-chartered savings banks, a Jamaica Plain neighborhood organization pushed the disinvestment issue into the statewide gubernatorial race. After Dukakis was elected, his new Banking Commissioner ordered banks to disclose mortgage-lending patterns by zip code, NPA and its affiliates achieved disclosure of lending practices with the passage of The Home Mortgage Disclosure Act of 1975. The required transparency and review of loan practices began to change lending practices, NPA began to work on reinvestment in areas that had been neglected
Redlining
–
A
HOLC 1936 security map of
Philadelphia showing redlining of lower income neighborhoods. Households and businesses in the red zones could not get mortgages or business loans.
10.
Second Great Migration (African American)
–
In the context of the 20th-century history of the United States, the Second Great Migration was the migration of more than five million African Americans from the South to the North, Midwest and West. It took place from 1941, through World War II, and it was much larger and of a different character than the first Great Migration. Most of these migrants were already urban laborers who came from the cities of the South, in addition, African Americans were still treated with discrimination in parts of the country, and many sought to escape this. Compared to the rural migrants of the period 1910-1930, many African Americans in the South were already living in urban areas and had urban job skills before they relocated. They moved to jobs in the burgeoning industrial cities and especially the jobs in the defense industry during World War II. Workers who were limited to segregated, low-skilled jobs in cities were able to get highly skilled. By the end of the Second Great Migration, African Americans had become an urbanized population. More than 80 percent lived in cities, a greater proportion than among the rest of American society, fifty-three percent remained in the Southern United States, while 40 percent lived in the Northeast and North Central states and 7 percent in the West. While African Americans were often relegated to support roles during World War II, a munitions explosion at Port Chicago, California, across the bay from San Francisco, claimed the lives of over 200 African Americans in 1944. When some of the refused to resume work until conditions were made less hazardous, up to 50 were tried for mutiny. African American southerners were motivated to move based on economic concerns, the economic deprivation suffered by southern African Americans prior to the great migration has been well documented. Plantation agriculture such as sharecropping limited African Americans to gain and work up the “agricultural ladder”, the agricultural ladder was a system in which a workers status determined their position, not how skilled or valuable they were. Because of segregation, African American men were placed in unskilled jobs, African Americans strove to find new opportunities such as finding better ways to earn a living to support their families. Moving to the north was a way to improve their economic fortunes, World War I and new immigration policies forced northern employers to start considering southern African Americans and whites as a cheap labor force to replace the costly European workers. Other social factors such as opportunities, political disenfranchisement. The great migration was a process driven by a large. The lack of opportunity in the South prompted many African Americans to migrate to Western cities in search of jobs in the munitions industry. Once they arrived, they were met with a variety of factors that separated emerging migrant communities from white ones
Second Great Migration (African American)
–
Graph showing the percentage of the African American population living in the American South, 1790-2010.
11.
Black Power movement
–
The Black Power movement was a political movement to achieve a form of Black Power and the many philosophies it contains. The movement saw various forms of some violent and some peaceful. The Black Power movement also represented socialist movements, all with the motivation of improving the standing of black people in society. Originated during the Civil Rights Movement, some doubted the philosophy of the movement begging for more radical action, the cornerstone of the movement was the Black Panther Party, a Black Power organization dedicated to socialism and the use of violence to achieve it. The Black Power movement developed in the criticisms of the Civil Rights Movement in the early 1960s, and over time and into the 1970s, after years of violence, many left the movement and the police began arresting violent actors in the movement. The Black Power movement also spilled out into the Caribbean creating the Black Power Revolution, on June 16,1966, in a speech in Greenwood, Mississippi after the assassination attempt on James Meredith by Aubrey James Norvell during the March Against Fear, Stokely Carmichael used the term. By the late 1960s Black Power came to represent the demand for more violent action to counter American white supremacy. Most of these ideas were influenced by Malcolm Xs criticism of Martin Luther King, the 1965 assassination of Malcolm X coupled with the urban uprisings of 1964 and 1965 ignited the Black Power movement. By 1968 Black Power was a movement with a growing force of people who sympathize. New organizations began to form such as the Black Panther Party each supporting Black Power philosophies ranging from socialism to black nationalism, the organization Nation of Islam began developing a black nationalist movement in the 1930s, inspiring later black nationalist groups. The Nation of Islam continues to function to this day, in the early 1960s the Almighty Black P. Stone Nation gang developed into a Black Power group supporting black nationalism. Malcolm X rose rapidly to become the minister and national spokesperson for the Nation of Islam, highly influenced by Malcolm Xs membership, the Nation claimed a membership of 30,000. In April 1964, one later, Malcolm X founded Muslim Mosque Inc. stating. It was they who conspired with Captain Joseph here in New York to pressure me out of the Nation, Malcolm X would later be assassinated in February 1965. They argued instead that blacks needed to power of their own rather than seek accommodations from the power structure in place. The organization continued its militancy later on and established ties with groups such as the Students for a Democratic Society. In late October 1966, Huey P. Newton and Bobby Seale founded the Black Panther Party, in formulating a new politics, they drew on their experiences working with a variety of Black Power organizations. The initial tactic of the Black Panther Party utilized contemporary open-carry gun laws to protect Party members when policing the police and this act was done in order to record incidents of police brutality by distantly following police cars around neighborhoods
Black Power movement
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Black Panthers standing guard with shotguns
Black Power movement
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Fred Hampton shot dead by police in late 1969.
Black Power movement
–
Donald DeFreeze robbing a bank.
Black Power movement
–
New Black Panther Party members marching in 2007
12.
New Great Migration
–
The New Great Migration is the demographic change from 1965 to the present, which is a reversal of the previous 35-year trend of black migration within the United States. As early as 1975-1980, seven states were net black migration gainers. College graduates and middle-class migrants make up a portion of the new migration. For instance, from 1965–2000, the states of Florida, Georgia, in that same period, California was a net loser of black migration for the first time in three decades. While the migration is still in progress, much data is from this 35-year period, other southern states, including Mississippi, Louisiana, South Carolina, Alabama, and Arkansas, have seen little net growth in the African American population from return migration
New Great Migration
–
Graph showing the percentage of the African American population living in the American South, 1790-2010.
13.
Civil Rights Movement
–
This article covers the phase of the movement between 1954 and 1968, particularly in the South. The movement was characterized by major campaigns of civil resistance, between 1955 and 1968, acts of nonviolent protest and civil disobedience produced crisis situations and productive dialogues between activists and government authorities. Federal, state, and local governments, businesses, and communities often had to immediately to these situations. The 1950s and 1960s Civil Rights Movement witnessed the passage of several pieces of federal legislation. The Voting Rights Act of 1965 restored and protected voting rights for minorities, the Immigration and Nationality Services Act of 1965 removed racial and national barriers and opened the way for non-white immigrants. The Fair Housing Act of 1968 banned discrimination in the sale or rental of housing, African Americans re-entered politics in the South, and across the country young people were inspired to take action. A wave of inner city riots in black communities from 1964 through 1970 undercut support from the white community. Many popular representations of the movement are centered on the leadership and philosophy of Martin Luther King, but, some scholars note that the movement was too diverse to be credited to one person, organization, or strategy. Before the American Civil War, almost four million blacks were enslaved in the South, only men of property could vote. From 1865 to 1877, the United States underwent a turbulent Reconstruction Era trying to free labor. Many whites resisted the changes, leading to insurgent movements such as the Ku Klux Klan, whose members attacked black. In 1871, President Ulysses S. Grant, the U. S. Army, however, if the states failed to implement the acts, the laws allowed the Federal Government to get involved. Many Republican governors were afraid of sending black militia troops to fight the clan in fear of war, for more than 60 years, blacks in the South were not able to elect anyone to represent their interests in Congress or local government. Since they could not vote, they could not serve on local juries, during this period, the white-dominated Democratic Party maintained political control of the South. With whites controlling all the seats representing the population of the South. The Republican Party—the party of Lincoln—which had been the party that most blacks belonged to, until 1965, the solid South was a one-party system under the Democrats. Outside a few areas, the Democratic Party nomination was tantamount to election for state, in 1901, President Theodore Roosevelt invited Booker T. Washington to dine at the White House, making him the first African American to attend an official dinner there. The invitation was roundly criticized by politicians and newspapers
Civil Rights Movement
–
Four leaders of the Civil Rights Movement. From left:
Bayard Rustin,
Andrew Young, (N.Y. Cong.
William Ryan),
James Farmer, and
John Lewis in 1965.
Civil Rights Movement
–
The mob-style
lynching of Will James, Cairo, Illinois, 1909.
Civil Rights Movement
–
School integration, Barnard School, Washington, D.C., 1955
Civil Rights Movement
–
Troops from the
327th Regiment, 101st Airborne escorting the
Little Rock Nine African-American students up the steps of Central High.
14.
African-American culture
–
The distinct identity of African-American culture is rooted in the historical experience of the African-American people, including the Middle Passage. The culture is distinct and enormously influential on American culture as a whole. African-American culture is rooted in West and Central Africa, understanding its identity within the culture of the United States it is, in the anthropological sense, conscious of its origins as largely a blend of West and Central African cultures. Elaborate rituals and ceremonies were a significant part of African Americans ancestral culture, many West African societies traditionally believed that spirits dwelled in their surrounding nature. From this disposition, they treated their environment with mindful care and they also generally believed that a spiritual life source existed after death, and that ancestors in this spiritual realm could then mediate between the supreme creator and the living. Honor and prayer was displayed to these ancient ones, the spirit of those past, West Africans also believed in spiritual possession. In the beginning of the eighteenth century Christianity began to spread across North Africa, the enslaved Africans brought this complex religious dynamic within their culture to America. This fusion of traditional African beliefs with Christianity provided a place for those practicing religion in Africa and America. After emancipation, unique African-American traditions continued to flourish, as distinctive traditions or radical innovations in music, art, literature, religion, cuisine, 20th-century sociologists, such as Gunnar Myrdal, believed that African Americans had lost most cultural ties with Africa. But, anthropological research by Melville Herskovits and others demonstrated that there has been a continuum of African traditions among Africans of the Diaspora. The greatest influence of African cultural practices on European culture is found below the Mason-Dixon line in the American South, Today, African-American culture has become a significant part of American culture and yet, at the same time, remains a distinct cultural body. From the earliest days of American slavery in the 17th century, African cultures, slavery, slave rebellions, and the civil rights movement have shaped African-American religious, familial, political, and economic behaviors. The imprint of Africa is evident in a myriad of ways, in politics, economics, language, music, hairstyles, fashion, dance, religion, cuisine, in turn, African-American culture has had a pervasive, transformative impact on many elements of mainstream American culture. This process of mutual creative exchange is called creolization, over time, the culture of African slaves and their descendants has been ubiquitous in its impact on not only the dominant American culture, but on world culture as well. Slaveholders limited or prohibited education of enslaved African Americans because they feared it might empower their chattel, in the United States, the legislation that denied slaves formal education likely contributed to their maintaining a strong oral tradition, a common feature of indigenous African cultures. African-based oral traditions became the means of preserving history, mores. This was consistent with the practices of oral history in many African. Many of these elements have been passed from generation to generation through storytelling
African-American culture
–
An African-American man gives a piano lesson to a young Caucasian woman, in 1899 or 1900, in
Georgia, USA. Photograph from a collection of
W. E. B. Du Bois.
African-American culture
–
Zora Neale Hurston was a prominent literary figure during the
Harlem Renaissance
African-American culture
–
Thelonious Monk in 1947.
African-American culture
–
Composer
Duke Ellington, pictured receiving the
Presidential Medal of Freedom from
Richard Nixon, is often held to be one of the most influential musical figures of the 20th century.
15.
African-American art
–
African-American art is a broad term describing the visual arts of the American black community. From its early origins in slave communities, through the end of the 20th century, many slaves arrived from Africa as skilled artisans, having worked in these or similar media in Africa. Others learned their trades or crafts as apprentices to African or white skilled workers and it was often the practice for slave owners to hire out skilled artisans. With the consent of their masters, some slave artisans also were able to keep wages earned in their time and thereby save enough money to purchase their. G. W. Hobbs, Patrick H. Reason, Joshua Johnson, patronage by some white families allowed for private tutorship in special cases. Many of these sponsoring whites were abolitionists, the artists received more encouragement and were better able to support themselves in cities, of which there were more in the North and border states. Harriet Powers was an African-American folk artist and quilt maker from rural Georgia, United States, now nationally recognized for her quilts, she used traditional appliqué techniques to record local legends, Bible stories, and astronomical events on her quilts. Only two of her late quilts have survived, Bible Quilt 1886 and Bible Quilt 1898 and her quilts are considered among the finest examples of 19th-century Southern quilting. Like Powers, the women of Gees Bend developed a distinctive, bold, and sophisticated quilting style based on traditional American quilts, although widely separated by geography, they have qualities reminiscent of Amish quilts and modern art. The women of Gees Bend passed their skills and aesthetic down through at least six generations to the present, at one time scholars believed slaves sometimes utilized quilt blocks to alert other slaves about escape plans during the time of the Underground Railroad, but most historians do not agree. Quilting remains alive as form of expression in the African-American community. After the Civil War, it became acceptable for African American-created works to be exhibited in museums. These were works mostly in the European romantic and classical traditions of landscapes, edward Mitchell Bannister, Henry Ossawa Tanner and Edmonia Lewis are the most notable of this time. Others include Grafton Tyler Brown, Nelson A. Primus and Meta Vaux Warrick Fuller, the goal of widespread recognition across racial boundaries was first eased within Americas big cities, including Philadelphia, Boston, Chicago, New York, and New Orleans. Even in these places, however, there were discriminatory limitations, abroad, however, African Americans were much better received. In Europe — especially Paris, France — these artists could express much more freedom in experimentation and education concerning techniques outside traditional western art, freedom of expression was much more prevalent in Paris as well as Munich and Rome to a lesser extent. The Harlem Renaissance was one of the most notable movements in African-American art, certain freedoms and ideas that were already widespread in many parts of the world at the time had begun to spread into the artistic communities United States during the 1920s. The establishment of the Harmon Foundation by art patron William E. Harmon in 1922 sponsored many artists through its Harmon Award, as it did with many such endeavors, the 1929 Great Depression largely ended funding for the arts for a time
African-American art
–
Harriet Powers, Bible quilt, Mixed Media. 1898.
African-American art
–
Sand Dunes at Sunset, Atlantic City by Henry Ossawa Tanner is in the collection of the
White House, and hangs in the
Green Room. Acquired during the
Clinton administration with funds from the
White House Acquisition Trust, it is the first artwork in the White House by an African American.
African-American art
–
Midnight Golfer by
Eugene J. Martin, mixed media collage on rag paper.
African-American art
–
Kara Walker, Cut, Cut paper and adhesive on wall, Brent Sikkema NYC.
16.
Black mecca
–
Atlanta has frequently been referred to as a black mecca since the 1970s. A2002 article in the same magazine reconfirmed Atlanta as the new black mecca, in 2009 the Associated Press characterized Atlantas status as a black mecca by black political power in its City Hall. It also noted Atlantas annual Atlanta Black Pride festival, an earlier 2004 article in the Atlanta Journal-Constitution also documented Atlanta as a hub or mecca for black gays. Atlantas status as a mecca for blacks is sometimes questioned, or the concept of a mecca refuted altogether, in 1997 the Chicago Tribune published an article titled Atlantas image as a black mecca losing luster. The loss in luster was because of a reality that too many blacks werent coming close to financial success, Harlem in New York City was referred to as a black mecca during the 1920s and 1930s. Much of the material appears in his 1925 anthology The New Negro, in 1965, author Seth Scheiner published the book Negro Mecca, A History of the Negro in New York City, 1865-1920. The 2001 book Harlemworld documented that the concept of Harlem as a black mecca at that time was present among many residents - a concept that was history-laden or even quasi-mythical. In 2011, online magazine Clutch named Washington, D. C, louis, Memphis, Durham, Philadelphia, Houston, Los Angeles and New Orleans, as well as New York, Baltimore and Chicago
Black mecca
–
1971
Ebony article calling Atlanta the "black mecca" of the South
Black mecca
–
"Harlem, Mecca of the New Negro", March 1925 issue of
Survey Graphic
17.
Juneteenth
–
Celebrated on June 19, the word is a combination of June and nineteenth. Juneteenth is recognized as a holiday or special day of observance in most states. The holiday is observed primarily in local celebrations, celebrations may include parades, rodeos, street fairs, cookouts, family reunions, park parties, historical reenactments, or Miss Juneteenth contests. During the American Civil War, President Abraham Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation on September 22,1862 and it declared all slaves to be freed in the Confederate States of America in rebellion and not in Union hands. More isolated geographically, Texas was not a battleground, and thus its slaves were not affected by the Emancipation Proclamation unless they escaped. Although most slaves lived in areas, more than 1000 resided in both Galveston and Houston by 1860, with several hundred in other large towns. By 1865, there were an estimated 250,000 slaves in Texas, as news of end of the war moved slowly, it did not reach Texas until May 1865, and the Army of the Trans-Mississippi did not surrender until June 2. On June 18,1865, Union General Gordon Granger arrived at Galveston Island with 2,000 federal troops to occupy Texas on behalf of the federal government. On June 19, standing on the balcony of Galvestons Ashton Villa,3, announcing the total emancipation of slaves, The people of Texas are informed that, in accordance with a proclamation from the Executive of the United States, all slaves are free. The freedmen are advised to remain quietly at their present homes and they are informed that they will not be allowed to collect at military posts and that they will not be supported in idleness either there or elsewhere. Former slaves in Galveston rejoiced in the streets after the announcement, but, the following year, freedmen organized the first of what became annual celebrations of Juneteenth in Texas. Washington Park, and Emancipation Park in Austin, although the date is sometimes referred to as the traditional end of slavery in Texas it was given legal status in a series of Texas Supreme Court decisions between 1868 and 1874. In the early 20th century, economic and political forces led to a decline in Juneteenth celebrations, from 1890 to 1908, Texas and all former Confederate states passed new constitutions or amendments that effectively disenfranchised blacks, excluding them from the political process. White-dominated state legislatures passed Jim Crow laws imposing second-class status, the Great Depression forced many blacks off farms and into the cities to find work. In these urban environments, African Americans had difficulty taking the day off to celebrate, as historian Isabel Wilkerson writes, The people from Texas took Juneteenth Day to Los Angeles, Oakland, Seattle, and other places they went. By the 1950s and 1960s, the Civil Rights Movement focused the attention of African-American youth on the struggle for racial equality, but, many linked these struggles to the historical struggles of their ancestors. Since the 1980s and 1990s, the holiday has more widely celebrated among African-American communities. In 1994 a group of community leaders gathered at Christian Unity Baptist Church in New Orleans, Juneteenth informal observance have spread to many other states, including Portland, Maine, in part carried by Texans
Juneteenth
–
Juneteenth celebration in
Austin, Texas, on June 19, 1900
Juneteenth
–
Ashton Villa, from whose front balcony General Order #3 was read on June 19, 1865
Juneteenth
–
Emancipation Day celebration in Richmond, Virginia in 1905
18.
Kwanzaa
–
Kwanzaa is a week-long celebration held in the United States and in other nations of the Western African diaspora in the Americas. The celebration honors African heritage in African-American culture, and is observed from December 26 to January 1, culminating in a feast and it was created by Maulana Karenga and was first celebrated in 1966–67. Maulana Karenga created Kwanzaa in 1966, as the first specifically African-American holiday, according to Karenga, the name Kwanzaa derives from the Swahili phrase matunda ya kwanza, meaning first fruits of the harvest, although a more conventional translation would simply be first fruits. The cultural revolution gives identity, purpose and direction, during the early years of Kwanzaa, Karenga said that it was meant to be an oppositional alternative to Christmas. Many African Americans who celebrate Kwanzaa do so in addition to observing Christmas and these seven principles comprise *Kawaida, a Swahili word meaning common. Each of the seven days of Kwanzaa is dedicated to one of the principles, as follows, Umoja, To strive for and to maintain unity in the family, community, nation. Kujichagulia, To define and name ourselves, as well as to create, ujima, To build and maintain our community together and make our brothers and sisters problems our problems and to solve them together. Ujamaa, To build and maintain our own stores, shops, nia, To make our collective vocation the building and developing of our community in order to restore our people to their traditional greatness. Kuumba, To do always as much as we can, in the way we can, in order to leave our community more beautiful and beneficial than we inherited it. Imani, To believe with all our hearts in our people, our parents, our teachers, our leaders, corn is the primary symbol for both decoration and celebratory dining. It is customary to include children in Kwanzaa ceremonies and to give respect, libations are shared, generally with a common chalice, Kikombe cha Umoja, passed around to all celebrants. The holiday greeting is Joyous Kwanzaa, the greeting for each day of Kwanzaa is Habari Gani. which is Swahili for How are you. Today, many African American families celebrate Kwanzaa along with Christmas, frequently, both Christmas trees and kinaras, the traditional candle holder symbolic of African American roots, share space in Kwanzaa-celebrating households. For people who celebrate both holidays, Kwanzaa is an opportunity to incorporate elements of their ethnic heritage into holiday observances. Cultural exhibitions include the Spirit of Kwanzaa, a celebration held at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts featuring interpretive dance, African dance, song. The holiday has spread to Canada, and is celebrated by Black Canadians in a similar fashion as in the United States. In 2004, BIG Research conducted a survey in the United States for the National Retail Foundation. If generalized to the US population as a whole, this would imply that around 4.7 million people planned to celebrate Kwanzaa in that year, in a 2006 speech, Maulana Karenga asserted that 28 million people celebrate Kwanzaa
Kwanzaa
–
2003 Kwanzaa celebration with its founder,
Maulana Karenga, and others
Kwanzaa
–
A woman lighting kinara candles
19.
African-American literature
–
African-American literature is the body of literature produced in the United States by writers of African descent. It begins with the works of such late 18th-century writers as Phillis Wheatley, before the high point of slave narratives, African-American literature was dominated by autobiographical spiritual narratives. African-American literature reached early high points with slave narratives of the 19th century, the Harlem Renaissance of the 1920s was a time of flowering of literature and the arts. Writers of African-American literature have been recognized by the highest awards, among the themes and issues explored in this literature are the role of African Americans within the larger American society, African-American culture, racism, slavery, and social equality. African-American writing has tended to incorporate oral forms, such as spirituals, sermons, gospel music, blues, as African Americans place in American society has changed over the centuries, so has the focus of African-American literature. There was a distinction between the literature of freed slaves and the literature of free blacks who had been born in the North. Free blacks had to express their oppression in a different narrative form, free blacks in the North often spoke out against slavery and racial injustices using the spiritual narrative. The spiritual addressed many of the themes of slave narratives. At the turn of the 20th century, non-fiction works by such as W. E. B. Du Bois and Booker T. Washington debated how to confront racist attitudes in the United States, during the Civil Rights Movement, authors such as Richard Wright and Gwendolyn Brooks wrote about issues of racial segregation and black nationalism. In broad terms, African-American literature can be defined as writings by people of African descent living in the United States, African-American literature has generally focused on the role of African Americans within the larger American society and what it means to be an American. As Princeton University professor Albert J. Raboteau has said, all African-American study speaks to the meaning of the African-American presence in this nation. This presence has always been a test case of the claims to freedom, democracy, equality. African-American literature presents the African-American experience from an African-American point of view, in the early Republic, African-American literature represented a way for free blacks to negotiate their new identity in an individualized republic. They often tried to exercise their political and social autonomy in the face of resistance from the white public, thus, an early theme of African-American literature was, like other American writings, what it meant to be a citizen in post-Revolutionary America. African-American literature has both influenced by the great African diasporic heritage and shaped it in many countries. African-American oral culture is rich in poetry, including spirituals, gospel music, blues and this oral poetry also appears in the African-American tradition of Christian sermons, which make use of deliberate repetition, cadence, and alliteration. African-American literature—especially written poetry, but also prose—has a strong tradition of incorporating all of these forms of oral poetry and these characteristics do not occur in all works by African-American writers
African-American literature
–
Toni Morrison in 2008
African-American literature
–
Phillis Wheatley
African-American literature
–
Frederick Douglass
African-American literature
–
Langston Hughes, photographed by
Carl Van Vechten, 1936
20.
List of museums focused on African Americans
–
This is a list of museums in the United States whose primary focus is on African American culture and history. Such museums are known as African American museums. According to scholar Raymond Doswell, an African-American museum is an established for the preservation of African-derived culture. Museums have a mission of collecting and preserving material on history, African-American museums share these goals with archives, genealogy groups, historical societies, and research libraries. Being open to the public and having regular hours sets museums apart from historical sites or other facilities that may call themselves museums, the first African-American museum was the College Museum in Hampton, Virginia, established in 1868. Prior to 1950, there were about 30 museums devoted primarily to African-American culture and these were located primarily at historically black colleges and universities or at libraries that had significant African-American culture and history collections. Important collections were developed at Bennett College in Greensboro, North Carolina, Fisk University in Nashville, Tennessee, Howard University in Washington, D. C. Lincoln University in Chester County, Pennsylvania, Morgan State University in Baltimore, Maryland, Talladega College in Talladega, Alabama, additionally, local historical societies, history clubs, and reading groups in African-American communities also collected and displayed African-American cultural artifacts. Throughout the 1960s, the energy of the American Civil Rights Movement led to numerous local African-American museums being founded, between 1868 and 1991, there were about 150 African-American museums established in 37 states. As of 2010, the largest African-American museum in the United States was the Charles H. Wright Museum of African American History in Detroit and it will be exceeded in size by the Smithsonian Institutions National Museum of African American History and Culture when completed in 2016. African-American Heritage Sites Artworks commemorating African Americans in Washington, D. C, list of streets named after Martin Luther King, Jr. Association of African American Museums Jim Crow History programs map and details of museums in the U. S. devoted to African American history
List of museums focused on African Americans
–
African American Firefighter Museum
List of museums focused on African Americans
–
African American Museum
List of museums focused on African Americans
–
African American Museum and Library at Oakland
List of museums focused on African Americans
–
African American Museum in Cleveland, The
21.
African-American music
–
African-American music is an umbrella term covering a diverse range of musics and musical genres largely developed by African Americans. Their origins are in forms that arose out of the historical condition of slavery that characterized the lives of African Americans prior to the American Civil War. The exceptions are hip hop, house and techno, which were formed in the late 20th century from earlier forms of African-American music such as funk and soul. Following the Civil War, black Americans, through employment as musicians playing European music in military bands and these musical forms had a wide-ranging influence on the development of music within the United States and around the world during the 20th century. The earliest jazz and blues recordings were made in the 1920s, African-American musicians developed related styles such as Rhythm and Blues in the 1940s. In the 1960s, soul performers had a influence on white US. In the mid-1960s, black musicians developed funk and they were many of the figures in late 1960s and 1970s genre of jazz-rock fusion. In the 1970s and 1980s, black artists developed hip hop, in the 2000s, hip hop attained significant mainstream popularity. Modern day music is influenced by previous and present African-American music genres. Many of the musical forms that define African-American music have historical precedents. Conversion, however, did not result in slaves adopting the traditions associated with the practice of Christianity, instead they reinterpreted them in a way that had meaning to them as Africans in America. They often sang the spirituals in groups as they worked the plantation fields, Folk spirituals, unlike much white gospel, were often spirited, slaves added dancing and other forms of bodily movements to the singing. Folk spirituals were spontaneously created and performed in a repetitive, improvised style, the most common song structures are the call-and-response and repetitive choruses. The call-and-response is an exchange between the soloist and the other singers. The soloist usually improvises a line to which the other singers respond, song interpretation incorporates the interjections of moans, cries, hollers etc. and changing vocal timbres. Singing is also accompanied by clapping and foot-stomping. Suggested listening, Spirituals The influence of African Americans on mainstream American music began in the 19th century, the banjo, of African origin, became a popular instrument, and its African-derived rhythms were incorporated into popular songs by Stephen Foster and other songwriters. In the 1830s, the Second Great Awakening led to a rise in Christian revivals and pietism, drawing on traditional work songs, enslaved African Americans originated and began performing a wide variety of Spirituals and other Christian music
African-American music
–
"The Banjo Lesson," by
Henry Ossawa Tanner, 1893. Oil on canvas, 49″ × 35½″.
Hampton University Museum
African-American music
–
The Slayton Jubilee Singers entertain employees of the Old Trusty Incubator Factory,
Clay Center, about 1910
African-American music
–
Frank Ocean
22.
African-American neighborhood
–
African-American neighborhoods or black neighborhoods are types of ethnic enclaves found in many cities in the United States. Generally, an African American neighborhood is one where the majority of the people who live there are African American, some of the earliest African-American neighborhoods were in New York City along with early communities located in Virginia. In 1830, there were 14,000 free Negroes living in New York City, the formation of black neighborhoods are closely linked to the history of segregation in the United States, either through formal laws or as a product of social norms. Despite the formal laws and segregation, black neighborhoods have played an important role in the development of African-American culture, the Great Migration was the movement of more than one million African Americans out of rural Southern United States from 1914 to 1940. Most African Americans who participated in the moved to large industrial cities such as New York, Chicago, Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Washington. Baltimore, Minneapolis, Seattle, Detroit, Boston, Milwaukee, St. Louis, Oakland, Los Angeles, hence, the Migration played an important role in the formation and expansion of African-American neighborhoods in these cities. Populations increased very rapidly with the addition of African-American migrants and new European immigrants, newer groups competed even for the oldest and most rundown houses because the poorly constructed houses were what they could afford. African Americans competed for work and housing with first or second generation immigrants in many major cities, ethnic groups created territories which they defended against change. More established populations with more capital moved away to newer housing that was being developed on the outskirts of the cities, the migrants also discovered that the open discrimination of the South was only more subtly manifested in the North. In 1917, the Supreme Court declared municipal resident segregation ordinances unconstitutional, in response, some white groups resorted to the restrictive covenant, a formal deed restriction binding property owners in a given neighborhood not to sell to blacks. Whites who broke these agreements could be sued by damaged neighbors, not until 1948 did the Supreme Court strike down restrictive covenants. The National Housing Act of 1934 contributed to limiting the availability of loans to urban areas, in cities such as Chicago the influx of African-American migrants and other immigrants resulted in racial violence, which flared in several cities during 1919. This significant event and the subsequent struggle of African-American migrants to adapt to Northern cities was the subject of James Lawrences Migration Series and this series, exhibited in 1941, was responsible for bringing Lawrence to the public eye as one of the most important African-American artists of the time. From 1940-1970, another five people left the South for Northern and Western cities. Violence was the outcome of some of the pressure of this migration, the most common use of the term refers to mortgage discrimination. Data on house prices and attitudes toward integration suggest that in the mid-20th century and this meant that ethnic minorities could secure mortgage loans only in certain areas, and it resulted in a large increase in the residential racial segregation and urban decay in the United States. Urban renewal, the redevelopment of areas within cities, including white flight, has also been a factor in the growth patterns of African-American neighborhoods. The process began a phase in the late 1940s and continues in some places to the present day
African-American neighborhood
–
The
Fifth Ward, an African American neighborhood in
Houston,
Texas
African-American neighborhood
–
Shopping on
125th Street,
Harlem, New York City.
African-American neighborhood
–
The Hub is the retail heart of the
South Bronx, New York City. Between 1900 and 1930, the number of Bronx residents increased from 201,000 to 1,265,000.
African-American neighborhood
–
DuSable Museum,
Washington Park,
Chicago.
23.
Religion in Black America
–
Religion in Black America refers to the religious and spiritual practices of blacks and people of African descent in the United States. Historians generally agree that the life of Black Americans forms the foundation of their community life. Before 1775 there was scattered evidence of organized religion among blacks in the American colonies, the Methodist and Baptist churches became much more active in the 1780s, and growth was quite rapid for the next 150 years until they covered a majority of the people. After Emancipation in 1863, Freedmen organized their own churches, chiefly Baptist, other Protestant denominations, and Catholics, played smaller roles. By 1900 the Pentecostal and Holiness movements were important, and later the Jehovah Witnesses, the Nation of Islam added a Muslim factor in the 20th century. Powerful pastors often played prominent roles in politics, as typified by Martin Luther King Jr. the leader of the Civil Rights Movement, the population is mostly Christian, with 83% of black Americans identifying as Christian, including 45% who identify as baptist. Catholics account for 5% of the population, about 12% of African American people do not have a religion and identify as atheist or agnostic, slightly lower than the figure for the whole of the USA. In the 1770s, no more than 1% of the blacks in the United States were connected to organized churches, the numbers grew rapidly after 1789. The Anglican Church had made an effort to proselytize, especially in Virginia, and spread information about Christianity. Some slaves brought traditional practices, especially regarding magic, with them from Africa, no organized African religious practices are known to have taken place in the Thirteen Colonies, but there was a surreptitious or underground practice of magic. In the mid-20th century scholars debated whether there were distinctive African elements embedded in black American religious practices, as in music, scholars no longer look for such cultural transfers regarding religion. Black religious music is distinct from traditional European religious music, it dances and ring shouts. Many white clergy within evangelical Protestantism actively promoted the idea that all Christians were equal in the sight of God, slaves were welcome at the Baptist services and a few Baptist congregations contained as many as 25% slaves. Central to the growth of community among blacks was the Black church, starting around 1800 with the African Methodist Episcopal Church, African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church and other churches, the Black church grew to be the focal point of the Black community. The Black church- was both an expression of community and unique African-American spirituality, and a reaction to discrimination, the church also served as neighborhood centers where free black people could celebrate their African heritage without intrusion by white detractors. The church also the center of education, since the church was part of the community and wanted to provide education, they educated the freed and enslaved Blacks. Seeking autonomy, some blacks like Richard Allen founded separate Black denominations, the Second Great Awakening has been called the central and defining event in the development of Afro-Christianity. Free blacks also established Black churches in the South before 1860, after the Great Awakening, many blacks joined the Baptist Church, which allowed for their participation, including roles as elders and preachers
Religion in Black America
–
Women engaged in praise at a Pentecostal worship service.
Religion in Black America
–
The 1918 A.M.E. Church,
Cairo, Illinois.
Religion in Black America
–
Bishop Henry McNeal Turner, AME leader in Georgia.
Religion in Black America
–
Denominations
24.
Nation of Islam
–
The Nation of Islam, abbreviated as NOI, is an African American political and religious movement, founded in Detroit, Michigan, United States, by Wallace D. Fard Muhammad on July 4,1930. Its stated goals are to improve the spiritual, mental, social, critics have described the organization as being black supremacist and antisemitic. The Southern Poverty Law Center tracks the NOI as a hate group and its official newspaper is The Final Call. In 2007, the membership was estimated to be between 20,000 and 50,000. The Nation has long been an advocate of African-American businesses. There were a number of splits and splinter groups during Elijah Muhammads leadership, in 1977, Louis Farrakhan rejected Warith Deen Mohammeds leadership and re-established the Nation of Islam on the original model. He took over the Nation of Islams headquarters Temple, Mosque Maryam in Chicago, since 2010, under Farrakhan, members have been strongly encouraged to study Dianetics, and the Nation claims it has trained 1055 auditors. The NOI was founded in Detroit on July 4,1930, by Wallace Fard Muhammad, the NOI teaches that W. Fard Muhammad was both the Messiah of Judaism and the Mahdi of Islam. Fard chose his assistant minister, Elijah Muhammad, in 1931 to succeed him as head of the movement, Fard trained Muhammad night and day for 3½ years before he took over NOI in 1934. Muhammad and the movement were widely rejected during his 44 years as the NOI leader, Muhammad established a newspaper, The Final Call to Islam, and attempted to create schools founded upon Muslim teachings. Muslim parents agreed with the foundation of new schools. Muslim teachers were charged with contributing to the delinquency of minors, Muhammad left for Chicago in September of that year. He was soon joined by W. D. Fard Muhammad, in 1942, during World War II, Elijah Muhammad was charged and convicted of violating the Selective Service Act and jailed. Many other Nation of Islam members were charged for the same thing, upon his release in 1946, Elijah Muhammad slowly built up the membership of his movement through recruitment in the postwar decades. His program called for the establishment of a nation for black Americans. During this time, the Nation of Islam attracted Malcolm Little, while in prison in Boston for burglary from 1946 to 1952, Little joined the Nation of Islam. He was influenced by his brother, Reginald, who had become a member in Detroit, Little quit smoking, gambling and eating pork, in keeping with the Nations practices and dietary restrictions. He spent long hours reading books in the prison library and he sharpened his oratory skills by participating in debating classes
Nation of Islam
–
Mosque Maryam,
Chicago,
Illinois,
United States
Nation of Islam
–
Elijah Muhammad
Nation of Islam
–
A crowd of Black Muslims applaud during Elijah Muhammad's annual
Saviors' Day message in Chicago in 1974
Nation of Islam
–
The Million Man March,
Washington, D.C., October 1995
25.
Afrocentrism
–
Afrocentrism is a cultural ideology or worldview mostly limited to the United States that focuses on the history of black Africans. It is a response to global attitudes about African people and their historical contributions, Afrocentricity deals primarily with self-determination and African agency and is a Pan-African ideology in culture, philosophy, and history. S. Civil Rights Movement and in the development of African-American Studies programs in universities, in strict terms Afrocentrism, as a distinct academic ideology, reached its peak in the 1980s and 1990s. Today it is associated with Molefi Asante. Critics of Afrocentricity accuse it of being pseudohistory, reactive, the term Afrocentrism dates to 1962. The adjective Afrocentric appears in a proposal for an entry in Encyclopedia Africana. The abstract noun Afrocentricity dates to the 1970s, and was popularized by Molefi Asantes Afrocentricity and they increasingly took more active public roles despite severe racial discrimination and segregation. American and African intellectuals looked to the African past for a re-evaluation of what its civilizations had achieved, the combination of the European centuries gives us about four to five hundred years of solid European domination of intellectual concepts and philosophical ideas. Africa and Asia were subsumed under various headings of the European hierarchy, according to U. S. professor Victor Oguejiofor Okafor, concepts of Afrocentricity lie at the core of disciplines such as African American studies. A major theme of the work is the denial by Western academia of the African. Philosophy originated in Africa and the first philosophers in the world were Africans, Afrocentricity constitutes a new way of examining data, and a novel orientation to data, it carries with it assumptions about the current state of the African world. His aim is to lay out a plan for the recovery of African place, respectability, accountability. Afrocentricity can stand its ground among any ideology or religion, Marxism, Islam, Christianity, Buddhism and your Afrocentricity will emerge in the presence of these other ideologies because it is from you. Afrocentrism is the ideology that can liberate African people. A commitment to finding the subject-place of Africans in any social, political, economic, or religious phenomenon with implications for questions of sex, gender, a defence of African cultural elements as historically valid in the context of art, music, and literature. A celebration of centeredness and agency and a commitment to lexical refinement that eliminates pejoratives about Africans or other people, a powerful imperative from historical sources to revise the collective text of African people. Some also assert that the definition of Afrocentricity has never sat still long enough to be properly described, Afrocentric education is education designed to empower peoples of the African diaspora. A central premise behind it is that many Africans have been subjugated by limiting their awareness of themselves, to control a peoples culture is to control their tools of self-determination in relationship to others
Afrocentrism
–
A 1911 copy of the
NAACP journal
The Crisis depicting "Ra-Maat-Neb, one of the kings of the Upper Nile", a copy of the relief portraying
Nebmaatre I on
Meroe pyramid 17.
Afrocentrism
–
Pile of books on Afrocentrism
26.
Black Power
–
Black Power is a political slogan and a name for various associated ideologies aimed at achieving self-determination for people of African descent. It is used by African Americans in the United States, the earliest known usage of the term is found in a 1954 book by Richard Wright entitled Black Power. New York politician Adam Clayton Powell Jr. used the term on May 29,1966 during an address at Howard University, the only way we gonna stop them white men from whuppin us is to take over. What we gonna start sayin now is Black Power, Stokely Carmichael saw the concept of Black Power as a means of solidarity between individuals within the movement. It was a replacement of the Freedom Now, slogan of Carmichaels contemporary, the non-violent leader Martin Luther King. With his use of the term, Carmichael felt this movement was not just a movement for racial desegregation and he said, Black Power means black people coming together to form a political force and either electing representatives or forcing their representatives to speak their needs. Black Power adherents believed in Black autonomy, with a variety of such as black nationalism, black self-determination. Such positions caused friction with leaders of the mainstream Civil Rights Movement, however, many groups and individuals - including Rosa Parks, Robert F. Williams, Maya Angelou, Gloria Richardson, and Fay Bellamy Powell - participated in both civil rights and black power activism. A growing number of scholars conceive of the rights and black power movements as one interconnected Black Freedom Movement. Numerous Black Power advocates were in favor of black self determination due to the belief that people must lead. Stokely Carmichael is such an advocate and states that, only black people can convey the revolutionary idea--and it is a revolutionary idea--that black people are able to do things themselves, however, this is not to say that Black Power advocates promoted racial segregation. Stokely Carmichael and Charles V. Hamilton write that there is a definite and they felt that whites could serve the movement by educating other white people. Not all Black Power advocates were in favor of black separatism, while Stokely Carmichael and SNCC were in favor of separatism for a time in the late 1960s, organizations such as the Black Panther Party for Self-Defense were not. Bobby Seale, Chairman and Co-Founder of the Black Panther Party for Self-Defense, was outspoken about this issue and his stance was that the oppression of black people was more a result of economic exploitation than anything innately racist. In his book Seize the Time, he states that In our view it is a struggle between the massive proletarian working class and the small, minority ruling class. Working-class people of all colors must unite against the exploitative, oppressive ruling class, so let me emphasize again—we believe our fight is a class struggle and not a race struggle. Internationalist offshoots of black power include African Internationalism, pan-Africanism, black nationalism, douglass predicted, The days of Black Power are numbered. But with the swiftness of an arrow, it rushes to the tomb, while crushing its millions, it is also crushing itself
Black Power
–
Three Proud People mural in
Newtown, depicting the
1968 Olympics Black Power salute.
27.
Black Panther Party
–
In 1969, community social programs became a core activity of party members. The party enrolled the largest number of members and made the greatest impact in the Oakland-San Francisco Bay Area, New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, Seattle, Federal Bureau of Investigation Director J. The program was accused of assassinating Black Panther members. Black Panther Party membership reached a peak in 1970, with offices in 68 cities and thousands of members, after being vilified by the mainstream press, public support for the party waned, and the group became more isolated. In-fighting among Party leadership, caused largely by the FBIs COINTELPRO operation, by 1972 most Panther activity centered on the national headquarters and a school in Oakland, where the party continued to influence local politics. Though under constant police surveillance, the Chicago chapter remained active, the Seattle chapter lasted longer than most, with a breakfast program and medical clinics that continued even after the chapter disbanded in 1977. Party contractions continued throughout the 1970s, and by 1980 the Black Panther Party had just 27 members, the history of the Black Panther Party is controversial. Other commentators have described the Party as more criminal than political, the sweeping migration of black families out of the South during World War II transformed Oakland and cities throughout the West and the North. But not much changed in the cities of the North and West, Police departments were almost all white. In 1966, only 16 of Oaklands 661 police officers were African American, insurgent civil rights practices proved incapable of redressing these conditions, and the organizations that had led much of the nonviolent civil disobedience such as SNCC and CORE went into decline. Young black people in Oakland and other cities developed a rich ferment of study groups and political organizations, in late October 1966, Huey P. Newton and Bobby Seale founded the Black Panther Party. In formulating a new politics, they drew on their experiences working with a variety of Black Power organizations, Newton and Seale first met in 1962 when they were both students at Merritt College. They joined Donald Warden’s Afro-American Association, where they read widely, debated, dissatisfied with the failure of these organizations to directly challenge police brutality and appeal to the brothers on the block, Huey and Bobby sought to take matters into their own hands. After the police killed Matthew Johnson, a young black man in San Francisco. He had an epiphany that would distinguish the Black Panther Party from the multitude of organizations seeking to build Black Power. Newton saw the explosive rebellious anger of the ghetto as a force, inspired by Robert F. Williams armed resistance to the KKK, Newton studied California gun law until he knew it better than many police officers. Like the Community Alert Patrol in Los Angeles after the Watts Rebellion, but with a crucial difference, his patrols would carry loaded guns. According to Bobby Seale, they would sell the books, make the money, buy the guns, well protect a mother, protect a brother, and protect the community from the racist cops
Black Panther Party
–
Original six members of the Black Panther Party (1966) Top left to right: Elbert "Big Man" Howard,
Huey P. Newton (Defense Minister), Sherwin Forte,
Bobby Seale (Chairman) Bottom: Reggie Forte and
Little Bobby Hutton (Treasurer).
Black Panther Party
–
Black Panther Party
Black Panther Party
–
Black Panther Party founders Bobby Seale and Huey P. Newton standing in the street, armed with a Colt.45 and a shotgun.
Black Panther Party
–
Black Panther convention,
Lincoln Memorial, June 19, 1970.
28.
Pan-Africanism
–
Pan-Africanism is a worldwide intellectual movement that aims to encourage and strengthen bonds of solidarity between all people of African descent. It is based on the belief that unity is vital to economic, social, the ideology asserts that the fate of all African peoples and countries are intertwined. At its core Pan-Africanism is a belief that African peoples, both on the continent and in the diaspora, share not merely a common history, but a common destiny. The African Union Commission has its seat in Addis Ababa and the Pan-African Parliament has its seat in Johannesburg, Pan-Africanism stresses the need for collective self-reliance. Pan-Africanism exists as a governmental and grassroots objective, du Bois, and others in the diaspora. Solidarity will enable self-reliance, allowing the potential to independently provide for its people to be fulfilled. Crucially, an alliance would empower African people globally. that would unsettle social and political structures. in the Americas. United, African nations will have the economic, political and social clout to act and compete on the stage as do other large entities, such as the European Union. Pan-Africans or Pan-Africanists—often champion socialist principles and tend to be opposed to external political, critics accuse the ideology of homogenizing the experience of people of African descent. They also point to the difficulties of reconciling current divisions within countries on the continent, as a philosophy, Pan-Africanism represents the aggregation of the historical, cultural, spiritual, artistic, scientific, and philosophical legacies of Africans from past times to the present. Another important political form of a religious Pan-Africanist worldview appeared in the form of Ethiopianism, in London, the Sons of Africa was a political group addressed by Quobna Ottobah Cugoano in the 1791 edition of his book Thoughts and Sentiments on the Evil of Slavery. The group addressed meetings and organised letter-writing campaigns, published campaigning material and they wrote to figures such as Granville Sharp, William Pitt and other members of the white abolition movement, as well as King George III and the Prince of Wales, the future George IV. Modern Pan-Africanism began around the start of the 20th century, the African Association, later renamed the Pan-African Association, was established around 1897 by Henry Sylvester-Williams, who organized the First Pan-African Conference in London in 1900. With the independence of Ghana in March 1957, Kwame Nkrumah was elected as the first Prime Minister, Nkrumah emerged as a major advocate for the unity of Independent Africa. The Ghanaian President embodied a political activist approach to pan-Africanism as he championed the “quest for regional integration of the whole of the African continent”, Nkrumah’s pan-African principles, intended for a union between the Independent African states, upon a recognition their commonality, suppression under imperialism. The Conference invited delegates of political movements and major political leaders, with the exception of South Africa, all Independent States of the Continent attended, Egypt, Ethiopia, Ghana, Liberia, Libya, Morocco, Tunisia and Sudan. The Conference signified a monumental event in the movement, as it revealed a political and social union between the those considered Arabic states and the black African regions. Further, the Conference espoused a common African Nationalist identity, among the States, of unity, frantz Fanon, journalist, freedom fighter and a member of the Algerian, FLN Party attended the conference as a delegate for Algeria
Pan-Africanism
–
Kwame Nkrumah, an icon of Pan-Africanism
Pan-Africanism
–
A mural in western
Tanzania.
Pan-Africanism
–
Muammar Gaddafi at the first Africa-Latin America summit in 2006 in
Abuja,
Nigeria.
29.
Southern Christian Leadership Conference
–
The Southern Christian Leadership Conference is an African-American civil rights organization. SCLC, which is associated with its first president, Martin Luther King Jr, had a large role in the American Civil Rights Movement. Prior to this, Rustin, in New York City, conceived the idea of initiating such an effort and first sought C. K. Steele to make the call and take the lead role. Steele declined, but told Rustin he would be glad to work right beside him if he sought King in Montgomery and their goal was to form an organization to coordinate and support nonviolent direct action as a method of desegregating bus systems across the South. In addition to King, Rustin, Baker, and Steele, Fred Shuttlesworth of Birmingham, Joseph Lowery of Mobile, on February 15, a follow-up meeting was held in New Orleans. Out of these two meetings came a new organization with King as its president, a small office was established in the Prince Hall Masonic Temple Building on Auburn Avenue in Atlanta with Ella Baker as SCLCs first—and for a long time only—staff member. The organization also drew inspiration from the crusades of evangelist Billy Graham, during its early years, SCLC struggled to gain footholds in black churches and communities across the South. Social activism in favor of racial equality faced fierce repression from police, White Citizens Council, SCLCs advocacy of boycotts and other forms of nonviolent protest was controversial among both whites and blacks. Many black community believed that segregation should be challenged in the courts and that direct action excited white resistance, hostility. Many of these leaders were uneasy at involving ordinary blacks in mass activity such as boycotts. SCLCs belief that churches should be involved in activism against social ills was also deeply controversial. Many ministers and religious leaders—both black and white—thought that the role of the church was to focus on the needs of the congregation. To some of them, the activity of King and SCLC amounted to dangerous radicalism which they strongly opposed. Under the auspices of the Highlander Folk School the program was expanded across the South, the Johns Island Citizenship School was housed at The Progressive Club, listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2007. Eventually, close to 69,000 teachers, most of them volunteers and many with little formal education. In 1961 and 1962, SCLC joined SNCC in the Albany Movement and it is generally considered the organizations first major nonviolent campaign. At the time, it was considered by many to be unsuccessful, despite large demonstrations and many arrests, few changes were won, and the protests drew little national attention. Yet, despite the lack of immediate gains, much of the success of the subsequent Birmingham Campaign can be attributed to lessons learned in Albany, by contrast, the 1963 SCLC campaign in Birmingham, Alabama, was an unqualified success
Southern Christian Leadership Conference
–
Southern Christian Leadership Conference
30.
Congress of Racial Equality
–
The Congress of Racial Equality is an African-American civil rights organization in the United States that played a pivotal role for African Americans in the Civil Rights Movement. Founded in 1942, CORE was one of the Big Four civil rights organizations, along with the SCLC, the SNCC, and the NAACP. Its stated mission is to bring about equality for all regardless of race, creed, sex, age, disability. COREs national chairman was Roy Innis, CORE was founded in Chicago in March 1942. Among the founding members were James L. Farmer, Jr. George Houser, James R. Robinson, Samuel E. Riley, Bernice Fisher, Homer Jack, and Joe Guinn. Of the 50 original members 28 were men and 22 were women, roughly one-third of them were black, bayard Rustin, while not a father of the organization, was, as Farmer and Houser later said, an uncle to CORE and supported it greatly. The group had evolved out of the pacifist Fellowship of Reconciliation, the groups inspiration was Mahatma Gandhis teachings of non-violence resistance. Gandhi had, in turn, been influenced by the writings of Henry David Thoreau, the American author, poet, in the South, COREs nonviolent direct action campaigns opposed Jim Crow segregation and job discrimination, and fought for voting rights. Outside the South, CORE focused on discrimination in employment and housing, by 1961 CORE had 53 chapters throughout the United States. By 1963, most of the urban centers of the Northeast, Midwest, Mid-Atlantic and West Coast had one or more CORE chapters. In the South, CORE had active chapters and projects in Louisiana, Mississippi, Florida, South Carolina, and Kentucky. The members of group were arrested and jailed several times, but they received a great deal of publicity. By the early 1960s, Farmer, who had taken a hiatus from leading the group, returned as its secretary and sought to repeat the 1947 journey, coining a new name for it. On May 4,1961, participants journeyed to the deep South, the riders were met with severe violence. In Anniston, Alabama, one of the buses was fire-bombed, white mobs also attacked Freedom Riders in Birmingham and Montgomery. The violence garnered national attention, sparking a summer of similar rides by CORE, SNCC and other Civil Rights organizations, in 1960, the Chicago chapter of CORE began to challenge racial segregation in the Chicago Public Schools. By the late 1950s, the Board of Educations maintenance of the school policy resulted in a pattern of racial segregation in the CPS. Many segregated schools were overcrowded, and in order to ease overcrowding, double-shifts meant that students in affected schools attended less than a full day of class
Congress of Racial Equality
–
Congress of Racial Equality march in Washington DC on 22 September 1963 in memory of the children killed in the
Birmingham bombings. The banner, which says "No more Birminghams", shows a picture of the aftermath of the bombing.
Congress of Racial Equality
–
A CORE sign displayed as
Robert F. Kennedy speaks to a crowd outside the
Department of Justice Building in June 1963
31.
Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee
–
The Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee was one of the most important organizations of the Civil Rights Movement in the 1960s. It emerged from a student meeting organized by Ella Baker held at Shaw University in April 1960. SNCC grew into an organization with many supporters in the North who helped raise funds to support SNCCs work in the South. Many unpaid volunteers also worked with SNCC on projects in Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, Arkansas, SNCCs major contribution was in its field work, organizing voter registration drives all over the South, especially in Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi. A final SNCC legacy is the destruction of the psychological shackles which had kept black southerners in physical and mental peonage and it demonstrated that ordinary women and men, young and old, could perform extraordinary tasks. In the later 1960s, led by leaders such as Stokely Carmichael, SNCC focused on black power. It passed out of existence in the 1970s, founded in 1960 and inspired by the Greensboro and Nashville sit-ins, independent student-led groups began direct-action protests against segregation in dozens of southern communities. SNCC focused on mobilizing local communities, a policy in which African American communities would push for change, the most common action of these groups was organizing sit-ins at racially segregated lunch counters to protest the pervasiveness of Jim Crow and other forms of racism. The sit-ins were a point in using the courts and jail to exert moral. In addition to sitting in at lunch counters, the groups organized and carried out protests at segregated White public libraries, public parks, public swimming pools. At that time, all those facilities financed by taxes were closed to blacks, the white response was often to close the facility, rather than integrate it. The Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee, as an organization, began with an $800, out of this conference the SNCC was formed. Ella Baker, who organized the Shaw conference, was the SCLC director at the time she helped form SNCC, but SNCC was not a branch of SCLC. Instead of being tied to SCLC or the NAACP as a youth division. Ms. Baker later lost her job with SCLC, which she had helped found, barry served as chairman for one year. The second chairman was Charles F. McDew, who served as the chairman from 1961 to 1963, Rap Brown were chairmen in the late 1960s. SNCCs executive secretary, James Forman, played a role in running the organization. In the years followed, SNCC members were referred to as shock troops of the revolution
Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee
–
Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)
32.
National Urban League
–
It is the oldest and largest community-based organization of its kind in the nation. Its current President is Marc Morial, the Committee on Urban Conditions Among Negroes was founded in New York City on September 29,1910 by Ruth Standish Baldwin and Dr. George Edmund Haynes, among others. In 1918, Eugene K. Jones took the leadership of the organization, in 1920, the organization took the present name, the National Urban League. The mission of the Urban League movement, as stated by the National Urban League, is to enable African Americans to secure economic self-reliance, parity, power and civil rights. In 1941, Lester Granger was appointed Executive Secretary and led the NULs effort to support the March on Washington proposed by A, philip Randolph, Bayard Rustin and A. J. Muste to protest racial discrimination in defense work and the military. During the Civil Rights Movement, Granger prevailed in his insistence that the NUL continue its strategy of education and persuasion, in 1961, Whitney Young became executive director amidst the expansion of activism in the civil rights movement, which provoked a change for the League. Young substantially expanded the Leagues fund-raising ability- and made the League a full partner in the civil rights movement, in 1963, the NUL hosted the planning meetings of A. Philip Randolph, Martin Luther King, Jr. and other civil leaders for the March on Washington. Young also pushed for federal aid to cities, clarence M. Pendleton, Jr. was from 1975 to 1981, the head of the Urban League in San Diego, California. In 1981, U. S. President Ronald W. Reagan tapped Pendleton as the chairman of the United States Commission on Civil Rights, Pendleton sought to steer the commission into the conservative direction in line with Reagans views on social and civil rights policies. In 1994, Hugh Price was appointed as president of the Urban League, in 2003, Marc Morial, former mayor of New Orleans, Louisiana, was appointed the leagues eighth President and Chief Executive Officer. He worked to reenergize the movements diverse constituencies by building on the legacy of the organization, today, the National Urban League has 93 affiliates serving 300 communities, providing direct services that impact and improve the lives of more than 2 million people nationwide. The National Urban League is a member of the Coalition to Stop Gun Violence. In 1989, it was the beneficiary of all proceeds from the Stop the Violence Movement and their hip hop single, in February 2010 the Urban League of Essex County, New Jersey announced a partnership with the National Association of Professional Women to form a national Open Doorways project. It is designed to offer inner-city middle-school girls a chance to work with women as role models. The Presidents of the National Urban League have been,2015 State of Black America, Education, Jobs + Justice, EBook Chicago Urban League - affiliate Carle, defining the Struggle, National Racial Justice Organizing, 1880-1915. Focus on NAACP and also Urban League, the National Urban League and New Deal Programs. In JSTOR Parris, Guichard and Lester Brooks, blacks in the City, A History of the National Urban League
National Urban League
–
Houston Area Urban League building in
Downtown Houston
National Urban League
–
National Urban League logo
National Urban League
–
Wall Street, New York
33.
United Negro College Fund
–
The UNCF was incorporated on April 25,1944 by Frederick D. Patterson, Mary McLeod Bethune, and others. The UNCF is headquartered at 1805 7th Street, NW in Washington, in 2005, the UNCF supported approximately 65,000 students at over 900 colleges and universities with approximately $113 million in grants and scholarships. About 60% of these students are the first in their families to attend college, UNCF also administers over 450 named scholarships. The UNCFs president and chief officer is Michael Lomax. Past presidents of the UNCF included William H. Gray and Vernon Jordan and it provides scholarships to students attending its member colleges as well as to those going elsewhere. Graduates of UNCF scholarships have included blacks in the fields of business, politics, health care. The UNCF has received donations for its scholarship programs. One of the more high-profile donations made was by then-senator and future U. S. President John F. Kennedy who donated the money from the Pulitzer Prize for his book Profiles in Courage to the Fund. The largest ever single donation was made in 1990 by Walter Annenberg, beginning in 1980, singer Lou Rawls began the Lou Rawls Parade of Stars telethon to benefit the UNCF. The telethon featured comedy and musical performances from artists in support of the UNCFs. The event has raised over $200 million in 27 shows for the fund through 2006, in January 2004, Rawls was honored by the United Negro College Fund for his more than 25 years of charity work with the organization. Instead of Rawls hosting and performing, he was given the seat of honor and celebrated by his colleagues, including Stevie Wonder, The OJays, Gerald Levert, Ashanti. In addition to the telethon, there are a number of fundraising activities, including the Walk for Education held annually in Los Angeles, California. In Houston, Texas, the Cypresswood Golf Club hosts a golf tournament in April. In 2014, Koch Industries Inc. and the Charles Koch Foundation made a $25 million grant to UNCF. In protest of the Kochs, the American Federation of State, County and Municipal Employees, in 1972, the UNCF adopted as its motto the maxim A mind is a terrible thing to waste. This maxim has become one of the most widely recognized slogans in advertising history, the motto, which has been used in numerous award-winning UNCF ad campaigns, was created by Forest Long, of the advertising agency Young & Rubicam, in partnership with the Ad Council. A lesser-known slogan the UNCF also uses, in reference to its beneficiaries, points out about them, not asking for a handout
United Negro College Fund
–
United Negro College Fund headquarters in Washington, D.C.
United Negro College Fund
–
United Negro College Fund
34.
National Pan-Hellenic Council
–
The National Pan-Hellenic Council is a collaborative organization of nine historically African American, international Greek lettered fraternities and sororities. The nine NPHC organizations are sometimes referred to as the Divine Nine. The member/partner organizations have not formally adopted nor recommended the use of term to describe their collaborative grouping. The NPHC was formed as a permanent organization on May 10,1930 on the campus of Howard University, in Washington, D. C. with Matthew W. Bullock as the active Chairman, NPHC was incorporated under the laws of the State of Illinois in 1937. Each constituent member organization determines its own direction and program agenda. Today, the purpose and focus of member organizations remains camaraderie and academic excellence for its members. Each promotes community awareness and action through educational, economic, the founding members of the NPHC were Kappa Alpha Psi, Omega Psi Phi, Alpha Kappa Alpha, Delta Sigma Theta, and Zeta Phi Beta. The councils membership expanded as Alpha Phi Alpha, Phi Beta Sigma, Sigma Gamma Rho, in his book on BGLOs, Lawrence Ross coined the phrase The Divine Nine when referring to the coalition. As required by various campus recognition policies, neither the NPHC, the members of the National Pan-Hellenic Council are shown below in order of founding. Gregory S. Parks, and Clarenda M. Phillips, African American Fraternities and Sororities, The Legacy and the Vision. Lexington, KY, University Press of Kentucky, Black Greek-Letter Organizations in the 21st Century, Our Fight Has Just Begun. Lexington, KY, University Press of Kentucky, ISBN 978-0-8131-2491-9 Skocpol, Theda, Ariane Liazos, and Marshall Ganz. What A Mighty Power We Can Be, African American Fraternal Groups and the Struggle for Racial Equality
National Pan-Hellenic Council
–
National Pan-Hellenic Council
35.
National Council of Negro Women
–
The National Council of Negro Women is a non-profit organization with the mission to advance the opportunities and the quality of life for African-American women, their families and communities. NCNW fulfills this mission through research, advocacy, national and community-based services and programs in the United States and Africa. The national headquarters, which acts as a source for program planning, is based in Washington, D. C. on Pennsylvania Avenue. NCNW also has two field offices, the NCNW was founded in 1935 by Mary McLeod Bethune, whose parents were born into slavery, was a distinguished educator, and government consultant. Mary McLeod Bethune saw the need for harnessing the power and extending the leadership of African-American women through a national organization. In The early years of NCNW, the volunteer staff operated out of Bethunes living room in Washington D. C. S. in a three-nation educational exchange. Developing a small business incubator in Senegal Partnering in the implementation of a microcredit program in Eritrea extending small business loans. The Council also runs four research and policy centers in its efforts to develop best practices in addressing the health, educational, NCNW organizes the National Black Family Reunion, a two-day cultural event celebrating the enduring strengths and traditional values of the African American fathers. As of 2014, Africana womanism List of womens organizations Julie A. Gallagher, the National Council of Negro Women, Human Rights, and the Cold War, in Laughlin, Kathleen A. and Jacqueline L. Castledine, eds
National Council of Negro Women
–
The
Dorothy I. Height Building, headquarters of the National Council of Negro Women, located at 633
Pennsylvania Avenue in Washington, D.C.
36.
Negro league baseball
–
The Negro leagues were United States professional baseball leagues comprising teams predominantly made up of African Americans and, to a lesser extent, Latin Americans. In 1885 the Cuban Giants formed the first black baseball team. The first league, the National Colored Base Ball League, was organized strictly as a minor league, because blacks were not being accepted into the major and minor baseball leagues, they formed their own teams and had made professional teams by the 1880s. The first known game between two black teams was held on November 15,1859, in New York City. The Henson Base Ball Club of Jamaica, Queens, defeated the Unknowns of Weeksville, immediately after the end of the American Civil War in 1865 and during the Reconstruction period that followed, a black baseball scene formed in the East and Mid-Atlantic states. By the end of the 1860s, the black baseball mecca was Philadelphia, two former cricket players, James H. Francis and Francis Wood, formed the Pythian Base Ball Club. They played in Camden, New Jersey, at the landing of the Federal Street Ferry, at the end of the 1867 season the National Association of Baseball Players voted to exclude any club with a black player. In some ways Blackball thrived under segregation, with the few black teams of the day playing not only each other, Black teams earned the bulk of their income playing white independent semipro clubs. Baseball featuring African American players became professionalized by the 1870s, moses Fleetwood Walker and his brother, Welday Wilberforce Walker, were the first two black players in the major leagues. They both played for the 1884 Toledo Blue Stockings in the American Association, then in 1886 second baseman Frank Grant joined the Buffalo Bisons of the International League, the strongest minor league, and hit.340, third highest in the league. C. Merged to form the Cuban Giants, the success of the Cubans led to the creation of the first recognized Negro league in 1887 – the National Colored Base Ball League. Two more joined before the season but never played a game, the league, led by Walter S. Brown of Pittsburgh, applied for and was granted official minor league status and thus protection under the major league-led National Agreement. This move prevented any team in organized baseball from signing any of the NCBBL players, the reserve clause would have tied the players to their clubs from season to season but the NCBBL failed. One month into the season, the Resolutes folded, a week later, only three teams were left. Beginning in 1899 several Cuban baseball teams played in North America, including the All Cubans, the Cuban Stars, the Cuban Stars, some of them included white Cuban players and some were Negro Leagues members. The few players on the minor league teams were constantly dodging verbal and physical abuse from both competitors and fans. Then the Compromise of 1877 removed the remaining obstacles from the Souths enacting the Jim Crow laws, after Anson marched his team onto the field, military style as was his custom, he demanded that the blacks not play. Newark capitulated, and later that day, league owners voted to refuse future contracts to blacks
Negro league baseball
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Octavius Catto, black baseball pioneer
Negro league baseball
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Bud Fowler, the first professional black baseball player with one of his teams, Western of
Keokuk, Iowa
Negro league baseball
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Moses Fleetwood Walker, possibly the first African American major league baseball player
Negro league baseball
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Chicago Union Giants in 1905
37.
Central Intercollegiate Athletic Association
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The Central Intercollegiate Athletic Association is a collegiate athletic conference, mostly consisting of historically black colleges and universities. CIAA institutions are affiliated at the Division II level of the National Collegiate Athletic Association, conference members are primarily located in North Carolina and Virginia. There is also one school from Maryland and another from Pennsylvania, because a majority of the members are in North Carolina, the CIAA moved its headquarters to Charlotte, North Carolina from Hampton, Virginia in August 2015. The CIAA sponsors 16 annual championships and is divided into Northern and Southern divisions for some sports, bounce TV aired CIAA games and championship events from the 2011–12 season through the 2013–14 season. The CIAA, founded on the campus of Hampton Institute in 1912, is the oldest African-American athletic conference in the United States and it was originally known as the Colored Intercollegiate Athletic Association and adopted its current name in December 1950. Founding leaders were Allen Washington and C. H, williams of Hampton Institute, Ernest J. Marshall of Howard University, George Johnson of Lincoln University, W. E. Hargrave of Shaw University, and J. W, barco and J. W. Pierce of Virginia Union University. Football is experiencing a resurgence after going through a period of decline at several member universities. Football was absent from the campus of Saint Augustines University for nearly three decades, before getting reinstated by the administration in 2002, Shaw University then brought back its football program in 2003, following a hiatus of 24 years. Lincoln University, a member, added varsity football in 2008 and was readmitted to the CIAA after nearly three decades in Division III. Chowan University joined the CIAA in 2008 for football only, on October 14,2008, the CIAA Board of Directors admitted Chowan as a full member effective July 1,2009, the first non-HBCU to play in the conference. The CIAA, founded in 1912, is composed predominantly of Historically Black Colleges and Universities spanning the east coast from Pennsylvania to North Carolina, on August 27,2012, the CIAA announced the appointment of Jacqie Carpenter, the first African-American female commissioner to hold the position. The lot sold for $11,500 to an unnamed bidder, Chowan — football was an affiliate member in 2008–09. Full member Full member Associate member Associate member ‡ — D-I sport The CIAA is the first NCAA Division II conference to have its tournament televised as part of Championship Week on ESPN. Over 100,000 fans and spectators are in attendance annually, the tournament has a $55 million economic impact on Charlotte each year. One of the events of Super Saturday at the CIAA Basketball Tournament is the Cheer Exhibition. At the exhibition, CIAA cheer squads showcase elaborate themes and routines to entertain fans, the CIAA is one of the only conferences in the country that has an annual All-Conference Cheerleading Team
Central Intercollegiate Athletic Association
38.
Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Conference
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Formed in 1913, the SIAC is a member of the National Collegiate Athletic Association and competes in Division II. Only two charter members are part of the conference--Clark Atlanta University and Tuskegee University. The U. S. Armys 24th Infantry Division teams competed as members of the SIAC from 1930 until 1935, the SIAC leads all Division II conferences in football attendance. Morehouse College — mens institution, does not field womens sports, central State — football was an affiliate member from 2013–2015. Full member Full member Associate member Associate member ‡ — D-I sport Golf returned as a sport in 2008. The first SIAC Intercollegiate Golf Championship was held at Tuskegee in 1938, the SIAC stopped Golf as a sport due to World War II but restarted in 1947 as an official conference sport until 1980 when golf was discontinued
Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Conference
–
Old SIAC logo
Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Conference
39.
Mid-Eastern Athletic Conference
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The Mid-Eastern Athletic Conference is a collegiate athletic conference whose full members are historically black colleges and universities in the Southeastern and the Mid-Atlantic United States. It participates in the National Collegiate Athletic Associations Division I, and in football, currently, the MEAC has automatic qualifying bids for NCAA postseason play in baseball, men’s basketball, women’s basketball, football, softball, men and women’s tennis, and volleyball. Bowling was officially sanctioned as a MEAC governed sport in 1999, before that season, the MEAC was the first conference to secure NCAA sanctioning for women’s bowling by adopting the club sport prior to the 1996-97 school year. In 1969, a group, whose members were associated with interscholastic athletics, met in Durham. The conference was confirmed in 1970, and had its first season of competition in football in 1971, the MEAC has had to date, three full-time commissioners. In 1978, the MEAC selected its first full-time commissioner, Kenneth A. Free and he was succeeded by Charles S. Harris, who served at the position until 2002. On September 1,2002, Dennis E. Thomas became the conference’s commissioner, the MEAC experienced its first expansion in 1979 when Bethune–Cookman College and Florida A&M University were admitted as new members. That same year, founding members Morgan State University, North Carolina Central University and University of Maryland Eastern Shore withdrew from the conference. All three schools eventually returned to the conference, Maryland Eastern Shore rejoined in 1981, Morgan State in 1984, on June 8,1980, the MEAC was classified as a Division I conference by the National Collegiate Athletic Association. Prior to that year, the league operated as a Division II conference, the following month the MEAC received an automatic qualification to the NCAA Division I Mens Basketball Championship. In 1984, membership in the MEAC again changed as Florida A&M chose to leave, the university would return to the conference two years later. Coppin State College, now Coppin State University, joined the conference in 1985, the MEAC would find stability in membership with the addition of two HBCUs in Virginia, Hampton University and Norfolk State University in 1995 and 1997 respectively. For the next 10 years, the MEAC would remain an 11-member conference, North Carolina Central University rejoined the conference effective July 1,2010. Savannah State originally applied for membership into the MEAC in 2006, membership was then deferred until the completion of the imposed probation period, which ended in May 2009. Savannah State then resubmitted their application for membership again in 2009 and was finally granted probationary membership status, on September 8,2011, the university was confirmed as a full MEAC member. Augusta became the MEACs first associate member and first non-HBCU with any type of membership and they were scheduled to begin full membership and gain access to NCAA tournaments in 2011. Full members Full members Associate members Other Conference Other Conference Maryland Eastern Shore was a member of the MEAC in 1970. In 1980, UMES dropped football, and returned to the MEAC the next year as a member that no longer had a football program
Mid-Eastern Athletic Conference
40.
Southwestern Athletic Conference
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The Southwestern Athletic Conference is a collegiate athletic conference headquartered in Birmingham, Alabama, which is made up of historically black universities in the Southern United States. It participates in the NCAAs Division I for all sports, in football, it participates in the Football Championship Subdivision, still frequently referred to by its former designation of Division I-AA. The SWAC is widely considered the premier HBCU conference and ranks among the elite in the nation in terms of alumni affiliated with sports teams. In 1994, the SWAC fell just 40,000 fans short of becoming the first non-Football Bowl Subdivision conference to attract one million fans to its home games, in 1920, athletic officials from six Texas HBCUs — C. H. Fuller of Bishop College, Red Randolph and C. H, patterson of Paul Quinn College, E. G. Evans, H. J. Evans and H. J. Starns of Prairie View A&M, D. C. Fuller of Texas College and G. Whitte Jordan of Wiley College — met in Houston, Texas, to discuss common interests. At this meeting, they agreed to form a new league, Paul Quinn became the first of the original members to withdraw from the league in 1929. When Langston University of Oklahoma was admitted into the two years later, it began the migration of state-supported institutions into the SWAC. Southern University entered the ranks in 1934, followed by Arkansas AM&N in 1936, the enter-exit cycle continued in 1961 when Texas College withdrew, followed by the admittance of Alcorn A&M in 1962. Wiley left in 1968, the same year Mississippi Valley State College entered, Arkansas AM&N exited in 1970 and Alabama State University entered in 1982. Arkansas–Pine Bluff rejoined the SWAC on July 1,1997, regaining full-member status one year later, Alabama A&M University became the conference’s tenth member when it became a full member in September,1999 after a one-year period as an affiliate SWAC member. Most of the former SWAC members that have left the conference are currently a part of the Red River Athletic Conference of the NAIA, the SWAC is one of two conferences – the other being the Ivy League – that does not participate in the FCS football playoffs. The SWAC instead splits its schools into two divisions, and plays a conference championship game, the SWAC has occasionally been a participant in bowl games, the most recent being the Celebration Bowl, which features the SWAC as one of its tie-ins. Current championship competition offered by the SWAC includes competition for men in baseball, basketball, cross country, football, golf, indoor track, outdoor track & field and tennis. Women’s competition is offered in the sports of basketball, bowling, cross country, golf, indoor track, outdoor track & field, soccer, softball, tennis and volleyball. Note Arkansas–Pine Bluff was a member of the SWAC from 1936 to 1970 as Arkansas AM&N before re-joining in the 1997-98 academic season, note - Upon the closure of Bishop College, Paul Quinn College relocated from Waco to Dallas and re-established itself at the Bishop College campus. - Huston–Tillotson University was formerly known as Samuel Huston College, in 1933 Langston appeared to win the title outright with a 4-0 conference record after the regular season, while Wiley finished 4-1, and Prairie View A&M finished 3-1. Langston was invited to the Prairie View Bowl, which was won by Prairie View, the Panthers subsequently declared themselves SWAC champions even though their claim was based on a postseason game
Southwestern Athletic Conference
41.
Americo-Liberians
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Americo-Liberians are a Liberian ethnicity of African-American, Afro-Caribbean, and liberated African descent. The sister ethnic group of Americo-Liberians are the Sierra Leone Creole people, Americo-Liberians trace their ancestry to free-born and formerly enslaved African Americans who immigrated in the 19th century to become the founders of the state of Liberia. They identified there as Americo Liberians, later in Liberia, these African Americans integrated 5,000 liberated Africans called Congos and 500 Barbadian immigrants into the hegemony. Unlike the Sierra Leone Creoles, Americo-Liberians rarely intermarried with indigenous West Africans, the colonists and their descendants led the political, social, cultural and economic sectors of the country, they ruled the new nation from 19th century until 1980 as a dominant minority. From 1878 to 1980, the Republic of Liberia was a one-party state ruled by the Americo-Liberian-dominated True Whig Party, the early settlers practiced their Christian faith, sometimes in combination with traditional African religious beliefs. They spoke an African American Vernacular English, and few ventured into the interior or mingled with local African peoples and they developed an Americo-Liberian society, culture and political organization that was strongly influenced by their roots in the United States, particularly the countrys Southeast. Today, the Americo-Liberian population numbers about 150,000, most of the powerful old Americo-Liberian families fled to the United States in the 1980s after President William Tolbert was assassinated in a military coup. Making up about 5% of the Liberian population, Americo-Liberians dominated national politics from the founding of the colony until Samuel Doe led a coup in 1980. There is debate about how Americo-Liberians held on to power for so long, scholars have noted, however, that during the Americo-Liberian reign, the leaders had an array of skin colors and African-European admixture, meaning that theory is unlikely. It is more likely they built their power on their connections to the ACS, familiarity with American culture and economics, others believe their long reign was in part due to the Masonic Order of Liberia, a fraternal organization, as opposed to colorism. A marble Masonic Lodge was built in 1867 as one of Monrovias most impressive buildings and it was considered a bastion of Americo-Liberian power, and was strong enough to survive the civil war. After years of neglect after the war the Masonic order has repaired the lodge, in 1980, a violent military coup was led by Samuel Doe. Does tenure as leader of Liberia led to a period of civil wars, in the early 21st century, Liberia has been reduced to one of the most impoverished nations in the world, in which most of the population lives below the international poverty line. While globalization has carried African-American culture around the world, Americo-Liberians reproduced their own cultural American continuity in Liberia and its name means land of the free, and it is considered the most American of African countries in terms of its political institutions. The Liberian constitution, structure of government, and flag resemble those of the United States, the former residences of Americo-Liberian families were built in the style of antebellum plantation homes they may have admired in the American South. Their language continued to carry elements of African American Vernacular English, by many accounts, Liberians easily integrate into African-American communities. Liberian immigrants to the United States have the highest passport acceptance rates, although many of the Americo-Liberian class left or were killed during the civil wars, and their houses and monuments crumbling, ordinary Liberians look to the United States for aid. African-American leaders consider theirs to be a relationship, due to the countries histories
Americo-Liberians
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Edward James Roye •
Edward Wilmot Blyden
Americo-Liberians
Americo-Liberians
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Monrovia in the 19th century
42.
Black Indians in the United States
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Black Indians are people of mixed African-American and Native American heritage, who have strong ties to Native American culture. Many Indigenous peoples of the Eastern Woodlands, such as the Narragansett, Pequot, members of the Five Civilized Tribes also participated in enslaving Africans, and some Africans migrated with them to the West on the Trail of Tears in 1830 and later. The Chickasaw Nation never extended citizenship to Chickasaw Freedmen, until recently, historic relations between Native Americans and African Americans were relatively neglected in mainstream United States history studies. At various times, Africans had varying degrees of contact with Native Americans, most interaction took place in the Southern United States, where the largest number of people were enslaved. A significant number of African Americans thus have some Native American ancestry, relationships among different Native Americans, Africans, and African Americans have been varied and complex. Some groups were more accepting of Africans than others and welcomed them as members of their respective cultures and communities. Native peoples often disagreed about the role of ethnic African people in their communities, other Native Americans saw uses for slavery and did not oppose it for others. After the American Civil War some African Americans became members of the US Army and fought against the Native Americans and their military units became known as the Buffalo Soldiers. Black Seminole in particular were recruited and worked as Native American scouts for the Army, Black Indians, An American Story brings to light a forgotten part of Americans past – the cultural and racial fusion of Native and African Americans. Narrated by James Earl Jones, Black Indians, An American Story explores what brought the two together, what drove them apart and the challenges they face today. Records of contacts between Africans and Native Americans date back to April 1502, when the first enslaved African arrived in Hispaniola, some Africans escaped inland from the colony of Santo Domingo, those who survived and joined with the natives became the first circle of Black Indians. In June of that year, Lucas Vasquez de Ayllón established a Spanish colony near the mouth of the Pee Dee River in present-day South Carolina, the Spanish settlement was named San Miguel de Gualdape, its inhabitants included 100 enslaved Africans. In 1526 the first enslaved African fled the colony and took refuge with local Native Americans, pueblo peoples had contact with the Moroccan slave Esteban de Dorantes in 1534 before any European contact. As part of the Spanish Pánfilo de Narváez expedition, Esteban traveled from Florida in 1528 to what is now New Mexico in 1539, intermarriage between enslaved African and Native Americans began in the early 17th century in the coastal settlements. In 1622 Native Americans attempted to overrun the European colony of Jamestown and they killed the Europeans but brought the African slaves as captives back to their own communities, gradually integrating them. Interracial relationships occurred between African Americans and members of tribes in the coastal states. Several colonial advertisements for runaway slaves made direct reference to the connections which Africans had in Native American communities, reward notices in colonial newspapers now told of African slaves who ran off with his Indian wife or had kin among the Indians or is part-Indian and speaks their language good. Colonists in South Carolina felt so concerned about the threat posed by the mixed African
Black Indians in the United States
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Illinois Jacquet
Black Indians in the United States
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George Bonga (1802–1880), "Black" fur trader
Black Indians in the United States
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Charley Patton
Black Indians in the United States
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Diana Fletcher (b. 1838),
African -
Seminole who joined the
Kiowa tribe
43.
Gullah
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The Gullah are the descendants of enslaved Africans who lived in the Lowcountry regions of Georgia, and South Carolina, which includes both the coastal plain and the Sea Islands. Descendents of enslaved Africans from the Gullah tribe also comprise of majority of the current inhabitants in The Bahamas, the Gullah people and their language are also called Geechee, which may be derived from the name of the Ogeechee River near Savannah, Georgia. The Georgia communities are distinguished by identifying as either Freshwater Geechee or Saltwater Geechee, the Gullah people speak an English-based creole language containing many African loanwords and influenced by African languages in grammar and sentence structure. Sometimes referred to as Sea Island Creole by linguists and scholars, There are also ties to Barbadian Creole, Belizean Creole, Jamaican Patois and the Krio language of West Africa. Gullah crafts, farming and fishing traditions, folk beliefs, music, rice-based cuisine, the origin of the word Gullah is unclear. Some scholars suggest that it may be cognate with the word Angola and they created a new culture synthesized from that of the various African peoples brought into Charleston and South Carolina. This area was known as the Grain Coast or Rice Coast to British colonists in the Caribbean and the Southern colonies of North America, most of the tribes there are of Mande or Manding origins. The name Geechee, another name for the Gullah people, may derive from the name of the Kissi people. Some scholars suggest that the origin of the Gullah people can be traced to the Dyula ethnic group of West Africa, the Dyula civilization had a larger scope that stretched from Senegal through Mali to Burkina Faso and the rest of French West Africa. The word Dyula is pronounced Gwullah among members of the Akan ethnic group in Ghana, the main source of connection the Dyula people had to Europeans was through the Grain Coast and Rice Coast. Some scholars have also suggested indigenous American origins for these words and it should be noted, however, that the term Windward Coast often referred to Sierra Leone, so the figure for that region is higher than just 6%. Particularly along the western coast, the people had cultivated African rice for possibly up to 3,000 years, African rice is a separate species from Asian rice, and was originally domesticated in the inland delta of the Upper Niger River. Two British trading companies based in England operated the castle at Bunce Island. Henry Laurens was their agent in Charleston and was a planter and his counterpart in England was the Scottish merchant and slave trader Richard Oswald. Many of the enslaved Africans taken in West Africa were processed through Bunce Island and it was a prime export site for slaves to South Carolina and Georgia. Slave castles in Ghana, for instance, shipped their people to sites in the Caribbean islands, in 1808 both Great Britain and the United States prohibited the African slave trade. The British, which patrolled to intercept slave ships off Africa, the Gullah people have been able to preserve much of their African cultural heritage because of climate, geography, cultural pride, and patterns of importation of enslaved Africans. Hair, Gullah culture was formed as a culture in the colonies
Gullah
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A gullah woman makes a sweetgrass basket in Charleston's City Market
Gullah
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The Gullah region once extended from SE North Carolina to NE Florida.
Gullah
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Wooden mortar and pestle from the rice loft of a South Carolina lowcountry plantation
Gullah
–
Gullah basket
44.
Igbo American
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Igbo Americans, or Americans of Igbo ancestry, are residents of the United States who identify as having Igbo ancestry from modern day Nigeria. Identified Igbo slaves were described by the ethnonyms Ibo and Ebo. Some Igbo slaves were also referred to as bites, denoting their Bight of Biafra origin and their presence in the United States was met with mixed feelings by American plantation owners because of their rebellious attitudes to enslavement. Igbo culture contributed to the creolised African American culture and is evident in such cultural vestiges as the Jonkonnu parades of North Carolina. Igbo Americans introduced the Igbo word okra into the English language, the recent migrant population from Nigeria settled in many of the United States larger cities and urban centres and had come largely in search of economic opportunities in the late 20th century. The Igbo were affected heavily by the Atlantic slave trade in the 18th century, enslaved Igbo were known for being rebellious and having a high count of suicide in defiance of slavery. In the United States the Igbo were most numerous in the states of Maryland and Virginia, the Frontier Culture Museum of Virginia estimates around 38% of captives taken to Virginia were from the Bight of Biafra. Igbo peoples constituted the majority of enslaved Africans in Maryland, Chambers has been quoted saying My research suggests that perhaps 60 percent of black Americans have at least one Igbo ancestor. Virginia was the colony that took in the largest percentage of Igbo slaves, researchers such as David Eltis estimate between 30—45% of the imported slaves were from the Bight of Biafra, of these slaves 80% were likely Igbo. A so-called conservative estimate of the amount of Igbo taken into Virginia between 1698 and 1778 is placed at 25,000, the Igbo concentration was especially high in the Tidewater and Piedmont regions of the Virginia interior. The high concentration of Igbo slaves in Virginia was contributed to further by neighboring states, planters in South Carolina and Georgia looked down on Igbo slaves because many were rebellious. Because of this the majority of Igbo slaves were taken and sold to Virginian planters, some possible Igbo names were also found among slave records in Virginia. Some had their ethnicity added to their names such as Eboe Sarah and these hints of Igbo influence go along with cultural remnants pointing towards the Igbo presence in Virginia, one of which is the use of the Eboe drum in music. The Igbo presence in Virginia also brought new practices such as the cultivation of Okra, slaves in Virginia relied on sweet potato which is argued by Douglas Chambers to be an indication of a substitute for yam, the Igbo staple crop. The state of Kentucky, which was carved out of the Colony of Virginia had received many of Virginias slave drivers and these migrations spread out the population of African slaves in America, including Igbo slaves. Here the Igbo population had become heavily creoleized alongside other African ethnicities that were taken in significant numbers to America. African cultures were suppressed in the American slave era. The plantation and slave owners made sure to suppress African cultures through intimidation and torture, stripping away slaves names, as expected, Igbo culture faced the same oppression, however some cultural remnants of Igbo origin was found and can still be found in the United States
Igbo American
–
W.D. Robeson
Igbo American
Igbo American
Igbo American
45.
English language
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English /ˈɪŋɡlɪʃ/ is a West Germanic language that was first spoken in early medieval England and is now the global lingua franca. Named after the Angles, one of the Germanic tribes that migrated to England, English is either the official language or one of the official languages in almost 60 sovereign states. It is the third most common language in the world, after Mandarin. It is the most widely learned second language and a language of the United Nations, of the European Union. It is the most widely spoken Germanic language, accounting for at least 70% of speakers of this Indo-European branch, English has developed over the course of more than 1,400 years. The earliest forms of English, a set of Anglo-Frisian dialects brought to Great Britain by Anglo-Saxon settlers in the century, are called Old English. Middle English began in the late 11th century with the Norman conquest of England, Early Modern English began in the late 15th century with the introduction of the printing press to London and the King James Bible, and the start of the Great Vowel Shift. Through the worldwide influence of the British Empire, modern English spread around the world from the 17th to mid-20th centuries, English is an Indo-European language, and belongs to the West Germanic group of the Germanic languages. Most closely related to English are the Frisian languages, and English, Old Saxon and its descendent Low German languages are also closely related, and sometimes Low German, English, and Frisian are grouped together as the Ingvaeonic or North Sea Germanic languages. Modern English descends from Middle English, which in turn descends from Old English, particular dialects of Old and Middle English also developed into a number of other English languages, including Scots and the extinct Fingallian and Forth and Bargy dialects of Ireland. English is classified as a Germanic language because it shares new language features with other Germanic languages such as Dutch, German and these shared innovations show that the languages have descended from a single common ancestor, which linguists call Proto-Germanic. Through Grimms law, the word for foot begins with /f/ in Germanic languages, English is classified as an Anglo-Frisian language because Frisian and English share other features, such as the palatalisation of consonants that were velar consonants in Proto-Germanic. The earliest form of English is called Old English or Anglo-Saxon, in the fifth century, the Anglo-Saxons settled Britain and the Romans withdrew from Britain. England and English are named after the Angles, Old English was divided into four dialects, the Anglian dialects, Mercian and Northumbrian, and the Saxon dialects, Kentish and West Saxon. Through the educational reforms of King Alfred in the century and the influence of the kingdom of Wessex. The epic poem Beowulf is written in West Saxon, and the earliest English poem, Modern English developed mainly from Mercian, but the Scots language developed from Northumbrian. A few short inscriptions from the period of Old English were written using a runic script. By the sixth century, a Latin alphabet was adopted, written with half-uncial letterforms and it included the runic letters wynn ⟨ƿ⟩ and thorn ⟨þ⟩, and the modified Latin letters eth ⟨ð⟩, and ash ⟨æ⟩
English language
–
The opening to the Old English epic poem
Beowulf,
handwritten in
half-uncial script: Hƿæt ƿē Gārde/na ingēar dagum þēod cyninga / þrym ge frunon... "Listen! We of the Spear-Danes from days of yore have heard of the glory of the folk-kings..."
English language
–
Countries of the world where English is a majority native language
English language
–
Title page of Geoffrey Chaucer's
Canterbury Tales c.1400
46.
Louisiana Creole French
–
Louisiana Creole is a French-based creole language spoken by some of the Louisiana Creole people of the state of Louisiana. The language largely consists of elements of French, Native American, Louisiana Creole French is a contact language that arose from interactions between speakers of French and various African languages in the 18th century. For this reason, prior to its establishment, the precursor to LCF was considered a pidgin language, in its historical backdrop, this pidgin was born to facilitate communication between African slaves and francophone land owners. Once the pidgin tongue was transmitted to the generation, it could effectively be considered a creole language. The latter was associated with plantation owners, plantation overseers, small landowners, military officers/soldiers and bilingual. Over the centuries, LCF’s negative associations with slavery have stigmatized the language to the point where many speakers are reluctant to use it for fear of ridicule, in this way, the assignment of “high” variety was allotted to PSF and that of “low” variety was given to LCF. As a result of Louisiana becoming one of the United States of America, additionally, the geographical position of Louisiana in unison with technological advances has made the entire region accessible to other areas. Moreover, efforts to revitalize francophone languages have placed emphasis on the varieties such as Cajun French. An example of this is linked to the structure of questions which may be wrongfully interpreted, speakers of Louisiana Creole are mainly concentrated in south and southwest Louisiana, where the population of Creolophones is distributed across the region. There are also numbers of Creolophones in Natchitoches Parish on Cane River and sizable communities of Louisiana Creole-speakers in adjacent Southeast Texas, Louisiana Creole speakers in California reside in Los Angeles, San Diego and San Bernardino counties and in Northern California. There are some creoles in Mississippi and Alabama too, St. Martin Parish forms the heart of the Creole-speaking region. Other sizeable communities exist along Bayou Têche in St. Landry, Avoyelles, Iberia, definite articles in Louisiana Creole vary between the le, la and les used in standard French and a and la for the singular, and yé for the plural. In St. Martin Parish, the definite article, whether le or -a, is often omitted altogether. In theory, Creole places its definite articles after the noun, given Louisiana Creoles complex linguistic relationship with Colonial French and Cajun French, however, this is often no longer the case. Since there is no system of gender, articles only vary on phonetic criteria. The article a is placed after words ending in a vowel, another aspect of Louisiana Creole which is unlike French is the lack of verb conjugation. Verbs do not vary based on person or number, verbs vary based on verbal markers which are placed between the personal pronouns and conjugated verbs. Frequently in the past tense, the marker is omitted
Louisiana Creole French
–
Creole-speaking parishes in Louisiana
Louisiana Creole French
–
French spread in Louisiana. Parishes marked in yellow are those where 4–10% of the population speak French or Louisiana French at home, orange 10–15%, red 15–20%, brown 20–30%.
47.
Black Nova Scotians
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Black Nova Scotians are Black Canadians or Afro-Indigenous peoples whose ancestors were brought as slaves in the 17th and 18th centuries. The next migration were the arrival of slaves that fled the Colonial United States as slaves or freemen, and later settled in Nova Scotia, Canada during the 18th and early 19th centuries. As of the 2011 Census of Canada,20,790 black people live in Nova Scotia, most in Halifax, though a number of Black Nova Scotians have migrated to Toronto. Before the immigration reforms of the 1960s, Black Nova Scotians formed 37% of the total Black Canadian population, the first black person in Nova Scotia arrived with the founding of Port Royal in 1605. Black people were brought as slaves to Nova Scotia during the founding of Louisbourg. The first major migration of blacks to Nova Scotia happened during the American Revolution, at the same time, educational opportunities began to develop with the establishment of Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts in Nova Scotia. The decline of slavery in Nova Scotia happened in part by local judicial decisions in keeping with those by the British courts of the late 18th century. The next major migration of blacks happened during the War of 1812, the opportunities for Black Nova Scotians began to open in the 19th century with the creation of institutions such as the Royal Acadian School and the Cornwallis Street Baptist Church. The first recorded instance of a presence in Canada was that of Mathieu de Costa. He arrived in Nova Scotia sometime between 1603 and 1608 as a translator for the French explorer Pierre Dugua, Sieur de Monts, the first known black person to live in Canada was a slave from Madagascar named Olivier Le Jeune. Of the 10,000 French living at Louisbourg and on the rest of Ile Royale,216 were slaves, over 90 per cent of the slaves were blacks from the French West Indies. When Halifax, Nova Scotia was established, numerous British people brought slaves, for example, shipowner and trader Joshua Mauger sold slaves at auction there. There are numerous newspaper advertisements for run-away slaves, of the 3000 inhabitants of the city in 1750,400 were labelled servants, some of whom were slaves. In 1767, of the 13,374 people in what is now the present-day Maritimes,104 of them were black and 54 lived in Halifax. The end of the American War of Independence led the Black Loyalists to flee what was becoming the United States of America, many being relocated in the British colony of Nova Scotia, Canada. Following Dunmores Proclamation, the British authorities in American colonies promised freedom to the slaves of the rebelling Americans. Large numbers of enslaved people took advantage of opportunity and they made their way over to the British side. Approximately three thousand black Loyalists sailed to Nova Scotia between April and November 1783, travelling on both Navy vessels and British chartered private transports and this group was largely made up of tradespeople and labourers
Black Nova Scotians
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Rose Fortune,
Black Loyalist, c. 1830 -
Annapolis Royal
Black Nova Scotians
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Earliest known image of a Black Nova Scotian, 1788
Black Nova Scotians
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Charles Inglis - supported education for Black Nova Scotians
Black Nova Scotians
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Chief Justice
Sampson Salter Blowers - freed Black Nova Scotian slaves
48.
Americo-Liberian
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Americo-Liberians are a Liberian ethnicity of African-American, Afro-Caribbean, and liberated African descent. The sister ethnic group of Americo-Liberians are the Sierra Leone Creole people, Americo-Liberians trace their ancestry to free-born and formerly enslaved African Americans who immigrated in the 19th century to become the founders of the state of Liberia. They identified there as Americo Liberians, later in Liberia, these African Americans integrated 5,000 liberated Africans called Congos and 500 Barbadian immigrants into the hegemony. Unlike the Sierra Leone Creoles, Americo-Liberians rarely intermarried with indigenous West Africans, the colonists and their descendants led the political, social, cultural and economic sectors of the country, they ruled the new nation from 19th century until 1980 as a dominant minority. From 1878 to 1980, the Republic of Liberia was a one-party state ruled by the Americo-Liberian-dominated True Whig Party, the early settlers practiced their Christian faith, sometimes in combination with traditional African religious beliefs. They spoke an African American Vernacular English, and few ventured into the interior or mingled with local African peoples and they developed an Americo-Liberian society, culture and political organization that was strongly influenced by their roots in the United States, particularly the countrys Southeast. Today, the Americo-Liberian population numbers about 150,000, most of the powerful old Americo-Liberian families fled to the United States in the 1980s after President William Tolbert was assassinated in a military coup. Making up about 5% of the Liberian population, Americo-Liberians dominated national politics from the founding of the colony until Samuel Doe led a coup in 1980. There is debate about how Americo-Liberians held on to power for so long, scholars have noted, however, that during the Americo-Liberian reign, the leaders had an array of skin colors and African-European admixture, meaning that theory is unlikely. It is more likely they built their power on their connections to the ACS, familiarity with American culture and economics, others believe their long reign was in part due to the Masonic Order of Liberia, a fraternal organization, as opposed to colorism. A marble Masonic Lodge was built in 1867 as one of Monrovias most impressive buildings and it was considered a bastion of Americo-Liberian power, and was strong enough to survive the civil war. After years of neglect after the war the Masonic order has repaired the lodge, in 1980, a violent military coup was led by Samuel Doe. Does tenure as leader of Liberia led to a period of civil wars, in the early 21st century, Liberia has been reduced to one of the most impoverished nations in the world, in which most of the population lives below the international poverty line. While globalization has carried African-American culture around the world, Americo-Liberians reproduced their own cultural American continuity in Liberia and its name means land of the free, and it is considered the most American of African countries in terms of its political institutions. The Liberian constitution, structure of government, and flag resemble those of the United States, the former residences of Americo-Liberian families were built in the style of antebellum plantation homes they may have admired in the American South. Their language continued to carry elements of African American Vernacular English, by many accounts, Liberians easily integrate into African-American communities. Liberian immigrants to the United States have the highest passport acceptance rates, although many of the Americo-Liberian class left or were killed during the civil wars, and their houses and monuments crumbling, ordinary Liberians look to the United States for aid. African-American leaders consider theirs to be a relationship, due to the countries histories
Americo-Liberian
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Edward James Roye •
Edward Wilmot Blyden
Americo-Liberian
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Monrovia in the 19th century
Americo-Liberian
49.
Sierra Leone Creole people
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The Sierra Leone Creole people are an ethnic group in Sierra Leone. They are the descendants of freed African American, West Indian, the colony was established by the British, supported by abolitionists, under the Sierra Leone Company as a place for freedmen. The settlers called their new settlement Freetown, today, the Krio comprise about 5% of the population of Sierra Leone. Like their Americo-Liberian neighbors in Liberia, Krio have varying degrees of European ancestry because some of the settlers were descended from European Americans, through the Jamaican Maroons some Krio probably also have indigenous Jamaican Amerindian Taíno ancestry. Alongside the Americo-Liberians, the Creoles are the only recognised ethnic group of African-American, Liberated African, as with their Americo-Liberian neighbors, Creole culture is primarily westernized. The vast majority of Creoles reside in Freetown and its surrounding Western Area region of Sierra Leone, the only Sierra Leonean ethnic group whose culture is similar are the Sherbro. From their mix of peoples, the Creoles developed what is now the native Krio language and it has been widely used for trade and communication among ethnic groups and is the most widely spoken language in Sierra Leone. The Creoles are primarily Christian, but some consider the Oku community of Sierra Leone as Creoles. Due to their history, the vast majority of Creoles have European first names and surnames, many have both English first names and last names. Most of the Oku Muslims have Islamic first names, some of them have English surnames, some had been freed earlier and worked as servants in London. Most of the first group died due to disease and warfare with indigenous peoples, about 64 survived to settle Granville Town. In 1792, they were joined by 1200 Black Loyalists from Nova Scotia, African Americans and their descendants, some adults had left rebel owners and fought for the British in the revolutionary War. The Crown freed them as promised and resettled 3,000 of the African Americans in Nova Scotia, more than 1200 volunteered to settle in the new colony of Freetown, which was established by British abolitionists. In 1800, the British transported 550 Maroons, militant escaped slaves from Jamaica, after Britain and the United States abolished the international African slave trade beginning in 1808, they patrolled off the continent to intercept illegal shipping. The British resettled Liberated Africans at Freetown, the Liberated Africans included people from the Yoruba, Igbo, Efik, Fante, and other ethnicities of West Africa. Some members of Temne, Limba, Mende, and Loko groups, indigenous Sierra Leone ethnicities, were also among the Liberated Africans resettled at Freetown, others came to the settlement voluntarily, seeing opportunities in Krio culture in the society. The first settlers to found a colony in Sierra Leone were the so-called Black Poor, African Americans,411 settlers arrived in May 1787. Many died on the journey from England but enough survived to establish, seventy white women accompanied the men to Sierra Leone, they were likely wives and girlfriends, though they are traditionally depicted as prostitutes from Deptford Prison
Sierra Leone Creole people
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Syl Cheney-Coker
Sierra Leone Creole people
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An 1835 illustration of liberated slaves arriving in Sierra Leone.
Sierra Leone Creole people
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Curtis Davies
50.
African Americans in France
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African Americans, who are largely descended from Africans of the American colonial era, have lived and worked in France since the 1800s. Unofficial figures indicate that up to 50,000 free blacks emigrated to Paris from Louisiana in the decades after Napoleon sold the territory to the United States in 1803. Paris saw the beginnings of an African-American community in the aftermath of World War I when about 200,000 were brought over to fight, ninety per cent of these soldiers were from the American South. Many black GIs decided to stay in France after having well received by the French. France was viewed by many African Americans as a change from the widespread racism in the United States. It was during this time that jazz was introduced to the French, African American musicians, artists, and Harlem Renaissance writers found 1920s Paris ready to embrace them with open arms. Montmartre became the center of the community, with jazz clubs such as Le Grand Duc, Chez Florence. World War II brought all the fanfare to an abrupt halt, the Nazi invasion of Paris in June 1940 meant suppression of the corrupt influence of jazz in the French capital and danger of imprisonment for African Americans choosing to remain in the city. Most Americans, black as well as white, left Paris at this time, the political upheavals surrounding the Civil Rights Movement and the Vietnam War protests in the United States were mirrored by civil unrest in France. African-American journalist William Gardner Smith who was also a novelist, who worked for the French news service Agence France-Presse, many blacks supported this movement, which escalated into a virtual shutdown of the entire country of France. Once order was restored however, a increase in repressive tendencies was observed in the French police. In addition, the presence of newly arrived enclaves of blacks from many African and Caribbean nations offer African Americans the chance to experience new forms of black culture, J. African-Americans in Paris, Its always been about freedom for us
African Americans in France
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Josephine Baker
African Americans in France
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Eugene Bullard
African Americans in France
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Richard Wright
51.
Civil rights movement
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This article covers the phase of the movement between 1954 and 1968, particularly in the South. The movement was characterized by major campaigns of civil resistance, between 1955 and 1968, acts of nonviolent protest and civil disobedience produced crisis situations and productive dialogues between activists and government authorities. Federal, state, and local governments, businesses, and communities often had to immediately to these situations. The 1950s and 1960s Civil Rights Movement witnessed the passage of several pieces of federal legislation. The Voting Rights Act of 1965 restored and protected voting rights for minorities, the Immigration and Nationality Services Act of 1965 removed racial and national barriers and opened the way for non-white immigrants. The Fair Housing Act of 1968 banned discrimination in the sale or rental of housing, African Americans re-entered politics in the South, and across the country young people were inspired to take action. A wave of inner city riots in black communities from 1964 through 1970 undercut support from the white community. Many popular representations of the movement are centered on the leadership and philosophy of Martin Luther King, but, some scholars note that the movement was too diverse to be credited to one person, organization, or strategy. Before the American Civil War, almost four million blacks were enslaved in the South, only men of property could vote. From 1865 to 1877, the United States underwent a turbulent Reconstruction Era trying to free labor. Many whites resisted the changes, leading to insurgent movements such as the Ku Klux Klan, whose members attacked black. In 1871, President Ulysses S. Grant, the U. S. Army, however, if the states failed to implement the acts, the laws allowed the Federal Government to get involved. Many Republican governors were afraid of sending black militia troops to fight the clan in fear of war, for more than 60 years, blacks in the South were not able to elect anyone to represent their interests in Congress or local government. Since they could not vote, they could not serve on local juries, during this period, the white-dominated Democratic Party maintained political control of the South. With whites controlling all the seats representing the population of the South. The Republican Party—the party of Lincoln—which had been the party that most blacks belonged to, until 1965, the solid South was a one-party system under the Democrats. Outside a few areas, the Democratic Party nomination was tantamount to election for state, in 1901, President Theodore Roosevelt invited Booker T. Washington to dine at the White House, making him the first African American to attend an official dinner there. The invitation was roundly criticized by politicians and newspapers
Civil rights movement
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Four leaders of the Civil Rights Movement. From left:
Bayard Rustin,
Andrew Young, (N.Y. Cong.
William Ryan),
James Farmer, and
John Lewis in 1965.
Civil rights movement
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The mob-style
lynching of Will James, Cairo, Illinois, 1909.
Civil rights movement
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School integration, Barnard School, Washington, D.C., 1955
Civil rights movement
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Troops from the
327th Regiment, 101st Airborne escorting the
Little Rock Nine African-American students up the steps of Central High.
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