1.
Black people
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As such, the meaning of the expression varies widely both between and within societies, and depends significantly on context. For many other individuals, communities and countries, black is also perceived as a derogatory, outdated, reductive or otherwise unrepresentative label, different societies apply differing criteria regarding who is classified as black, and these social constructs have also changed over time. In a number of countries, societal variables affect classification as much as skin color, in the United Kingdom, black was historically equivalent with person of color, a general term for non-European peoples. In South Africa and Latin America, mixed-race people are not classified as black. In other regions such as Australasia, settlers applied the term black or it was used by local populations with different histories and ancestral backgrounds. The Romans interacted with and later conquered parts of Mauretania, a state that covered modern Morocco, western Algeria. The people of the region were noted in Classical literature as Mauri, numerous communities of dark-skinned peoples are present in North Africa, some dating from prehistoric communities. In the 18th century, the Moroccan Sultan Moulay Ismail the Bloodthirsty raised a corps of 150,000 black slaves, called his Black Guard and he claims that black-looking Arabs, much like black-looking Latin Americans, consider themselves white because they have some distant white ancestry. Egyptian President Anwar Sadat had a mother who was a dark-skinned Nubian Sudanese woman, in response to an advertisement for an acting position, as a young man he said, I am not white but I am not exactly black either. My blackness is tending to reddish, due to the patriarchal nature of Arab society, Arab men, including during the slave trade in North Africa, enslaved more black women than men. They used more black female slaves in domestic service and agriculture than males, the men interpreted the Quran to permit sexual relations between a male master and his female slave outside of marriage, leading to many mixed-race children. When an enslaved woman became pregnant with her Arab masters child, she was considered as umm walad or mother of a child, the child was given rights of inheritance to the fathers property, so mixed-race children could share in any wealth of the father. Because the society was patrilineal, the children took their fathers social status at birth and were born free, some succeeded their fathers as rulers, such as Sultan Ahmad al-Mansur, who ruled Morocco from 1578 to 1608. He was not technically considered as a child of a slave, his mother was Fulani. Such tolerance for black persons, even when technically free, was not so common in Morocco, the long association of sub-Saharan peoples as slaves is shown in the term abd, it is still frequently used in the Arabic-speaking world as a term for black people. In early 1991, non-Arabs of the Zaghawa tribe of Sudan attested that they were victims of an intensifying Arab apartheid campaign, Sudanese Arabs, who controlled the government, were widely referred to as practicing apartheid against Sudans non-Arab citizens. The government was accused of deftly manipulat Arab solidarity to carry out policies of apartheid, American University economist George Ayittey accused the Arab government of Sudan of practicing acts of racism against black citizens. The Arabs monopolized power and excluded blacks – Arab apartheid, many African commentators joined Ayittey in accusing Sudan of practising Arab apartheid
2.
Southern Poverty Law Center
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The Southern Poverty Law Center is an American nonprofit legal advocacy organization specializing in civil rights and public interest litigation. SPLC was founded by Morris Dees and Joseph J. Levin Jr. in 1971 as a civil law firm in Montgomery. Civil rights leader Julian Bond joined Dees and Levin and served as president of the board between 1971 and 1979, the SPLC originally advocated on civil rights issues. In 1979, it began a strategy of filing civil suits for monetary damages on behalf of the victims of violence from the Ku Klux Klan. The SPLC has provided information about hate groups to the Federal Bureau of Investigation and has worked in partnership with the bureau, the SPLCs first president was Julian Bond, who served until 1979 and then remained on the board of directors until his death in 2015. In 1979, Dees and the SPLC began monitoring far-right groups such as the Ku Klux Klan and they initiated civil suits against KKK chapters and similar organizations for monetary damages to gain justice on behalf of their victims. In 1981, the Center began its Klanwatch project to monitor the activities of the KKK and that project, now called Hatewatch, has been expanded to include seven other types of hate organizations. In July 1983, the SPLC headquarters was firebombed, destroying the building, as a result of the arson, Klansmen Joe M. Garner and Roy T. Downs Jr. along with Klan sympathizer Charles Bailey, pleaded guilty in February 1985 to conspiring to intimidate, oppress, the SPLC rebuilt its headquarters building from 1999 to 2001. In 1984, Dees became a target of The Order. By 2007, according to Dees, more than 30 people had been jailed in connection with plots to kill him or to blow up SPLC offices. In 1986, the legal staff of the SPLC, excluding Dees. In 1989, the Center unveiled its Civil Rights Memorial, which was designed by Maya Lin, the Centers Teaching Tolerance project was initiated in 1991. The SPLC dismissed the series as a hatchet job, in 1995, four white men were indicted for planning to blow up the SPLC. Some critics have alleged that the SPLC has used hyperbole and overstated the prevalence of hate groups to large amounts of money. The article claimed the SPLC spends twice as much on fund-raising – $5.76 million last year – as it does on legal services for victims of civil rights abuses and he criticized the high level of Dees compensation relative to other nonprofits. Silverstein said that more than 95% of hate crimes are committed by lone wolves without any connection to the groups the SPLC was tracking. In 2008, the SPLC and Dees were featured on National Geographics Inside American Terror explaining their litigation against several branches of the Ku Klux Klan, the Southern Poverty Law Center has initiated a number of civil cases seeking injunctive relief and monetary awards on behalf of its clients
3.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
4.
Tama-Re
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The Tama-Re village in Putnam County, Georgia was an Egyptian-themed set of buildings and monuments established on 476 acres near Eatonton, Georgia by the Nuwaubian Nation in 1993. This was a movement that had a variety of esoteric beliefs and was led by Dwight D. York. Many of the African Americans in the community had resettled here from Brooklyn, New York, York was prosecuted for child molestation, racketeering and financial charges, convicted in 2004, he was sentenced to 135 years in prison. As part of the verdict, the Tama-Re complex was sold under government forfeiture in 2005, the structures were mostly demolished and the site cleared by the sheriffs department to prepare it for sale. On January 15,1993, Dwight York, longtime leader of a Muslim-related religious community in Brooklyn, New York and his followers began moving in from their former headquarters in Sullivan County, New York and Brooklyn. York said “We moved to Eatonton, Georgia because we are the Yamassee and our Ancestors built the Rock Eagle Mound and many others in such states as Wisconsin, Ohio, South Carolina, Louisiana, and Tennessee. This is why we chose Eatonton to live and it is close to Rock Eagle Mound. ”In 1997 and 1998, Victor Greig acted as Yorks representative in building and zoning matters as the community developed Tama-Re. He was cited by Putnam County Sheriff Howard Sills for building without a permit and for operating a nightclub in a warehouse. Greig was fined $45,750 in April 1998 and appealed and his fine was reduced to $2,500, but the conviction upheld. The organization began to hold festivals on the property, with one netting about $500,000 in cash, in 1999, a lawsuit was filed attempting to enforce zoning restrictions and prevent the Nuwaubians from using the property for anything other than residential and agricultural purposes. This led to a drawn-out, bitter tug of war between the Nuwaubians and the county authorities, at the annual week-long celebration Saviors Day in June 1999, the county padlocked the nightclub warehouse. The Nuwaubians claimed Snipes as one of their own, though a spokeswoman for Snipes denied any connection, farther back, up on the rise, is a recognizable one, Isis, with ebony skin and her winged arms spread. No level of expectation can dilute the surprise–you can’t believe what you’re seeing, Tama-Re, Egypt of the West, has that Magic Kingdom quality. In 2001, the Religious Movements Homepage Project at the University of Virginia reported on Tama-Re, approximately 100 Nuwaubians live within 15 double-wide trailers within this complex. There are approximately another 400 more Nuwaubians within Putnam County, at this current complex the Nuwaubians have constructed an Egyptian-style village with two pyramids, obelisks, and statues of Egyptian leaders. The two pyramids are distinct in appearance and in usage, there is a gold pyramid that serves as a trade center. Within this pyramid one can find a bookstore and a clothing store, the other pyramid is painted black with colorful Egyptian symbols painted on the outside. This structure serves as a church, within the church, loudspeakers play Egyptian chants 24 hours a day,7 days a week
5.
Georgia (U.S. state)
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Georgia is a state in the southeastern United States. It was established in 1733, the last of the original Thirteen Colonies, named after King George II of Great Britain, Georgia was the fourth state to ratify the United States Constitution, on January 2,1788. It declared its secession from the Union on January 19,1861 and it was the last state to be restored to the Union, on July 15,1870. Georgia is the 24th largest and the 8th most populous of the 50 United States, from 2007 to 2008,14 of Georgias counties ranked among the nations 100 fastest-growing, second only to Texas. Georgia is known as the Peach State and the Empire State of the South, Atlanta is the states capital, its most populous city and has been named a global city. Georgia is bordered to the south by Florida, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean and South Carolina, to the west by Alabama, the states northern part is in the Blue Ridge Mountains, part of the Appalachian Mountains system. Georgias highest point is Brasstown Bald at 4,784 feet above sea level, Georgia is the largest state entirely east of the Mississippi River in land area. Before settlement by Europeans, Georgia was inhabited by the mound building cultures, the British colony of Georgia was founded by James Oglethorpe on February 12,1733. The colony was administered by the Trustees for the Establishment of the Colony of Georgia in America under a charter issued by King George II. The Trustees implemented a plan for the colonys settlement, known as the Oglethorpe Plan. In 1742 the colony was invaded by the Spanish during the War of Jenkins Ear, in 1752, after the government failed to renew subsidies that had helped support the colony, the Trustees turned over control to the crown. Georgia became a colony, with a governor appointed by the king. The Province of Georgia was one of the Thirteen Colonies that revolted against British rule in the American Revolution by signing the 1776 Declaration of Independence, the State of Georgias first constitution was ratified in February 1777. Georgia was the 10th state to ratify the Articles of Confederation on July 24,1778, in 1829, gold was discovered in the North Georgia mountains, which led to the Georgia Gold Rush and an established federal mint in Dahlonega, which continued its operation until 1861. The subsequent influx of white settlers put pressure on the government to land from the Cherokee Nation. In 1830, President Andrew Jackson signed the Indian Removal Act into law, sending many eastern Native American nations to reservations in present-day Oklahoma, including all of Georgias tribes. Despite the Supreme Courts ruling in Worcester v. Georgia that ruled U. S. states were not permitted to redraw the Indian boundaries, President Jackson and the state of Georgia ignored the ruling. In 1838, his successor, Martin Van Buren, dispatched troops to gather the Cherokee
6.
Nuwaubian Nation
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The Nuwaubian Nation or Nuwaubian movement was a religious organization founded and led by Dwight York. York began founding Black Muslim groups in New York in 1967 and he changed his teachings and the names of his groups many times, incorporating concepts from Judaism, Christianity, and many esoteric beliefs. In the late 1980s, he abandoned the Muslim theology of his movement in favor of Kemetism, in 1991 he took his community to settle in upstate New York, then they moved near the county seat of Eatonton, Georgia, in Putnam County. His followers built an ancient Egypt-themed compound called Tama-Re and changed their name to the United Nuwaubian Nation of Moors, by 2000, the United Nuwaubian Nation of Moors had some 500 adherents. They drew thousands of visitors for Saviors Day, adherence declined steeply after York was convicted of numerous counts of child molestation and financing violations, and sentenced to 135 years in federal prison in April 2004. The Tama-Re compound was sold under government forfeiture and demolished in 2005, the Southern Poverty Law Center described York as a black supremacist cult leader. The Nuwaubian Nation was centered exclusively on the person of its founder, Malachi York, who changed his name several times. York was born on June 26,1935 and he began his ministry in the late 1960s, from 1967 preaching to a group he called the Pan-African Nubians in Brooklyn. During the 1980s, he was active as a musician. York published some 450 booklets under numerous pseudonyms, in 2004, he was convicted to a 135-year sentence for transporting minors across state lines in the course of sexually molesting them, racketeering, and financial reporting charges. His convictions were upheld on appeal, the case was described in the book Ungodly, A True Story of Unprecedented Evil by Bill Osinski, a reporter who had covered the Nuwaubians in Georgia during the late 1990s. Some factions of the Black supremacist subculture in the United States appeared to continue to support York as of 2010, portraying his conviction as a conspiracy by the White Power Structure. Malik Zulu Shabazz, chairman of the New Black Panther Party and Yorks lawyer, during the 1970s, the group set up bookstores and chapters in Trinidad, Baltimore, and Washington, D. C. According to former follower Saadik Redd, York had between 2,000 and 3,000 followers during the 1970s and its headquarters was in Bushwick, Brooklyn, until 1983. A portion of the community moved to Sullivan County, New York, more people stayed in Brooklyn until about 1991. A Muslim cleric, Bilal Philips, published The Ansar Cult in America in 1988, phillips relied heavily on testimonies of former adherents in describing the groups beliefs and practices. In the late 1980s, York borrowed from religious and esoteric traditions beyond Islam. York styled his movement in a mixture of Ancient Egypt and Native American themes, York changed his legal name again, from Issa Al Haadi Al Mahdi to Malachi York, effective March 12,1993
7.
Extremists
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Extremism means, literally the quality or state of being extreme or advocacy of extreme measures or views. Nowadays, the term is used in a political or religious sense. But extremism can, for example, also be meant in an economic sense, the term extremism is usually meant to be pejorative, that is, to express disapproval. However, it may also be meant in an academic, purely descriptive. Extremists are usually contrasted with centrists or moderates, for example, in contemporary discussions in Western countries of Islam or of Islamic political movements, the distinction between extremist and moderate Muslims is typically stressed. Political agendas perceived as extremist often include those from the politics or far-right politics, as well as radicalism, reactionism, fundamentalism. There have been many different definitions of extremism, Peter T. Coleman and Andrea Bartoli give short observation of definitions, Extremism is a complex phenomenon, although its complexity is often hard to see. Most simply, it can be defined as activities of a character far removed from the ordinary, in conflict settings it manifests as a severe form of conflict engagement. However, the labeling of activities, people, and groups as extremist, *In addition, ones sense of the moral or immoral nature of a given act of extremism may change as conditions change. Thus, the current and historical context of extremist acts shapes our view of them, *Power differences also matter when defining extremism. When in conflict, the activities of members of low power groups tend to be viewed as more extreme than similar activities committed by members of groups advocating the status quo. In addition, extreme acts are more likely to be employed by marginalized people, however, dominant groups also commonly employ extreme activities. Again, low power groups are likely to employ direct, episodic forms of violence. For instance, individual members of Hamas may differ considerably in their willingness to negotiate their differences with the Palestinian Authority and, ultimately, the terms extremism or extremist are almost always exonymic—i. e. Applied by others to a rather than by a group labeling itself. Rather than labeling themselves extremist, those labeled as such might describe themselves as, for example, there is no political party that calls itself right-wing extremist or left-wing extremist, and there is no sect of any religion that calls itself extremist or which calls its doctrine extremism. The term extremist is used to describe groups and individuals who have become radicalized, in some way, the term radical is one not normally regarded as pejorative and, unlike extremist, is sometimes used by groups in their description of themselves. The word violence cannot be regarded as value-neutral, ideology and methodology often become inextricably linked under the single term extremism
