1.
Morus nigra
–
It is known for its large number of chromosomes, as it has 154 pairs. Morus nigra is a tree growing to 12 m tall by 15 m broad. The leaves are 10–20 cm long by 6–10 cm broad - up to 23 cm long on shoots, downy on the underside. Black mulberry has long been cultivated for its fruit and is planted and often naturalised west across much of Europe, including Ukraine. Jams and sherbets are often made from the fruit in this region, the black mulberry was imported into Britain in the 17th century in the hope that it would be useful in the cultivation of silkworms. It was unsuccessful because silkworms prefer the white mulberry but has left a legacy of large, the largest documented local concentration of black mulberries in Europe can be found in the vineyards of Pukanec in Slovakia
Morus nigra
–
Morus nigra
Morus nigra
–
Foliage and immature fruit of Morus nigra
Morus nigra
–
Female flowers of Morus nigra
Morus nigra
–
Unripe shahtoot (
Iran)
2.
Species aggregate
–
In biology, a species complex is a group of closely related species that are very similar in appearance to the point that the boundaries between them are often unclear. As informal taxonomic ranks, species group, species aggregate, two or more taxa once considered conspecific may later be subdivided into infraspecific taxa, but this is not a species complex. A species complex is in most cases a monophyletic group with a common ancestor and it may represent an early stage after speciation, but may also have been separated for a long time period without evolving morphological differences. Hybrid speciation can be a component in the evolution of a species complex, species complexes exist in all groups of organisms. The existence of similar species may cause local and global species diversity to be underestimated. Recognizing similar but distinct species is important for disease and pest control, a species complex is typically considered as a group of close, but distinct species. Obviously, the concept is tied to the definition of a species. Modern biology understands a species as separately evolving metapopulation lineage but acknowledges that the criteria to delimit species may depend on the group studied, a more restricted use applies the term to close species between which hybridisation occurred or is occurring, leading to intermediate forms and blurred species boundaries. Some authors apply the term also to a species with intraspecific variability, examples are ring species or species with subspecies, where it is often unclear if these should be considered separate species. Several terms are used synonymously for a complex, but some of them may also have slightly different. In the nomenclature codes of zoology and bacteriology, no taxonomic ranks are defined at the level between subgenera and species, while the botanical code defines four ranks below genera, different informal taxonomic solutions have been used to indicate a species complex. This describes distinct species that are classified under one species name. More generally, the term is applied when species, even if known to be distinct. The usage physiologic race is not to be confused with physiological race and this term, introduced by Ernst Mayr in 1942, was initially used with the same meaning as cryptic species, but later authors emphasized the common phylogenetic origin. A recent article defines sibling species as sister species, meaning two species that are the closest relative of each other and have not been distinguished from one another taxonomically. This refers to a group of closely related species all living in the same ecosystem. Conversely, the term has also been applied very broadly to a group of related species than can be variable. Superspecies Sometimes used as a rank for a species complex around one representative species
Species aggregate
–
The
fly agaric comprises several cryptic species, as shown by genetic data.
Species aggregate
–
The butterfly genus
Heliconius contains some species extremely difficult to tell apart.
Species aggregate
–
The
African forest elephant (shown) is the
bush elephant 's sibling species.
Species aggregate
–
Mbuna cichlids form a species flock of several hundred species in
Lake Malawi.
3.
Taxonomy (biology)
–
Taxonomy is the science of defining groups of biological organisms on the basis of shared characteristics and giving names to those groups. The exact definition of taxonomy varies from source to source, but the core of the remains, the conception, naming. There is some disagreement as to whether biological nomenclature is considered a part of taxonomy, the broadest meaning of taxonomy is used here. The word taxonomy was introduced in 1813 by Candolle, in his Théorie élémentaire de la botanique, the term alpha taxonomy is primarily used today to refer to the discipline of finding, describing, and naming taxa, particularly species. In earlier literature, the term had a different meaning, referring to morphological taxonomy, ideals can, it may be said, never be completely realized. They have, however, a value of acting as permanent stimulants. Some of us please ourselves by thinking we are now groping in a beta taxonomy, turrill thus explicitly excludes from alpha taxonomy various areas of study that he includes within taxonomy as a whole, such as ecology, physiology, genetics, and cytology. He further excludes phylogenetic reconstruction from alpha taxonomy, thus, Ernst Mayr in 1968 defined beta taxonomy as the classification of ranks higher than species. This activity is what the term denotes, it is also referred to as beta taxonomy. How species should be defined in a group of organisms gives rise to practical and theoretical problems that are referred to as the species problem. The scientific work of deciding how to define species has been called microtaxonomy, by extension, macrotaxonomy is the study of groups at higher taxonomic ranks, from subgenus and above only, than species. While some descriptions of taxonomic history attempt to date taxonomy to ancient civilizations, earlier works were primarily descriptive, and focused on plants that were useful in agriculture or medicine. There are a number of stages in scientific thinking. Early taxonomy was based on criteria, the so-called artificial systems. Later came systems based on a complete consideration of the characteristics of taxa, referred to as natural systems, such as those of de Jussieu, de Candolle and Bentham. The publication of Charles Darwins Origin of Species led to new ways of thinking about classification based on evolutionary relationships and this was the concept of phyletic systems, from 1883 onwards. This approach was typified by those of Eichler and Engler, the advent of molecular genetics and statistical methodology allowed the creation of the modern era of phylogenetic systems based on cladistics, rather than morphology alone. Taxonomy has been called the worlds oldest profession, and naming and classifying our surroundings has likely been taking place as long as mankind has been able to communicate
Taxonomy (biology)
–
Title page of
Systema Naturae, Leiden, 1735
Taxonomy (biology)
–
Evolution of the
vertebrates at class level, width of spindles indicating number of families. Spindle diagrams are typical for
Evolutionary taxonomy
Taxonomy (biology)
–
The same relationship, expressed as a
cladogram typical for
cladistics
Taxonomy (biology)
–
Type specimen for
Nepenthes smilesii, a tropical
pitcher plant.
4.
Plant
–
Plants are mainly multicellular, predominantly photosynthetic eukaryotes of the kingdom Plantae. The term is generally limited to the green plants, which form an unranked clade Viridiplantae. This includes the plants, conifers and other gymnosperms, ferns, clubmosses, hornworts, liverworts, mosses and the green algae. Green plants have cell walls containing cellulose and obtain most of their energy from sunlight via photosynthesis by primary chloroplasts and their chloroplasts contain chlorophylls a and b, which gives them their green color. Some plants are parasitic and have lost the ability to produce amounts of chlorophyll or to photosynthesize. Plants are characterized by sexual reproduction and alternation of generations, although reproduction is also common. There are about 300–315 thousand species of plants, of which the great majority, green plants provide most of the worlds molecular oxygen and are the basis of most of Earths ecologies, especially on land. Plants that produce grains, fruits and vegetables form humankinds basic foodstuffs, Plants play many roles in culture. They are used as ornaments and, until recently and in variety, they have served as the source of most medicines. The scientific study of plants is known as botany, a branch of biology, Plants are one of the two groups into which all living things were traditionally divided, the other is animals. The division goes back at least as far as Aristotle, who distinguished between plants, which generally do not move, and animals, which often are mobile to catch their food. Much later, when Linnaeus created the basis of the system of scientific classification. Since then, it has become clear that the plant kingdom as originally defined included several unrelated groups, however, these organisms are still often considered plants, particularly in popular contexts. When the name Plantae or plant is applied to a group of organisms or taxon. The evolutionary history of plants is not yet settled. Those which have been called plants are in bold, the way in which the groups of green algae are combined and named varies considerably between authors. Algae comprise several different groups of organisms which produce energy through photosynthesis, most conspicuous among the algae are the seaweeds, multicellular algae that may roughly resemble land plants, but are classified among the brown, red and green algae. Each of these groups also includes various microscopic and single-celled organisms
Plant
–
Green algae from
Ernst Haeckel 's
Kunstformen der Natur, 1904.
Plant
–
Had'n
Plant
–
Dicksonia antarctica, a species of
tree fern
Plant
–
A petrified log in
Petrified Forest National Park.
5.
Angiosperms
–
The flowering plants, also known as Angiospermae or Magnoliophyta, are the most diverse group of land plants, with 416 families, approx. 13,164 known genera and a total of c.295,383 known species, etymologically, angiosperm means a plant that produces seeds within an enclosure, in other words, a fruiting plant. The term angiosperm comes from the Greek composite word meaning enclosed seeds, the ancestors of flowering plants diverged from gymnosperms in the Triassic Period, during the range 245 to 202 million years ago, and the first flowering plants are known from 160 mya. They diversified extensively during the Lower Cretaceous, became widespread by 120 mya, angiosperms differ from other seed plants in several ways, described in the table. These distinguishing characteristics taken together have made the angiosperms the most diverse and numerous land plants, the amount and complexity of tissue-formation in flowering plants exceeds that of gymnosperms. The vascular bundles of the stem are arranged such that the xylem and phloem form concentric rings, in the dicotyledons, the bundles in the very young stem are arranged in an open ring, separating a central pith from an outer cortex. In each bundle, separating the xylem and phloem, is a layer of meristem or active formative tissue known as cambium, the soft phloem becomes crushed, but the hard wood persists and forms the bulk of the stem and branches of the woody perennial. Among the monocotyledons, the bundles are more numerous in the stem and are scattered through the ground tissue. They contain no cambium and once formed the stem increases in diameter only in exceptional cases, the characteristic feature of angiosperms is the flower. Flowers show remarkable variation in form and elaboration, and provide the most trustworthy external characteristics for establishing relationships among angiosperm species, the function of the flower is to ensure fertilization of the ovule and development of fruit containing seeds. The floral apparatus may arise terminally on a shoot or from the axil of a leaf, occasionally, as in violets, a flower arises singly in the axil of an ordinary foliage-leaf. There are two kinds of cells produced by flowers. Microspores, which divide to become pollen grains, are the male cells and are borne in the stamens. The female cells called megaspores, which divide to become the egg cell, are contained in the ovule. The flower may consist only of parts, as in willow. Usually, other structures are present and serve to protect the sporophylls, the individual members of these surrounding structures are known as sepals and petals. The outer series is usually green and leaf-like, and functions to protect the rest of the flower, the inner series is, in general, white or brightly colored, and is more delicate in structure. It functions to attract insect or bird pollinators, attraction is effected by color, scent, and nectar, which may be secreted in some part of the flower
Angiosperms
Angiosperms
–
Bud of a pink
rose
Angiosperms
–
Flowers of
Malus sylvestris (crab apple)
Angiosperms
–
Flowers and leaves of
Oxalis pes-caprae (Bermuda buttercup)
6.
Eudicots
–
The eudicots, Eudicotidae or eudicotyledons are a monophyletic clade of flowering plants that had been called tricolpates or non-magnoliid dicots by previous authors. The close relationships among flowering plants with tricolpate pollen grains was initially seen in studies of shared derived characters. These plants have a trait in their pollen grains of exhibiting three colpi or grooves paralleling the polar axis. Later molecular evidence confirmed the basis for the evolutionary relationships among flowering plants with tricolpate pollen grains. The term means true dicotyledons, as it contains the majority of plants that have been considered dicots and have characteristics of the dicots, the term eudicots has subsequently been widely adopted in botany to refer to one of the two largest clades of angiosperms, monocots being the other. The remaining angiosperms are sometimes referred to as basal angiosperms or paleodicots, the other name for the eudicots is tricolpates, a name which refers to the grooved structure of the pollen. Members of the group have tricolpate pollen, or forms derived from it and these pollens have three or more pores set in furrows called colpi. In contrast, most of the seed plants produce monosulcate pollen. The name tricolpates is preferred by some botanists to avoid confusion with the dicots, numerous familiar plants are eudicots, including many common food plants, trees, and ornamentals. Most leafy trees of midlatitudes also belong to eudicots, with exceptions being magnolias and tulip trees which belong to magnoliids, and Ginkgo biloba. The name eudicots is used in the APG system, of 1998 and it is applied to a clade, a monophyletic group, which includes most of the dicots. The eudicots can be divided into two groups, the basal eudicots and the core eudicots, basal eudicot is an informal name for a paraphyletic group. The core eudicots are a monophyletic group, a 2010 study suggested the core eudicots can be divided into two clades, Gunnerales and a clade called Pentapetalae, comprising all the remaining core eudicots
Eudicots
–
Eudicots Temporal range:
Early Cretaceous - recent
Eudicots
–
Arabis pollen has three colpi.
7.
Rosales
–
Rosales is an order of flowering plants. It is sister to a clade consisting of Fagales and Cucurbitales and it contains about 7700 species, distributed into about 260 genera. Rosales comprise nine families, the family being the rose family. The largest of these families are Rosaceae and Urticaceae, the order Rosales is divided into three clades that have never been assigned a taxonomic rank. The basal clade consists of the family Rosaceae, another clade consists of four families, including Rhamnaceae, the order Rosales is strongly supported as monophyletic in phylogenetic analyses of DNA sequences, such as those carried out by members of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group. In their APG III system of plant classification, they defined Rosales as consisting of the nine families listed in the box on the right. The relationships of these families were uncertain until 2011, when they were resolved in a phylogenetic study based on two nuclear genes and ten chloroplast genes. In the classification system of Dahlgren the Rosales were in the superorder Rosiflorae, in the obsolete Cronquist system, the order Rosales was many times polyphyletic. It consisted of the family Rosaceae and 23 other families that are now placed in other orders
Rosales
–
Rosales
8.
Rosaceae
–
Rosaceae, the rose family, is a medium-sized family of flowering plants, including 4,828 known species in 91 genera. The name is derived from the type genus Rosa, among the most species-rich genera are Alchemilla, Sorbus, Crataegus, Cotoneaster, Rubus, and Prunus with about 200 species. However, all of these numbers should be seen as estimates – much taxonomic work remains, the Rosaceae family includes herbs, shrubs, and trees. Most species are deciduous, but some are evergreen and they have a worldwide range, but are most diverse in the Northern Hemisphere. Several economically important products come from the Rosaceae, including many edible fruits, almonds, the Rosaceae have a cosmopolitan distribution, but are primarily concentrated in the Northern Hemisphere in regions that are not desert or tropical rainforest. More recently, Chrysobalanoideae has also treated as a family, but also in Rosales. Neuradoideae has been assigned to Malvales, schulze-Menz, in Englers Syllabus edited by Melchior recognized Rosoideae, Dryadoideae, Lyonothamnoideae, Spireoideae, Amygdaloideae, and Maloideae. They were primarily diagnosed by the structure of the fruits, more recent work has identified that not all of these groups were monophyletic. Hutchinson and Kalkmann recognized only tribes, takhtajan delimited 10 subfamilies, Filipenduloideae, Rosoideae, Ruboideae, Potentilloideae, Coleogynoideae, Kerroideae, Amygdaloideae, Spireoideae, Maloideae, Dichotomanthoideae, and 21 tribes. A more modern model comprises three subfamilies, one of which has remained the same. A cladogram of the family is, Three cladistic analyses were done in 1999 by Rodger Evans, one based on the phenotype, one on molecules, and the third combined. The only major difference in the results with the above cladogram is the position of Kerria, while the boundaries of the Rosaceae are not disputed, there is not general agreement as to how many genera it contains. Areas of divergent opinion include the treatment of Potentilla s. l. compounding the problem is that apomixis is common in several genera. This results in an uncertainty in the number of species contained in each of these genera, Rosaceae can be trees, shrubs, or herbaceous plants. The herbs are mostly perennials, but some also exist. The leaves are arranged spirally, but have an opposite arrangement in some species. They can be simple or pinnately compound, compound leaves appear in around 30 genera. The leaf margin is most often serrate, paired stipules are generally present, and are a primitive feature within the family, independently lost in many groups of Amygdaloideae
Rosaceae
–
Rosaceae Temporal range:
Cretaceous -
Holocene [
citation needed]
9.
Rubus
–
Rubus is a large and diverse genus of flowering plants in the rose family, Rosaceae, subfamily Rosoideae, with 250–700 species. Raspberries, blackberries, and dewberries are common, widely distributed members of the genus, most of these plants have woody stems with prickles like roses, spines, bristles, and gland-tipped hairs are also common in the genus. The Rubus fruit, sometimes called a fruit, is an aggregate of drupelets. Most species are hermaphrodites, Rubus chamaemorus being an exception, the blackberries, as well as various other Rubus species with mounding or rambling growth habits, are often called brambles. The generic name means blackberry in Latin and was derived from the word ruber, the scientific study of brambles is known as batology. Examples of the hundreds of species of Rubus include, The British National Collection of Rubus is held by Barry Clark at Houghton and his collection stands at over 200 species and, although not within the scope of the National Collection, he also grows many cultivars. The term hybrid berry is used collectively for those fruits in the genus Rubus which have been developed mainly in the USA. As Rubus species readily interbreed and are apomicts, the parentage of these plants is highly complex, but is generally agreed to include cultivars of blackberries. Polyploidy from the diploid to the tetradecaploid is exhibited, some treatments have recognized dozens of species each for what other, comparably qualified botanists have considered single, more variable species. The classification presented below recognizes 13 subgenera within Rubus, with the largest subgenus in turn divided into 12 sections, representative examples are presented, but many more species are not mentioned here. Fossil seeds from the early Miocene of Rubus sp. have been found in the Czech part of the Zittau Basin, list of Lepidoptera that feed on Rubus Rubus at the Western Kentucky University
Rubus
–
Rubus
Rubus
–
R. arcticus
Rubus
–
R. odoratus
Rubus
–
R. saxatilis
10.
Rubus ursinus
–
The name is from rubus for bramble and ursinus for bear. The plant is native to western North America, found in British Columbia, California, Idaho, Montana, Oregon, and Washington, Rubus ursinus is a wide, mounding shrub or vine, growing to 2–5 feet high, and more than 6 feet wide. The prickly branches can take if they touch soil, thus enabling the plant to spread vegetatively. Leaves usually have 3 leaflets but sometimes 5 or only 1, the plant is dioeocious, with male and female plants on separate plants, also unusual for the genus. As with other Rubus, the canes are typically vegetative the first year, flowers are white with narrower petals than most related species, and have a fragrance. The sweet, very aromatic, edible fruits are purple, dark red, or black. Current or recent subspecies and varieties include, Rubus ursinus subsp, macropetalus — all of distribution range. Rubus ursinus var. sirbenus — endemic to California, Rubus ursinus var. ursinus — California and Oregon. Diverse wildlife eat the berries, including songbirds, deer, bear and it is of notable pollinator and nesting material value for native bee and bumble bee species. This blackberry species is a food source for the western tiger swallowtail butterfly, the mourning cloak butterfly, the gray hairstreak butterfly. Native Americans, such as the Kumeyaay, Maidu, Pomo and Salish peoples, used Rubus ursinus as a fresh and dried fruit source, the Concow tribe calls this plant wân-kö-mil′-ē in the Konkow language. Rubus ursinus is cultivated for its fruit, and also ornamental plant qualities and it is planted in home, native plant, and wildlife gardens, and in natural landscaping projects. It can be espaliered or trained on fences and trellising, when mature/established, the plant is effective in stabilizing creek banks and edges of bioswales. To set large fruit, the plant needs consistent amounts of moisture, otherwise it is moderately drought tolerant when established. Seed size seems to be related to cell size. These are sometimes called little wild blackberries, cultivars A cultivar of this species named the Aughinbaugh blackberry was a parent of the loganberry. Rubus ursinus is also a second generation parent of the boysenberry, wild Treasure has the fruit size and flavor of the wild species, but without prickles, and the berries are machine harvestable. It was released by the USDA-ARS in 2010, and is a hybrid between a selection of Rubus ursinus and Waldo, northwest Oregon Wetland Plants Project, Rubus ursinus - Trailing blackberry, Dewberry, Pacific blackberry Rubus ursinus — Calphotos Photo gallery, University of California
Rubus ursinus
–
Rubus ursinus
Rubus ursinus
–
Rubus ursinus berries.
Rubus ursinus
–
Rubus ursinus flower.
11.
Rubus laciniatus
–
Rubus laciniatus, the Cutleaf Evergreen Blackberry or Evergreen Blackberry, is a species of Rubus native to northern and central Europe. It is a species in Australia and North America. It has become a weed and invasive species in forested habitats in the United States and Canada, particularly in the Northeast, Rubus laciniatus is a deciduous, bramble-forming shrub growing to 3 meters tall, with prickly shoots. The leaves are compound, with five leaflets, each divided into deeply toothed subleaflets with jagged. The flowers have pink or white petals, the deeply cut into 3 lobes at the tip. Fruits are similar to the blackberry, with a unique. The fruits are not true berries in the botanical sense, the species is unusual in the genus in having 3-lobed petals and also in having such deeply divided leaves. The fruits of plant are eagerly consumed by a number of animal species, including many birds. The thickets provide cover for animals. Several commercially important berry cultivars have been bred from this wild Rubus laciniatus species, which has been grown for its fruits since 1770
Rubus laciniatus
–
Rubus laciniatus Cutleaf Evergreen Blackberry
12.
Rubus argutus
–
Rubus argutus is a North American species of prickly bramble in the rose family. It is a native to the eastern and south-central United States from Florida to Texas, Missouri, Illinois. Common names are sawtooth blackberry or tall blackberry because of its habit of growing up to 2 meters in height, the flowers are white with large petals, borne in mid-spring. Photo of herbarium specimen at Missouri Botanical Garden, collected in 1989 in Missouri United States Department of Agriculture Plants Profile US Wildflowers
Rubus argutus
–
Rubus argutus
13.
Rubus armeniacus
–
Rubus armeniacus, the Himalayan blackberry or Armenian blackberry, is a species of Rubus in the blackberry group Rubus subgenus Rubus series Discolores Focke. It is native to Armenia and Northern Iran, and widely naturalised elsewhere, flora of North America, published in 2014, considers the taxonomy unsettled, and tentatively uses the older name Rubus bifrons. In some areas, the plant is cultivated for its berries, but in areas it is considered a noxious weed. Rubus armeniacus is a plant which bears biennial stems from the perennial root system. In its first year a new stem grows vigorously to its length of 4–10 m. The stem is stout, up to 2–3 cm diameter at the base, the leaves on first year shoots are 7–20 cm long, palmately compound with five leaflets. Flowers are not produced on first year shoots, in its second year, the stem does not grow longer, but produces several side shoots, which bear smaller leaves with three leaflets. These leaflets are oval-acute, dark green above and pale to whitish below, with a toothed margin, and thorns along the midrib on the underside. The flowers are produced in spring and early summer on panicles of 3–20 together on the tips of the second-year side shoots. The fruit in botanical terminology is not a berry, but a fruit of numerous drupelets,1. 2–2 cm diameter. Both first and second year shoots are spiny, with short, stout, curved, mature plants form a tangle of dense arching stems, the branches rooting from the node tip when they reach the ground. The species was introduced to Europe in 1835 and to Australasia and it was valued for its fruit, similar to that of common blackberries but larger and sweeter, making it a more attractive species for both domestic and commercial fruit production. The cultivars Himalayan Giant and Theodore Reimers are particularly commonly planted, Rubus armeniacus soon escaped from cultivation and has become an invasive species in most of the temperate world. Because it is so hard to contain, it quickly got out of control, with birds and other animals eating the fruit, rubus_armeniacus Bugwood Wiki photo of herbarium specimen at Missouri Botanical Garden, collected in Missouri in 1995
Rubus armeniacus
–
Rubus armeniacus Himalayan blackberry
Rubus armeniacus
Rubus armeniacus
–
Himalayan Blackberry flower,
Bay Area, California. Note spider on bottom petal.
14.
Rubus plicatus
–
Rubus plicatus is a species of blackberry native to Europe. The type specimen of the genus Rubus was selected from among Linnaeuss specimens by Nathaniel Lord Britton and Addison Brown in 1913 as a herbarium specimen labelled Rubus fruticosus and this specimen turned out to include a mixture of pieces that apparently belong to Rubus plicatus and Rubus ulmifolius. From these, a component that appears to match Rubus plicatus was selected to be the type, the type of Rubus plicatus, however, is a different specimen. Whenever R. fruticosus and R. plicatus are considered to belong to the same species, when one must be listed as a synonym of the other, R
Rubus plicatus
–
Rubus plicatus
15.
Rubus ulmifolius
–
Rubus ulmifolius is a species of wild blackberry known by the English common name elmleaf blackberry or thornless blackberry and the Spanish common name zarzamora. It is native to Europe and North Africa, and has become naturalized in parts of the United States, Australia. Rubus ulmifolius is a shrub sometimes as much as 5 meters tall, sometimes with spines. Leaves are palmately compound with 3 or 5 leaflets, the green on the upper surface. Flowers are usually pink, sometimes white, the fruit is a compound drupe, dark purple, almost black. Rubus sanctus is often considered to be a subspecies of R. ulmifolius
Rubus ulmifolius
–
Rubus ulmifolius
Rubus ulmifolius
Rubus ulmifolius
–
Flower and buds
16.
Rubus allegheniensis
–
Rubus allegheniensis is a species of bramble, known as Allegheny blackberry and simply as common blackberry. Like other blackberries, it is a species of flowering plant in the rose family and it is very common in eastern and central North America. It is also naturalized in a few locations in California and British Columbia and it is an erect bramble, typically 5 feet but occasionally rarely over 8 feet high, with single shrubs approaching 8 feet or more in breadth, although it usually forms dense thickets of many plants. Leaves are alternate, compound, ovoid, and have toothed edges, thorny canes, with white, 5-petal, ¾ inch flowers in late spring and glossy, deep-violet to black, aggregate fruit in late summer. The presence of Rubus allegheniensis influences the dynamics of the vegetation of many forests in the eastern United States. An abundance of Rubus allegheniensis encourages new tree seedlings, where the effects of herbivorous animals reduce the abundance of Allegheny blackberry, a competitor, Dennstaedtia punctilobula, takes over. Where Dennstaedtia punctilobula becomes common, the growth of seedlings is restricted. Concentrations of Rubus allegheniensis increase greatly after events that destroy taller shrubs and trees and thus permit more light into the understory and these populations often decline in later years as the tree seedlings sheltered by the blackberry canes grow and reduce the amount of light reaching the lower levels. United States Department of Agriculture plants profile for Rubus allegheniensis photo of herbarium specimen at Missouri Botanical Garden, collected in Missouri in 1992
Rubus allegheniensis
–
Rubus allegheniensis
17.
Microspecies
–
In biology, a species complex is a group of closely related species that are very similar in appearance to the point that the boundaries between them are often unclear. As informal taxonomic ranks, species group, species aggregate, two or more taxa once considered conspecific may later be subdivided into infraspecific taxa, but this is not a species complex. A species complex is in most cases a monophyletic group with a common ancestor and it may represent an early stage after speciation, but may also have been separated for a long time period without evolving morphological differences. Hybrid speciation can be a component in the evolution of a species complex, species complexes exist in all groups of organisms. The existence of similar species may cause local and global species diversity to be underestimated. Recognizing similar but distinct species is important for disease and pest control, a species complex is typically considered as a group of close, but distinct species. Obviously, the concept is tied to the definition of a species. Modern biology understands a species as separately evolving metapopulation lineage but acknowledges that the criteria to delimit species may depend on the group studied, a more restricted use applies the term to close species between which hybridisation occurred or is occurring, leading to intermediate forms and blurred species boundaries. Some authors apply the term also to a species with intraspecific variability, examples are ring species or species with subspecies, where it is often unclear if these should be considered separate species. Several terms are used synonymously for a complex, but some of them may also have slightly different. In the nomenclature codes of zoology and bacteriology, no taxonomic ranks are defined at the level between subgenera and species, while the botanical code defines four ranks below genera, different informal taxonomic solutions have been used to indicate a species complex. This describes distinct species that are classified under one species name. More generally, the term is applied when species, even if known to be distinct. The usage physiologic race is not to be confused with physiological race and this term, introduced by Ernst Mayr in 1942, was initially used with the same meaning as cryptic species, but later authors emphasized the common phylogenetic origin. A recent article defines sibling species as sister species, meaning two species that are the closest relative of each other and have not been distinguished from one another taxonomically. This refers to a group of closely related species all living in the same ecosystem. Conversely, the term has also been applied very broadly to a group of related species than can be variable. Superspecies Sometimes used as a rank for a species complex around one representative species
Microspecies
–
The
fly agaric comprises several cryptic species, as shown by genetic data.
Microspecies
–
The butterfly genus
Heliconius contains some species extremely difficult to tell apart.
Microspecies
–
The
African forest elephant (shown) is the
bush elephant 's sibling species.
Microspecies
–
Mbuna cichlids form a species flock of several hundred species in
Lake Malawi.
18.
Dewberry
–
The dewberries are a group of species in the genus Rubus, section Rubus, closely related to the blackberries. They are small trailing brambles with aggregate fruits, reminiscent of the raspberry, unlike many other Rubus species, dewberries have separate male and female plants. Dewberries are common throughout most of the Northern Hemisphere, sometimes thought of as a weed, but the leaves can be used for a tea. They can be raw, or used to make cobbler, jam. Around March and April, the start to grow white flowers that develop into small green berries. The tiny green berries grow red and then a deep purple-blue as they ripen, when the berries are ripe, they are tender and difficult to pick in any quantity without squashing them. The plants do not have upright canes like some other Rubus species, the stems are covered with fine spines or stickers. The berries are sweet and, for many, less seedy than blackberries and worth the scratches, in the winter the leaves often remain on the stems, but may turn dark red. The leaves are eaten by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including peach blossom moths. The European dewberry, Rubus caesius, grows more upright like other brambles and its fruits are a deep, almost black, purple and are coated with a thin layer or dew of waxy droplets. It is less sought after, because its fruits are small, local growers made extensive use of the railroads, in the area, to ship them national and internationally. Var. almus L. H. Bailey Rubus foliaceus L. H. Bailey Rubus ignarus L. H. Bailey Rubus ricei L. H. Bailey Aberdeen dewberry, Rubus depavitus L. H. Bailey Northern dewberry, Rubus flagellaris Willd. Swamp dewberry, Rubus hispidus L. Upland dewberry, Rubus invisus Britton Pacific blackberry, cloudberry, another dioecious Rubus species Youngberry List of early spring flowers Black raspberry Boysenberry, a cross between a dewberry and a Loganberry
Dewberry
–
Ripening dewberries at
Pamplico, South Carolina
Dewberry
–
Rubus caesius
Dewberry
–
European dewberry growing on sand dunes at
Newborough,
Wales
19.
Fruit
–
In botany, a fruit is the seed-bearing structure in flowering plants formed from the ovary after flowering. Fruits are the means by which angiosperms disseminate seeds, accordingly, fruits account for a substantial fraction of the worlds agricultural output, and some have acquired extensive cultural and symbolic meanings. On the other hand, in usage, fruit includes many structures that are not commonly called fruits, such as bean pods, corn kernels, tomatoes. The section of a fungus that produces spores is called a fruiting body. Many common terms for seeds and fruit do not correspond to the botanical classifications, however, in botany, a fruit is the ripened ovary or carpel that contains seeds, a nut is a type of fruit and not a seed, and a seed is a ripened ovule. Examples of culinary vegetables and nuts that are botanically fruit include corn, cucurbits, eggplant, legumes, sweet pepper, in addition, some spices, such as allspice and chili pepper, are fruits, botanically speaking. g. Botanically, a grain, such as corn, rice, or wheat, is also a kind of fruit. However, the wall is very thin and is fused to the seed coat. The outer, often edible layer, is the pericarp, formed from the ovary and surrounding the seeds, the pericarp may be described in three layers from outer to inner, the epicarp, mesocarp and endocarp. Fruit that bears a prominent pointed terminal projection is said to be beaked, a fruit results from maturation of one or more flowers, and the gynoecium of the flower forms all or part of the fruit. Inside the ovary/ovaries are one or more ovules where the megagametophyte contains the egg cell, after double fertilization, these ovules will become seeds. The ovules are fertilized in a process starts with pollination. After pollination, a tube grows from the pollen through the stigma into the ovary to the ovule, later the zygote will give rise to the embryo of the seed, and the endosperm mother cell will give rise to endosperm, a nutritive tissue used by the embryo. As the ovules develop into seeds, the ovary begins to ripen and the ovary wall, in some multiseeded fruits, the extent to which the flesh develops is proportional to the number of fertilized ovules. The pericarp is often differentiated into two or three distinct layers called the exocarp, mesocarp, and endocarp, in some fruits, especially simple fruits derived from an inferior ovary, other parts of the flower, fuse with the ovary and ripen with it. In other cases, the sepals, petals and/or stamens and style of the fall off. When such other floral parts are a significant part of the fruit, it is called an accessory fruit, since other parts of the flower may contribute to the structure of the fruit, it is important to study flower structure to understand how a particular fruit forms. There are three modes of fruit development, Apocarpous fruits develop from a single flower having one or more separate carpels
Fruit
–
Culinary fruits
Fruit
–
Several
culinary fruits
Fruit
–
Mixed fruit
Fruit
–
Fruit shop in
Naggar,
Himachal Pradesh,
India
20.
Species
–
In biology, a species is the basic unit of biological classification and a taxonomic rank. A species is defined as the largest group of organisms in which two individuals can produce fertile offspring, typically by sexual reproduction. While this definition is often adequate, looked at more closely it is problematic, for example, with hybridisation, in a species complex of hundreds of similar microspecies, or in a ring species, the boundaries between closely related species become unclear. Other ways of defining species include similarity of DNA, morphology, all species are given a two-part name, a binomial. The first part of a binomial is the genus to which the species belongs, the second part is called the specific name or the specific epithet. For example, Boa constrictor is one of four species of the Boa genus, Species were seen from the time of Aristotle until the 18th century as fixed kinds that could be arranged in a hierarchy, the great chain of being. In the 19th century, biologists grasped that species could evolve given sufficient time, Charles Darwins 1859 book The Origin of Species explained how species could arise by natural selection. Genes can sometimes be exchanged between species by horizontal transfer, and species may become extinct for a variety of reasons. In his biology, Aristotle used the term γένος to mean a kind, such as a bird or fish, a kind was distinguished by its attributes, for instance, a bird has feathers, a beak, wings, a hard-shelled egg, and warm blood. A form was distinguished by being shared by all its members, Aristotle believed all kinds and forms to be distinct and unchanging. His approach remained influential until the Renaissance, when observers in the Early Modern period began to develop systems of organization for living things, they placed each kind of animal or plant into a context. Many of these early delineation schemes would now be considered whimsical, animals likewise that differ specifically preserve their distinct species permanently, one species never springs from the seed of another nor vice versa. In the 18th century, the Swedish scientist Carl Linnaeus classified organisms according to shared physical characteristics and he established the idea of a taxonomic hierarchy of classification based upon observable characteristics and intended to reflect natural relationships. At the time, however, it was widely believed that there was no organic connection between species, no matter how similar they appeared. However, whether or not it was supposed to be fixed, by the 19th century, naturalists understood that species could change form over time, and that the history of the planet provided enough time for major changes. Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, in his 1809 Zoological Philosophy, described the transmutation of species, proposing that a species could change over time, in 1859, Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace provided a compelling account of evolution and the formation of new species. Darwin argued that it was populations that evolved, not individuals and this required a new definition of species. Darwin concluded that species are what appear to be, ideas
Species
–
John Ray
Species
–
Carl Linnaeus believed in the fixity of species.
21.
Family (biology)
–
In biological classification, family is one of the eight major taxonomic ranks, it is classified between order and genus. A family may be divided into subfamilies, which are intermediate ranks above the rank of genus. In vernacular usage, a family may be named one of its common members, for example, walnuts and hickory trees belong to the family Juglandaceae. What does or does not belong to a family—or whether a family should be recognized at all—are proposed and determined by practicing taxonomists. There are no rules for describing or recognizing a family. Taxonomists often take different positions about descriptions of taxa, and there may be no broad consensus across the community for some time. Some described taxa are accepted broadly and quickly, but others only rarely, if at all, the naming of families is codified by various international codes. In zoological nomenclature, the names of animals end with the suffix -idae. The concept of rank at time was not yet settled, and in the preface to the Prodromus Magnol spoke of uniting his families into larger genera. Carolus Linnaeus used the word familia in his Philosophia botanica to denote groups of plants, trees, herbs, ferns, palms. He used this term only in the section of the book. In zoology, the family as an intermediate between order and genus was introduced by Pierre André Latreille in his Précis des caractères génériques des insectes. He used families in some but not in all his orders of insects, families can be used for evolutionary, palaeontological and generic studies because they are more stable than lower taxonomic levels such as genera and species
Family (biology)
–
The hierarchy of
biological classification 's eight major
taxonomic ranks. An
order contains one or more families. Intermediate minor rankings are not shown.
22.
Hybrid (biology)
–
In biology, a hybrid, also known as a cross breed, is the result of combining, through sexual reproduction, the qualities of two animals or plants of different breeds, varieties, species or genera. Hybrids are not always intermediate between their parents, but can show heterosis or hybrid vigour, often growing larger or taller than either parent, some act before fertilization, others after it. A few animal species and many plant species, however, are the result of hybrid speciation, doubling the number of chromosomes to create polyploids is important in hybrid speciation, because homoploid hybrids are rarely fertile, the polyploid hybrids are allopolyploids. Human impact on the environment has greatly increased the mixing of species, with introduced species worldwide, the genetic mixing may threaten many species with extinction, while genetic erosion in crop plants may be damaging the gene pools of many species for future breeding. Many commercially useful fruits, flowers, garden herbs and trees have been produced by hybridization, one flower, Oenothera lamarckiana, was central to early genetics research into polyploidy. The term hybrid is derived from Latin hybrida, used for such as of a tame sow and a wild boar, or the child of a freeman. The term came into use in English in the 19th century. Conspicuous hybrids are named with portmanteau words, starting in the 1920s with the breeding of tiger-lion hybrids. The cross between two different homozygous lines produces an F1 hybrid that is heterozygous, having two alleles, one contributed by each parent and typically one is dominant and the other recessive. Typically, the F1 generation is also phenotypically homogeneous, producing offspring that are all similar to each other, double cross hybrids result from the cross between two different F1 hybrids. Three-way cross hybrids result from the cross between an F1 hybrid and an inbred line, triple cross hybrids result from the crossing of two different three-way cross hybrids. Top cross hybrids result from the crossing of a top quality or pure-bred male, population hybrids result from the crossing of plants or animals in a population with those of another population. These include interspecific hybrids or crosses between different breeds. e, from the point of view of genetics, different kinds of hybrid can be distinguished as follows, A genetic hybrid carries two different alleles of the same gene. A structural hybrid results from the fusion of gametes that have differing structure in at least one chromosome, a numerical hybrid results from the fusion of gametes having different haploid numbers of chromosomes. A permanent hybrid results when only the heterozygous genotype occurs, as in Oenothera lamarckiana, from the point of view of taxonomy, hybrids differ according to their parentage, Hybrids between different subspecies are called intra-specific hybrids. Offspring resulting from interspecies mating, are called interspecific hybrids, these result in hybrid speciation. Intergeneric hybrids result from matings between different genera, such as sheep and goats. Interfamilial hybrids such as chickens and guineafowl or pheasants are reliably described but extremely rare
Hybrid (biology)
–
Hercules, a "
liger ", a lion/tiger hybrid.
Hybrid (biology)
–
A "
zonkey ", a zebra/donkey hybrid.
Hybrid (biology)
–
A "
jaglion ", a jaguar/lion hybrid.
Hybrid (biology)
–
A
mule, a domestic canary/goldfinch hybrid.
23.
Apomixis
–
In botany, apomixis was defined by Hans Winkler as replacement of the normal sexual reproduction by asexual reproduction, without fertilization. Its etymology is Greek for away from + mixing and this definition notably does not mention meiosis. Apomictically produced offspring are genetically identical to the parent plant, some authors included all forms of asexual reproduction within apomixis, but that generalization of the term has since died out. In flowering plants, the term apomixis is commonly used in a sense to mean agamospermy. Although agamospermy could theoretically occur in gymnosperms, it appears to be absent in that group, apogamy is a related term that has had various meanings over time. In plants with independent gametophytes, the term is used interchangeably with apomixis. Male apomixis involves replacement of the material of the egg cell by that from the pollen. They are therefore often called microspecies, in some plant families, genera with apomixis are quite common, for example in Asteraceae, Poaceae, and Rosaceae. Examples of apomixis can be found in the genera Crataegus, Amelanchier, Sorbus, Rubus, Poa, Nardus stricta, Apomixis is reported to occur in about 10% of globally extant ferns. Among polystichoid ferns, apomixis evolved several times independently in three different clades, although the evolutionary advantages of sexual reproduction are lost, apomixis can pass along traits fortuitous for evolutionary fitness. As Jens Clausen put it The apomicts actually have discovered the effectiveness of mass production long before Mr Henry Ford applied it to the production of the automobile, does not prevent variation, rather, it multiplies certain varietal products. Facultative apomixis means that apomixis does not always occur, i. e. sexual reproduction can also happen and it appears likely that all apomixis in plants is facultative, in other words, that obligate apomixis is an artifact of insufficient observation. The sporophytes of plants of these groups may also have the ability to form a plant that looks like a gametophyte but with the level of the sporophyte. See also Androgenesis and androclinesis described below, a type of apomixis that occurs in a conifer. Agamospermy, asexual reproduction through seeds, occurs in flowering plants through many different mechanisms, consequently, there are almost as many different usages of terminology for apomixis in angiosperms as there are authors on the subject. For English speakers, Maheshwari 1950 is very influential, german speakers might prefer to consult Rutishauser 1967. Some older text books on the basis of misinformation attempted to reform the terminology to match the term parthenogenesis as it is used in zoology, and this continues to cause much confusion. Agamospermy occurs mainly in two forms, In gametophytic apomixis, the embryo arises from an egg cell in a gametophyte that was produced from a cell that did not complete meiosis
Apomixis
–
Vegetative apomixis in
Poa bulbosa;
bulbils form instead of flowers
Apomixis
–
Caribbean Agave producing plantlets on the old flower stem.
24.
Raspberry
–
The raspberry is the edible fruit of a multitude of plant species in the genus Rubus of the rose family, most of which are in the subgenus Idaeobatus, the name also applies to these plants themselves. Raspberries are perennial woody stems. Raspberry derives its name from raspise, a sweet rose-colored wine, from the Anglo-Latin, vinum raspeys, or from raspoie, meaning thicket, the name may have been influenced by its appearance as having a rough surface related to Old English rasp or rough berry. Raspberries are traditionally planted in the winter as dormant canes, although planting of tender and these canes are then dug, roots and all, to be replanted in warmer climates such as Spain, where they quickly flower and produce a very early season crop. Plants are typically planted 2-6 per m in fertile, well drained soil, raspberries are usually planted in raised beds/ridges, the flowers can be a major nectar source for honeybees and other pollinators. Raspberries are very vigorous and can be locally invasive and they propagate using basal shoots, extended underground shoots that develop roots and individual plants. They can sucker new canes some distance from the main plant, for this reason, raspberries spread well, and can take over gardens if left unchecked. Raspberries are often propagated using cuttings, and will root readily in moist soil conditions, the fruit is harvested when it comes off the receptacle easily and has turned a deep color. This is when the fruits are ripest and sweetest, excess fruit can be made into raspberry jam or frozen. High tunnel bramble production offers the opportunity to bridge gaps in availability during late fall, furthermore, high tunnels allow less hardy floricane-fruiting raspberries to overwinter in climates where they wouldnt otherwise survive. In the tunnel plants are established at close spacing usually prior to tunnel construction, raspberries are an important commercial fruit crop, widely grown in all temperate regions of the world. Many of the most important modern commercial red raspberry cultivars derive from hybrids between R. idaeus and R. strigosus. Some botanists consider the Eurasian and American red raspberries to belong to a single, circumboreal species, Rubus idaeus, idaeus or R. idaeus var. idaeus, and the native North American red raspberries classified as either R. idaeus subsp. Strigosus, or R. idaeus var. strigosus, recent breeding has resulted in cultivars that are thornless and more strongly upright, not needing staking. The black raspberry, Rubus occidentalis, is cultivated, providing both fresh and frozen fruit, as well as jams, preserves, and other products. Commercial production of purple-fruited raspberries is rare, blue raspberry is a local name used in Prince Edward County, Ontario, Canada for the cultivar Columbian, a hybrid of R. strigosus and R. occidentalis. Both the red and the black raspberry species have albino-like pale-yellow natural or horticultural variants, fruits from such plants are called golden raspberries or yellow raspberries, despite their similar appearance, they retain the distinctive flavor of their respective species. Most pale-fruited raspberries commercially sold in the eastern United States are derivatives of red raspberries, yellow-fruited variants of the black raspberry are sometimes grown in home gardens
Raspberry
–
Fruit of four species of raspberry. Clockwise from top left:
Boulder raspberry,
Korean raspberry,
Australian native raspberry,
West Indian raspberry
Raspberry
–
Fruits of a golden or yellow raspberry cultivar
Raspberry
–
Until recently, the most commonly cultivated raspberries have been red-fruited
hybrids between
R. idaeus and
R. strigosus.
Raspberry
–
Purple-fruited raspberry hybrids (and black raspberries) are of interest to growers because of their potential for
nutraceuticals.
25.
Receptacle (botany)
–
In botany, the receptacle or torus is the thickened part of a stem from which the flower organs grow. In some accessory fruits, for example the pome and strawberry, the fruit of Rubus species is a cluster of drupelets on top of a conical receptacle. When a raspberry is picked, the receptacle separates from the fruit, in phycology, receptacles are structures at the ends of branches of algae mainly in the brown algae or Heterokontophyta in the Order Fucales. They are specialised structures which contain the reproductive organs called conceptacles, receptacles also function as a structure that captures food
Receptacle (botany)
–
This article is about the receptacle in botany. For other uses, see
Receptacle.
Receptacle (botany)
–
The receptacle (grey) in relation to the
ovary (red) in three types of flowers:
hypogynous (I),
perigynous (II), and
epigynous (III)
26.
Bramble
–
In British English, a bramble is any rough tangled prickly shrub—specifically the blackberry bush —or any hybrid of similar appearance, with thorny stems. Bramble or brambleberry may also refer to the fruit or products of its fruit. The shrub grows abundantly in all parts of the British Isles and harvesting the fruits in late summer and it can also become a nuisance in gardens, sending down its strong suckering roots amongst hedges and shrubs. Many consider it a weed due its tendency to grow in neglected areas and its sharp, tough thorns which can be hazardous to children and pets. Elsewhere, such as in the United States, the term also refers to other members of the Rubus genus. Bramble comes from Germanic bram-bezi, whence come also German Brombeere, Dutch Braambes and it originated before the year 1000, Middle English, Old English bræmbel, variant of brǣmel, equivalent to brǣm-. Bramble bushes have long, thorny, arching shoots and root easily and they send up long, arching canes that do not flower or set fruit until the second year of growth. Brambles usually have trifoliate or palmately-compound leaves, each small unit is called a drupelet. In some, such as the blackberry, the receptacle is elongated and part of the ripe fruit. Many species are grown and bred for their fruit, ornamental species can be grown for flowers, for their ornamental stems and some as ground cover. Members of the Rubus genus tend to have a brittle, porous core, the thorny varieties are sometimes grown for game cover and occasionally for protection. Most species are important for their conservation and wildlife value in their native range, the flowers attract nectar-feeding butterflies and hoverflies, and are a particular favourite of Volucella pellucens. Brambles are important food plants for the larvae of species of Lepidoptera—see list of Lepidoptera that feed on Rubus. The leaves of brambles are often used as a food source for captive stick insects. Many birds, such as the common blackbird, and some mammals will feed on the fruits in autumn. Bramble leaves can be used to feed most Phasmatodea, young leaves contain a toxin that can be harmful to many species of Phasmatodea, however this only occurs up until their third instar, by which time they have developed an immunity to it. There are many different systems developed for the culture of blackberries and raspberries. Bramble cultivars are separated into categories based on their growth habit
Bramble
–
The blackberry is a bramble
Bramble
–
Pink blackberry flower,
Wellington, New Zealand
Bramble
–
13 August 2007,
Manchester, England. Bramble; in background unripe fruit on second-year side shoots; late flowers from tip-flowering of first-year growth
27.
Berry (botany)
–
In botanical terminology, a berry is a fleshy fruit without a stone produced from a single flower containing one ovary. Berries so defined include grapes, currants, and tomatoes, as well as cucumbers, eggplants and bananas, the berry is the most common type of fleshy fruit in which the entire outer layer of the ovary wall ripens into a potentially edible pericarp. Berries may be formed one or more carpels from the same flower. The seeds are embedded in the fleshy interior of the ovary. Many berries are edible, but others, such as the fruits of the potato, some berries, such as the white and red mulberry, are poisonous when unripe, but are edible in their ripe form. A plant that bears berries is said to be bacciferous or baccate, in everyday English, berry is a term for any small edible fruit. Berries are usually juicy, round, brightly coloured, sweet or sour, in botanical language, a berry is a simple fruit having seeds and fleshy pulp produced from the ovary of a single flower. The ovary can be inferior or superior and it is indehiscent, i. e. it does not have a special line of weakness along which it splits to release the seeds when ripe. The pericarp is divided into three layers, the outer layer is called the exocarp or epicarp, the middle layer, the mesocarp or sarcocarp, the inner layer, the endocarp. Botanists have not applied these terms consistently, exocarp and endocarp may be restricted to more-or-less single-layered skins, or may include tissues adjacent to them, thus on one view, the exocarp extends inwards to the layer of vascular bundles. The inconsistency in usage has been described as a source of confusion, the nature of the endocarp distinguishes a berry from a drupe, which has a hardened or stony endocarp. The two kinds of fruit intergrade, depending on the state of the endocarp, some sources have attempted to quantify the difference, e. g. requiring the endocarp to be less than 2 mm thick in a berry. Examples of botanical berries include, True berries, or baccae, may also be required to have an outer skin. This distinguishes, for example, a Vaccinium or Solanum berry from an Adansonia amphisarca, which has a dry, more rigid and self-supporting skin. The fruit of citrus, such as the orange, kumquat and lemon, is a berry with a thick rind and a juicy interior divided into segments by septae. Another specialized term is used for some Cucurbitaceae fruits, which are modified to have a hard outer rind. These are given the special name pepo, while pepos are most common in the Cucurbitaceae, the fruits of Passiflora and Carica are sometimes also considered pepos. Berries that develop from an inferior ovary are sometimes termed epigynous berries or false berries, as opposed to true berries, in epigynous berries, the berry includes tissue derived from parts of the flower besides the ovary
Berry (botany)
–
Redcurrants, a type of berry derived from a simple (one-carpel) inferior ovary
Berry (botany)
–
Kiwi fruit, a berry derived from a compound (many carpellate) superior ovary
Berry (botany)
–
Coffee berries (Coffea arabica)
Berry (botany)
–
Cross-section of a cucumber pepo (Cucumis sativus)
28.
Botanical
–
Botany, also called plant science, plant biology or phytology, is the science of plant life and a branch of biology. A botanist or plant scientist is a scientist who specialises in this field, the term botany comes from the Ancient Greek word βοτάνη meaning pasture, grass, or fodder, βοτάνη is in turn derived from βόσκειν, to feed or to graze. Nowadays, botanists study approximately 410,000 species of plants of which some 391,000 species are vascular plants. Medieval physic gardens, often attached to monasteries, contained plants of medical importance and they were forerunners of the first botanical gardens attached to universities, founded from the 1540s onwards. One of the earliest was the Padua botanical garden and these gardens facilitated the academic study of plants. Efforts to catalogue and describe their collections were the beginnings of plant taxonomy, in the last two decades of the 20th century, botanists exploited the techniques of molecular genetic analysis, including genomics and proteomics and DNA sequences to classify plants more accurately. Modern botany is a broad, multidisciplinary subject with inputs from most other areas of science, dominant themes in 21st century plant science are molecular genetics and epigenetics, which are the mechanisms and control of gene expression during differentiation of plant cells and tissues. Botany originated as herbalism, the study and use of plants for their medicinal properties, many records of the Holocene period date early botanical knowledge as far back as 10,000 years ago. This early unrecorded knowledge of plants was discovered in ancient sites of human occupation within Tennessee, the early recorded history of botany includes many ancient writings and plant classifications. Examples of early works have been found in ancient texts from India dating back to before 1100 BC, in archaic Avestan writings. His major works, Enquiry into Plants and On the Causes of Plants, constitute the most important contributions to science until the Middle Ages. De Materia Medica was widely read for more than 1,500 years, important contributions from the medieval Muslim world include Ibn Wahshiyyas Nabatean Agriculture, Abū Ḥanīfa Dīnawarīs the Book of Plants, and Ibn Bassals The Classification of Soils. In the early 13th century, Abu al-Abbas al-Nabati, and Ibn al-Baitar wrote on botany in a systematic and scientific manner and these gardens continued the practical value of earlier physic gardens, often associated with monasteries, in which plants were cultivated for medical use. They supported the growth of botany as an academic subject, lectures were given about the plants grown in the gardens and their medical uses demonstrated. Botanical gardens came much later to northern Europe, the first in England was the University of Oxford Botanic Garden in 1621, throughout this period, botany remained firmly subordinate to medicine. German physician Leonhart Fuchs was one of the three German fathers of botany, along with theologian Otto Brunfels and physician Hieronymus Bock, Fuchs and Brunfels broke away from the tradition of copying earlier works to make original observations of their own. Bock created his own system of plant classification, physician Valerius Cordus authored a botanically and pharmacologically important herbal Historia Plantarum in 1544 and a pharmacopoeia of lasting importance, the Dispensatorium in 1546. Naturalist Conrad von Gesner and herbalist John Gerard published herbals covering the medicinal uses of plants, naturalist Ulisse Aldrovandi was considered the father of natural history, which included the study of plants
Botanical
–
The fruit of
Myristica fragrans, a species native to
Indonesia, is the source of two valuable spices, the red aril (
mace) enclosing the dark brown
nutmeg.
Botanical
–
The
Linnaean Garden of Linnaeus' residence in Uppsala, Sweden, was planted according to his Systema sexuale.
Botanical
–
Micropropagation of transgenic plants
Botanical
–
Biologist and statistician Ronald Fisher
29.
Aggregate fruit
–
An aggregate fruit or etaerio is a fruit that develops from the merger of several ovaries that were separate in a single flower. In contrast, a fruit develops from one ovary. In languages other than English, the meanings of aggregate and multiple fruit are reversed, the differences in meaning are due to a reversal in the terminology by John Lindley, which has been followed by most English-language authors. Not all flowers with multiple ovaries form aggregate fruit, the ovaries of some flowers do not become tightly joined together to make a larger fruit. Aggregate fruits may also be accessory fruits, in parts of the flower other than the ovary become fleshy. The individual parts of an aggregate fruit come in many forms, for example, sugar apple fruit are made up of individual berry-like pistils fused with the receptacle
Aggregate fruit
–
A
raspberry fruit (shown with a
raspberry beetle larva) is an aggregate fruit, an aggregate of
drupelets
Aggregate fruit
–
The fruit of an
Aquilegia flower is one fruit that forms from several ovaries of one flower, and it is an aggregate of follicles. However, because the follicles are not fused to one another, it is not considered an aggregate fruit
Aggregate fruit
–
A
sugar apple fruit forms from the pistils and receptacle of one flower
.jpg)
. PMID 23864942. doi:10.1155/2013/202534.
