1.
Morus nigra
–
It is known for its large number of chromosomes, as it has 154 pairs. Morus nigra is a tree growing to 12 m tall by 15 m broad. The leaves are 10–20 cm long by 6–10 cm broad - up to 23 cm long on shoots, downy on the underside. Black mulberry has long been cultivated for its fruit and is planted and often naturalised west across much of Europe, including Ukraine. Jams and sherbets are often made from the fruit in this region, the black mulberry was imported into Britain in the 17th century in the hope that it would be useful in the cultivation of silkworms. It was unsuccessful because silkworms prefer the white mulberry but has left a legacy of large, the largest documented local concentration of black mulberries in Europe can be found in the vineyards of Pukanec in Slovakia
Morus nigra
–
Morus nigra
Morus nigra
–
Foliage and immature fruit of Morus nigra
Morus nigra
–
Female flowers of Morus nigra
Morus nigra
–
Unripe shahtoot (
Iran)
2.
BlackBerry
–
BlackBerry is a line of smartphones, tablets, and services designed and marketed by Canadian company BlackBerry Limited. BlackBerry was considered one of the most prominent smartphone vendors in the world, specializing in secure communications, at its peak in September 2013, there were 85 million BlackBerry subscribers worldwide. However, BlackBerry has since lost its dominant position in the due to the success of the Android and iOS platforms. The BlackBerry line traditionally uses an operating system developed by BlackBerry Limited known as BlackBerry OS. In 2013, BlackBerry introduced BlackBerry 10, a revamp of the platform based on QNX operating system. BlackBerry 10 was meant to replace the aging BlackBerry OS platform with a new system that was more in line with the experiences of modern smartphone operating systems. In 2015, BlackBerry re-focused its business strategy and began to release Android-based smartphones, beginning with the BlackBerry Priv slider, on September 28,2016, Blackberry announced it would cease designing its own phones in favour of outsourcing to partners. RIM, founded in Waterloo, Ontario, first developed the Inter@ctive Pager 900, the Inter@ctive Pager 900 was a clamshell-type device that allowed two-way paging. After the success of the 900, the Inter@ctive Pager 800 was created for IBM, the next device to be released was the Inter@ctive Pager 950, on August 26,1998. The very first device to carry the BlackBerry name was the BlackBerry 850, although identical in appearance to the 950, the 850 was the first device to integrate email and the name Inter@ctive Pager was no longer used to brand the device. The first BlackBerry device, the 850, was introduced in 1999 as a two-way pager in Munich, the name BlackBerry was coined by the marketing company Lexicon Branding. The name was due to the resemblance of the keyboards buttons to that of the drupelets that compose the blackberry fruit. The original BlackBerry devices, the RIM850 and 857, used the DataTAC network, BlackBerry gained market share in the mobile industry by concentrating on email. BlackBerry began to offer service on non-BlackBerry devices, such as the Palm Treo. The original BlackBerry device had a display while newer models installed color displays. All newer models have been optimized for thumbing, the use of only the thumbs to type on a keyboard, the Storm 1 and Storm 2 include a SureType keypad for typing. Originally, system navigation was achieved with the use of a wheel mounted on the right side of device models prior to the 8700. The trackwheel was replaced by the trackball with the introduction of the Pearl series, the trackball was replaced by the optical trackpad with the introduction of the Curve 8500 series
BlackBerry
–
BlackBerry Z30
BlackBerry
BlackBerry
–
Mike Lazaridis - Founder and former co-CEO of BlackBerry
BlackBerry
–
Original BlackBerry
3.
Species aggregate
–
In biology, a species complex is a group of closely related species that are very similar in appearance to the point that the boundaries between them are often unclear. As informal taxonomic ranks, species group, species aggregate, two or more taxa once considered conspecific may later be subdivided into infraspecific taxa, but this is not a species complex. A species complex is in most cases a monophyletic group with a common ancestor and it may represent an early stage after speciation, but may also have been separated for a long time period without evolving morphological differences. Hybrid speciation can be a component in the evolution of a species complex, species complexes exist in all groups of organisms. The existence of similar species may cause local and global species diversity to be underestimated. Recognizing similar but distinct species is important for disease and pest control, a species complex is typically considered as a group of close, but distinct species. Obviously, the concept is tied to the definition of a species. Modern biology understands a species as separately evolving metapopulation lineage but acknowledges that the criteria to delimit species may depend on the group studied, a more restricted use applies the term to close species between which hybridisation occurred or is occurring, leading to intermediate forms and blurred species boundaries. Some authors apply the term also to a species with intraspecific variability, examples are ring species or species with subspecies, where it is often unclear if these should be considered separate species. Several terms are used synonymously for a complex, but some of them may also have slightly different. In the nomenclature codes of zoology and bacteriology, no taxonomic ranks are defined at the level between subgenera and species, while the botanical code defines four ranks below genera, different informal taxonomic solutions have been used to indicate a species complex. This describes distinct species that are classified under one species name. More generally, the term is applied when species, even if known to be distinct. The usage physiologic race is not to be confused with physiological race and this term, introduced by Ernst Mayr in 1942, was initially used with the same meaning as cryptic species, but later authors emphasized the common phylogenetic origin. A recent article defines sibling species as sister species, meaning two species that are the closest relative of each other and have not been distinguished from one another taxonomically. This refers to a group of closely related species all living in the same ecosystem. Conversely, the term has also been applied very broadly to a group of related species than can be variable. Superspecies Sometimes used as a rank for a species complex around one representative species
Species aggregate
–
The
fly agaric comprises several cryptic species, as shown by genetic data.
Species aggregate
–
The butterfly genus
Heliconius contains some species extremely difficult to tell apart.
Species aggregate
–
The
African forest elephant (shown) is the
bush elephant 's sibling species.
Species aggregate
–
Mbuna cichlids form a species flock of several hundred species in
Lake Malawi.
4.
Taxonomy (biology)
–
Taxonomy is the science of defining groups of biological organisms on the basis of shared characteristics and giving names to those groups. The exact definition of taxonomy varies from source to source, but the core of the remains, the conception, naming. There is some disagreement as to whether biological nomenclature is considered a part of taxonomy, the broadest meaning of taxonomy is used here. The word taxonomy was introduced in 1813 by Candolle, in his Théorie élémentaire de la botanique, the term alpha taxonomy is primarily used today to refer to the discipline of finding, describing, and naming taxa, particularly species. In earlier literature, the term had a different meaning, referring to morphological taxonomy, ideals can, it may be said, never be completely realized. They have, however, a value of acting as permanent stimulants. Some of us please ourselves by thinking we are now groping in a beta taxonomy, turrill thus explicitly excludes from alpha taxonomy various areas of study that he includes within taxonomy as a whole, such as ecology, physiology, genetics, and cytology. He further excludes phylogenetic reconstruction from alpha taxonomy, thus, Ernst Mayr in 1968 defined beta taxonomy as the classification of ranks higher than species. This activity is what the term denotes, it is also referred to as beta taxonomy. How species should be defined in a group of organisms gives rise to practical and theoretical problems that are referred to as the species problem. The scientific work of deciding how to define species has been called microtaxonomy, by extension, macrotaxonomy is the study of groups at higher taxonomic ranks, from subgenus and above only, than species. While some descriptions of taxonomic history attempt to date taxonomy to ancient civilizations, earlier works were primarily descriptive, and focused on plants that were useful in agriculture or medicine. There are a number of stages in scientific thinking. Early taxonomy was based on criteria, the so-called artificial systems. Later came systems based on a complete consideration of the characteristics of taxa, referred to as natural systems, such as those of de Jussieu, de Candolle and Bentham. The publication of Charles Darwins Origin of Species led to new ways of thinking about classification based on evolutionary relationships and this was the concept of phyletic systems, from 1883 onwards. This approach was typified by those of Eichler and Engler, the advent of molecular genetics and statistical methodology allowed the creation of the modern era of phylogenetic systems based on cladistics, rather than morphology alone. Taxonomy has been called the worlds oldest profession, and naming and classifying our surroundings has likely been taking place as long as mankind has been able to communicate
Taxonomy (biology)
–
Title page of
Systema Naturae, Leiden, 1735
Taxonomy (biology)
–
Evolution of the
vertebrates at class level, width of spindles indicating number of families. Spindle diagrams are typical for
Evolutionary taxonomy
Taxonomy (biology)
–
The same relationship, expressed as a
cladogram typical for
cladistics
Taxonomy (biology)
–
Type specimen for
Nepenthes smilesii, a tropical
pitcher plant.
5.
Plant
–
Plants are mainly multicellular, predominantly photosynthetic eukaryotes of the kingdom Plantae. The term is generally limited to the green plants, which form an unranked clade Viridiplantae. This includes the plants, conifers and other gymnosperms, ferns, clubmosses, hornworts, liverworts, mosses and the green algae. Green plants have cell walls containing cellulose and obtain most of their energy from sunlight via photosynthesis by primary chloroplasts and their chloroplasts contain chlorophylls a and b, which gives them their green color. Some plants are parasitic and have lost the ability to produce amounts of chlorophyll or to photosynthesize. Plants are characterized by sexual reproduction and alternation of generations, although reproduction is also common. There are about 300–315 thousand species of plants, of which the great majority, green plants provide most of the worlds molecular oxygen and are the basis of most of Earths ecologies, especially on land. Plants that produce grains, fruits and vegetables form humankinds basic foodstuffs, Plants play many roles in culture. They are used as ornaments and, until recently and in variety, they have served as the source of most medicines. The scientific study of plants is known as botany, a branch of biology, Plants are one of the two groups into which all living things were traditionally divided, the other is animals. The division goes back at least as far as Aristotle, who distinguished between plants, which generally do not move, and animals, which often are mobile to catch their food. Much later, when Linnaeus created the basis of the system of scientific classification. Since then, it has become clear that the plant kingdom as originally defined included several unrelated groups, however, these organisms are still often considered plants, particularly in popular contexts. When the name Plantae or plant is applied to a group of organisms or taxon. The evolutionary history of plants is not yet settled. Those which have been called plants are in bold, the way in which the groups of green algae are combined and named varies considerably between authors. Algae comprise several different groups of organisms which produce energy through photosynthesis, most conspicuous among the algae are the seaweeds, multicellular algae that may roughly resemble land plants, but are classified among the brown, red and green algae. Each of these groups also includes various microscopic and single-celled organisms
Plant
–
Green algae from
Ernst Haeckel 's
Kunstformen der Natur, 1904.
Plant
–
Had'n
Plant
–
Dicksonia antarctica, a species of
tree fern
Plant
–
A petrified log in
Petrified Forest National Park.
6.
Angiosperms
–
The flowering plants, also known as Angiospermae or Magnoliophyta, are the most diverse group of land plants, with 416 families, approx. 13,164 known genera and a total of c.295,383 known species, etymologically, angiosperm means a plant that produces seeds within an enclosure, in other words, a fruiting plant. The term angiosperm comes from the Greek composite word meaning enclosed seeds, the ancestors of flowering plants diverged from gymnosperms in the Triassic Period, during the range 245 to 202 million years ago, and the first flowering plants are known from 160 mya. They diversified extensively during the Lower Cretaceous, became widespread by 120 mya, angiosperms differ from other seed plants in several ways, described in the table. These distinguishing characteristics taken together have made the angiosperms the most diverse and numerous land plants, the amount and complexity of tissue-formation in flowering plants exceeds that of gymnosperms. The vascular bundles of the stem are arranged such that the xylem and phloem form concentric rings, in the dicotyledons, the bundles in the very young stem are arranged in an open ring, separating a central pith from an outer cortex. In each bundle, separating the xylem and phloem, is a layer of meristem or active formative tissue known as cambium, the soft phloem becomes crushed, but the hard wood persists and forms the bulk of the stem and branches of the woody perennial. Among the monocotyledons, the bundles are more numerous in the stem and are scattered through the ground tissue. They contain no cambium and once formed the stem increases in diameter only in exceptional cases, the characteristic feature of angiosperms is the flower. Flowers show remarkable variation in form and elaboration, and provide the most trustworthy external characteristics for establishing relationships among angiosperm species, the function of the flower is to ensure fertilization of the ovule and development of fruit containing seeds. The floral apparatus may arise terminally on a shoot or from the axil of a leaf, occasionally, as in violets, a flower arises singly in the axil of an ordinary foliage-leaf. There are two kinds of cells produced by flowers. Microspores, which divide to become pollen grains, are the male cells and are borne in the stamens. The female cells called megaspores, which divide to become the egg cell, are contained in the ovule. The flower may consist only of parts, as in willow. Usually, other structures are present and serve to protect the sporophylls, the individual members of these surrounding structures are known as sepals and petals. The outer series is usually green and leaf-like, and functions to protect the rest of the flower, the inner series is, in general, white or brightly colored, and is more delicate in structure. It functions to attract insect or bird pollinators, attraction is effected by color, scent, and nectar, which may be secreted in some part of the flower
Angiosperms
Angiosperms
–
Bud of a pink
rose
Angiosperms
–
Flowers of
Malus sylvestris (crab apple)
Angiosperms
–
Flowers and leaves of
Oxalis pes-caprae (Bermuda buttercup)
7.
Eudicots
–
The eudicots, Eudicotidae or eudicotyledons are a monophyletic clade of flowering plants that had been called tricolpates or non-magnoliid dicots by previous authors. The close relationships among flowering plants with tricolpate pollen grains was initially seen in studies of shared derived characters. These plants have a trait in their pollen grains of exhibiting three colpi or grooves paralleling the polar axis. Later molecular evidence confirmed the basis for the evolutionary relationships among flowering plants with tricolpate pollen grains. The term means true dicotyledons, as it contains the majority of plants that have been considered dicots and have characteristics of the dicots, the term eudicots has subsequently been widely adopted in botany to refer to one of the two largest clades of angiosperms, monocots being the other. The remaining angiosperms are sometimes referred to as basal angiosperms or paleodicots, the other name for the eudicots is tricolpates, a name which refers to the grooved structure of the pollen. Members of the group have tricolpate pollen, or forms derived from it and these pollens have three or more pores set in furrows called colpi. In contrast, most of the seed plants produce monosulcate pollen. The name tricolpates is preferred by some botanists to avoid confusion with the dicots, numerous familiar plants are eudicots, including many common food plants, trees, and ornamentals. Most leafy trees of midlatitudes also belong to eudicots, with exceptions being magnolias and tulip trees which belong to magnoliids, and Ginkgo biloba. The name eudicots is used in the APG system, of 1998 and it is applied to a clade, a monophyletic group, which includes most of the dicots. The eudicots can be divided into two groups, the basal eudicots and the core eudicots, basal eudicot is an informal name for a paraphyletic group. The core eudicots are a monophyletic group, a 2010 study suggested the core eudicots can be divided into two clades, Gunnerales and a clade called Pentapetalae, comprising all the remaining core eudicots
Eudicots
–
Eudicots Temporal range:
Early Cretaceous - recent
Eudicots
–
Arabis pollen has three colpi.
8.
Rosales
–
Rosales is an order of flowering plants. It is sister to a clade consisting of Fagales and Cucurbitales and it contains about 7700 species, distributed into about 260 genera. Rosales comprise nine families, the family being the rose family. The largest of these families are Rosaceae and Urticaceae, the order Rosales is divided into three clades that have never been assigned a taxonomic rank. The basal clade consists of the family Rosaceae, another clade consists of four families, including Rhamnaceae, the order Rosales is strongly supported as monophyletic in phylogenetic analyses of DNA sequences, such as those carried out by members of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group. In their APG III system of plant classification, they defined Rosales as consisting of the nine families listed in the box on the right. The relationships of these families were uncertain until 2011, when they were resolved in a phylogenetic study based on two nuclear genes and ten chloroplast genes. In the classification system of Dahlgren the Rosales were in the superorder Rosiflorae, in the obsolete Cronquist system, the order Rosales was many times polyphyletic. It consisted of the family Rosaceae and 23 other families that are now placed in other orders
Rosales
–
Rosales
9.
Rosaceae
–
Rosaceae, the rose family, is a medium-sized family of flowering plants, including 4,828 known species in 91 genera. The name is derived from the type genus Rosa, among the most species-rich genera are Alchemilla, Sorbus, Crataegus, Cotoneaster, Rubus, and Prunus with about 200 species. However, all of these numbers should be seen as estimates – much taxonomic work remains, the Rosaceae family includes herbs, shrubs, and trees. Most species are deciduous, but some are evergreen and they have a worldwide range, but are most diverse in the Northern Hemisphere. Several economically important products come from the Rosaceae, including many edible fruits, almonds, the Rosaceae have a cosmopolitan distribution, but are primarily concentrated in the Northern Hemisphere in regions that are not desert or tropical rainforest. More recently, Chrysobalanoideae has also treated as a family, but also in Rosales. Neuradoideae has been assigned to Malvales, schulze-Menz, in Englers Syllabus edited by Melchior recognized Rosoideae, Dryadoideae, Lyonothamnoideae, Spireoideae, Amygdaloideae, and Maloideae. They were primarily diagnosed by the structure of the fruits, more recent work has identified that not all of these groups were monophyletic. Hutchinson and Kalkmann recognized only tribes, takhtajan delimited 10 subfamilies, Filipenduloideae, Rosoideae, Ruboideae, Potentilloideae, Coleogynoideae, Kerroideae, Amygdaloideae, Spireoideae, Maloideae, Dichotomanthoideae, and 21 tribes. A more modern model comprises three subfamilies, one of which has remained the same. A cladogram of the family is, Three cladistic analyses were done in 1999 by Rodger Evans, one based on the phenotype, one on molecules, and the third combined. The only major difference in the results with the above cladogram is the position of Kerria, while the boundaries of the Rosaceae are not disputed, there is not general agreement as to how many genera it contains. Areas of divergent opinion include the treatment of Potentilla s. l. compounding the problem is that apomixis is common in several genera. This results in an uncertainty in the number of species contained in each of these genera, Rosaceae can be trees, shrubs, or herbaceous plants. The herbs are mostly perennials, but some also exist. The leaves are arranged spirally, but have an opposite arrangement in some species. They can be simple or pinnately compound, compound leaves appear in around 30 genera. The leaf margin is most often serrate, paired stipules are generally present, and are a primitive feature within the family, independently lost in many groups of Amygdaloideae
Rosaceae
–
Rosaceae Temporal range:
Cretaceous -
Holocene [
citation needed]
10.
Rubus
–
Rubus is a large and diverse genus of flowering plants in the rose family, Rosaceae, subfamily Rosoideae, with 250–700 species. Raspberries, blackberries, and dewberries are common, widely distributed members of the genus, most of these plants have woody stems with prickles like roses, spines, bristles, and gland-tipped hairs are also common in the genus. The Rubus fruit, sometimes called a fruit, is an aggregate of drupelets. Most species are hermaphrodites, Rubus chamaemorus being an exception, the blackberries, as well as various other Rubus species with mounding or rambling growth habits, are often called brambles. The generic name means blackberry in Latin and was derived from the word ruber, the scientific study of brambles is known as batology. Examples of the hundreds of species of Rubus include, The British National Collection of Rubus is held by Barry Clark at Houghton and his collection stands at over 200 species and, although not within the scope of the National Collection, he also grows many cultivars. The term hybrid berry is used collectively for those fruits in the genus Rubus which have been developed mainly in the USA. As Rubus species readily interbreed and are apomicts, the parentage of these plants is highly complex, but is generally agreed to include cultivars of blackberries. Polyploidy from the diploid to the tetradecaploid is exhibited, some treatments have recognized dozens of species each for what other, comparably qualified botanists have considered single, more variable species. The classification presented below recognizes 13 subgenera within Rubus, with the largest subgenus in turn divided into 12 sections, representative examples are presented, but many more species are not mentioned here. Fossil seeds from the early Miocene of Rubus sp. have been found in the Czech part of the Zittau Basin, list of Lepidoptera that feed on Rubus Rubus at the Western Kentucky University
Rubus
–
Rubus
Rubus
–
R. arcticus
Rubus
–
R. odoratus
Rubus
–
R. saxatilis
11.
Rubus ursinus
–
The name is from rubus for bramble and ursinus for bear. The plant is native to western North America, found in British Columbia, California, Idaho, Montana, Oregon, and Washington, Rubus ursinus is a wide, mounding shrub or vine, growing to 2–5 feet high, and more than 6 feet wide. The prickly branches can take if they touch soil, thus enabling the plant to spread vegetatively. Leaves usually have 3 leaflets but sometimes 5 or only 1, the plant is dioeocious, with male and female plants on separate plants, also unusual for the genus. As with other Rubus, the canes are typically vegetative the first year, flowers are white with narrower petals than most related species, and have a fragrance. The sweet, very aromatic, edible fruits are purple, dark red, or black. Current or recent subspecies and varieties include, Rubus ursinus subsp, macropetalus — all of distribution range. Rubus ursinus var. sirbenus — endemic to California, Rubus ursinus var. ursinus — California and Oregon. Diverse wildlife eat the berries, including songbirds, deer, bear and it is of notable pollinator and nesting material value for native bee and bumble bee species. This blackberry species is a food source for the western tiger swallowtail butterfly, the mourning cloak butterfly, the gray hairstreak butterfly. Native Americans, such as the Kumeyaay, Maidu, Pomo and Salish peoples, used Rubus ursinus as a fresh and dried fruit source, the Concow tribe calls this plant wân-kö-mil′-ē in the Konkow language. Rubus ursinus is cultivated for its fruit, and also ornamental plant qualities and it is planted in home, native plant, and wildlife gardens, and in natural landscaping projects. It can be espaliered or trained on fences and trellising, when mature/established, the plant is effective in stabilizing creek banks and edges of bioswales. To set large fruit, the plant needs consistent amounts of moisture, otherwise it is moderately drought tolerant when established. Seed size seems to be related to cell size. These are sometimes called little wild blackberries, cultivars A cultivar of this species named the Aughinbaugh blackberry was a parent of the loganberry. Rubus ursinus is also a second generation parent of the boysenberry, wild Treasure has the fruit size and flavor of the wild species, but without prickles, and the berries are machine harvestable. It was released by the USDA-ARS in 2010, and is a hybrid between a selection of Rubus ursinus and Waldo, northwest Oregon Wetland Plants Project, Rubus ursinus - Trailing blackberry, Dewberry, Pacific blackberry Rubus ursinus — Calphotos Photo gallery, University of California
Rubus ursinus
–
Rubus ursinus
Rubus ursinus
–
Rubus ursinus berries.
Rubus ursinus
–
Rubus ursinus flower.
12.
Rubus laciniatus
–
Rubus laciniatus, the Cutleaf Evergreen Blackberry or Evergreen Blackberry, is a species of Rubus native to northern and central Europe. It is a species in Australia and North America. It has become a weed and invasive species in forested habitats in the United States and Canada, particularly in the Northeast, Rubus laciniatus is a deciduous, bramble-forming shrub growing to 3 meters tall, with prickly shoots. The leaves are compound, with five leaflets, each divided into deeply toothed subleaflets with jagged. The flowers have pink or white petals, the deeply cut into 3 lobes at the tip. Fruits are similar to the blackberry, with a unique. The fruits are not true berries in the botanical sense, the species is unusual in the genus in having 3-lobed petals and also in having such deeply divided leaves. The fruits of plant are eagerly consumed by a number of animal species, including many birds. The thickets provide cover for animals. Several commercially important berry cultivars have been bred from this wild Rubus laciniatus species, which has been grown for its fruits since 1770
Rubus laciniatus
–
Rubus laciniatus Cutleaf Evergreen Blackberry
13.
Rubus argutus
–
Rubus argutus is a North American species of prickly bramble in the rose family. It is a native to the eastern and south-central United States from Florida to Texas, Missouri, Illinois. Common names are sawtooth blackberry or tall blackberry because of its habit of growing up to 2 meters in height, the flowers are white with large petals, borne in mid-spring. Photo of herbarium specimen at Missouri Botanical Garden, collected in 1989 in Missouri United States Department of Agriculture Plants Profile US Wildflowers
Rubus argutus
–
Rubus argutus
14.
Rubus armeniacus
–
Rubus armeniacus, the Himalayan blackberry or Armenian blackberry, is a species of Rubus in the blackberry group Rubus subgenus Rubus series Discolores Focke. It is native to Armenia and Northern Iran, and widely naturalised elsewhere, flora of North America, published in 2014, considers the taxonomy unsettled, and tentatively uses the older name Rubus bifrons. In some areas, the plant is cultivated for its berries, but in areas it is considered a noxious weed. Rubus armeniacus is a plant which bears biennial stems from the perennial root system. In its first year a new stem grows vigorously to its length of 4–10 m. The stem is stout, up to 2–3 cm diameter at the base, the leaves on first year shoots are 7–20 cm long, palmately compound with five leaflets. Flowers are not produced on first year shoots, in its second year, the stem does not grow longer, but produces several side shoots, which bear smaller leaves with three leaflets. These leaflets are oval-acute, dark green above and pale to whitish below, with a toothed margin, and thorns along the midrib on the underside. The flowers are produced in spring and early summer on panicles of 3–20 together on the tips of the second-year side shoots. The fruit in botanical terminology is not a berry, but a fruit of numerous drupelets,1. 2–2 cm diameter. Both first and second year shoots are spiny, with short, stout, curved, mature plants form a tangle of dense arching stems, the branches rooting from the node tip when they reach the ground. The species was introduced to Europe in 1835 and to Australasia and it was valued for its fruit, similar to that of common blackberries but larger and sweeter, making it a more attractive species for both domestic and commercial fruit production. The cultivars Himalayan Giant and Theodore Reimers are particularly commonly planted, Rubus armeniacus soon escaped from cultivation and has become an invasive species in most of the temperate world. Because it is so hard to contain, it quickly got out of control, with birds and other animals eating the fruit, rubus_armeniacus Bugwood Wiki photo of herbarium specimen at Missouri Botanical Garden, collected in Missouri in 1995
Rubus armeniacus
–
Rubus armeniacus Himalayan blackberry
Rubus armeniacus
Rubus armeniacus
–
Himalayan Blackberry flower,
Bay Area, California. Note spider on bottom petal.
15.
Rubus plicatus
–
Rubus plicatus is a species of blackberry native to Europe. The type specimen of the genus Rubus was selected from among Linnaeuss specimens by Nathaniel Lord Britton and Addison Brown in 1913 as a herbarium specimen labelled Rubus fruticosus and this specimen turned out to include a mixture of pieces that apparently belong to Rubus plicatus and Rubus ulmifolius. From these, a component that appears to match Rubus plicatus was selected to be the type, the type of Rubus plicatus, however, is a different specimen. Whenever R. fruticosus and R. plicatus are considered to belong to the same species, when one must be listed as a synonym of the other, R
Rubus plicatus
–
Rubus plicatus
16.
Rubus ulmifolius
–
Rubus ulmifolius is a species of wild blackberry known by the English common name elmleaf blackberry or thornless blackberry and the Spanish common name zarzamora. It is native to Europe and North Africa, and has become naturalized in parts of the United States, Australia. Rubus ulmifolius is a shrub sometimes as much as 5 meters tall, sometimes with spines. Leaves are palmately compound with 3 or 5 leaflets, the green on the upper surface. Flowers are usually pink, sometimes white, the fruit is a compound drupe, dark purple, almost black. Rubus sanctus is often considered to be a subspecies of R. ulmifolius
Rubus ulmifolius
–
Rubus ulmifolius
Rubus ulmifolius
Rubus ulmifolius
–
Flower and buds
17.
Rubus allegheniensis
–
Rubus allegheniensis is a species of bramble, known as Allegheny blackberry and simply as common blackberry. Like other blackberries, it is a species of flowering plant in the rose family and it is very common in eastern and central North America. It is also naturalized in a few locations in California and British Columbia and it is an erect bramble, typically 5 feet but occasionally rarely over 8 feet high, with single shrubs approaching 8 feet or more in breadth, although it usually forms dense thickets of many plants. Leaves are alternate, compound, ovoid, and have toothed edges, thorny canes, with white, 5-petal, ¾ inch flowers in late spring and glossy, deep-violet to black, aggregate fruit in late summer. The presence of Rubus allegheniensis influences the dynamics of the vegetation of many forests in the eastern United States. An abundance of Rubus allegheniensis encourages new tree seedlings, where the effects of herbivorous animals reduce the abundance of Allegheny blackberry, a competitor, Dennstaedtia punctilobula, takes over. Where Dennstaedtia punctilobula becomes common, the growth of seedlings is restricted. Concentrations of Rubus allegheniensis increase greatly after events that destroy taller shrubs and trees and thus permit more light into the understory and these populations often decline in later years as the tree seedlings sheltered by the blackberry canes grow and reduce the amount of light reaching the lower levels. United States Department of Agriculture plants profile for Rubus allegheniensis photo of herbarium specimen at Missouri Botanical Garden, collected in Missouri in 1992
Rubus allegheniensis
–
Rubus allegheniensis
18.
Microspecies
–
In biology, a species complex is a group of closely related species that are very similar in appearance to the point that the boundaries between them are often unclear. As informal taxonomic ranks, species group, species aggregate, two or more taxa once considered conspecific may later be subdivided into infraspecific taxa, but this is not a species complex. A species complex is in most cases a monophyletic group with a common ancestor and it may represent an early stage after speciation, but may also have been separated for a long time period without evolving morphological differences. Hybrid speciation can be a component in the evolution of a species complex, species complexes exist in all groups of organisms. The existence of similar species may cause local and global species diversity to be underestimated. Recognizing similar but distinct species is important for disease and pest control, a species complex is typically considered as a group of close, but distinct species. Obviously, the concept is tied to the definition of a species. Modern biology understands a species as separately evolving metapopulation lineage but acknowledges that the criteria to delimit species may depend on the group studied, a more restricted use applies the term to close species between which hybridisation occurred or is occurring, leading to intermediate forms and blurred species boundaries. Some authors apply the term also to a species with intraspecific variability, examples are ring species or species with subspecies, where it is often unclear if these should be considered separate species. Several terms are used synonymously for a complex, but some of them may also have slightly different. In the nomenclature codes of zoology and bacteriology, no taxonomic ranks are defined at the level between subgenera and species, while the botanical code defines four ranks below genera, different informal taxonomic solutions have been used to indicate a species complex. This describes distinct species that are classified under one species name. More generally, the term is applied when species, even if known to be distinct. The usage physiologic race is not to be confused with physiological race and this term, introduced by Ernst Mayr in 1942, was initially used with the same meaning as cryptic species, but later authors emphasized the common phylogenetic origin. A recent article defines sibling species as sister species, meaning two species that are the closest relative of each other and have not been distinguished from one another taxonomically. This refers to a group of closely related species all living in the same ecosystem. Conversely, the term has also been applied very broadly to a group of related species than can be variable. Superspecies Sometimes used as a rank for a species complex around one representative species
Microspecies
–
The
fly agaric comprises several cryptic species, as shown by genetic data.
Microspecies
–
The butterfly genus
Heliconius contains some species extremely difficult to tell apart.
Microspecies
–
The
African forest elephant (shown) is the
bush elephant 's sibling species.
Microspecies
–
Mbuna cichlids form a species flock of several hundred species in
Lake Malawi.
19.
Dewberry
–
The dewberries are a group of species in the genus Rubus, section Rubus, closely related to the blackberries. They are small trailing brambles with aggregate fruits, reminiscent of the raspberry, unlike many other Rubus species, dewberries have separate male and female plants. Dewberries are common throughout most of the Northern Hemisphere, sometimes thought of as a weed, but the leaves can be used for a tea. They can be raw, or used to make cobbler, jam. Around March and April, the start to grow white flowers that develop into small green berries. The tiny green berries grow red and then a deep purple-blue as they ripen, when the berries are ripe, they are tender and difficult to pick in any quantity without squashing them. The plants do not have upright canes like some other Rubus species, the stems are covered with fine spines or stickers. The berries are sweet and, for many, less seedy than blackberries and worth the scratches, in the winter the leaves often remain on the stems, but may turn dark red. The leaves are eaten by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including peach blossom moths. The European dewberry, Rubus caesius, grows more upright like other brambles and its fruits are a deep, almost black, purple and are coated with a thin layer or dew of waxy droplets. It is less sought after, because its fruits are small, local growers made extensive use of the railroads, in the area, to ship them national and internationally. Var. almus L. H. Bailey Rubus foliaceus L. H. Bailey Rubus ignarus L. H. Bailey Rubus ricei L. H. Bailey Aberdeen dewberry, Rubus depavitus L. H. Bailey Northern dewberry, Rubus flagellaris Willd. Swamp dewberry, Rubus hispidus L. Upland dewberry, Rubus invisus Britton Pacific blackberry, cloudberry, another dioecious Rubus species Youngberry List of early spring flowers Black raspberry Boysenberry, a cross between a dewberry and a Loganberry
Dewberry
–
Ripening dewberries at
Pamplico, South Carolina
Dewberry
–
Rubus caesius
Dewberry
–
European dewberry growing on sand dunes at
Newborough,
Wales
20.
Fruit
–
In botany, a fruit is the seed-bearing structure in flowering plants formed from the ovary after flowering. Fruits are the means by which angiosperms disseminate seeds, accordingly, fruits account for a substantial fraction of the worlds agricultural output, and some have acquired extensive cultural and symbolic meanings. On the other hand, in usage, fruit includes many structures that are not commonly called fruits, such as bean pods, corn kernels, tomatoes. The section of a fungus that produces spores is called a fruiting body. Many common terms for seeds and fruit do not correspond to the botanical classifications, however, in botany, a fruit is the ripened ovary or carpel that contains seeds, a nut is a type of fruit and not a seed, and a seed is a ripened ovule. Examples of culinary vegetables and nuts that are botanically fruit include corn, cucurbits, eggplant, legumes, sweet pepper, in addition, some spices, such as allspice and chili pepper, are fruits, botanically speaking. g. Botanically, a grain, such as corn, rice, or wheat, is also a kind of fruit. However, the wall is very thin and is fused to the seed coat. The outer, often edible layer, is the pericarp, formed from the ovary and surrounding the seeds, the pericarp may be described in three layers from outer to inner, the epicarp, mesocarp and endocarp. Fruit that bears a prominent pointed terminal projection is said to be beaked, a fruit results from maturation of one or more flowers, and the gynoecium of the flower forms all or part of the fruit. Inside the ovary/ovaries are one or more ovules where the megagametophyte contains the egg cell, after double fertilization, these ovules will become seeds. The ovules are fertilized in a process starts with pollination. After pollination, a tube grows from the pollen through the stigma into the ovary to the ovule, later the zygote will give rise to the embryo of the seed, and the endosperm mother cell will give rise to endosperm, a nutritive tissue used by the embryo. As the ovules develop into seeds, the ovary begins to ripen and the ovary wall, in some multiseeded fruits, the extent to which the flesh develops is proportional to the number of fertilized ovules. The pericarp is often differentiated into two or three distinct layers called the exocarp, mesocarp, and endocarp, in some fruits, especially simple fruits derived from an inferior ovary, other parts of the flower, fuse with the ovary and ripen with it. In other cases, the sepals, petals and/or stamens and style of the fall off. When such other floral parts are a significant part of the fruit, it is called an accessory fruit, since other parts of the flower may contribute to the structure of the fruit, it is important to study flower structure to understand how a particular fruit forms. There are three modes of fruit development, Apocarpous fruits develop from a single flower having one or more separate carpels
Fruit
–
Culinary fruits
Fruit
–
Several
culinary fruits
Fruit
–
Mixed fruit
Fruit
–
Fruit shop in
Naggar,
Himachal Pradesh,
India
21.
Species
–
In biology, a species is the basic unit of biological classification and a taxonomic rank. A species is defined as the largest group of organisms in which two individuals can produce fertile offspring, typically by sexual reproduction. While this definition is often adequate, looked at more closely it is problematic, for example, with hybridisation, in a species complex of hundreds of similar microspecies, or in a ring species, the boundaries between closely related species become unclear. Other ways of defining species include similarity of DNA, morphology, all species are given a two-part name, a binomial. The first part of a binomial is the genus to which the species belongs, the second part is called the specific name or the specific epithet. For example, Boa constrictor is one of four species of the Boa genus, Species were seen from the time of Aristotle until the 18th century as fixed kinds that could be arranged in a hierarchy, the great chain of being. In the 19th century, biologists grasped that species could evolve given sufficient time, Charles Darwins 1859 book The Origin of Species explained how species could arise by natural selection. Genes can sometimes be exchanged between species by horizontal transfer, and species may become extinct for a variety of reasons. In his biology, Aristotle used the term γένος to mean a kind, such as a bird or fish, a kind was distinguished by its attributes, for instance, a bird has feathers, a beak, wings, a hard-shelled egg, and warm blood. A form was distinguished by being shared by all its members, Aristotle believed all kinds and forms to be distinct and unchanging. His approach remained influential until the Renaissance, when observers in the Early Modern period began to develop systems of organization for living things, they placed each kind of animal or plant into a context. Many of these early delineation schemes would now be considered whimsical, animals likewise that differ specifically preserve their distinct species permanently, one species never springs from the seed of another nor vice versa. In the 18th century, the Swedish scientist Carl Linnaeus classified organisms according to shared physical characteristics and he established the idea of a taxonomic hierarchy of classification based upon observable characteristics and intended to reflect natural relationships. At the time, however, it was widely believed that there was no organic connection between species, no matter how similar they appeared. However, whether or not it was supposed to be fixed, by the 19th century, naturalists understood that species could change form over time, and that the history of the planet provided enough time for major changes. Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, in his 1809 Zoological Philosophy, described the transmutation of species, proposing that a species could change over time, in 1859, Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace provided a compelling account of evolution and the formation of new species. Darwin argued that it was populations that evolved, not individuals and this required a new definition of species. Darwin concluded that species are what appear to be, ideas
Species
–
John Ray
Species
–
Carl Linnaeus believed in the fixity of species.
22.
Family (biology)
–
In biological classification, family is one of the eight major taxonomic ranks, it is classified between order and genus. A family may be divided into subfamilies, which are intermediate ranks above the rank of genus. In vernacular usage, a family may be named one of its common members, for example, walnuts and hickory trees belong to the family Juglandaceae. What does or does not belong to a family—or whether a family should be recognized at all—are proposed and determined by practicing taxonomists. There are no rules for describing or recognizing a family. Taxonomists often take different positions about descriptions of taxa, and there may be no broad consensus across the community for some time. Some described taxa are accepted broadly and quickly, but others only rarely, if at all, the naming of families is codified by various international codes. In zoological nomenclature, the names of animals end with the suffix -idae. The concept of rank at time was not yet settled, and in the preface to the Prodromus Magnol spoke of uniting his families into larger genera. Carolus Linnaeus used the word familia in his Philosophia botanica to denote groups of plants, trees, herbs, ferns, palms. He used this term only in the section of the book. In zoology, the family as an intermediate between order and genus was introduced by Pierre André Latreille in his Précis des caractères génériques des insectes. He used families in some but not in all his orders of insects, families can be used for evolutionary, palaeontological and generic studies because they are more stable than lower taxonomic levels such as genera and species
Family (biology)
–
The hierarchy of
biological classification 's eight major
taxonomic ranks. An
order contains one or more families. Intermediate minor rankings are not shown.
23.
Hybrid (biology)
–
In biology, a hybrid, also known as a cross breed, is the result of combining, through sexual reproduction, the qualities of two animals or plants of different breeds, varieties, species or genera. Hybrids are not always intermediate between their parents, but can show heterosis or hybrid vigour, often growing larger or taller than either parent, some act before fertilization, others after it. A few animal species and many plant species, however, are the result of hybrid speciation, doubling the number of chromosomes to create polyploids is important in hybrid speciation, because homoploid hybrids are rarely fertile, the polyploid hybrids are allopolyploids. Human impact on the environment has greatly increased the mixing of species, with introduced species worldwide, the genetic mixing may threaten many species with extinction, while genetic erosion in crop plants may be damaging the gene pools of many species for future breeding. Many commercially useful fruits, flowers, garden herbs and trees have been produced by hybridization, one flower, Oenothera lamarckiana, was central to early genetics research into polyploidy. The term hybrid is derived from Latin hybrida, used for such as of a tame sow and a wild boar, or the child of a freeman. The term came into use in English in the 19th century. Conspicuous hybrids are named with portmanteau words, starting in the 1920s with the breeding of tiger-lion hybrids. The cross between two different homozygous lines produces an F1 hybrid that is heterozygous, having two alleles, one contributed by each parent and typically one is dominant and the other recessive. Typically, the F1 generation is also phenotypically homogeneous, producing offspring that are all similar to each other, double cross hybrids result from the cross between two different F1 hybrids. Three-way cross hybrids result from the cross between an F1 hybrid and an inbred line, triple cross hybrids result from the crossing of two different three-way cross hybrids. Top cross hybrids result from the crossing of a top quality or pure-bred male, population hybrids result from the crossing of plants or animals in a population with those of another population. These include interspecific hybrids or crosses between different breeds. e, from the point of view of genetics, different kinds of hybrid can be distinguished as follows, A genetic hybrid carries two different alleles of the same gene. A structural hybrid results from the fusion of gametes that have differing structure in at least one chromosome, a numerical hybrid results from the fusion of gametes having different haploid numbers of chromosomes. A permanent hybrid results when only the heterozygous genotype occurs, as in Oenothera lamarckiana, from the point of view of taxonomy, hybrids differ according to their parentage, Hybrids between different subspecies are called intra-specific hybrids. Offspring resulting from interspecies mating, are called interspecific hybrids, these result in hybrid speciation. Intergeneric hybrids result from matings between different genera, such as sheep and goats. Interfamilial hybrids such as chickens and guineafowl or pheasants are reliably described but extremely rare
Hybrid (biology)
–
Hercules, a "
liger ", a lion/tiger hybrid.
Hybrid (biology)
–
A "
zonkey ", a zebra/donkey hybrid.
Hybrid (biology)
–
A "
jaglion ", a jaguar/lion hybrid.
Hybrid (biology)
–
A
mule, a domestic canary/goldfinch hybrid.
24.
Apomixis
–
In botany, apomixis was defined by Hans Winkler as replacement of the normal sexual reproduction by asexual reproduction, without fertilization. Its etymology is Greek for away from + mixing and this definition notably does not mention meiosis. Apomictically produced offspring are genetically identical to the parent plant, some authors included all forms of asexual reproduction within apomixis, but that generalization of the term has since died out. In flowering plants, the term apomixis is commonly used in a sense to mean agamospermy. Although agamospermy could theoretically occur in gymnosperms, it appears to be absent in that group, apogamy is a related term that has had various meanings over time. In plants with independent gametophytes, the term is used interchangeably with apomixis. Male apomixis involves replacement of the material of the egg cell by that from the pollen. They are therefore often called microspecies, in some plant families, genera with apomixis are quite common, for example in Asteraceae, Poaceae, and Rosaceae. Examples of apomixis can be found in the genera Crataegus, Amelanchier, Sorbus, Rubus, Poa, Nardus stricta, Apomixis is reported to occur in about 10% of globally extant ferns. Among polystichoid ferns, apomixis evolved several times independently in three different clades, although the evolutionary advantages of sexual reproduction are lost, apomixis can pass along traits fortuitous for evolutionary fitness. As Jens Clausen put it The apomicts actually have discovered the effectiveness of mass production long before Mr Henry Ford applied it to the production of the automobile, does not prevent variation, rather, it multiplies certain varietal products. Facultative apomixis means that apomixis does not always occur, i. e. sexual reproduction can also happen and it appears likely that all apomixis in plants is facultative, in other words, that obligate apomixis is an artifact of insufficient observation. The sporophytes of plants of these groups may also have the ability to form a plant that looks like a gametophyte but with the level of the sporophyte. See also Androgenesis and androclinesis described below, a type of apomixis that occurs in a conifer. Agamospermy, asexual reproduction through seeds, occurs in flowering plants through many different mechanisms, consequently, there are almost as many different usages of terminology for apomixis in angiosperms as there are authors on the subject. For English speakers, Maheshwari 1950 is very influential, german speakers might prefer to consult Rutishauser 1967. Some older text books on the basis of misinformation attempted to reform the terminology to match the term parthenogenesis as it is used in zoology, and this continues to cause much confusion. Agamospermy occurs mainly in two forms, In gametophytic apomixis, the embryo arises from an egg cell in a gametophyte that was produced from a cell that did not complete meiosis
Apomixis
–
Vegetative apomixis in
Poa bulbosa;
bulbils form instead of flowers
Apomixis
–
Caribbean Agave producing plantlets on the old flower stem.
25.
Raspberry
–
The raspberry is the edible fruit of a multitude of plant species in the genus Rubus of the rose family, most of which are in the subgenus Idaeobatus, the name also applies to these plants themselves. Raspberries are perennial woody stems. Raspberry derives its name from raspise, a sweet rose-colored wine, from the Anglo-Latin, vinum raspeys, or from raspoie, meaning thicket, the name may have been influenced by its appearance as having a rough surface related to Old English rasp or rough berry. Raspberries are traditionally planted in the winter as dormant canes, although planting of tender and these canes are then dug, roots and all, to be replanted in warmer climates such as Spain, where they quickly flower and produce a very early season crop. Plants are typically planted 2-6 per m in fertile, well drained soil, raspberries are usually planted in raised beds/ridges, the flowers can be a major nectar source for honeybees and other pollinators. Raspberries are very vigorous and can be locally invasive and they propagate using basal shoots, extended underground shoots that develop roots and individual plants. They can sucker new canes some distance from the main plant, for this reason, raspberries spread well, and can take over gardens if left unchecked. Raspberries are often propagated using cuttings, and will root readily in moist soil conditions, the fruit is harvested when it comes off the receptacle easily and has turned a deep color. This is when the fruits are ripest and sweetest, excess fruit can be made into raspberry jam or frozen. High tunnel bramble production offers the opportunity to bridge gaps in availability during late fall, furthermore, high tunnels allow less hardy floricane-fruiting raspberries to overwinter in climates where they wouldnt otherwise survive. In the tunnel plants are established at close spacing usually prior to tunnel construction, raspberries are an important commercial fruit crop, widely grown in all temperate regions of the world. Many of the most important modern commercial red raspberry cultivars derive from hybrids between R. idaeus and R. strigosus. Some botanists consider the Eurasian and American red raspberries to belong to a single, circumboreal species, Rubus idaeus, idaeus or R. idaeus var. idaeus, and the native North American red raspberries classified as either R. idaeus subsp. Strigosus, or R. idaeus var. strigosus, recent breeding has resulted in cultivars that are thornless and more strongly upright, not needing staking. The black raspberry, Rubus occidentalis, is cultivated, providing both fresh and frozen fruit, as well as jams, preserves, and other products. Commercial production of purple-fruited raspberries is rare, blue raspberry is a local name used in Prince Edward County, Ontario, Canada for the cultivar Columbian, a hybrid of R. strigosus and R. occidentalis. Both the red and the black raspberry species have albino-like pale-yellow natural or horticultural variants, fruits from such plants are called golden raspberries or yellow raspberries, despite their similar appearance, they retain the distinctive flavor of their respective species. Most pale-fruited raspberries commercially sold in the eastern United States are derivatives of red raspberries, yellow-fruited variants of the black raspberry are sometimes grown in home gardens
Raspberry
–
Fruit of four species of raspberry. Clockwise from top left:
Boulder raspberry,
Korean raspberry,
Australian native raspberry,
West Indian raspberry
Raspberry
–
Fruits of a golden or yellow raspberry cultivar
Raspberry
–
Until recently, the most commonly cultivated raspberries have been red-fruited
hybrids between
R. idaeus and
R. strigosus.
Raspberry
–
Purple-fruited raspberry hybrids (and black raspberries) are of interest to growers because of their potential for
nutraceuticals.
26.
Receptacle (botany)
–
In botany, the receptacle or torus is the thickened part of a stem from which the flower organs grow. In some accessory fruits, for example the pome and strawberry, the fruit of Rubus species is a cluster of drupelets on top of a conical receptacle. When a raspberry is picked, the receptacle separates from the fruit, in phycology, receptacles are structures at the ends of branches of algae mainly in the brown algae or Heterokontophyta in the Order Fucales. They are specialised structures which contain the reproductive organs called conceptacles, receptacles also function as a structure that captures food
Receptacle (botany)
–
This article is about the receptacle in botany. For other uses, see
Receptacle.
Receptacle (botany)
–
The receptacle (grey) in relation to the
ovary (red) in three types of flowers:
hypogynous (I),
perigynous (II), and
epigynous (III)
27.
Bramble
–
In British English, a bramble is any rough tangled prickly shrub—specifically the blackberry bush —or any hybrid of similar appearance, with thorny stems. Bramble or brambleberry may also refer to the fruit or products of its fruit. The shrub grows abundantly in all parts of the British Isles and harvesting the fruits in late summer and it can also become a nuisance in gardens, sending down its strong suckering roots amongst hedges and shrubs. Many consider it a weed due its tendency to grow in neglected areas and its sharp, tough thorns which can be hazardous to children and pets. Elsewhere, such as in the United States, the term also refers to other members of the Rubus genus. Bramble comes from Germanic bram-bezi, whence come also German Brombeere, Dutch Braambes and it originated before the year 1000, Middle English, Old English bræmbel, variant of brǣmel, equivalent to brǣm-. Bramble bushes have long, thorny, arching shoots and root easily and they send up long, arching canes that do not flower or set fruit until the second year of growth. Brambles usually have trifoliate or palmately-compound leaves, each small unit is called a drupelet. In some, such as the blackberry, the receptacle is elongated and part of the ripe fruit. Many species are grown and bred for their fruit, ornamental species can be grown for flowers, for their ornamental stems and some as ground cover. Members of the Rubus genus tend to have a brittle, porous core, the thorny varieties are sometimes grown for game cover and occasionally for protection. Most species are important for their conservation and wildlife value in their native range, the flowers attract nectar-feeding butterflies and hoverflies, and are a particular favourite of Volucella pellucens. Brambles are important food plants for the larvae of species of Lepidoptera—see list of Lepidoptera that feed on Rubus. The leaves of brambles are often used as a food source for captive stick insects. Many birds, such as the common blackbird, and some mammals will feed on the fruits in autumn. Bramble leaves can be used to feed most Phasmatodea, young leaves contain a toxin that can be harmful to many species of Phasmatodea, however this only occurs up until their third instar, by which time they have developed an immunity to it. There are many different systems developed for the culture of blackberries and raspberries. Bramble cultivars are separated into categories based on their growth habit
Bramble
–
The blackberry is a bramble
Bramble
–
Pink blackberry flower,
Wellington, New Zealand
Bramble
–
13 August 2007,
Manchester, England. Bramble; in background unripe fruit on second-year side shoots; late flowers from tip-flowering of first-year growth
28.
Berry (botany)
–
In botanical terminology, a berry is a fleshy fruit without a stone produced from a single flower containing one ovary. Berries so defined include grapes, currants, and tomatoes, as well as cucumbers, eggplants and bananas, the berry is the most common type of fleshy fruit in which the entire outer layer of the ovary wall ripens into a potentially edible pericarp. Berries may be formed one or more carpels from the same flower. The seeds are embedded in the fleshy interior of the ovary. Many berries are edible, but others, such as the fruits of the potato, some berries, such as the white and red mulberry, are poisonous when unripe, but are edible in their ripe form. A plant that bears berries is said to be bacciferous or baccate, in everyday English, berry is a term for any small edible fruit. Berries are usually juicy, round, brightly coloured, sweet or sour, in botanical language, a berry is a simple fruit having seeds and fleshy pulp produced from the ovary of a single flower. The ovary can be inferior or superior and it is indehiscent, i. e. it does not have a special line of weakness along which it splits to release the seeds when ripe. The pericarp is divided into three layers, the outer layer is called the exocarp or epicarp, the middle layer, the mesocarp or sarcocarp, the inner layer, the endocarp. Botanists have not applied these terms consistently, exocarp and endocarp may be restricted to more-or-less single-layered skins, or may include tissues adjacent to them, thus on one view, the exocarp extends inwards to the layer of vascular bundles. The inconsistency in usage has been described as a source of confusion, the nature of the endocarp distinguishes a berry from a drupe, which has a hardened or stony endocarp. The two kinds of fruit intergrade, depending on the state of the endocarp, some sources have attempted to quantify the difference, e. g. requiring the endocarp to be less than 2 mm thick in a berry. Examples of botanical berries include, True berries, or baccae, may also be required to have an outer skin. This distinguishes, for example, a Vaccinium or Solanum berry from an Adansonia amphisarca, which has a dry, more rigid and self-supporting skin. The fruit of citrus, such as the orange, kumquat and lemon, is a berry with a thick rind and a juicy interior divided into segments by septae. Another specialized term is used for some Cucurbitaceae fruits, which are modified to have a hard outer rind. These are given the special name pepo, while pepos are most common in the Cucurbitaceae, the fruits of Passiflora and Carica are sometimes also considered pepos. Berries that develop from an inferior ovary are sometimes termed epigynous berries or false berries, as opposed to true berries, in epigynous berries, the berry includes tissue derived from parts of the flower besides the ovary
Berry (botany)
–
Redcurrants, a type of berry derived from a simple (one-carpel) inferior ovary
Berry (botany)
–
Kiwi fruit, a berry derived from a compound (many carpellate) superior ovary
Berry (botany)
–
Coffee berries (Coffea arabica)
Berry (botany)
–
Cross-section of a cucumber pepo (Cucumis sativus)
29.
Botanical
–
Botany, also called plant science, plant biology or phytology, is the science of plant life and a branch of biology. A botanist or plant scientist is a scientist who specialises in this field, the term botany comes from the Ancient Greek word βοτάνη meaning pasture, grass, or fodder, βοτάνη is in turn derived from βόσκειν, to feed or to graze. Nowadays, botanists study approximately 410,000 species of plants of which some 391,000 species are vascular plants. Medieval physic gardens, often attached to monasteries, contained plants of medical importance and they were forerunners of the first botanical gardens attached to universities, founded from the 1540s onwards. One of the earliest was the Padua botanical garden and these gardens facilitated the academic study of plants. Efforts to catalogue and describe their collections were the beginnings of plant taxonomy, in the last two decades of the 20th century, botanists exploited the techniques of molecular genetic analysis, including genomics and proteomics and DNA sequences to classify plants more accurately. Modern botany is a broad, multidisciplinary subject with inputs from most other areas of science, dominant themes in 21st century plant science are molecular genetics and epigenetics, which are the mechanisms and control of gene expression during differentiation of plant cells and tissues. Botany originated as herbalism, the study and use of plants for their medicinal properties, many records of the Holocene period date early botanical knowledge as far back as 10,000 years ago. This early unrecorded knowledge of plants was discovered in ancient sites of human occupation within Tennessee, the early recorded history of botany includes many ancient writings and plant classifications. Examples of early works have been found in ancient texts from India dating back to before 1100 BC, in archaic Avestan writings. His major works, Enquiry into Plants and On the Causes of Plants, constitute the most important contributions to science until the Middle Ages. De Materia Medica was widely read for more than 1,500 years, important contributions from the medieval Muslim world include Ibn Wahshiyyas Nabatean Agriculture, Abū Ḥanīfa Dīnawarīs the Book of Plants, and Ibn Bassals The Classification of Soils. In the early 13th century, Abu al-Abbas al-Nabati, and Ibn al-Baitar wrote on botany in a systematic and scientific manner and these gardens continued the practical value of earlier physic gardens, often associated with monasteries, in which plants were cultivated for medical use. They supported the growth of botany as an academic subject, lectures were given about the plants grown in the gardens and their medical uses demonstrated. Botanical gardens came much later to northern Europe, the first in England was the University of Oxford Botanic Garden in 1621, throughout this period, botany remained firmly subordinate to medicine. German physician Leonhart Fuchs was one of the three German fathers of botany, along with theologian Otto Brunfels and physician Hieronymus Bock, Fuchs and Brunfels broke away from the tradition of copying earlier works to make original observations of their own. Bock created his own system of plant classification, physician Valerius Cordus authored a botanically and pharmacologically important herbal Historia Plantarum in 1544 and a pharmacopoeia of lasting importance, the Dispensatorium in 1546. Naturalist Conrad von Gesner and herbalist John Gerard published herbals covering the medicinal uses of plants, naturalist Ulisse Aldrovandi was considered the father of natural history, which included the study of plants
Botanical
–
The fruit of
Myristica fragrans, a species native to
Indonesia, is the source of two valuable spices, the red aril (
mace) enclosing the dark brown
nutmeg.
Botanical
–
The
Linnaean Garden of Linnaeus' residence in Uppsala, Sweden, was planted according to his Systema sexuale.
Botanical
–
Micropropagation of transgenic plants
Botanical
–
Biologist and statistician Ronald Fisher
30.
Aggregate fruit
–
An aggregate fruit or etaerio is a fruit that develops from the merger of several ovaries that were separate in a single flower. In contrast, a fruit develops from one ovary. In languages other than English, the meanings of aggregate and multiple fruit are reversed, the differences in meaning are due to a reversal in the terminology by John Lindley, which has been followed by most English-language authors. Not all flowers with multiple ovaries form aggregate fruit, the ovaries of some flowers do not become tightly joined together to make a larger fruit. Aggregate fruits may also be accessory fruits, in parts of the flower other than the ovary become fleshy. The individual parts of an aggregate fruit come in many forms, for example, sugar apple fruit are made up of individual berry-like pistils fused with the receptacle
Aggregate fruit
–
A
raspberry fruit (shown with a
raspberry beetle larva) is an aggregate fruit, an aggregate of
drupelets
Aggregate fruit
–
The fruit of an
Aquilegia flower is one fruit that forms from several ovaries of one flower, and it is an aggregate of follicles. However, because the follicles are not fused to one another, it is not considered an aggregate fruit
Aggregate fruit
–
A
sugar apple fruit forms from the pistils and receptacle of one flower
31.
Drupe
–
In botany, a drupe is an indehiscent fruit in which an outer fleshy part surrounds a shell of hardened endocarp with a seed inside. These fruits usually develop from a carpel, and mostly from flowers with superior ovaries. Other fleshy fruits may have an enclosure that comes from the seed coat surrounding the seed. The term drupaceous is applied to a fruit which has the structure and texture of a drupe, the boundary between a drupe and a berry is not always clear. Thus some sources describe the fruit of species of the genus Persea, one definition of berry requires the endocarp to be less than 2 mm thick, other fruits with a stony endocarp being drupes. In marginal cases, terms such as drupaceous or drupe-like may be used, the term stone fruit can be a synonym for drupe or, more typically, it can mean just the fruit of the genus Prunus. Freestone refers to a drupe having a stone which can be removed from the flesh with ease, the flesh is not attached to the stone and does not need to be cut to free the stone. Freestone varieties of fruits are preferred for uses that require removal of the stone. Freestone plums are preferred for making homegrown prunes, and freestone sour cherries are preferred for making pies, clingstone refers to a drupe having a stone which cannot easily be removed from the flesh. The flesh is attached strongly to the stone and must be cut to free the stone, clingstone varieties of fruits in the genus Prunus are preferred as table fruit and for jams, because the flesh of clingstone fruits tends to be more tender and juicy throughout. Tryma is a term for such nut-like drupes that are difficult to categorize. Hickory nuts and walnuts in the Juglandaceae family grow within a husk, these fruits are technically drupes or drupaceous nuts. Many drupes, with their sweet, fleshy outer layer, attract the attention of animals as a food, and the plant population benefits from the resulting dispersal of its seeds. The endocarp is sometimes dropped after the part is eaten, but is often swallowed, passing through the digestive tract. This passage through the tract can reduce the thickness of the endocarp. The process is known as scarification, typical drupes include apricots, olives, peaches, plums, cherries, mangoes and amlas. The coconut is also a drupe, but the mesocarp is fibrous or dry, so this type of fruit is classified as a simple dry, unlike other drupes, the coconut seed is unlikely to be dispersed by being swallowed by fauna, due to its large size. It can, however, float extremely long distances across oceans, bramble fruits are aggregates of drupelets
Drupe
–
The development sequence of a typical drupe, a smooth-skinned (
nectarine) type of peach (Prunus persica) over a 7 1 ⁄ 2 -month period, from bud formation in early winter to fruit ripening in midsummer
Drupe
–
Diagram of a typical drupe (
peach), showing both
fruit and
seed
Drupe
–
The
peach is a typical drupe (stone fruit)
Drupe
–
The pit of a
nectarine
32.
Native plant
–
Native plants are plants indigenous to a given area in geologic time. This includes plants that have developed, occur naturally, or existed for years in an area. Some native plants have adapted to limited, unusual environments or very harsh climates or exceptional soil conditions. Although some types of plants for these reasons exist only within a limited range. Research has found that insects depend on native plants, an ecosystem consists of interactions of plants, animals, and microorganisms with their physical and climatic conditions. Native plants form a part of an environment, or plant community. That could be a case if a plant exists because a certain animal pollinates the plant, some native plants rely on natural conditions, such as occasional wildfires, to release their seeds or to provide a fertile environment in which their seedlings can become established. As societies move plants or introduce them to new locations for cultivation as crops or ornamentals, some of them may become invasive species, besides ecological damage, these species can also damage agriculture, infrastructure, and cultural assets. Government agencies and environmental groups are directing increasing resources to addressing these species, non-native species can have profound effects on ecosystems by changing ecosystem structure, function, species abundance, and community composition. To prevent erosion of the sand dunes at the western edge of the Los Angeles International Airport in 1975. Unfortunately, the mix was representative of coastal sage scrub. As a result, the El Segundo blue butterfly became an endangered species, the rich diversity of unique species across many parts of the world exists only because bioregions are separated by barriers, particularly large rivers, seas, oceans, mountains and deserts. Humans, migratory birds, ocean currents, etc. can introduce species that have never met in their evolutionary history, humans are moving species across the globe at an unprecedented rate. Those working to address invasive species view this as a risk to indigenous species. The term nativar is becoming accepted as cultivars of native plants. The use of nativars is a widely disputed practice among native plant activists, the identification of local plant communities provides a basis for their work. Returning Essential Wildflowers to America’s Landscapes, Project Milkweed, Xerces Society Milkweeds are the required host plants for caterpillars of the monarch butterfly, mary M. Walker, Native Plant Societies of the United States and Canada. Introduced birds of the world, The worldwide history, distribution, New York, Universe Books, New York City, Sydney, Reed ISBN 0-589-50260-3 Vermeij, Geerat J.1991
Native plant
–
Wild Perennial
Lupin (Lupinus perennis)
33.
Temperateness
–
In geography, temperate or tepid latitudes of Earth lie between the tropics and the polar regions. The temperatures in these regions are relatively moderate, rather than extremely hot or cold. The north temperate zone extends from the Tropic of Cancer to the Arctic Circle, the south temperate zone extends from the Tropic of Capricorn to the Antarctic Circle. In some climate classifications, the zone is often divided into several smaller climate zones. These include Humid subtropical climate, Mediterranean climate, oceanic, subtropical climates are located between 23. 5° and 35. 0° north or south latitude on the eastern or leeward sides of landmasses. This climate has long, generally hot, summers and short, mild winters and these climates may occur in southern Asia, the southeastern United States, parts of eastern Australia, and in eastern coastal South America. Mediterranean climates, occur between 30° and 42° north and south latitude, on the sides of landmasses. This climate has hot summers and short mild winters, however, seasonal rainfall is the opposite of that of the subtropical humid type. These climates occur near the rimlands of the Mediterranean Sea, in western Australia, in California, the oceanic climates occur in the higher middle latitudes, between 45° and 60° north and south latitude. They are created by the flow from the cool high latitude oceans to their west. This causes the climate to have cool summers and cool winters, annual rainfall is spread throughout the entire year. Regions with this climate include Western Europe, northwestern North America, the Continental climates occur in middle latitudes, between 35° or 40° to 55°. These climates are normally inland or on sides of landmasses. They feature warm to hot summers and cold winters, with a large temperature variation. Regions with this climate include northern temperate Asia, the northern United States, southern Canada, the vast majority of the worlds human population resides in temperate zones, especially in the northern hemisphere, due to its greater mass of land. The richest temperate flora in the world is found in southern Africa, geographical zone Habitat Köppen climate classification Middle latitudes Polar circle Subtropics
Temperateness
–
The different geographical zones
34.
Perennial plant
–
A perennial plant or simply perennial is a plant that lives for more than two years. The term is used to differentiate a plant from shorter-lived annuals and biennials. The term is widely used to distinguish plants with little or no woody growth from trees and shrubs. Tomato vines, for example, live several years in their natural habitat but are grown as annuals in temperate regions because they dont survive the winter. There is also a class of evergreen, or non-herbaceous, perennials, an intermediate class of plants is known as subshrubs, which retain a vestigial woody structure in winter, e. g. Penstemon. The local climate may dictate whether plants are treated as shrubs or perennials, for instance, many varieties of Fuchsia are shrubs in warm regions, but in colder temperate climates may be cut to the ground every year as a result of winter frosts. The symbol for a plant, based on Species Plantarum by Linnaeus, is. Perennial plants can be short-lived or they can be long-lived, as are some plants like trees. They include an assortment of plant groups from ferns and liverworts to the highly diverse flowering plants like orchids. Plants that flower and fruit only once and then die are termed monocarpic or semelparous, however, most perennials are polycarpic, flowering over many seasons in their lifetime. Perennials typically grow structures that allow them to adapt to living one year to the next through a form of vegetative reproduction rather than seeding. These structures include bulbs, tubers, woody crowns, rhizomes plus others and they might have specialized stems or crowns that allow them to survive periods of dormancy over cold or dry seasons during the year. Many perennials have developed specialized features that allow them to extreme climatic. Some have adapted to hot and dry conditions or cold temperatures. Those plants tend to invest a lot of resource into their adaptations and often do not flower, Many perennials produce relatively large seeds, which can have an advantage, with larger seedlings produced after germination that can better compete with other plants. Some annuals produce many seeds per plant in one season, while some perennials are not under the same pressure to produce large numbers of seeds. In warmer and more favorable climates, perennials grow continuously, in seasonal climates, their growth is limited to the growing season. In some species, perennials retain their foliage all year round, other plants are deciduous perennials, for example, in temperate regions a perennial plant may grow and bloom during the warm part of the year, with the foliage dying back in the winter
Perennial plant
–
Common chicory,
Cichorium intybus, is a herbaceous perennial plant
Perennial plant
–
Dahlia plants are perennial.
Perennial plant
–
Switchgrass is a deep-rooted perennial. These roots are more than 3 meters long.
Perennial plant
35.
Biennial plant
–
A biennial plant is a flowering plant that takes two years to complete its biological lifecycle. In the first year, the plant grows leaves, stems, usually the stem remains very short and the leaves are low to the ground, forming a rosette. Many biennials require a treatment, or vernalization, before they will flower. During the next spring or summer, the stem of the biennial plant elongates greatly and this typically makes biennial vegetables such as spinach, fennel and lettuce unusable as food. The plant then flowers, producing fruits and seeds before it finally dies, there are far fewer biennials than either perennial plants or annual plants. Under extreme climatic conditions, a plant may complete its life cycle rapidly. This is quite common in vegetable or flower seedlings that were vernalized before they were planted in the ground and this behavior leads to many normally biennial plants being treated as annuals in some areas. From a gardeners perspective, a status as annual, biennial. Biennials grown for flowers, fruits, or seeds need to be grown for two years, biennials that are grown for edible leaves or roots are grown for just one year. Plant breeders have produced annual cultivars of several biennials that will flower the first year from seed, for example, foxglove and stock
Biennial plant
–
Parsley is a common example of a biennial plant.
Biennial plant
–
The Sweet William Dwarf plant is a biennial plant
36.
Leaf shape
–
The following is a defined list of terms which are used to describe leaf morphology in the description and taxonomy of plants. Leaves may be simple or compound, the edge of the leaf may be regular or irregular, may be smooth or bearing hair, bristles or spines. For more terms describing other aspects of leaves besides their overall morphology see the leaf article, leaves of most plants include a flat structure called the blade or lamina, but not all leaves are flat, some are cylindrical. Leaves may be simple, with a leaf blade, or compound. In flowering plants, as well as the blade of the leaf, there may be a petiole and stipules, leaf structure is described by several terms that include, Being one of the more visible features, leaf shape is commonly used for plant identification. Edge and margin are both interchangeable in the sense that they refer to the perimeter of a leaf. Leaves may also be folded or rolled in various ways, the folding of leaves within a bud is vernation, ptyxis is the folding of an individual leaf in a bud
Leaf shape
–
Oddly pinnate, pinnatifid leaves (Apium graveolens,
celery)
Leaf shape
–
Chart illustrating leaf morphology terms
Leaf shape
–
Perfoliate
bracts completely surrounding the plant stem (
Lonicera sempervirens)
Leaf shape
–
Partial
chlorosis revealing palmate
venation in simple leaves of Hibiscus mutabilis
37.
Leaf
–
A leaf is an organ of a vascular plant and is the principal lateral appendage of the stem. The leaves and stem together form the shoot, Leaves are collectively referred to as foliage, as in autumn foliage. Although leaves can be seen in different shapes, sizes and textures, typically a leaf is a thin, dorsiventrally flattened organ, borne above ground. Most leaves have distinctive upper surface and lower surface that differ in colour, hairiness, broad, flat leaves with complex venation are known as megaphylls and the species that bear them, the majority, as broad-leaved or megaphyllous plants. In others, such as the clubmosses, with different evolutionary origins, some leaves, such as bulb scales are not above ground, and in many aquatic species the leaves are submerged in water. Succulent plants often have thick juicy leaves, but some leaves are without major photosynthetic function and may be dead at maturity, as in some cataphylls, furthermore, several kinds of leaf-like structures found in vascular plants are not totally homologous with them. Examples include flattened plant stems called phylloclades and cladodes, and flattened leaf stems called phyllodes which differ from both in their structure and origin. Many structures of plants, such as the phyllids of mosses and liverworts and even of some foliose lichens. Leaves are the most important organs of most vascular plants and these are then further processed by chemical synthesis into more complex organic molecules such as cellulose, the basic structural material in plant cell walls. The plant must therefore bring these three together in the leaf for photosynthesis to take place. Once sugar has been synthesized, it needs to be transported to areas of growth such as the plant shoots and roots. Vascular plants transport sucrose in a tissue called the phloem. The phloem and xylem are parallel to each other but the transport of materials is usually in opposite directions. Within the leaf these vascular systems branch to form veins which supply as much as the leaf as possible and they are arranged on the plant so as to expose their surfaces to light as efficiently as possible without shading each other, but there are many exceptions and complications. For instance plants adapted to windy conditions may have pendent leaves, such as in many willows, the flat, or laminar, shape also maximises thermal contact with the surrounding air, promoting cooling. Functionally, in addition to photosynthesis the leaf is the site of transpiration and guttation. Many gymnosperms have thin needle-like or scale-like leaves that can be advantageous in cold climates with frequent snow and these are interpreted as reduced from megaphyllous leaves of their Devonian ancestors. For xerophytes the major constraint is not light flux or intensity, some window plants such as Fenestraria species and some Haworthia species such as Haworthia tesselata and Haworthia truncata are examples of xerophytes. and Bulbine mesembryanthemoides
Leaf
–
The leaves of a
beech tree
Leaf
–
Near the ground these
Eucalyptus saplings have juvenile dorsiventral foliage from the previous year, but this season their newly sprouting foliage is isobilateral, like the mature foliage on the adult trees above
Leaf
–
A leaf shed in
autumn.
Leaf
–
Cross-section of a leaf
38.
Thorns, spines, and prickles
–
Leaf margins may also have teeth, and if those teeth are sharp, they are called spinose teeth on a spinose leaf margin. On a leaf apex, if there is a process, and if it is especially sharp, stiff. When the leaf epidermis is covered very long, stiff trichomes, it may be referred to as a hispid vestiture, if the trichomes are stinging trichomes. There can be found also spines or spinose structures derived from roots, the predominant function of thorns, spines and prickles is deterring herbivory in a mechanical form. For this reason they are classified as physical or mechanical defenses, not all functions of spines or glochids are limited to defense from physical attacks by herbivores and other animals. In some cases, spines have been shown to shade or insulate the plants that grow them, for example, saguaro cactus spines shade the apical meristem in summer, and in members of the Opuntioideae, glochids insulate the apical meristem in winter. Agrawal et al. found that seem to have little effect on specialist pollinators. Thorns are modified branches or stems and they may be simple or branched. Spines are modified leaves, stipules, or parts of leaves, some authors prefer not to distinguish spines from thorns because, like thorns, and unlike prickles, they commonly contain vascular tissue. The plants of the family are particularly well known for their dense covering of spines. Cacti often have a kind of spine called a glochidium or glochid. Prickles are comparable to hairs but can be quite coarse and they are extensions of the cortex and epidermis. Technically speaking, many plants commonly thought of as having thorns or spines actually have prickles, other similar structures are spinose teeth, spinose apical processes, and trichomes. Trichomes are often effective defenses against small insect herbivores, thorns, spines, spinescent is a term describing plants that bear any sharp structures that deter herbivory. It also can refer to the state of tending to be or become spiny in some sense or degree, there are also spines derived from roots, like the ones on the trunk of the Root Spine Palms. The trunk roots of Cryosophila guagara grow downwards to a length of 6–12 cm, then stop growing, the anatomy of crown roots on this species also alters during their life. They initially grow upwards and then turn down and finally they, too, lateral roots on these two types of roots, as well as those on the stilt roots on this species, also become spinous. Some authors believe that some of these short spiny laterals have a ventilating function so they are pneumorhizae, short spiny laterals that may have a ventilating funcion may also be found on roots of Iriartea exorrhiza
Thorns, spines, and prickles
–
(A) Thorn or spine (B) Prickle
Thorns, spines, and prickles
–
Smooth, featureless
Citrus thorn.
Thorns, spines, and prickles
–
Gymnosporia buxifolia thorn, its leaves, nodes, and emergence from an axillary bud demonstrating its nature as a branch.
Thorns, spines, and prickles
–
Carissa bispinosa showing characteristic branched thorns.
39.
Soil
–
Soil is a mixture of minerals, organic matter, gases, liquids, and countless organisms that together support life on Earth. Soil is called the Skin of the Earth and interfaces with the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, the atmosphere, the term pedolith, used commonly to refer to the soil, literally translates ground stone. Soil consists of a phase of minerals and organic matter, as well as a porous phase that holds gases. Accordingly, soils are often treated as a system of solids, liquids. Soil is a product of the influence of climate, relief, organisms, Soil continually undergoes development by way of numerous physical, chemical and biological processes, which include weathering with associated erosion. Given its complexity and strong internal connectedness soil has been considered as an ecosystem by soil ecologists. Most soils have a dry bulk density between 1.1 and 1.6 g/cm3, while the particle density is much higher. Little of the soil of planet Earth is older than the Pleistocene and none is older than the Cenozoic, Soil science has two basic branches of study, edaphology and pedology. Edaphology is concerned with the influence of soils on living things, pedology is focused on the formation, description, and classification of soils in their natural environment. In engineering terms, soil is referred to as regolith, or loose material that lies above the solid geology. Soil is commonly referred to as earth or dirt, technically, as soil resources serve as a basis for food security, the international community advocates its sustainable and responsible use through different types of soil governance. Soil is a component of the Earths ecosystem. The worlds ecosystems are impacted in far-reaching ways by the carried out in the soil, from ozone depletion and global warming, to rainforest destruction. Following the atmosphere, the soil is the next largest carbon reservoir on Earth, as the planet warms, soils will add carbon dioxide to the atmosphere due to its increased biological activity at higher temperatures. Thus, soil carbon losses likely have a positive feedback response to global warming. Since soil has a range of available niches and habitats. A gram of soil can contain billions of organisms, belonging to thousands of species, mostly microbial, Soil has a mean prokaryotic density of roughly 108 organisms per gram, whereas the ocean has no more than 107 procaryotic organisms per milliliter of seawater. Since plant roots need oxygen, ventilation is an important characteristic of soil and this ventilation can be accomplished via networks of interconnected soil pores, which also absorb and hold rainwater making it readily available for plant uptake
Soil
–
A represents soil; B represents
laterite, a
regolith; C represents
saprolite, a less-weathered regolith; the bottom-most layer represents
bedrock.
Soil
–
Loess field in Germany.
Soil
–
Surface-water-
gley developed in
glacial till, Northern Ireland.
Soil
–
Iron-rich soil near Paint Pots in
Kootenay National Park,
Canada
40.
Flower
–
A flower, sometimes known as a bloom or blossom, is the reproductive structure found in plants that are floral. The biological function of a flower is to effect reproduction, usually by providing a mechanism for the union of sperm with eggs, Flowers may facilitate outcrossing or allow selfing. Some flowers produce diaspores without fertilization, Flowers contain sporangia and are the site where gametophytes develop. Many flowers have evolved to be attractive to animals, so as to them to be vectors for the transfer of pollen. After fertilization, the ovary of the flower develops into fruit containing seeds, the essential parts of a flower can be considered in two parts, the vegetative part, consisting of petals and associated structures in the perianth, and the reproductive or sexual parts. A stereotypical flower consists of four kinds of structures attached to the tip of a short stalk, each of these kinds of parts is arranged in a whorl on the receptacle. The four main whorls are as follows, Collectively the calyx, corolla, the next whorl toward the apex, composed of units called petals, which are typically thin, soft and colored to attract animals that help the process of pollination. Androecium, the whorl, consisting of units called stamens. Stamens consist of two parts, a called a filament, topped by an anther where pollen is produced by meiosis. Gynoecium, the innermost whorl of a flower, consisting of one or more units called carpels, the carpel or multiple fused carpels form a hollow structure called an ovary, which produces ovules internally. Ovules are megasporangia and they in turn produce megaspores by meiosis which develop into female gametophytes and these give rise to egg cells. The gynoecium of a flower is described using an alternative terminology wherein the structure one sees in the innermost whorl is called a pistil. A pistil may consist of a carpel or a number of carpels fused together. The sticky tip of the pistil, the stigma, is the receptor of pollen, the supportive stalk, the style, becomes the pathway for pollen tubes to grow from pollen grains adhering to the stigma. The relationship to the gynoecium on the receptacle is described as hypogynous, perigynous, although the arrangement described above is considered typical, plant species show a wide variation in floral structure. These modifications have significance in the evolution of flowering plants and are used extensively by botanists to establish relationships among plant species, the four main parts of a flower are generally defined by their positions on the receptacle and not by their function. Many flowers lack some parts or parts may be modified into other functions and/or look like what is typically another part, in some families, like Ranunculaceae, the petals are greatly reduced and in many species the sepals are colorful and petal-like. Other flowers have modified stamens that are petal-like, the flowers of Peonies and Roses are mostly petaloid stamens
Flower
–
A poster with flowers or clusters of flowers produced by twelve species of flowering plants from different families
Flower
–
Main parts of a mature flower (
Ranunculus glaberrimus)
Flower
–
Reproductive parts of Easter Lily (Lilium longiflorum). 1. Stigma, 2. Style, 3. Stamens, 4. Filament, 5. Petal
Flower
–
Left: A normal zygomorphic Streptocarpus flower. Right: An aberrant peloric Streptocarpus flower. Both of these flowers appeared on the Streptocarpus hybrid 'Anderson's Crows' Wings'.
41.
Raceme
–
A raceme is an unbranched, indeterminate type of inflorescence bearing pedicellate flowers—flowers having short floral stalks called pedicels—along its axis. In botany, an axis means a shoot, in case one bearing the flowers. In indeterminate inflorescence-like racemes, the oldest flowers are borne towards the base and new flowers are produced as the shoot grows, a plant that flowers on a showy raceme may have this reflected in its scientific name, e. g. Cimicifuga racemosa. A compound raceme, also called a panicle, has a main axis. Examples of racemes occur on mustard and radish plants, a spike is an unbranched, indeterminate inflorescence, similar to a raceme, but bearing sessile flowers. Examples occur on Malabar nut and chaff flowers, a true spikelet comprises one or more florets enclosed by two glumes, with flowers and glumes arranged in two opposite rows along the spikelet. Examples occur on rice and wheat, both grasses, an ament or catkin is very similar to a spike or raceme, but with subtending bracts so conspicuous as to conceal the flowers until pollination, as in the pussy–willow, alder, birch. These are sometimes called amentaceous plants, a spadix is a form of spike in which the florets are densely crowded along a fleshy axis, and enclosed by one or more large, brightly–colored bracts called spathes. Usually the female flowers grow at the base, and male flowers grow above and they are a characteristic of the Araceae family, for example jack–in–the–pull it and wild calla. From classical Latin racemus, cluster of grapes
Raceme
–
The inflorescence of
Spathoglottis plicata, a
terrestrial orchid, is a typical raceme
Raceme
Raceme
–
Every radiating unit in this inflorescence of a
Cyperus sedge is a spikelet composed of small flowers (florets) arranged in two ranks
42.
Petal
–
Petals are modified leaves that surround the reproductive parts of flowers. They are often brightly colored or unusually shaped to attract pollinators, together, all of the petals of a flower are called a corolla. Petals are usually accompanied by another set of special leaves called sepals, the calyx and the corolla together make up the perianth. When the petals and sepals of a flower are difficult to distinguish, examples of plants in which the term tepal is appropriate include genera such as Aloe and Tulipa. Conversely, genera such as Rosa and Phaseolus have well-distinguished sepals and petals, when the undifferentiated tepals resemble petals, they are referred to as petaloid, as in petaloid monocots, orders of monocots with brightly coloured tepals. Since they include Liliales, a name is lilioid monocots. Although petals are usually the most conspicuous parts of animal-pollinated flowers, wind-pollinated species, such as the grasses, the role of the corolla in plant evolution has been studied extensively since Charles Darwin postulated a theory of the origin of elongated corollae and corolla tubes. If the petals are free from one another in the corolla, the corolla in some plants forms a tube. Petals can differ dramatically in different species, the number of petals in a flower may hold clues to a plants classification. For example, flowers on eudicots most frequently have four or five petals while flowers on monocots have three or six petals, although there are exceptions to this rule. The petal whorl or corolla may be radially or bilaterally symmetrical. If all of the petals are essentially identical in size and shape, many flowers are symmetrical in only one plane and are termed irregular or zygomorphic. In irregular flowers, other parts may be modified from the regular form. Examples of zygomorphic flowers may be seen in orchids and members of the pea family, in many plants of the aster family such as the sunflower, Helianthus annuus, the circumference of the flower head is composed of ray florets. Each ray floret is anatomically an individual flower with a large petal. Florets in the centre of the disc typically have no or very reduced petals, in some plants such as Narcissus the lower part of the petals or tepals are fused to form a floral cup above the ovary, and from which the petals proper extend. Petal often consists of two parts, the upper, broad part, similar to leaf blade, called the limb, claws are developed in petals of some flowers of the family Brassicaceae, such as Erysimum cheiri. The inception and further development of shows a great variety of patterns
Petal
–
Tetrameric flower of a Primrose
willowherb (Ludwigia octovalvis) showing petals and sepals
Petal
–
Diagram showing the parts of a mature flower. In this example the perianth is separated into a calyx (sepals) and corolla (petals)
Petal
–
A
Tulip 's actinomorphic flower with three petals and three sepals, that collectively present a good example of an undifferentiated perianth. In this case, the word "
tepals " is used.
Petal
–
Corolla forming a tube with long points (and a separate green calyx tube)
43.
Pollinator
–
A pollinator is an animal that moves pollen from the male anther of a flower to the female stigma of a flower. This helps to bring about fertilization of the ovules in the flower by the gametes from the pollen grains. Insect pollinators include bees, pollen wasps, ants, flies including bee flies and hoverflies, lepidopterans, vertebrates, mainly bats and birds, but also some non-bat mammals and some lizards pollinate certain plants. Among the pollinating birds are hummingbirds, honeyeaters and sunbirds with long beaks, cycads, which are not flowering plants, are also pollinated by insects. A pollinator is different from a pollenizer, a plant that is a source of pollen for the pollination process, plants fall into pollination syndromes that reflect the type of pollinator being attracted. These are characteristics such as, overall size, the depth and width of the corolla, the color. When these characteristics are experimentally modified, pollinator visitation may decline and it has recently been discovered that cycads, which are not flowering plants, are also pollinated by insects. The most recognized pollinators are the species of bees, which are plainly adapted to pollination. Bees typically are fuzzy and carry an electrostatic charge, Honey bees, bumblebees, and their relatives do not have a scopa, but the hind leg is modified into a structure called the corbicula. Most bees gather nectar, an energy source, and pollen, which is high protein food, to nurture their young. Euglossine bees pollinate orchids, but these are male bees collecting floral scents rather than females gathering nectar or pollen, female orchid bees act as pollinators, but of flowers other than orchids. Eusocial bees such as honey bees need an abundant and steady pollen source to multiply, Honey bees travel from flower to flower, collecting nectar, and pollen grains. The bee collects the pollen by rubbing against the anthers, the pollen collects on the hind legs, in a structure referred to as a pollen basket. As the bee flies from flower to flower, some of the grains are transferred onto the stigma of other flowers. Nectar provides the energy for bee nutrition, pollen provides the protein, when bees are rearing large quantities of brood, bees deliberately gather pollen to meet the nutritional needs of the brood. Good pollination management seeks to have bees in a state during the bloom period of the crop, thus requiring them to gather pollen. Thus, the management techniques of a beekeeper providing pollination services are different from, and to some extent in tension with, many insects other than bees accomplish pollination by visiting flowers for nectar or pollen, or commonly both. Many do so adventitiously, but the most important pollinators are specialists for at least parts of their lifecycles for at least certain functions
Pollinator
–
A syrphid fly (
Eristalinus taeniops) pollinating a
common hawkweed
Pollinator
–
Lipotriches sp. bee pollinating flowers
Pollinator
–
Honey bee with pollen adhering: Bees are the most effective insect pollinators.
Pollinator
–
An
Australian painted lady with its proboscis extended during feeding. Butterflies are recognised pollinators though not as effective as
bees.
44.
Bombus hypnorum
–
The tree bumblebee or new garden bumblebee is a species of bumblebee common in the European continent and parts of Asia. Since the start of the twenty-first century, it has spread to the United Kingdom and these bumblebees prefer habitats that others do not, allowing them to pollinate flowers in areas that many other species do not get to. Bombus hypnorum has a proboscis and a rounded head. The thorax is usually of a uniformly ginger color, the abdomen is covered in hair. In workers, the first tergite is black-haired, but a proportion of males may have ginger hairs intermixed with the black hair, on the European continent, individuals with extended yellow coloration exist. Workers are often small, while drones are much bigger in comparison, Bombus hypnorum is part of the Bombus genus. Its closest genetic relatives are B. jonellus and B. sichelli, B. hypnorum is a common bumblebee species in continental Europe and northern Asia, from northern France to Kamchatka in the east, and from the Pyrenees to the mountains in northern Europe. It is not found, though, in the Mediterranean, the Balkans, or the steppes of eastern Europe, only in the mountains of the Iberian Peninsula and not south of Tuscany in Italy. The bumblebee was first observed in United Kingdom on 17 July 2001 close to the village of Landford in Wiltshire and has since been spreading widely, in August 2008, B. hypnorum was found in Iceland, and new queens have been found each year since. It has now moved from England up to part of Scotland and it also is distributed around Europe and Asia. This bumblebee often lives near human settlements and it prefers to build its nest above ground and often inhabits bird boxes. B. hypnorum likes to live in forests, but in places there are not as many trees. They like to live in holes and walls in the trees unlike other members of the Bombus species and they do not stay in areas where there is a high amount of oilseed rape cover. The nest is large, with 150 workers or more. This species stores pollen in separate cells, and feeds each larva individually and it visits an enormous range of flowering plants such as Rhododendron, cherry, grape hyacinth and, in the north, blueberry, Vaccinium. It is also an important visitor to raspberry and bramble, there have been dead queens around colonies that are established, so this may have been a result of one queen usurping another colony and keeping some of the workers of the original colony. The tree bumblebee has a breeding cycle. Nests are begun by single queens in March and these queens produce a brood of workers, then queens and males
Bombus hypnorum
–
Bombus hypnorum
Bombus hypnorum
Bombus hypnorum
Bombus hypnorum
45.
Caterpillar
–
Caterpillars /ˈkætərˌpɪlər/ are the larval stage of members of the order Lepidoptera. As with most common names, the application of the word is arbitrary, caterpillars of most species are herbivorous, but not all, some are insectivorous, even cannibalistic. Some feed on other products, for example clothes moths feed on wool. Caterpillars as a rule are voracious feeders and many of them are among the most serious of agricultural pests. In fact many moth species are best known in their caterpillar stages because of the damage cause to fruits and other agricultural produce, whereas the moths are obscure. Conversely, various species of caterpillar are valued as sources of silk, as human or animal food, the origins of the word caterpillar date from the early 16th century. They derive from Middle English catirpel, catirpeller, probably an alteration of Old North French catepelose, cate, cat + pelose, caterpillars have soft bodies that can grow rapidly between moults. Only the head capsule is hardened, the mandibles are tough and sharp for chewing leaves. Behind the mandibles of the caterpillar are the spinnerets, for manipulating silk, antennae are present on either side of the labrum, but small and relatively inconspicuous. Some larvae of the Hymenoptera order can appear like the caterpillars of the Lepidoptera, such larvae are mainly seen in the sawfly family. Caterpillars can be confused with the larvae of sawflies, lepidopteran larvae can be differentiated by, the numbers of pairs of pro-legs, sawfly larvae have 6 while caterpillars have up to 5 pairs. The number of stemmata, the larvae have only two, while a caterpillar has six. The presence of crochets on the prolegs, these are absent in the Symphyta, sawfly larvae have an invariably smooth head capsule with no cleavage lines, while lepidopterous caterpillars bear an inverted Y or V. Many animals feed on caterpillars as they are rich in protein, as a result, caterpillars have evolved various means of defense. The appearance of a caterpillar can often repel a predator, its markings and certain body parts can make it seem poisonous, or bigger in size and thus threatening, some types of caterpillars are indeed poisonous. Caterpillars have evolved defenses against physical conditions such as cold, hot or dry environmental conditions, some Arctic species like Gynaephora groenlandica have special basking and aggregation behaviours apart from physiological adaptations to remain in a dormant state. Many caterpillars are cryptically colored and resemble the plants on which they feed and they may even have parts that mimic plant parts such as thorns. Their size varies from as little as 1 mm to about 75 millimetres, some look like objects in the environment such as bird droppings
Caterpillar
–
Caterpillar of
Papilio machaon
Caterpillar
–
A
Monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus) caterpillar feeding on a leaf of the
Swamp Milkweed (Asclepias incarnata) in a private garden in
Lancaster, Pennsylvania.
Caterpillar
–
A
geometrid caterpillar or inchworm
Caterpillar
–
Crochets on a caterpillar's prolegs
46.
Concealer moth
–
Oecophoridae is a family of small moths in the superfamily Gelechioidea. The phylogeny and systematics of gelechoid moths are not fully resolved. But this approach might make Elachistidae highly paraphyletic, other authors go as far as to expand the Oecophoridae beyond the delimitation used here, including also such groups as the Ethmiidae and Xyloryctidae. The latter may indeed be part of a monophyletic Oecophoridae, but more research is required, the mysterious genus Aeolanthes is also sometimes included in the Oecophoridae, but its actual relationships are quite obscure. Other pest species include the black-headed caterpillar on coconut palms in India, concealer moths have also been put to useful service. Data related to Oecophoridae at Wikispecies Hodges, R. W, handbuch der Zoologie/Handbook of Zoology, 131–158. Walter de Gruyter, Berlin & New York, ISBN 3-11-015704-7 Savela, Markku, Markku Savelas Lepidoptera and some other life forms – Oecophoridae. Tree of Life Web Project, Oecophoridae
Concealer moth
–
Concealer moths
Concealer moth
–
Stathmopoda pedella (Stathmopodinae) near
Ilmenau (Thuringia, Germany)
47.
Alabonia geoffrella
–
Alabonia geoffrella is a species of gelechioid moth. Here, it is placed within the subfamily Oecophorinae of the moth family. Alternatively it has placed in the Elachistidae or Depressariinae together with its presumed closest relatives. The adults fly from May to June depending on the location, the wingspan of this diurnal moth is 17–21 mm, and it is quite colorful, with a light to dark rusty-red background, bold white markings and a more delicate metallic-blue pattern. The labial palps are conspicuously enlarged, the caterpillars feed on rotting wood, mostly living under tree bark, they have also been found inside dead branches of common hazel and blackberries. Alabonia geoffrella is found in Europe, where it is not rare in many woodlands and marshlands, media related to Alabonia geoffrella at Wikimedia Commons Grabe, Albert, Eigenartige Geschmacksrichtungen bei Kleinschmetterlingsraupen. Zeitschrift des Wiener Entomologen-Vereins 27, 105-109, PDF fulltext Kimber, Ian, UKMoths – Alabonia geoffrella. Pitkin, Brian & Jenkins, Paul, Butterflies and Moths of the World, Generic Names, savela, Markku, Markku Savelas Lepidoptera and some other life forms – Alabonia
Alabonia geoffrella
–
Alabonia geoffrella
Alabonia geoffrella
Alabonia geoffrella
–
Alabonia geoffrella, dorsal view
48.
Weed
–
A weed is a plant considered undesirable in a particular situation, a plant in the wrong place. Examples commonly are plants unwanted in human-controlled settings, such as fields, gardens, lawns. Many plants that people widely regard as weeds also are grown in gardens and other cultivated settings. The term weed also is applied to any plant that grows or reproduces aggressively, Weed control is important in agriculture. Methods include hand cultivation with hoes, powered cultivation with cultivators, smothering with mulch, lethal wilting with high heat, burning, certain classes of weeds share adaptations to ruderal environments. The nature of the habitat and its disturbances will affect or even determine which types of weed communities become dominant. In contrast, perennial weeds often have underground stems that spread under the surface or, like ground ivy, have creeping stems that root. In locations where predation and mutually competitive relationships are absent, weeds have increased resources available for growth and these chemicals may limit the growth of established plants or the germination and growth of seeds and seedlings. A number of native or non-native plants are unwanted in a location for a number of reasons. An important one is that they interfere with food and fiber production in agriculture, other important reasons are that they interfere with other cosmetic, decorative, or recreational goals, such as in lawns, landscape architecture, playing fields, and golf courses. Similarly, they can be of concern for environmental reasons whereby introduced species out-compete for resources or space with desired endemic plants, in weed ecology some authorities speak of the relationship between the three Ps, plant, place, perception. These have been variously defined, but the weed traits listed by H. G. Baker are widely cited. Weeds have long been a concern, perhaps as long as humans have cultivated plants, and the Bible, Cursed is the ground because of you, through painful toil you will eat of it all the days of your life. It will produce thorns and thistles for you, and you eat the plants of the field. By the sweat of your brow you will eat your food until you return to the ground, While the term weed generally has a negative connotation, many plants known as weeds can have beneficial properties. A number of weeds, such as the dandelion and lambs quarter, are edible, burdock is common over much of the world, and is sometimes used to make soup and medicine in East Asia. Some weeds attract beneficial insects, which in turn can protect crops from harmful pests, Weeds can also prevent pest insects from finding a crop, because their presence disrupts the incidence of positive cues which pests use to locate their food. Weeds may also act as a mulch, providing ground cover that reduces moisture loss
Weed
–
A
dandelion is a common plant all over the world, especially in Europe, Asia, and the Americas. It is a well-known example of a plant that is considered a weed in some contexts (such as lawns) but not a weed in others (such as when it is used as a
leaf vegetable or
herbal medicine).
Weed
–
700 cattle that were killed overnight by a poisonous weed.
Weed
–
This article is about plants specifically called weeds. For the drug, see
cannabis (drug). For other uses, see
weed (disambiguation).
49.
Sucker (botany)
–
Basal shoots, root sprouts, adventitious shoots, water sprouts and suckers are various types of shoots which grow from a bud at the base of a tree or shrub or from adventitious buds in its roots. A plant that produces suckers is referred to as surculose, root suckers may emerge some distance from the originating plant, are considered a form of vegetative dispersal, and may originate a habitat patch where that tree is the dominant species. Suckers also may arise from the roots of trees that have cut down. In botany, a sucker is a plant growing not from a seed and this is a phenomenon of natural asexual spread, also known in plants as vegetative reproduction. It is a plant propagation strategy and the complex of individuals formed by a plant and all its clones produced form a single genetic individual. The plant suckers are clones from the mother plant, the plant will have a genome identical to that from which it arose. Many species of plant reproduce through vegetative reproduction, such as the Canada thistle, cherry, Apple, Ligustrum, hazel, Tree of Heaven, the guava, a tropical tree, is also known to propagate through basal shoots. The basal shoot is a variety of dispersal vector that allows the plants to reach specific habitats that are favorable for their survival and they create a shaded area where new species will grow and gradually replace them in many cases. In trees, the roots normally grow outward to about three times the branch spread, only half of a trees root system occurs between the trunk and the circumference of its canopy. Roots on one side of a tree normally supply the foliage on that side of the tree. Thus when roots on one side of a tree are injured, for some trees however, such as the maple family, the effect of a root injury may show itself anywhere in the tree canopy. Stolons are stems which grow at the surface or just below ground and form adventitious roots at the nodes. Thus, not all horizontal stems are called stolons, plants with stolons are called stoloniferous. Rhizomes, in contrast, are root-like stems that may either grow horizontally at the surface or in other orientations underground. Suckers and basal shoots can be used to propagate woody plants, suckers can be dug or broken off with some of the roots attached. Stool beds involve cutting a young plant to near ground level and heaping soil over it so that basal shoots will form adventitious roots, the technique is used particularly for vegetative propagation of rootstocks for apple trees. Suckers on some plants are considered undesirable by horticulturists because the plants energy is diverted to the sucker rather than to crown growth. Horticulturists recommend removing suckers on trees and shrubs by tearing them away as close to the base as possible, the buds that give rise to suckers are more completely destroyed through tearing than through cutting
Sucker (botany)
–
A sucker emerging from the base of a young tree
Sucker (botany)
–
Sorbaria sorbifolia, Jardin des Plantes - Paris 2011-06-04
Sucker (botany)
–
Poplar suckers emerging along a root (mother tree is not visible)
.jpg)
. PMID 23864942. doi:10.1155/2013/202534.
