1.
Discrimination
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This includes treatment of an individual or group, based on their actual or perceived membership in a certain group or social category, in a way that is worse than the way people are usually treated. Discriminatory traditions, policies, ideas, practices, and laws exist in countries and institutions in every part of the world. In some places, controversial attempts such as quotas have been used to benefit those believed to be current or past victims of discrimination—but have sometimes been called reverse discrimination, the term discriminate appeared in the early 17th century in the English language. It is from the Latin discriminat- distinguished between, from the verb discriminare, from discrimen distinction, from the verb discernere, Discrimination derives from Latin, where the verb discrimire means to separate, to distinguish, to make a distinction. Moral philosophers have defined discrimination as disadvantageous treatment or consideration, an individual need not be actually harmed in order to be discriminated against. They just need to be treated worse than others for some arbitrary reason, in addition to this discrimination develops into a source of oppression. It is similar to the action of recognizing someone as different so much that they are treated inhumanly, social competition is driven by the need for self-esteem and is aimed at achieving a positive social status for the in-group relative to comparable out-groups. Consensual discrimination is driven by the need for accuracy and reflects stable, the United Nations stance on discrimination includes the statement, Discriminatory behaviors take many forms, but they all involve some form of exclusion or rejection. International bodies United Nations Human Rights Council work towards helping ending discrimination around the world, important UN documents addressing discrimination include, The Universal Declaration of Human Rights is a declaration adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on 10 December 1948. The International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination is a United Nations convention, the Convention commits its members to the elimination of racial discrimination. The convention was adopted and opened for signature by the United Nations General Assembly on 21 December 1965, the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women is an international treaty adopted in 1979 by the United Nations General Assembly. Described as a bill of rights for women, it came into force on 3 September 1981. The Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities is a human rights instrument treaty of the United Nations. Parties to the Convention are required to promote, protect, and ensure the full enjoyment of human rights by persons with disabilities, the text was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on 13 December 2006, and opened for signature on 30 March 2007. Following ratification by the 20th party, it came into force on 3 May 2008, ageism or age discrimination is discrimination and stereotyping based on the grounds of someones age. It is a set of beliefs, norms, and values used to justify discrimination or subordination based on a persons age. Ageism is most often directed towards old people, or adolescents, Age discrimination in hiring has been shown to exist in the United States. In Europe, Stijn Baert, Jennifer Norga, Yannick Thuy and Marieke Van Hecke, researchers at Ghent University, interestingly, they found that age discrimination is heterogeneous by the activity older candidates undertook during their additional post-educational years
2.
Ageism
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Ageism is stereotyping and discriminating against individuals or groups on the basis of their age. This may be casual or systematic, the term was coined in 1969 by Robert Neil Butler to describe discrimination against seniors, and patterned on sexism and racism. Butler defined ageism as a combination of three connected elements, moreover, it has been pointed out that stigmatization does not only occur outside of the cohesively imagined group of the elderly but likewise takes place within the stigmatized group itself. It can also be passive and covert to drive the notion that the place is young, Ageism in common parlance and age studies usually refers to negative discriminatory practices against old people, people in their middle years, teenagers and children. There are several forms of age-related bias, adultism is a predisposition towards adults, which is seen as biased against children, youth, and all young people who are not addressed or viewed as adults. Jeunism is the discrimination against older people in favor of younger ones, adultcentricism is the exaggerated egocentrism of adults. Adultocracy is the convention which defines maturity and immaturity, placing adults in a dominant position over young people. Gerontocracy is a form of rule in which an entity is ruled by leaders who are significantly older than most of the adult population. Chronocentrism is primarily the belief that a state of humanity is superior to all previous and/or future times. Based on an analysis of ageism, a new definition of ageism was introduced by Iversen, Larsen. Ageism can be implicit or explicit and can be expressed on a micro-, meso- or macro-level, implicit ageism is the term used to refer to the implicit or subconscious thoughts, feelings, and behaviors one has about older or younger people. These may be a mixture of positive and negative thoughts and feelings, ageist stereotyping is a tool of cognition which involves categorizing into groups and attributing characteristics to these groups. Stereotypes are necessary for processing huge volumes of information which would otherwise overload a person, for example, age-based stereotypes prime one to draw very different conclusions when one sees an older and a younger adult with, say, back pain or a limp. One might well assume that the persons condition is temporary and treatable, following an accident, while the older persons condition is chronic. On average, this might be true, but plenty of people have accidents and recover quickly. Another example is when people are rude to children because of their high pitched voice, even if they are kind, a review of the research literature related to age stereotypes in the workplace was recently published in the Journal of Management. Contrary to common and more obvious forms of stereotyping, such as racism and sexism, ageism is more resistant to change. For instance, if a child believes in an ageist idea against the elderly, fewer people correct them, in other words, ageism can become a self-fulfilling prophecy
3.
Caste
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Its paradigmatic ethnographic example is the division of Indian society into rigid social groups, with roots in Indias ancient history and persisting until today. However, the significance of the caste system in India has been declining as a result of urbanization. The term is applied to non-human populations like ants and bees. The English word caste derives from the Spanish and Portuguese casta, when the Spanish colonized the New World, they used the word to mean a clan or lineage. The use of the caste, with this latter meaning, is first attested to in English in 1613. Modern Indias caste system is based on the social groupings called jāti, the system of varnas appears in Hindu texts dating back to 1000 BCE and envisages the society divided into four classes, Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. The texts do not mention any separate, untouchable category in varna classification, scholars believe that the system of varnas was a theoretical classification envisioned by the Brahmins, but never truly operational in the society. The practical division of the society had always been in terms of jātis, which are not based on any specific principle, but could vary from ethnic origins to occupations. The jātis have been endogamous groups without any fixed hierarchy but subject to vague notions of rank articulated over time based on lifestyle, starting with the British colonial Census of 1901 led by Herbert Hope Risley, all the jātis were grouped under the theoretical varnas categories. The classical authors scarcely speak of anything other than the varnas, as it provided a convenient shorthand, upon independence from Britain, the Indian Constitution listed 1,108 castes across the country as Scheduled Castes in 1950, for positive discrimination. The Untouchable communities are sometimes called Scheduled Castes, Dalit or Harijan in contemporary literature, in 2001, Dalits were 16. 2% of Indias population. Most of the 15 million bonded child workers are from the lowest castes, independent India has witnessed caste-related violence. Indias National Crime Records Bureau records crimes against scheduled castes and scheduled tribes – the most disadvantaged groups - in a separate category, the socio-economic limitations of the caste system are reduced due to urbanization and affirmative action. Nevertheless, the system still exists in endogamy and patrimony, and thrives in the politics of democracy. The globalization and economic opportunities from foreign businesses has influenced the growth of Indias middle-class population, some members of the Chhattisgarh Potter Caste Community are middle-class urban professionals and no longer potters unlike the remaining majority of traditional rural potter members. The co-existence of the middle-class and traditional members in the CPCC has created intersectionality between caste and class, there is persistence of caste in Indian politics. Caste associations have evolved into caste-based political parties, political parties and the state perceive caste as an important factor for mobilization of people and policy development. It is not politics that gets caste-ridden, it is caste that gets politicized, the Nepalese caste system resembles that of the Indian jāti system with numerous jāti divisions with a varna system superimposed for a rough equivalence
4.
Discrimination based on skin color
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Colorism, a term coined by Alice Walker in 1982, is not a synonym of racism. Race depends on multiple factors, therefore, racial categorization does not solely rely on skin color, Skin color is only one mechanism used to assign individuals to a racial category, but race is the set of beliefs and assumptions assigned to that category. Racism is the dependence of social status on the meaning attached to race. In order for a form of discrimination to be considered colorism, differential treatment must not result from racial categorization, a 2015 study, for example, finds that among African Americans, skin color differences are associated with perceptions of discrimination from whites and other African Americans. Several meta-analyses find extensive evidence of ethnic and racial discrimination in hiring in the North-American and European labor markets, equivalent minority candidates need to send around 50% more applications to be invited for an interview than majority candidates. In the 20th century there has been a shift towards a preference for darker, the beginning of this change has been attributed to Frenchwoman Coco Chanel making tanned skin seem fashionable, luxurious and healthy in Paris in the 1920s. Tanned skin has become associated with the leisure time and sportiness of wealth. In Liberia, descendants of African-American settlers in part defined social class, the first Americo-Liberian presidents such as Joseph Jenkins Roberts, James Spriggs Payne, and Alfred Francis Russell had considerable proportions of European ancestry. Most may have been only one-quarter or one-eighth African American, other aspects of their rising to power, however, likely related to their chances for having obtained education and work that provided good livings. In addition to rivalries among descendants of African Americans, the Americans held themselves above the native Africans in Liberia. Thus, descendants of Americans held and kept out of proportion to their representation in the population of the entire country. Colored people consist of three mixed race populations in South Africa who were more social privilege than other, unmixed. Many Griqua began to self-identify as Coloureds during the apartheid era, there were certain advantages in becoming classified as Coloured. For example, Coloureds did not have to carry a dompas, while the Griqua, a popular phrase in Sudan is al-Husnu ahmar meaning beauty is red, although the whiteness is the ideal color in most Arab societies. Akhdhar is the polite alternative descriptive term for black meaning a dark-skinned Arab, lastly, azraq meaning blue is used interchangeably with aswad meaning black, however, in the past aswad has referred to white, light skin. In East, South and Southeast Asia, a preference for lighter skin is prevalent, especially in such as China, Korea, India. The history of skin whitening in East Asia dates far back to ancient times, ancient Asian cultures associated light skin with feminine beauty in particular. Jade white skin in Korea is known to have been the ideal as far back as the Gojoseon era, japans Edo period saw the start of a trend of women whitening their faces with rice powder as a moral duty
5.
Linguistic discrimination
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Linguistic discrimination is the unfair treatment of an individual based solely on his or her use of language. This use of language may include the native language or other characteristics of the persons speech, such as an accent, the size of vocabulary, modality. Based on a difference in use of language, a person may automatically form judgments about another persons wealth, education, social status and these perceived judgments may then lead to the unjustifiable treatment of the individual. In the mid-1980s, linguist Tove Skutnabb-Kangas, captured this idea of discrimination based on language as the concept of linguicism, although different names have been given to this form of discrimination, they all hold the same definition. It is also important to note that linguistic discrimination is culturally and socially determined due to a preference for one use of language over another and it can be noted that use of language such as certain accents may result in an individual experiencing prejudice. For example, some accents hold more prestige than others depending on the cultural context, however, with so many dialects, it can be difficult to determine which is the most preferable. The best answer linguists can give, such as the authors of Do You Speak American, is that it depends on the location and the individual. Research has determined however that some sounds in languages may be determined to sound less pleasant naturally, also, certain accents tend to carry more prestige in some societies over other accents. For example, in the United States, an absence of an accent or speaking American is widely preferable, also, in the United Kingdom, the Received Pronunciation is associated with being of higher class and thus more likeable. In addition to prestige, research has shown that certain accents may also be associated with less intelligence and it is natural for human beings to want to identify with others. One way we do this is by categorizing individuals into social groups. While some groups may be noticeable, other groups are less salient. Linguist Carmen Fought explains how an individuals use of language may allow another person to categorize them into a social group that may otherwise be less apparent. For example, in the United States it is common to perceive Southerners as less intelligent, belonging to a social group such as the South may be less salient than membership to other groups that are defined by ethnicity or gender. Language provides a bridge for prejudice to occur for these less salient social groups, Linguistic discrimination is often defined in terms of prejudice of language. It is important to note that there is a relationship between prejudice and discrimination, they are not always directly related. Prejudice can be defined as negative attitudes towards an individual based solely on their membership of a social group, while discrimination can be seen as the acts towards the individual. The difference between the two should be recognized because an individual may hold a prejudice against someone due to their use of language, the following are examples of linguistic prejudice that may result in discrimination
6.
Mentalism (discrimination)
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Mentalism or sanism is a form of discrimination and oppression because of a mental trait or condition a person has, or is judged to have. This may or may not be described in terms of disorder or disability. The discrimination is based on factors such as, stereotypes about neurodivergence, specific behavioral phenomena. Like other isms such as sexism and racism, mentalism involves multiple intersecting oppressions and it can result in covert discrimination by multiple, small insults and indignities. It is characterized by judgments of another persons perceived mental health status and these judgments are followed by actions such as blatant, overt discrimination. Mentalism impacts how individuals are treated by the public, by mental health professionals. The negative attitudes may also be internalized, the terms mentalism and sanism have some widespread use, though concepts such as social stigma, and in some cases ableism, may be used in similar but not identical ways. The movement of sanism is an act of resistance among those who identify as mad, consumer survivors, in academia evidence of this movement can be found in the number of recent publications about sanism and social work practice. The term sanism was coined by Morton Birnbaum during his work representing Edward Stephens, Birnbaum was a physician, lawyer and mental health advocate who helped establish a constitutional right to treatment for psychiatric patients along with safeguards against involuntary commitment. Since first noticing the term in 1980, New York legal professor Michael L. Perlin continued to use the term thereafter, in 1975 Judi Chamberlain coined the term mentalism in a book chapter of Women Look at Psychiatry. It was realized not only did the general public express mentalist ideas, so did ex-patients. As of 1998 these terms have been adopted by some consumers/survivors in the UK and the USA, however, the use of new isms has also been questioned on the grounds that they can be perceived as divisive, out of date, or a form of undue political correctness. The same criticisms, in view, may not apply so much to broader. There is also the umbrella term ableism, referring to discrimination against those who are disabled, in terms of the brain, there is the movement for the recognition of neurodiversity. The term psychophobia has occasionally used with a similar meaning. This divide can justify inconsiderate treatment of the group and expectations of poorer standards of living for them. The discrimination can be so fundamental and unquestioned that it can stop people truly empathizing or genuinely seeing the point of view with respect. Conversely, those coming from the health side may not view such conditions as disabilities in the same way
7.
Racism
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Racism is discrimination and prejudice towards people based on their race or ethnicity. Today, the use of the term racism does not easily fall under a single definition, the Holocaust is the classic example of institutionalized racism which led to the death of millions of people based on their race. Ethnicity is often used in a close to one traditionally attributed to race. Therefore, racism and racial discrimination are often used to describe discrimination on an ethnic or cultural basis, according to a United Nations convention on racial discrimination, there is no distinction between the terms racial and ethnic discrimination. Racist ideology can become manifest in many aspects of social life, Racism can be present in social actions, practices, or political systems that support the expression of prejudice or aversion in discriminatory practices. Associated social actions may include nativism, xenophobia, otherness, segregation, hierarchical ranking, supremacism, in the 19th century, many scientists subscribed to the belief that the human population can be divided into races. The term racism is a noun describing the state of being racist, the origin of the root word race is not clear. Linguists generally agree that it came to the English language from Middle French, a recent proposal is that it derives from the Arabic ras, which means head, beginning, origin or the Hebrew rosh, which has a similar meaning. Early race theorists generally held that some races were inferior to others and these early theories guided pseudo-scientific research assumptions, the collective endeavors to adequately define and form hypotheses about racial differences are generally termed scientific racism. To date, there is evidence in human genome research indicating that race can be defined in such a way as to be useful in a genetic classification of humans. An entry in the Oxford English Dictionary defines racialism simply as An earlier term than racism, but now superseded by it. The revised Oxford English Dictionary cites the shortened term racism in a quote from the year,1903. It was first defined by the Oxford English Dictionary as he theory that human characteristics and abilities are determined by race. Additionally, the Oxford English Dictionary records racism as a synonym of racialism, as its history indicates, popular use of the word racism is relatively recent. The word came into usage in the Western world in the 1930s, when it was used to describe the social and political ideology of Nazism. It is commonly agreed that racism existed before the coinage of the word, garner summarizes different existing definitions of racism and identifies three common elements contained in those definitions of racism. First, a historical, hierarchical power relationship between groups, second, a set of ideas about racial differences, and, third, the UDHR was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1948. They are born equal in dignity and rights and all form a part of humanity
8.
Speciesism
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Speciesism involves the assignment of different values, rights, or special consideration to individuals solely on the basis of their species membership. Their claim is that species membership has no moral significance, the term is not used consistently, but broadly embraces two ideas. It usually refers to human speciesism, the exclusion of all animals from the rights, freedoms. Activities such as these, that were standard human behaviors across the millennia, the term speciesism, and the argument that it is simply a prejudice, first appeared in 1970 in a privately printed pamphlet written by British psychologist Richard D. Ryder. Ryder was a member of a group of intellectuals in Oxford, England, one of the groups activities was distributing pamphlets about areas of concern, the pamphlet titled Speciesism was written to protest against animal experimentation. Ryder argued in the pamphlet that ince Darwin, scientists have agreed that there is no essential difference between humans and other animals, biologically-speaking. Why then do we make an almost total distinction morally, if all organisms are on one physical continuum, then we should also be on the same moral continuum. Ryder wrote, In as much as race and species are vague terms used in the classification of living creatures according, largely, to physical appearance. Discrimination on grounds of race, although most universally condoned two centuries ago, is now widely condemned, similarly, it may come to pass that enlightened minds may one day abhor speciesism as much as they now detest racism. The illogicality in both forms of prejudice is of an identical sort, the time has come to act upon this logic. Those who claim that speciesism is unfair to non-human species have often argued their case by invoking mammals, the term was popularized by the Australian philosopher Peter Singer in his book Animal Liberation. Singer had known Ryder from his own time as a philosophy student at Oxford. He credited Ryder with having coined the term and used it in the title of his books fifth chapter, sexists violate the principle of equality by favouring the interests of their own sex. Similarly, speciesists allow the interests of their own species to override the interests of members of other species. The pattern is identical in each case, Singer argued that, although there may be differences between humans and nonhumans, they share the capacity to suffer, and we must give equal consideration to that suffering. Any position that allows similar cases to be treated in a dissimilar fashion fails to qualify as a moral theory. The term caught on, Singer wrote that it was an awkward word and it became an entry in the Oxford English Dictionary in 1985, defined as discrimination against or exploitation of animal species by human beings, based on an assumption of mankinds superiority. Paola Cavalieri writes that the current humanist paradigm is that human beings are members of the moral community
9.
Adultism
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Adultism is the power adults have over children. More narrowly, adultism is defined as prejudice and accompanying systematic discrimination against young people, on a more philosophical basis, the term has also been defined as bias towards adults. And the social addiction to adults, including their ideas, activities, the word adultism was used by Patterson Du Bois in 1903, and appears in French psychology literature in 1929, describing the influence of adults over children. It was seen as a condition wherein a child possessed adult-like physique and spirit, and was exemplified by, A boy of 12 and they were placed in institutions because of stealing and prostitution. These forms of precocity lead the individual into difficulties and should be recognized early in the development of the individual and this definition was superseded by a late 1970s journal article proposing that adultism is the abuse of the power that adults have over children. The author identified examples of not only in parents but in teachers, psychotherapists, the clergy, police, judges. Adultism is defined as the behaviors and attitudes based on the assumptions that adults are better than young people and it is also seen as, an addiction to the attitudes, ideas, beliefs, and actions of adults. Adultism is popularly used to any discrimination against young people and is distinguished from ageism. Adultism is ostensibly caused by fear of children and youth and it has been suggested that adultism, which is associated with a view of the self that trades on rejecting and excluding child-subjectivity, has always been present in Western culture. Fletcher suggests that adultism has three main expressions throughout society, Attitudinal Adultism, Personal feelings, assumptions, and beliefs that form a person’s attitudes about young people and this is also called internalized adultism. Cultural Adultism, The shared attitudes, including beliefs and customs, promoting the assumption that adults are superior to anyone who is not identified as an adult and this is also called social adultism. This is also referred to as institutional adultism, a study by the Crisis Prevention Institute of the prevalence of adultism found an increasing number of local youth-serving organizations addressing the issue. Adultism is used to describe the oppression of children and young people by adults and it is treated as a generalization of paternalism, allowing for the broad force of adulthood beyond males, and may be witnessed in the infantalization of children and youth. Pedophobia and ephebiphobia have been proposed as the antecedents to adultism, tokophobia, the fear of childbirth, may also be a precursor, gerontophobia, or its antonym, gerontocracy, may be extensions of adultism. Similar terms such as adult privilege, adultarchy, and adultcentrism have been proposed as alternatives which are more morphologically parallel, some activists alternatively call adultism youthism, or childism equating it to sexism and heterosexism. The opposite of adultism is jeunism, which is defined as the preference of young people, at least one prominent organization describes discrimination against youth as ageism, which is any form of discrimination against anyone due to their age. The National Youth Rights Association argues that ageism is a natural and understandable term than adultism. Advocates of using ageism also believe it makes common cause with older people fighting against their own form of age discrimination, recently, theologians Heather Eaton and Matthew Fox proposed, Adultism derives from adults repressing the inner child
10.
Persecution of people with albinism
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Persecution of people with albinism is based on the belief that certain body parts of albinistic people can transmit magical powers. At the same time, people with albinism have also been ostracised and even killed for exactly the reason, because they are presumed to be cursed. The persecutions of people with albinism take place mostly in Sub-Saharan African communities, both parents, who may or may not be albinos themselves, must carry the gene if it is to be passed on to the child. Albinism occurs in males and females and is not specific to any race or ethnic group. Many believe it is a punishment from God or bad luck, and that their disease could be contagious and these misconceptions, coupled with the lack of education, are some of the key reasons that albinism is so heavily persecuted. Ninety-eight percent of albinos die by the age of forty for reasons which could easily be prevented, a report was released on 1 April 2014 by the Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, office of the Canadian charity Under the Same Sun. Titled Reported Attacks of Persons with Albinism, the document reviews 180 countries and lists 129 recent killings and 181 other attacks and these attacks include mutilation, violence, violation of graves, and cases of asylum-seeking. In Tanzania, albinos represent one in every 1429 births, a higher rate than in any other nation. According to Al-Shymaa Kway-Geer, a member of parliament, there are 6977 officially registered albinos in Tanzania. However, it is believed there may be up to 17000 undocumented. A number of albinos have migrated to the Dar es Salaam area, Tanzania is thought to have the largest population of albinos in Africa. Albinos are especially persecuted in Shinyanga and Mwanza, where witch doctors have promoted a belief in the potential magical, there are further issues which arise when there is lack of education about albinism. Fathers often suspect the mother of the child of infidelity with a white man or that the child is the ghost of a European colonist. This can cause strain on families and relationships. An albino child is seen as a bad omen and treated as unwanted. Many albino babies become victims of infanticide due to these superstitious views, president Peter Mutharika has formed a committee to study the situation. African rituals and spiritual ideas about albinism have led to the murder of and attacks on innocent men, women. This has gained public attention nationally and internationally as these crimes have been reported as crimes against human rights, infanticide, kidnapping, amputations, and decapitations, committed for purposes of supplying highly valued body parts used for amulets, which are then sold in underground witchcraft market
11.
Anti-intellectualism
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Anti-intellectualism has been used by totalitarian dictatorships to oppress political dissent. Economist Thomas Sowell argues for distinctions between unreasonable and reasonable wariness of intellectuals, when working in their fields of expertise, intellectuals have increased knowledge. However, when compared to other careers, Sowell suggests intellectuals have few disincentives for speaking outside their expertise, for example, a physician is judged by effective treatment, yet might face malpractice lawsuits if he harms a patient. In this manner, intellectuals participate in areas where they may possess no prior knowledge at all in order to influence public policy issues. Similar arguments have been made by others, historian Paul Johnson argued that a close examination of 20th-century history reveals that intellectuals have championed innumerable disastrous public policies, writing, beware intellectuals. Not merely should they be well away from the levers of power. Journalist Tom Wolfe described an intellectual as a person knowledgeable in one field who speaks out only in others, in Brazil, the educator Paulo Freire was banished for being ignorant, according to the organizers of the coup d’ État of the moment. Extreme ideological dictatorships, such as the Khmer Rouge regime in Kampuchea, in achieving their Year Zero social engineering of Cambodia, they assassinated anyone suspected of involvement in free-market activities. The suspected Cambodian populace included professionals and almost every educated man and woman, city-dwellers, doctrinally, the Khmer Rouge designated the farmers as the true proletariat, as the true representatives of the working class, hence the anti-intellectual purge. Moreover, anti-intellectualism is neither always violent, nor oppressive, because most any social group can exercise contempt for intellect, intellectualism, and education. In fact, it is always the critical intellectuals, writers, intellectuals by definition are people who take ideas seriously for their own sake. Whether or not a theory is true or false is important to them independently of any practical applications it may have, have, as Richard Hofstadter has pointed out, an attitude to ideas that is at once playful and pious. But in the movement, the intellectual ideal of knowledge for its own sake is rejected. Knowledge is seen as only as a basis for action. Far more important than what one knows is how one feels, remember that the publishers want to keep the printing presses busy and do not object to nonsense if it can be sold. The cultural elite—women and men—will be pleading for the plumbers and the construction workers, in The Powring Out of the Seven Vials, the Puritan John Cotton wrote that the more learned and witty you bee, the more fit to act for Satan will you bee. Upon the learning of the Jesuits, and the glorie of the Episcopacy, I say bee not deceived by these pompes, empty shewes, and faire representations of goodly condition before the eyes of flesh and blood, bee not taken with the applause of these persons. Not every Puritan concurred with Cottons contempt for secular education, some founded universities such as Harvard, Yale, the highest elites and the titled aristocracies had little reason to risk their lives crossing the Atlantic and then face the perils of pioneering
12.
Bias against left-handed people
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Bias based on handedness is bias or design, conscious or not, usually against people who are left-handed. Part of this is due to design in the world which is often right-hand biased, handwriting is one of the biggest sources of actual disadvantage for left-handed people, other than for those forced to work with certain machinery. These may include school desks, kitchen implements, and tools ranging from simple scissors to hazardous machinery such as power saws, beyond such neglect, however, left-handed people have been subjected to deliberate discrimination and discouragement. In certain societies, they may be considered unlucky or even malicious by the right-handed majority, many languages still contain references to left-handedness to convey awkwardness, dishonesty, stupidity, or other undesirable qualities. Among Incas left-handers were called lloqe which has positive value, peoples of the Andes consider left-handers to possess special spiritual abilities, including magic and healing. The Third Sapa Inca—Lloque Yupanqui—was left-handed and his name, when translated from Quechua, means the glorified lefthander. However, Lloque was also known as The Unforgettable Left-Handed One due to his reportedly horrifying ugliness, in the Chinese language, the character for left, 左, depicts a left hand attending to its work. In contrast, the character for right, 右, depicts a hand in relation to the mouth. In tantra Buddhism, the hand represents wisdom. In early Roman times, the side retained a positive connotation. The negative meaning was subsequently borrowed into Latin from Greek, in Russian, levsha became a common noun for skilled craftsman, after the title character from The Tale of Cross-eyed Lefty from Tula and the Steel Flea written in 1881 by Nikolai Leskov. In the context of BDSM and Leather culture, the side is traditionally associated with dominance. Flagging on the left indicated one was the performer of a rather than the recipient. The unfavorable associations and connotations of the use of the left hand among cultures are varied. In some areas, in order to preserve cleanliness where sanitation was an issue, the hand, as the dominant hand of most individuals, was used for eating, handling food. The left hand would then be used for hygiene, specifically after urination and defecation. These rules were imposed on all, no matter their dominant hand, through these practices, the left hand became known as the unclean hand. Currently, amongst Muslims and in some societies including Nepal and India it is customary to use the left hand for cleaning oneself with water after defecating
13.
Anti-Masonry
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Anti-Masonry is defined as avowed opposition to Freemasonry. However, there is no homogeneous anti-Masonic movement, Anti-Masonry consists of radically differing criticisms from sometimes incompatible groups who are hostile to Freemasonry in some form. The earliest anti-Masonic document was a leaflet printed in 1698 by a Presbyterian minister named Winter and it reads, TO ALL GODLY PEOPLE, In the Citie of London. For this devllish Sect of Men are Meeters in secret which swear against all without ther Following and they are the Anti Christ which was to come leading Men from Fear of God. For how should Men meet in secret Places and with secret Signs taking Care that none observed them to do the Work of GOD, are not these the Ways of Evil-doers. Knowing how that God observeth privilly them that sit in Darkness they shall be smitten, mingle not among this corrupt People lest you be found so at the Worlds Conflagration. In 1826, William Morgan disappeared from the town of Batavia, New York. His disappearance caused some Anti-masons to claim that he had kidnapped and murdered by Masons. Morgans disappearance sparked a series of protests against Freemasonry, which spread to the political realm. Under the leadership of anti-Masonic Thurlow Weed, an Anti-Jacksonist movement became the Anti-Masonic Party and this political Party ran presidential candidates in 1828 and 1832, but by 1835 the party had disbanded everywhere except Pennsylvania. In the United Kingdom, anti-Masonic sentiment grew following the publication of Martin Shorts 1989 book and this movement was initially led by Jack Straw, Home Secretary from 1997 until 2001. In 1999, the Welsh Assembly became the body in the United Kingdom to place a legal requirement on membership declaration for Freemasons. Currently, existing members of the police and judiciary in England are asked to admit to being Freemasons. Conversely, new members of the police are not required to declare their status, Soviet Russia outlawed all secret societies, including Masonry, in 1922. At one of the Second International meetings Grigory Zinoviev demanded to purge it of masons, Freemasonry did not exist in the Soviet Union, China, or most other Communist states. Postwar revivals of Freemasonry in Czechoslovakia and Hungary were suppressed in 1950, however, when in power, Castro was also said to have kept them on a tight leash as they were considered a subversive element in Cuban society. Fascists treated Freemasonry as a source of opposition. Masonic writers state that the used by the totalitarian regimes is similar to that used by some modern critics of Freemasonry
14.
Antisemitism
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Antisemitism is hostility, prejudice, or discrimination directed against Jews. A person who holds such positions is called an antisemite, Antisemitism is generally considered to be a form of racism. The root word Semite gives the impression that antisemitism is directed against all Semitic people. However, the compound word antisemite was popularized in Germany in 1879 as a term for Judenhass Jew-hatred. Although the term did not come into common usage until the 19th century, the origin of antisemitic terminologies is found in the responses of Moritz Steinschneider to the views of Ernest Renan. As Alex Bein writes, The compound anti-Semitism appears to have been used first by Steinschneider, avner Falk similarly writes, The German word antisemitisch was first used in 1860 by the Austrian Jewish scholar Moritz Steinschneider in the phrase antisemitische Vorurteile. Steinschneider used this phrase to characterise the French philosopher Ernest Renans false ideas about how Semitic races were inferior to Aryan races and he coined the phrase the Jews are our misfortune which would later be widely used by Nazis. According to Jonathan M. Hess, the term was used by its authors to stress the radical difference between their own antisemitism and earlier forms of antagonism toward Jews and Judaism. In 1879 German journalist Wilhelm Marr published a pamphlet, Der Sieg des Judenthums über das Germanenthum, vom nicht confessionellen Standpunkt aus betrachtet in which he used the word Semitismus interchangeably with the word Judentum to denote both Jewry and jewishness. The pamphlet became very popular, and in the year he founded the Antisemiten-Liga. The Jewish Encyclopedia reports, In February 1881, a correspondent of the Allgemeine Zeitung des Judentums speaks of Anti-Semitism as a designation which recently came into use, on 19 July 1882, the editor says, This quite recent Anti-Semitism is hardly three years old. The related term philosemitism was coined around 1885, from the outset the term anti-Semitism bore special racial connotations and meant specifically prejudice against Jews. The term is confusing, for in modern usage Semitic designates a language group, though antisemitism has been used to describe bigotry against people who speak other Semitic languages, the validity of such usage has been questioned. The term may be spelled with or without a hyphen, for example, Emil Fackenheim supported the unhyphenated spelling, in order to the notion that there is an entity Semitism which anti-Semitism opposes. Objections to the usage of the term, such as the nature of the term Semitic as a racial term, have been raised since at least the 1930s. Because of this bad nature, Jews have to be not as individuals. Jews remain essentially alien in the surrounding societies, Jews bring disaster on their host societies or on the whole world, they are doing it secretly, therefore the anti-Semites feel obliged to unmask the conspiratorial, bad Jewish character. It was anti-liberal, racialist and nationalist, bernard Lewis defines antisemitism as a special case of prejudice, hatred, or persecution directed against people who are in some way different from the rest
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Biphobia
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Biphobia is aversion toward bisexuality and toward bisexual people as a social group or as individuals. It can take the form of denial that bisexuality is a sexual orientation. People of any orientation can experience or perpetuate biphobia. Biphobia is a portmanteau word patterned on the term homophobia and it derives from the English neo-classical prefix bi- from bisexual and the root -phobia found in homophobia. Along with transphobia and homophobia, it is one of a family of terms used to describe intolerance, the adjectival form biphobic describes things or qualities related to biphobia, and the less-common noun biphobe is a label for people thought to harbor biphobia. Biphobia need not be a phobia as defined in clinical psychology and its meaning and use typically parallel those of xenophobia. Biphobia can deny that bisexuality is real, asserting that people who identify as bisexual are not genuinely bisexual, one form of this denial is based on the heterosexist view that heterosexuality is the only true or natural sexual orientation. Thus anything that deviates from that is either a psychological pathology or an example of anti-social behavior. In these instances, homophobia and biphobia are largely the same, another form of denial stems from binary views of sexuality, that people are assumed monosexual, i. e. exclusively homosexual or heterosexual. In that model, bisexuals are presumed to be either closeted lesbian/gay people wishing to appear heterosexual, maxims such as people are either gay, straight, or lying embody this dichotomous view of sexual orientation. Some people accept the existence of bisexuality but define it narrowly. Thus the many individuals with unequal attractions are instead categorized as either homosexual or heterosexual. Others acknowledge the existence of bisexuality in women, but deny that men can be bisexual, some denial asserts that bisexual behavior or identity is merely a social trend – as exemplified by bisexual chic or gender bending – and not an intrinsic personality trait. Same-gender sexual activity is dismissed as merely a substitute for sex with members of the opposite sex, situational homosexuality in sex-segregated environments is presented as an example of this behavior. This leaves some that identify as bisexual to be perceived as not enough of either or not real, many stereotypes about people who identify as bisexual stem from denial or bisexual erasure. Because their orientation is not recognized as valid, they are stereotyped as confused, indecisive, insecure, experimenting and this presumed behavior is further generalized as dishonesty, secrecy, and deception. Bisexuals can be characterized as being slutty, easy, indiscriminate, furthermore, they are strongly associated with polyamory, swinging, and polygamy, the last being an established heterosexual tradition sanctioned by some religions and legal in several countries. This is despite the fact that people are as capable of monogamy or serial monogamy as homosexuals or heterosexuals
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Ephebiphobia
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Ephebiphobia is the fear of youth. Studies of the fear of youth occur in sociology and youth studies, the word ephebiphobia is formed from the Greek ἔφηβος éphēbos, meaning youth or adolescent and φόβος phóbos, meaning fear or phobia. The coinage of this term is attributed to a 1994 article by Kirk Astroth published in Phi Delta Kappan, the term paedophobia has gained popular acceptance in Europe to describe the aforementioned fear of youth. Pediaphobia is the fear of infants and children, similar terms include adultism, which is a predisposition towards adults that is biased against children and youth, and ageism, which describes discrimination against any person because of their age. The fear of youth, along with fear of street culture, machiavelli is said to have realized that a fear of youth is what kept the city of Florence from keeping a standing army. Ancient Venice and ancient Greece are also said to have had floundering public policy because of their fear of youth. Early American Puritanism has been seen as reliant on a fear of youth, who were seen as embodying adventure and enlightenment, post-World War II France was said to have been stricken by concern for mal de jeunesse when they created policies that reflected their fear of youth. Send them to camps, place others in reformatories, the rest should have some fresh air. Were the intentions of youth policies in that era, following World War II the United States military identified the growing number of youth in the Deep South as a problematic scenario for national security. Analysts have suggested the upswing in the popular cultures fear of youth may be attributed to policies created in response to that threat. The Seattle Weekly specifically cited the fear of youth as the factor behind Seattle. The government of Prime Minister Tony Blair introduced the Anti-Social Behaviour Order in 1998, media, marketers, politicians, youth workers and researchers have been implicated in perpetuating the fear of youth. Since young people in developed countries are expected to stay out of the workforce, the very creation of the terms youth, adolescence and teenager have all been attributed to the fear of youth. Courts have increasingly ruled against youth rights, as well, before the 1940s teenagers were not listed in newspaper headlines, because as a group they did not exist. The impact of youth since World War II on western society has been immense, in turn, youth are caused to behave in ways that appear different from adults. This has led to the phenomenon of youth, and in turn has created a fear of them. The fear of youth is thought to exist throughout the entire Western world, sociologist Ray Oldenburg has attributed the generation gap and the increasing segregation of youth from adults in American society to adult estrangement and fear of youth. At least one major economist has proposed that the fear of youth can have effects on the economic health of nations
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Anti-fat bias
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Anti-fat bias refers to the prejudicial assumption of personality characteristics based on a visual assessment of a person as being obese. Fat activists allege anti-fat bias can be found in many facets of society, anti-fat bias leads people to associate individuals who are overweight or obese with negative personality traits such as lazy, greedy, stupid, smelly, slow, or unmotivated. This bias is not restricted to clinically obese individuals, but also encompasses those whose shape is in some way found unacceptable according to societys modern standards. It is an example of the halo effect in cultures where physical preferences favor low body fat. Fat-shaming is fairly common in the United States, even though most adult Americans are overweight, huffington Post wrote two-thirds of American adults are overweight or obese. Yet overweight and obese individuals are subject to discrimination from employers, healthcare professionals, anti-fat bias can be moderated by giving a mitigating context to the individual’s appearance of obesity. For example, when told an individual was obese because of overeating and lack of exercise, when the group was told that genetics was to blame they did not exhibit a lowered implicit bias after the explanation. Anti-fat bias is not a strictly Western cultural phenomenon, instances of implicit anti-fat bias have been found across several cultures. Newer research suggests that the traits and attributions are post hoc justifications for the expression of prejudice against obese people. The media is often blamed for the strong negative trait associations that society has toward overweight individuals, among the movies used in the study, two Disney movies contained the highest amount of messages about personal beauty. Representation of overweight individuals in prime time programming is not representative of the proportion in the population. Only 14% of females and 24% of males featured in the top ten prime-time fictional programs of 2003 were overweight and those that were shown had few romantic interactions, rarely shared affection with other characters, and were frequently shown consuming food. In 2007, another analysis sampled 135 scenes featuring overweight individuals from popular television programs and movies, the majority of anti-fat humor found was verbal and directed at the individual in their presence. On September 29,2011, prominent nationally syndicated columnist Michael Kinsley wrote, New Jersey Governor Chris Christie cannot be president, why should Christies weight be more than we can bear in a president. Why should it even be an issue if he runs. One reason is that a candidate should be judged on behavior. Perhaps Christie is the one to help us get our national appetites under control, but it would help if he got his own under control first. Governor Christies response, on October 4,2011, The people who pretend to be serious commentators who wrote about this are among the most ignorant Ive ever heard in my life
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Islamophobia
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Islamophobia or Muslimophobia refers to fear, prejudice, hatred or dislike directed against Islam or Muslims, or towards Islamic politics or culture. The introduction of the term was justified by the assessment that anti-Muslim prejudice has grown so considerably. The causes and characteristics of Islamophobia are still debated, some people also question the validity of the term. The academics S. Sayyid and Vakil maintain that there are societies where virtually no Muslims live, in German, Islamophobie and Islamfeindlichkeit are used. The Scandinavian term Muslimhat literally means hatred of Muslims, the word Islamophobia is a neologism formed from Islam and -phobia, a suffix used in English to form nouns with the sense ‘fear of ——’, ‘aversion to ——’. The compound form Islamo- contains the thematic vowel -o-, and is found in earlier coinages such as Islamo-Christian from the 19th century, Islamophobia reintroduces and reaffirms a global racial structure through which resource distribution disparities are maintained and extended. In 1996, the Runnymede Trust established the Commission on British Muslims and Islamophobia, chaired by Gordon Conway, the Commissions report, Islamophobia, A Challenge for Us All, was published in November 1997 by the Home Secretary, Jack Straw. In the Runnymede report, Islamophobia was defined as an outlook or world-view involving an unfounded dread and dislike of Muslims, the symposium was an early attempt to bring insights from critical race theory, postcolonial and decolonial thought to bear on the question of Islamophobia. The presentations from the symposium were turned into a volume, Sayyid. Thinking Through Islamophobia, Global Perspectives New York, Columbia University Press, nonetheless, he argued that the term is here to stay, and that it is important to define it precisely. The exact definition of Islamophobia continues to be discussed with academics such as Chris Allen saying that it lacks a clear definition, several scholars consider Islamophobia to be a form of xenophobia or racism. A2007 article in Journal of Sociology defines Islamophobia as anti-Muslim racism, similarly, John Denham has drawn parallels between modern Islamophobia and the antisemitism of the 1930s, so have Maud Olofsson, and Jan Hjärpe, among others. Others have questioned the relationship between Islamophobia and racism. Jocelyne Cesari writes that academics are still debating the legitimacy of the term and questioning how it differs from terms such as racism, anti-Islamism, anti-Muslimness. On occasion race does come into play, diane Frost defines Islamophobia as anti-Muslim feeling and violence based on race or religion. Islamophobia may also target people who have Muslim names, or have a look that is associated with Muslims, according to Alan Johnson, Islamophobia sometimes can be nothing more than xenophobia or racism wrapped in religious terms. The European Commission against Racism and Intolerance defines Islamophobia as the fear of or prejudiced viewpoint towards Islam, Muslims and it has also been defined as fear of Muslims and Islam, rejection of the Muslim religion, or a form of differentialist racism. The concept of Islamophobia as formulated by Runnymede was also criticized by professor Fred Halliday on several levels
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Leprosy stigma
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Leprosy stigma is a kind of social stigma, a strong feeling that a leprosy patient is shameful and is not accepted normally in society. It is also called leprosy-related stigma, leprostigma, and stigma of leprosy, an example was in Hawaiʻi, where European Americans, particularly sugar planters, supported legislation to quarantine persons with leprosy in the belief that this would prevent its transmission. In a paper entitled Leprosy stigma, William Jopling cited the definition of stigma by Erving Goffman, Leprosy stigma has been associated with the disease for most of its history. In Western Europe it reached its peak in the Middle Ages, patients had to carry bells to signal their presence but also to attract charitable gifts. The finding in 1873 by Hansen that leprosy was infectious and transmitted by a bacterium worsened leprosy stigma and it was long associated with sexually transmitted diseases and during the nineteenth century was thought to be a stage of syphilis. Numerous societies in the Middle Ages and nineteenth and twentieth centuries required separation of persons with leprosy from the general population, in medieval times, leprosy patients lived apart, settling around temples or shrines, where they begged for charity from passers-by. Starting in 1909, the government required leprosy patients to be hospitalized in the leprosy sanatoria, in some cases, patients were forcibly taken to the sanatoria and their houses were disinfected in the presence of neighbors. Their families were affected by leprosy stigma. In Kumamoto, Japan, a patient with leprosy named Matsuo Fujimoto was tried on charges of an explosion in 1951, during the questioning and trial procedures, he was discriminated against as a leprosy patient. He was convicted and executed in 1962, Kumamoto Prefecture Governor Yoshiko Shiotani reported in 2003 that a hotel rejected reservations of ex-patients of Kikuchi Keifuen Sanatorium who were on the Prefectures home visit program. Many people protested against the hotel, when the patients rejected the apology of the hotel, there were violent protests against the patients. The hotel tore down this building in June 2004, in Joplings original report, he quoted Hansen as saying the Norwegian state has always handled its leprosy victims humanely. Hospitalized patients were free to go out during the day to sell their handwork in the market, there was little evidence of stigma. Many patients immigrated to the United States, but that was because of seeking to escape poverty, the concept of heredity was deeply rooted, and when leprosy was thought to be inherited, persons with the disease were shunned. As deformity was considered divine punishment, stigma was associated with it, Leprosy stigma has been considerable, though it has declined since the late twentieth century. Its resulting facial disfigurement and mutilation of limbs was feared, the diseases long incubation period resulted in mystery for centuries about its origins, inspiring horror, fear and disgust. In 1866 the Hawaiian legislature passed a law requiring quarantine of persons with leprosy and those with severe cases were sent to Kalawao, an isolated settlement on the island of Molokaʻi. Later a second and larger settlement was developed at Kalaupapa and this settlement had a peak population of about 1100 shortly after the turn of the twentieth century, in total about 8500 persons were quarantined here over the decades until 1965
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Misogyny
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Misogyny is the hatred of, contempt for, or prejudice against women or girls. Misogyny can occasionally be found within sacred texts of religions and mythologies, according to sociologist Allan G. Johnson, misogyny is a cultural attitude of hatred for females because they are female. Johnson argues that, Misogyny. is a part of sexist prejudice and ideology and. Misogyny is manifested in different ways, from jokes to pornography to violence to the self-contempt women may be taught to feel toward their own bodies. Dictionaries define misogyny as hatred of women and as hatred, dislike, the counterpart of misogyny is misandry, the hatred or dislike of men, the antonym of misogyny is philogyny, the love or fondness of women. The term misogyny itself comes directly into English from the Ancient Greek word misogunia, the earlier, longer, and more complete passage comes from a moral tract known as On Marriage by the stoic philosopher Antipater of Tarsus. Antipater argues that marriage is the foundation of the state, and he uses misogunia to describe the sort of writing the tragedian Euripides eschews, stating that he reject the hatred of women in his writing. He then offers an example of this, quoting from a lost play of Euripides in which the merits of a wife are praised. The other surviving use of the original Greek word is by Chrysippus, in a fragment from On affections, here, misogyny is the first in a short list of three disaffections—women, wine and humanity. Chrysippus point is more abstract than Antipaters, and Galen quotes the passage as an example of a contrary to his own. What is clear, however, is that he groups hatred of women with hatred of humanity generally and it was the prevailing medical opinion of his day that wine strengthens body and soul alike. So Chrysippus, like his fellow stoic Antipater, views misogyny negatively, as a disease and it is this issue of conflicted or alternating emotions that was philosophically contentious to the ancient writers. Ricardo Salles suggests that the general view was that man may not only alternate between philogyny and misogyny, philanthropy and misanthropy, but be prompted to each by the other. Aristotle has also accused of being a misogynist, he has written that women were inferior to men. The Timaeus warns men that if they live immorally they will be reincarnated as women, the Republic contains a number of comments in the same spirit, evidence of nothing so much as of contempt toward women. Even Socrates words for his bold new proposal about marriage, suggest that the women are to be held in common by men. He never says that the men might be held in common by the women, misogynist is also found in the Greek—misogunēs —in Deipnosophistae and in Plutarchs Parallel Lives, where it is used as the title of Heracles in the history of Phocion. It was the title of a play by Menander, which we know of from seven of Strabos 17 volume Geography
