1.
Hunting
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Hunting is the practice of killing or trapping animals, or pursuing or tracking them with the intent of doing so. Hunting wildlife or feral animals is most commonly done by humans for food, recreation, to predators that are dangerous to humans or domestic animals. Lawful hunting is distinguished from poaching, which is the killing, trapping or capture of the hunted species. The species that are hunted are referred to as game or prey and are usually mammals, Hunting can also be a means of pest control. However, hunting has also contributed to the endangerment, extirpation and extinction of many animals. The pursuit, capture and release, or capture for food of fish is called fishing, the practice of foraging or gathering materials from plants and mushrooms is also considered separate from hunting. The word hunt serves as both a noun and a verb, the noun has been dated to the early 12th century, act of chasing game, from the verb hunt. The meaning of a body of persons associated for the purpose of hunting with a pack of hounds is first recorded in the 1570s, meaning the act of searching for someone or something is from about 1600. The verb, Old English huntian to chase game, perhaps developed from hunta hunter, is related to hentan to seize, from Proto-Germanic huntojan, the general sense of search diligently is first recorded c. Hunting has a history and may well pre-date the rise of the species Homo sapiens. Evidence from western Kenya suggests that hunting has been occurring for more two million years. Furthermore, evidence exists that hunting may have one of the multiple environmental factors leading to the Holocene extinction of megafauna. North American megafauna extinction was coincidental with the Younger Dryas impact event, however, in other locations such as Australia, humans are thought to have played a very significant role in the extinction of the Australian megafauna that was widespread prior to human occupation. The closest surviving relatives of the species are the two species of Pan, the common chimpanzee and bonobos. Common chimpanzees have a diet that includes troop hunting behaviour based on beta males being led by an alpha male. Bonobos have also observed to occasionally engage in group hunting. With the establishment of language, culture, and religion, hunting became a theme of stories and myths, as well as such as dance. Hunting was a component of hunter-gatherer societies before the domestication of livestock
2.
Wild boar
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The wild boar, also known as the wild swine or Eurasian wild pig, is a suid native to much of Eurasia, North Africa, and the Greater Sunda Islands. Human intervention has spread its range further, making the one of the widest-ranging mammals in the world. Its wide range, high numbers, and adaptability mean that it is classed as least concern by the IUCN, the animal probably originated in Southeast Asia during the Early Pleistocene, and outcompeted other suid species as it spread throughout the Old World. As of 1990, up to 16 subspecies are recognised, which are divided into four regional groupings based on skull height, the species lives in matriarchal societies consisting of interrelated females and their young. Fully grown males are solitary outside the breeding season. The grey wolf is the boars main predator throughout most of its range except in the Far East and the Lesser Sunda Islands. It has a history of association with humans, having been the ancestor of most domestic pig breeds. As true wild boars became extinct in Britain before the development of modern English, the English boar stems from the Old English bar, which is thought to be derived from the West Germanic *bairaz, of unknown origin. Boar is sometimes used specifically to refer to males, and may also be used to refer to male domesticated pigs, the young may be called piglets. The animals specific name scrofa is Latin for sow, the earliest fossil finds of the species come from both Europe and Asia, and date back to the Early Pleistocene. Its closest wild relative is the pig of Malacca and surrounding islands. These subspecies are typically high-skulled, with thick underwool and poorly developed manes, Indian, Includes S. s. davidi and S. s. cristatus. These subspecies have sparse or absent underwool, with long manes and prominent bands on the snout, while S. s. cristatus is high-skulled, S. s. davidi is low-skulled. Eastern, Includes S. s. sibiricus, S. s. ussuricus, S. s. leucomystax, S. s. riukiuanus, S. s. taivanus, and S. s. moupinensis. These subspecies are characterised by a streak extending from the corners of the mouth to the lower jaw. With the exception of S. s. ussuricus, most are high-skulled, the underwool is thick, except in S. s. moupinensis, and the mane is largely absent. It is the most basal of the four groups, having the smallest relative brain size, more primitive dentition, with the exception of domestic pigs in Timor and Papua New Guinea, the wild boar is the ancestor of most pig breeds. Remains of pigs have been dated to earlier than 11,400 BC in Cyprus and those animals must have been introduced from the mainland, which suggests domestication in the adjacent mainland by then
3.
Feral pig
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The feral pig is a pig living in the wild, but which has descended from escaped domesticated individuals in both the old and new worlds. The term razorback has also appeared in Australia, to feral pigs there. A feral pig is a pig that has escaped or been released into the wild. Zoologists generally exclude from the feral animals that, although captive, were genuinely wild before they escaped. Likewise, reintroduced wild boars in Western Europe are also not considered feral, in the UK, wild boar can be farmed under licence. However, it is illegal to release them into the wild, there are established populations of feral wild boar in the Forest of Dean, Gloucestershire. These are often active during the daytime and are wary of people. This is in contrast to populations in East Sussex which are nocturnal, groups of feral wild boar have been reported in the Scottish Highlands including Invermoriston, near Loch Ness, and between Newtonmore and Laggan. A group believed to be a mix of wild boar and domestic pig that escaped from a farm, have seen in the Strathnairn area near Inverness. Feral wild boar occur elsewhere in the UK according to the Department for Environment, Food and it said between one- and two-hundred were estimated to be in Kent and East Sussex and about twenty to thirty in West Dorset. The practice of introducing domestic pigs into the New World persisted throughout the periods of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The Eurasian wild boar, which ranged from Great Britain to European Russia may have also been introduced. By the nineteenth century, their numbers were sufficient in some such as the Southern United States to become a common game animal. The first recorded release of pigs in Australia was made by Captain James Cook at Adventure Bay and this was part of his policy of introducing animals and plants to newly discovered countries. He carried them about a mile within the woods at the head of the bay, the deliberate introduction of pigs into previously pig-free areas seems to have been common. As recently as the early 1970s, pigs were introduced to Babel Island and these pigs were eradicated by Department of Agriculture staff with local assistance. One common story about the pig population on Flinders Island is that pigs were released when the ship City of Foo Chow went ashore on the northeast coast of the Island in March 1877. On Flinders Island, feral pigs usually invade agricultural areas adjacent to the National Park, farmers consider damage caused by the pigs to be minor as it is restricted to rooting in pasture adjacent to scrub-land edges
4.
Peccaries
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A peccary is a medium-sized hoofed mammal of the family Tayassuidae in the suborder Suina along with the Old World pigs, Suidae. They are found throughout Central and South America and in the area of North America. Peccaries usually measure between 90 and 130 cm in length, and an adult usually weighs about 20 to 40 kg. In many countries, especially in the world, they are raised on farms as a source of food for local communities. The word peccary is derived from the Carib word pakira or paquira. In Portuguese, a peccary is called pecari, porco-do-mato, queixada, or tajaçu, among other names, in Spanish, javelina, jabalí, sajino, or pecarí, in French Guiana and Suriname, pakira. A peccary is an animal, with a strong resemblance to a pig. Like a pig, it has an ending in a cartilaginous disc. Also like a pig, it only the middle two digits for walking, although, unlike pigs, the other toes may be altogether absent. Its stomach is not ruminating, although it has three chambers, and is more complex than those of pigs. Peccaries are omnivores, and will eat insects, grubs, and occasionally small animals, although their preferred foods consist of roots, grasses, seeds, fruit, pigs and peccaries can be differentiated by the shape of the canine tooth, or tusk. In European pigs, the tusk is long and curves around on itself, whereas in peccaries, the jaws and tusks of peccaries are adapted for crushing hard seeds and slicing into plant roots, and they also use their tusks for defending against predators. The dental formula for peccaries is,2.1.3.33.1.3.3 By rubbing the tusks together, in recent years in northwestern Bolivia near Madidi National Park, large groups of peccaries have been reported to have seriously injured or killed people. Peccaries are social animals, and often form herds, over 100 individuals have been recorded for a single herd of white-lipped peccaries, but collared and Chacoan peccaries usually form smaller groups. Such social behavior seems to have been the situation in extinct peccaries, the recently discovered giant peccary of Brazil appears to be less social, primarily living in pairs. Peccaries rely on their structure to defend territory, protect against predators, regulate temperature. Peccaries have scent glands below each eye and another on their backs and they use the scent to mark herd territories, which range from 75 to 700 acres. They also mark other herd members with these scent glands by rubbing one against another, the pungent odor allows peccaries to recognize other members of their herd, despite their myopic vision
5.
Courage
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Courage is the choice and willingness to confront agony, pain, danger, uncertainty, or intimidation. In some traditions, fortitude holds approximately the same meaning, more recently, courage has been explored by the discipline of psychology. An early Greek philosopher, Plato, set the groundwork for how courage would be viewed to future philosophers, Platos early writings found in Laches show a discussion on courage, but they fail to come to a satisfactory conclusion on what courage is. During the debate between three leaders, including Socrates, many definitions of courage are mentioned, Laches is an early writing of Platos, which may be a reason he does not come to a clear conclusion. In this early writing, Plato is still developing his ideas, in one of his later writings, The Republic, Plato gives more concrete ideas of what he believes courage to be. Civic courage is described as a sort of perseverance – preservation of the belief that has been inculcated by the law through education about what things, ideas of courage being perseverance also are seen in Laches. Plato further explains this perseverance as being able to persevere through all emotions, like suffering, pleasure, as a desirable quality, courage is discussed broadly in Aristotles Nicomachean Ethics, where its vice of shortage is cowardice and its vice of excess is recklessness. In the Roman Empire, courage formed part of the virtue of virtus. Roman philosopher and statesman Cicero lists the cardinal virtues does not name them such, Virtue may be defined as a habit of mind in harmony with reason and it has four parts, wisdom, justice, courage, temperance. In medieval virtue ethics, championed by Averroes and Thomas Aquinas and still important to Roman Catholicism, according to Thomas Aquinas, Among the cardinal virtues, prudence ranks first, justice second, fortitude third, temperance fourth, and after these the other virtues. Part of his justification for this hierarchy is that Fortitude without justice is an occasion of injustice, since the stronger a man is the more ready is he to oppress the weaker. On fortitudes general and special nature, Aquinas says, The term fortitude can be taken in two ways, secondly, fortitude may be taken to denote firmness only in bearing and withstanding those things wherein it is most difficult to be firm, namely in certain grave dangers. Therefore Tully says, that fortitude is deliberate facing of dangers, on this sense fortitude is reckoned a special virtue, because it has a special matter. For it is difficult to allay fear than to moderate daring, since the danger which is the object of daring and fear. Now to attack belongs to fortitude in so far as the latter moderates daring, therefore the principal act of fortitude is endurance, that is to stand immovable in the midst of dangers rather than to attack them. In both Catholicism and Anglicanism, courage is also one of the seven gifts of the Holy Spirit, for Thomas Aquinas, Fortitude is the virtue to remove any obstacle that keeps the will from following reason. In order to true courage in Christianity it takes someone who displays the virtues of faith, hope. Courage is a virtue which Saint Augustine did not consider a virtue for Christians
6.
Mosaic
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A mosaic is a piece of art or image made from the assemblage of small pieces of colored glass, stone, or other materials. It is often used in art or as interior decoration. Most mosaics are made of small, flat, roughly square, pieces of stone or glass of different colors, some, especially floor mosaics, are made of small rounded pieces of stone, and called pebble mosaics. Others are made of other materials, mosaics have a long history, starting in Mesopotamia in the 3rd millennium BC. Pebble mosaics were made in Tiryns in Mycenean Greece, mosaics with patterns and pictures became widespread in classical times, Early Christian basilicas from the 4th century onwards were decorated with wall and ceiling mosaics. Mosaic fell out of fashion in the Renaissance, though artists like Raphael continued to practise the old technique, Roman and Byzantine influence led Jews to decorate 5th and 6th century synagogues in the Middle East with floor mosaics. Mosaic was widely used on buildings and palaces in early Islamic art, including Islams first great religious building, the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem. Mosaic went out of fashion in the Islamic world after the 8th century, modern mosaics are made by professional artists, street artists, and as a popular craft. Many materials other than stone and ceramic tesserae may be employed, including shells, glass. The earliest known examples of made of different materials were found at a temple building in Abra, Mesopotamia. They consist of pieces of colored stones, shells and ivory, excavations at Susa and Chogha Zanbil show evidence of the first glazed tiles, dating from around 1500 BC. However, mosaic patterns were not used until the times of Sassanid Empire, mythological subjects, or scenes of hunting or other pursuits of the wealthy, were popular as the centrepieces of a larger geometric design, with strongly emphasized borders. Pliny the Elder mentions the artist Sosus of Pergamon by name, describing his mosaics of the left on a floor after a feast. Both of these themes were widely copied, most recorded names of Roman mosaic workers are Greek, suggesting they dominated high quality work across the empire, no doubt most ordinary craftsmen were slaves. Splendid mosaic floors are found in Roman villas across North Africa, in such as Carthage. The tiny tesserae allowed very fine detail, and an approach to the illusionism of painting, often small panels called emblemata were inserted into walls or as the highlights of larger floor-mosaics in coarser work. The normal technique was opus tessellatum, using larger tesserae, which was laid on site, there was a distinct native Italian style using black on a white background, which was no doubt cheaper than fully coloured work. In Rome, Nero and his architects used mosaics to cover surfaces of walls and ceilings in the Domus Aurea, built 64 AD
7.
Roman villa
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A Roman villa was a country house built for the upper class in the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire. The villa rustica centered on the villa itself, perhaps only seasonally occupied, under the Empire a concentration of Imperial villas grew up near the Bay of Naples, especially on the Isle of Capri, at Monte Circeo on the coast and at Antium. Wealthy Romans escaped the heat in the hills round Rome. Cicero allegedly possessed no fewer than seven villas, the oldest of them, Pliny the Younger had three or four, of which the example near Laurentium is the best known from his descriptions. The Empire contained many kinds of villas, not all of them lavishly appointed with mosaic floors, in the provinces, any country house with some decorative features in the Roman style may be called a villa by modern scholars. Some villas were more like the houses of England or Poland. These early suburban villas, such as the one at Romes Auditorium site or at Grottarossa in Rome, demonstrate the antiquity and it is possible that these early, suburban villas were also in fact the seats of power of regional strongmen or heads of important families. A third type of villa provided the organizational center of the large holdings called latifundia, by the first century BC, the classic villa took many architectural forms, with many examples employing atrium or peristyle, for enclosed spaces open to light and air. Upper class, wealthy Roman citizens in the countryside around Rome and throughout the Empire lived in villa complexes, the villa-complex consisted of three parts. The pars urbana where the owner and his family lived and this would be similar to the wealthy-persons in the city and would have painted walls. The pars rustica where the chef and slaves of the villa worked and lived and this was also the living quarters for the farms animals. There would usually be other rooms here that might be used as store rooms, the villa fructuaria would be the storage rooms. These would be where the products of the farm were stored ready for transport to buyers, storage rooms here would have been used for oil, wine, grain, grapes and any other produce of the villa. Other rooms in the villa might include an office, a temple for worship, several bedrooms, a dining room, Villas were often furnished with plumbed bathing facilities and many would have had an under-floor central heating known as the hypocaust. Smaller in the countryside, even non-commercial villas operated as largely self-supporting units, with associated farms, olive groves, Roman writers refer with satisfaction to the self-sufficiency of their villas, where they drank their own wine and pressed their own oil, a commonly used literary topos. The late Roman Republic witnessed an explosion of villa construction in Italy, especially in the following the dictatorship of Sulla. In Etruria, the villa at Settefinestre has been interpreted as being the centre of one of the latifundia that were involved in agricultural production. At Settefinestre and elsewhere, the housing of such villas was not richly appointed
8.
Domestic pig
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The domestic pig, often called swine, hog, or pig when there is no need to distinguish it from other pigs, is a large, even-toed ungulate. It is variously considered a subspecies of the boar or a distinct species. The domestic pigs head-plus-body-length ranges from 0.9 to 1.8 m, compared to other artiodactyls, its head is relatively long, pointed, and free of warts. Even-toed ungulates are generally herbivorous, but the pig is an omnivore. Domestic pigs are farmed primarily for the consumption of their meat called pork, the animals bones, hide, and bristles are also used in commercial products. Domestic pigs, especially the pig and micro pig, are sometimes kept as pets. The domestic pig typically has a head, with a long snout which is strengthened by a special prenasal bone. The snout is used to dig into the soil to find food, the dental formula of adult pigs is 3.1.4.33.1.4.3, giving a total of 44 teeth. The rear teeth are adapted for crushing, in the male the canine teeth can form tusks, which grow continuously and are sharpened by constantly being ground against each other. There are four hoofed toes on each foot, or trotter, most domestic pigs have rather a sparse hair covering on their skin, although woolly-coated breeds, such as the Mangalitsa, are raised. Pigs possess both apocrine and eccrine sweat glands, although the latter appear limited to the snout and dorsonasal areas, pigs, however, like other hairless mammals, do not use thermal sweat glands in cooling. Pigs are also less able than many other mammals to dissipate heat from wet mucous membranes in the mouth through panting and their thermoneutral zone is 16 to 22 °C. Pigs are one of four known species which possess mutations in the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor that protect against snake venom. Mongooses, honey badgers, hedgehogs, and pigs all have modifications to the receptor pocket which prevents the snake venom α-neurotoxin from binding and these represent four separate, independent mutations. However, in 1777, Johann Christian Polycarp Erxleben classified the domestic pig as a species from the wild boar. He gave it the name Sus domesticus, which is used by some taxonomists. Remains of pigs have been dated to earlier than 11,400 BC in Cyprus and those animals must have been introduced from the mainland, which suggests domestication in the adjacent mainland by then. There was also a separate domestication in China which took place about 8000 years ago, DNA evidence from sub-fossil remains of teeth and jawbones of Neolithic pigs shows that the first domestic pigs in Europe had been brought from the Near East
9.
Central Europe
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Central Europe lies between Eastern Europe and Western Europe. The concept of Central Europe is based on a historical, social and cultural identity. Central Europe is going through a phase of strategic awakening, with such as the CEI, Centrope. While the regions economy shows high disparities with regard to income, elements of unity for Western and Central Europe were Roman Catholicism and Latin. According to Hungarian historian Jenő Szűcs, foundations of Central European history at the first millennium were in connection with Western European development. The keyword of Western social development after millennium was the spread of liberties and autonomies in Western Europe and these phenomena appeared in the middle of the 13th century in Central European countries. There were self-governments of towns, counties and parliaments, in 1335 under the rule of the King Charles I of Hungary, the castle of Visegrád, the seat of the Hungarian monarchs was the scene of the royal summit of the Kings of Poland, Bohemia and Hungary. They agreed to cooperate closely in the field of politics and commerce, in the Middle Ages, countries in Central Europe adopted Magdeburg rights. Before 1870, the industrialization that had developed in Western and Central Europe, even in Eastern Europe, industrialization lagged far behind. Russia, for example, remained rural and agricultural. The concept of Central Europe was already known at the beginning of the 19th century, an example of that-time vision of Central Europe may be seen in J. Partsch’s book of 1903. On 21 January 1904, Mitteleuropäischer Wirtschaftsverein was established in Berlin with economic integration of Germany, another time, the term Central Europe became connected to the German plans of political, economic and cultural domination. The bible of the concept was Friedrich Naumann’s book Mitteleuropa in which he called for a federation to be established after the war. The concept failed after the German defeat in World War I, the revival of the idea may be observed during the Hitler era. According to Emmanuel de Martonne, in 1927 the Central European countries included, Austria, Czechoslovakia, Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania, italy and Yugoslavia are not considered by the author to be Central European because they are located mostly outside Central Europe. The author use both Human and Physical Geographical features to define Central Europe, the interwar period brought new geopolitical system and economic and political problems, and the concept of Central Europe took a different character. The centre of interest was moved to its eastern part – the countries that have appeared on the map of Europe, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, however, the conflict of interests was too big and neither Little Entente nor Intermarium ideas succeeded. The interwar period brought new elements to the concept of Central Europe, after the war, the Eastern part of Central Europe was placed at the centre of the concept
10.
Atlas Mountains
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The Atlas Mountains are a mountain range in the Maghreb. It stretches around 2,500 km through Algeria, Morocco, the ranges highest peak is Jebel Toubkal, with an elevation of 4,167 metres in southwestern Morocco. It separates the Mediterranean and Atlantic coastlines from the Sahara Desert, the Atlas mountains are primarily inhabited by Berber populations. The terms for mountain in some Berber languages are adrar and adras, the mountains are home to a number of plant and animal species unique in Africa, often more like those of Europe, many of them are endangered and some have already gone extinct. The basement rock of most of Africa was formed during the Precambrian period, the Atlas was formed during three subsequent phases of Earths geology. The first tectonic deformation phase involves only the Anti-Atlas, which was formed in the Paleozoic Era as the result of continental collisions, North America, Europe and Africa were connected millions of years ago. The Anti-Atlas Mountains are believed to have originally formed as part of Alleghenian orogeny. These mountains were formed when Africa and America collided, and were once a chain rivaling todays Himalayas, today, the remains of this chain can be seen in the Fall Line region in the Eastern United States. Some remnants can also be found in the later formed Appalachians in North America, a second phase took place during the Mesozoic Era. It consisted of an extension of the Earths crust that rifted and separated the continents mentioned above. This extension was responsible for the formation of many thick intracontinental sedimentary basins including the present Atlas, most of the rocks forming the surface of the present High Atlas were deposited under the ocean at that time. Such convergent tectonic boundaries occur where two plates slide towards each other forming a zone, and/or a continental collision. However, there is a lack of evidence for the nature of the subduction in the Atlas region, or for the thickening of the Earths crust generally associated with continental collisions. In fact, one of the most striking features of the Atlas to geologists is the small amount of crustal thickening. Recent studies suggest that deep processes rooted in the Earths mantle may have contributed to the uplift of the High, the Atlas are rich in natural resources. There are deposits of ore, lead ore, copper, silver, mercury, rock salt, phosphate, marble. The range can be divided into four regions, Middle Atlas. The Middle Atlas is a portion of the Atlas mountain range lying completely in Morocco, the Middle Atlas is the westernmost of three Atlas Mountains chains that define a large, plateaued basin extending eastward
11.
Indonesia
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Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a unitary sovereign state and transcontinental country located mainly in Southeast Asia with some territories in Oceania. Situated between the Indian and Pacific oceans, it is the worlds largest island country, with more than seventeen thousand islands. At 1,904,569 square kilometres, Indonesia is the worlds 14th-largest country in terms of area and worlds 7th-largest country in terms of combined sea. It has an population of over 260 million people and is the worlds fourth most populous country. The worlds most populous island, Java, contains more than half of the countrys population, Indonesias republican form of government includes an elected legislature and president. Indonesia has 34 provinces, of which five have Special Administrative status and its capital and countrys most populous city is Jakarta, which is also the most populous city in Southeast Asia and the second in Asia. The country shares land borders with Papua New Guinea, East Timor, other neighbouring countries include Singapore, Vietnam, the Philippines, Australia, Palau, and the Indian territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Despite its large population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that support the second highest level of biodiversity. The country has abundant natural resources like oil and natural gas, tin, copper, agriculture mainly produces rice, palm oil, tea, coffee, cacao, medicinal plants, spices and rubber. Indonesias major trading partners are Japan, United States, China, the Indonesian archipelago has been an important region for trade since at least the 7th century, when Srivijaya and then later Majapahit traded with China and India. Local rulers gradually absorbed foreign cultural, religious and political models from the early centuries CE, Indonesian history has been influenced by foreign powers drawn to its natural resources. Indonesia consists of hundreds of native ethnic and linguistic groups. The largest – and politically dominant – ethnic group are the Javanese, a shared identity has developed, defined by a national language, ethnic diversity, religious pluralism within a Muslim-majority population, and a history of colonialism and rebellion against it. Indonesias national motto, Bhinneka Tunggal Ika, articulates the diversity that shapes the country, Indonesias economy is the worlds 16th largest by nominal GDP and the 8th largest by GDP at PPP, the largest in Southeast Asia, and is considered an emerging market and newly industrialised country. Indonesia has been a member of the United Nations since 1950, Indonesia is a member of the G20 major economies and World Trade Organization. The name Indonesia derives from the Greek name of the Indós, the name dates to the 18th century, far predating the formation of independent Indonesia. In 1850, George Windsor Earl, an English ethnologist, proposed the terms Indunesians—and, his preference, in the same publication, one of his students, James Richardson Logan, used Indonesia as a synonym for Indian Archipelago. However, Dutch academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to use Indonesia, they preferred Malay Archipelago, the Netherlands East Indies, popularly Indië, the East, and Insulinde
12.
Spear
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A spear is a pole weapon consisting of a shaft, usually of wood, with a pointed head. The most common design for hunting or combat spears since ancient times has incorporated a metal spearhead shaped like a triangle, lozenge, the heads of fishing spears usually feature barbs or serrated edges. The word spear comes from the Old English spere, from the Proto-Germanic speri, from a Proto-Indo-European root *sper- spear, Spears can be divided into two broad categories, those designed for thrusting in melee combat and those designed for throwing. The spear has been used throughout history both as a hunting and fishing tool and as a weapon. Along with the axe, knife and club, it is one of the earliest and most important tools developed by early humans, as a weapon, it may be wielded with either one hand or two. It was used in every conflict up until the modern era, where even then it continues on in the form of the bayonet. Spear manufacture and use is not confined to human beings and it is also practiced by the western chimpanzee. Chimpanzees near Kédougou, Senegal have been observed to create spears by breaking straight limbs off trees, stripping them of their bark and side branches and they then used the weapons to hunt galagos sleeping in hollows. Orangutans also have used spears to fish, presumably after observing humans fishing in a similar manner, neanderthals were constructing stone spear heads from as early as 300,000 BP and by 250,000 years ago, wooden spears were made with fire-hardened points. From 200,000 BP onwards, Middle Paleolithic humans began to make stone blades with flaked edges which were used as spear heads. These stone heads could be fixed to the shaft by gum or resin or by bindings made of animal sinew. During this period, a clear difference remained between spears designed to be thrown and those designed to be used in hand-to-hand combat, by the Magdalenian period, spear-throwers similar to the later atlatl were in use. Spears were one of the most common weapons used in the Stone Age. They may be seen as the ancestor of such weapons as the lance, the pilum, the halberd, the naginata, the glaive, the bill. Spears may be used as both a projectile and melee weapons, Spears used primarily for thrusting may be used with either one or two hands and tend to have heavier and sturdier designs than those intended exclusively for throwing. From the atlatl dart, the arrow for use with bows eventually developed, short, one-handed spears featuring socketed metal heads were used in conjunction with a shield by the earliest Bronze Age cultures. They were wielded in either combat or in large troop formations. This tradition continued from the first Mesopotamian cultures, through the various ancient Egyptian dynasties, during this time the spear was also used by cavalry
13.
Jat people
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The Jat people are a traditionally agricultural community in Northern India and Pakistan. Originally pastoralists in the lower Indus river-valley of Sindh, Jats migrated north into the Punjab region, Delhi, Rajputana, and the western Gangetic Plain in late medieval times. Primarily of Hindu, Muslim and Sikh faiths, they now mostly in the Indian states of Haryana, Punjab, Delhi, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh. The Hindu Jat kingdom reached its zenith under Maharaja Suraj Mal of Bharatpur, the Jat community of the Punjab region played an important role in the development of the martial Khalsa Panth of Sikhism, they are more commonly known as the Jat Sikhs. By the 20th century, the landowning Jats became a group in several parts of North India, including Haryana, Punjab, Western Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan. Over the years, several Jats abandoned agriculture in favour of urban jobs, Jats are classified as Other Backward Class in seven of Indias thirty-six States and UTs, namely Rajasthan, Himachal Pradesh, Delhi, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh. However, only the Jats of Rajasthan – excluding those of Bharatpur district, in 2016, the Jats of Haryana organized massive protests demanding to be classified as OBC in order to obtain such affirmative action benefits. The Jats are an example of community- and identity-formation in early modern Indian subcontinent. Jat is a label applied to a wide-ranging, traditionally non-elite. At the time of Muhammad bin Qasims conquest of Sind in the 8th century, Arab writers described agglomerations of Jats in the arid, the wet, and the mountainous regions of the conquered land. Between the eleventh and the centuries, Jat herders migrated up along the river valleys, into the Punjab. Many took up tilling in regions such as Western Punjab, where the sakia had been recently introduced, by early Mughal times, in the Punjab, the term Jat had become loosely synonymous with peasant, and some Jats had come to own land and exert local influence. According to historians Catherine Asher and Cynthia Talbot, The Jats also provide an important insight into how religious identities evolved during the precolonial era, before they settled in the Punjab and other northern regions, the pastoralist Jats had little exposure to any of the mainstream religions. Only after they became integrated into the agrarian world did the Jats adopt the dominant religion of the people in whose midst they dwelt. Many new rulers of the 18th century came from such martial, the effect of this interaction on Indias social organization lasted well into the colonial period. During the heyday of Mughal rule, Jats had recognized rights, according to Barbara D. Metcalf and Thomas R. Their successes were a part of the Mughal success, as the Mughal empire now faltered, there were a series of rural rebellions in North India. Although these had sometimes been characterized as peasant rebellions, others, such as Muzaffar Alam, have pointed out that small local landholders, or zemindars, often led these uprisings
14.
Gurjar
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Gurjar or Gujjar are a pastoral agricultural ethnic group with populations in India and Pakistan and a small number in northeastern Afghanistan. Alternative spellings include Gurjara, Gurjjar, Gojar and Gūjar, although they are able to speak the language of the country where they live, Gurjars have their own language, known as Gujari. They variously follow Hinduism, Islam, and Sikhism, the Gurjars are classified as Other Backward Class in some states in India, however, Gurjars in Jammu and Kashmir and parts of Himachal Pradesh are categorised as a Scheduled Tribe. Hindu Gurjars were assimilated into various varnas in the medieval period, historians and anthropologists differ on issue of Gurjar origin. According to this view, Gurjars came in waves of migration. Aydogdy Kurbanov states that some Gurjars, along with people from northwestern India, according to scholars such as Baij Nath Puri, the Mount Abu region of present-day Rajasthan had been abode of the Gurjars during medieval period. The association of the Gurjars with the mountain is noticed in many inscriptions and these Gurjars migrated from the Arbuda mountain region and as early as in the 6th century A. D. In Sanskrit texts, the ethnonym has sometimes been interpreted as destroyer of the enemy, gur meaning enemy, irawati Karve, the Indologist and historian, believed that the Gurjars position in society and the caste system generally varied from one linguistic area of India to another. In Maharashtra, Karve thought that they were absorbed by the Rajputs and Marathas. Bhandarkar believed that Gurjara-Pratiharas were a clan of Gurjars, in the 18th century, several Gurjar chieftains and small kings were in power. During the reign of Rohilla Nawab Najib-ul-Daula, Dargahi Singh, the Gurjar chieftain of Dadri possessed 133 villages at a revenue of Rs.29,000. A fort at Parlchhatgarh in Meerut District, also known as Qila Parikishatgarh, is ascribed to a Gurjar Raja Nain Singh, during the revolt of 1857, the Gurjars of Chundrowli rose against the British, under the leadership of Damar Ram. The Gurjars of Shunkuri village, numbering around three thousand, joined the rebel sepoys, according to British records, the Gurjars plundered gunpowder and ammunition from the British and their allies. In Delhi, the Metcalfe House was sacked by Gurjar villagers from whom the land was taken to erect the building, the British records claim that the Gurjars carried out several robberies. Twenty Gurjars were reported to have been beheaded by Rao Tula Ram for committing dacoities in July 1857, in September 1857, the British were able to enlist the support of many Gurjars at Meerut. The colonial authors always used the word turbulent for the castes who were generally hostile to British rule. They cited proverbs that appear to evaluate the caste in an unfavorable light, a British administrator, William Crooke, described that Gurjars seriously impeded the operations of the British Army before Delhi. Small pockets of Gurjars are found in Afghanistans northeastern region, particularly in, some in India remain Hindu, although further west many are Muslim
15.
Rajput
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Rajput is a member of the patrilineal clans of the Indian subcontinent. They rose to prominence from the late 6th century AD and had a significant role in regions of central. The Rajput population and the former Rajput states are found spread across India where they are spread in north, west, in Pakistan they are found on the eastern parts of the country. These areas include Rajasthan, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, Jammu, Punjab, Uttarakhand, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, the origin of the Rajputs is the subject of debate. Writers such as M. S. Naravane and V. P, one theory espouses that with the collapse of the Gupta empire from the late 6th century, the invading Hephthalites were probably integrated within Indian society. At the same time, some tribes were ranked as Rajput, examples of which are the Bhatis, Bundelas, Chandelas. Actually vary greatly in status, from princely lineages, such as the Guhilot and Kachwaha, aydogdy Kurbanov says that the assimilation was specifically between the Hephthalites, Gurjars, and people from northwestern India, forming the Rajput community. Pradeep Barua also believes that Rajputs have foreign origins, he says their practice of asserting Kshatriya status was followed by other Indian groups thereby establishing themselves as Rajputs. Thereafter, in the late 12th century Muhammad of Ghor attempted to invade Gujarat but was defeated by the Chaulukya dynasty of Rajputs. The Rajput kingdoms were disparate, loyalty to a clan was more important than allegiance to the wider Rajput social grouping, meaning that one clan would fight another. This and the jostling for position that took place when a clan leader died meant that Rajput politics were fluid. Even after the Muslim conquest of the regions in Punjab and the Ganges River valley, the Rajputs maintained their independence in Rajasthan and the forests of central India. Later, Sultan Alauddin Khilji of the Delhi Sultanate took the two Rajput forts of Chittor and Ranthambhor in eastern Rajasthan in the 14th century but could not hold them for long. In the 15th century, the Muslim sultans of Malwa Sultanate, accordingly, Rana Sanga came to be the most distinguished indigenous contender for supremacy but was defeated by the Mughal invader Babur at Battle of Khanwa in 1527. From as early as the 16th century, Purbiya Rajput soldiers from the regions of Bihar and Awadh, were recruited as mercenaries for Rajputs in the west. After the mid-16th century, many Rajput rulers formed close relationships with the Mughal emperors and it was due to the support of the Rajputs that Akbar was able to lay the foundations of the Mughal empire in India. Some Rajput nobles gave away their daughters in marriage to Mughal emperors, for example, Akbar accomplished 40 marriages for him, his sons and grandsons, out of which 17 were Rajput-Mughal alliances. Akbars successors as Mogul emperors, his son Jahangir and grandson Shah Jahan had Rajput mothers, the ruling Sisodia Rajput family of Mewar made it a point of honour not to engage in matrimonial relationships with mughals and thus claimed to stand apart from those Rajput clans who did so
16.
Sikh
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A Sikh is a follower of Sikhism, a monotheistic religion which originated during the 15th century in the Punjab region of Northwestern Indian subcontinent. The term Sikh has its origin in the Sanskrit words शिष्य or शिक्ष, Sikh properly refers to adherents of Sikhism as a religion, not an ethnic group. However, because Sikhism has seldom sought converts, most Sikhs share strong ethno-religious ties, many countries, such as the United Kingdom, therefore recognize Sikh as a designated ethnicity on their censuses. Male Sikhs have Singh, and female Sikhs have Kaur as their middle or last name, initiated male and female Sikhs must cover their hair with a turban. The greater Punjab region is the homeland of the Sikhs. Guru Nanak, founder of Sikhism, was born to Mehta Kalu and Mata Tripta, in the village of Talwandi, now called Nankana Sahib, Guru Nanak was a religious leader and social reformer. However, Sikh political history may be said to begin with the death of the fifth Sikh guru, Guru Arjan Dev, Religious practices were formalised by Guru Gobind Singh on 30 March 1699. Gobind Singh initiated five people from a variety of backgrounds, known as the Panj Piare to form the Khalsa. During the period of Mughal rule in India several Sikh gurus were killed by the Mughals for opposing their persecution of minority communities including Sikhs. Sikhs subsequently militarized to oppose Mughal rule, after defeating the Afghan, Mughal and Maratha invaders, the Misls were formed, under Sultan-ul-Quam Jassa Singh Ahluwalia. The empire is considered the zenith of political Sikhism, encompassing Kashmir, Ladakh, hari Singh Nalwa, the commander-in-chief of the Sikh Khalsa Army in the North West Frontier, expanded the confederacy to the Khyber Pass. Its secular administration implemented military, economic and governmental reforms, after the annexation of the Sikh kingdom by the British, the latter recognized the martial qualities of the Sikhs and Punjabis in general and started recruiting from that area. During the 1857 Indian mutiny, the Sikhs stayed loyal to the British and this resulted in heavy recruiting from Punjab to the colonial army for the next 90 years of the British Raj. The distinct turban that differentiates a Sikh from other turban wearers is a relic of the rules of the British Indian Army, the British colonial rule saw the emergence of many reform movements in India including Punjab. This included formation in 1873 and 1879 of the First and Second Singh Sabha respectively, the Sikh leaders of the Singh Sabha worked to offer a clear definition of Sikh identity and tried to purify Sikh belief and practice. The later part of British colonial rule saw the emergence of the Akali movement or the Gurdwara Reform Movement to bring reform in the gurdwaras during the early 1920s. The movement led to the introduction of Sikh Gurdwara Bill in 1925, the months leading up to the partition of India in 1947 were marked by conflict in the Punjab between Sikhs and Muslims. This caused the migration of Punjabi Sikhs and Hindus from West Punjab
17.
Maharaja
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Mahārāja is a Sanskrit title for a great ruler, great king or high king. It has also been the title of emperors, including Maharaja Ranjit Singh, founder of the Sikh empire, the female equivalent, Maharani, denotes either the wife of a Maharaja, and also in states where that was customary, a woman ruling in her own right. The widow of a Maharaja is known as a Rajmata queen mother, Maharaj Kumar generally denotes a son of a Maharaja, but more specific titulatures are often used at each court, including Yuvaraj for the heir. The form Maharaj indicates a separation of noble and religious offices, the word Maharaja originates in Sanskrit and is a compound karmadhāraya term from mahānt- great and rājan ruler, king). It has the Latin cognates magnum great and rex king, the Sanskrit title Maharaja was originally used only for rulers who ruled a considerably large region with minor tributary rulers under them. Since mediaeval times, the title was used even by monarchs of smaller states claiming to be the descendants of ancient Maharajas, the word Maharaja may be understood simply to mean ruler or king, in spite of its literal translation as great king. The word, however, can also mean emperor in contemporary Indian usage, two Rajas who became Maharajas in the twentieth century were the Maharaja of Cochin and the legendary Maharaja Jagatjit Singh of Kapurthala. Variations of this include the following, each combining Maha- great with an alternative form of Raja king, so all meaning Great King, Maharana, Maharawal, Maharawat, Maharao. Maharajah has taken on new spellings due to change and migration. It has even been shortened to Mahraj and Maraj but the most common is Maharajah, despite its literal meaning, unlike many other titles meaning Great King, neither Maharaja nor Rajadhiraja, nor even its equivalent amongst. Maharaja, Maharajadhiraja, never reached the standing required for imperial rank, dharma-maharaja was the devout title of the rulers of the Ganga dynasty. In the Mughal Empire it was common to award to various princes a series of lofty titles as a matter of protocolary rank. The british would, as partamaount power, do the same, Maharajadhiraja, Great Prince over Princes, a title of honour, one degree higher than Sawai Maharaja Bahadur. Sawai Maharaja Bahadur, a title of honour, one higher than Sawai Maharaja. Sawai Maharaja, a title of one degree higher than Maharaja Bahadur. Maharaja Bahadur, a title of honour, one higher than Maharaja. Maharaja itself could also be grahted as a personal, non-hereditary style, like Raja and various other titles, Maharaja was repeatedly awarded to notables without a princely state, such as zamindars. g. The Diwan Maharaja Sir Kishen Pershad, held such a Maharaja-title, Maharaj Kumar means son of a Maharaja or Heir-Apparent, the female equivalent is Maharaj Kumari, daughter of a Maharaja
18.
Victorian era
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The Victorian era was the period of Queen Victorias reign, from 20 June 1837 until her death on 22 January 1901. It was a period of peace, prosperity, refined sensibilities. Some scholars date the beginning of the period in terms of sensibilities, the era followed the Georgian period and preceded the Edwardian period. The later half of the Victorian age roughly coincided with the first part of the Belle Époque era of continental Europe, culturally there was a transition away from the rationalism of the Georgian period and toward romanticism and mysticism with regard to religion, social values, and arts. The end of the saw the Boer War. Domestically, the agenda was increasingly liberal with a number of shifts in the direction of political reform, industrial reform. Two especially important figures in period of British history are the prime ministers Benjamin Disraeli and William Gladstone. Disraeli, favoured by the queen, was a gregarious Conservative and his rival Gladstone, a Liberal distrusted by the Queen, served more terms and oversaw much of the overall legislative development of the era. The population of England and Wales almost doubled from 16.8 million in 1851 to 30.5 million in 1901, Scotlands population also rose rapidly, from 2.8 million in 1851 to 4.4 million in 1901. However, Irelands population decreased sharply, from 8.2 million in 1841 to less than 4.5 million in 1901, mostly due to the Great Famine. Between 1837 and 1901 about 15 million emigrants departed the UK permanently, in search of a life in the United States, Canada, South Africa, New Zealand, Australia. During the early part of the era, politics in the House of Commons involved battles between the two parties, the Whigs/Liberals and the Conservatives. These parties were led by such prominent statesmen as Lord Melbourne, Sir Robert Peel, Lord Derby, Lord Palmerston, Gladstone, Disraeli, Victoria became queen in 1837 at age 18. Her long reign until 1901 was mainly a time of peace, Britain reached the zenith of its economic, political, diplomatic and cultural power. The era saw the expansion of the second British Empire, Historians have characterised the mid-Victorian era as Britains Golden Years. There was prosperity, as the income per person grew by half. There was peace abroad, and social peace at home, opposition to the new order melted away, says Porter. The Chartist movement peaked as a movement among the working class in 1848, its leaders moved to other pursuits, such as trade unions
19.
Edwardian era
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The death of Queen Victoria in January 1901 marked the end of the Victorian era. The new king Edward VII was already the leader of an elite that set a style influenced by the art. The Liberals returned to power in 1906 and made significant reforms, below the upper class, the era was marked by significant shifts in politics among sections of society that had been largely excluded from wielding power in the past, such as common labourers. The Edwardian period is sometimes imagined as a golden age of long summer afternoons and garden parties. This perception was created in the 1920s and later by those who remembered the Edwardian age with nostalgia, the Edwardian age was also seen as a mediocre period of pleasure between the great achievements of the preceding Victorian age and the catastrophe of the following war. Recent assessments emphasise the differences between the wealthy and the poor during the Edwardian era and describe the age as heralding great changes in political and social life. Robert Tressells popular novel The Ragged-Trousered Philanthropists is an example of the eras social critique. Despite this, this type of perception has been challenged more recently by modern historians, the British historian Lawrence James has argued that, during the early 20th century, the British felt increasingly threatened by rival powers such as Germany, Russia, and the United States. There was a political awareness of the working class, leading to a rise in trade unions. The aristocracy remained in control of top government offices, the Conservatives – at the time called Unionists – were dominant from the 1890s to 1906. The party had many strengths, appealing to voters supportive of imperialism, tariffs, the Church of England, a powerful Royal Navy, and traditional hierarchical society. There was a powerful leadership base in the aristocracy and landed gentry in rural England, plus strong support from the Church of England. Historians have used election returns to demonstrate that Conservatives did surprisingly well in working-class districts and they had an appeal as well to the better-off element of traditional working class Britons in the larger cities. Nevertheless, the weaknesses were accumulating, and proved so overwhelming in 1906 that they did not return to power until 1922. The Conservative Party was losing its drive and enthusiasm, especially after the retirement of the charismatic Joseph Chamberlain, there was a bitter split on tariff reform, that drove many of the free traders over to the Liberal camp. Tariff reform was an issue that the Conservative leadership inexplicably clung to. Support among the top tier of the class, and in lower middle class weakened. The 1906 election was a landslide for the opposition, which saw its total vote jump 25 percent, the Liberal Party lacked a unified ideological base in 1906
20.
Robert Baden-Powell, 1st Baron Baden-Powell
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After having been educated at Charterhouse School in Surrey, Baden-Powell served in the British Army from 1876 until 1910 in India and Africa. In 1899, during the Second Boer War in South Africa, several of his military books, written for military reconnaissance and scout training in his African years, were also read by boys. In 1907, he held a camp, the Brownsea Island Scout camp. Based on his books, he wrote Scouting for Boys, published in 1908 by Sir Arthur Pearson. In 1910 Baden-Powell retired from the army and formed The Boy Scouts Association, in 1912 he married Olave St Clair Soames. He gave guidance to the Scouting and Girl Guiding Movements until retiring in 1937, Baden-Powell lived his last years in Nyeri, Kenya, where he died and was buried in 1941. Baden-Powell was born as Robert Stephenson Smyth Powell at 6 Stanhope Street and he was called Stephe by his family, He was named after his godfather, Robert Stephenson, the railway and civil engineer, his third name was his mothers maiden name. Baden-Powells father died when Baden-Powell was three, subsequently, Baden-Powell was raised by his mother, a strong woman who was determined that her children would succeed. Baden-Powell would say of her in 1933 The whole secret of my getting on, Baden-Powell attended Rose Hill School, Tunbridge Wells. He was given a scholarship to Charterhouse, a public school. He played the piano and violin, was an ambidextrous artist, holidays were spent on yachting or canoeing expeditions with his brothers. His first introduction to Scouting skills was through stalking and cooking game while avoiding teachers in the nearby woods, in 1876 Baden-Powell joined the 13th Hussars in India with the rank of lieutenant. During one of his travels, he came across a string of wooden beads. The beads were later incorporated into the Wood Badge training programme he started after he founded the Scouting Movement and he was posted in Malta for three years, also working as intelligence officer for the Mediterranean for the Director of Military Intelligence. He frequently travelled disguised as a collector, incorporating plans of military installations into his drawings of butterfly wings. In 1884 he published Reconnaissance and Scouting, Baden-Powell returned to Africa in 1896, and served in the Second Matabele War, in the expedition to relieve British South Africa Company personnel under siege in Bulawayo. This was an experience for him not only because he commanded reconnaissance missions into enemy territory in the Matopos Hills. Baden-Powell was accused of executing a prisoner of war in 1896, the Matabele chief Uwini
21.
Scouting
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During the first half of the twentieth century, the movement grew to encompass three major age groups for boys and, in 1910, a new organization, Girl Guides, was created for girls. It is one of worldwide youth organizations. In 1906 and 1907 Robert Baden-Powell, a lieutenant general in the British Army, wrote a book for boys about reconnaissance, in the summer of 1907 Baden-Powell held a camp on Brownsea Island in England to test ideas for his book. This camp and the publication of Scouting for Boys are generally regarded as the start of the Scout movement. The movement employs the Scout method, a programme of education with an emphasis on practical outdoor activities, including camping, woodcraft, aquatics, hiking, backpacking. Distinctive uniform insignia include the fleur-de-lis and the trefoil, as well as badges, the year 2007 marked the centenary of Scouting worldwide, and member organizations planned events to celebrate the occasion. Scouting virtually started itself, but the trigger that set it going was the 1908 publication of Scouting for Boys written by Robert Baden-Powell, at Charterhouse, one of Englands most famous public schools, Baden-Powell had an interest in the outdoors. Later, as an officer, Baden-Powell was stationed in British India in the 1880s where he took an interest in military scouting and in 1884 he published Reconnaissance. These skills eventually formed the basis of what is now called scoutcraft, three years later, in South Africa during the Second Boer War, Baden-Powell was besieged in the small town of Mafeking by a much larger Boer army. The Mafeking Cadet Corps was a group of youths that supported the troops by carrying messages, the Cadet Corps performed well, helping in the defense of the town, and were one of the many factors that inspired Baden-Powell to form the Scouting movement. Each member received a badge that illustrated a combined compass point, the badges logo was similar to the fleur-de-lis shaped arrowhead that Scouting later adopted as its international symbol. In the United Kingdom, the public, through newspapers, followed Baden-Powells struggle to hold Mafeking, and he was urged to rewrite this book for boys, especially during an inspection of the Boys Brigade, a large youth movement drilled with military precision. Baden-Powell thought this would not be attractive and suggested that the Boys Brigade could grow much larger were Scouting to be used and he studied other schemes, parts of which he used for Scouting. In July 1906, Ernest Thompson Seton sent Baden-Powell a copy of his 1902 book The Birchbark Roll of the Woodcraft Indians, Seton, a British-born Canadian-American living in the United States, met Baden-Powell in October 1906, and they shared ideas about youth training programs. In 1907 Baden-Powell wrote a draft called Boy Patrols, in the same year, to test his ideas, he gathered 21 boys of mixed social backgrounds and held a week-long camp in August on Brownsea Island in Poole Harbour, Dorset, England. His organizational method, now known as the Patrol System and a key part of Scouting training, in the autumn of 1907, Baden-Powell went on an extensive speaking tour arranged by his publisher, Arthur Pearson, to promote his forthcoming book, Scouting for Boys. He had not simply rewritten his Aids to Scouting, he omitted the military aspects and transferred the techniques to non-military heroes, backwoodsmen and he also added innovative educational principles by which he extended the attractive game to a personal mental education. At the beginning of 1908, Baden-Powell published Scouting for Boys in six fortnightly parts, the reaction was phenomenal, and quite unexpected
22.
Persian Empire
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Persian Empire refers to any of a series of imperial dynasties centered in Persia. The first of these was the Achaemenid Empire established by Cyrus the Great in 550 BC with the conquest of Median, Lydian and Babylonian empires and it covered much of the Ancient world when it was conquered by Alexander the Great. Several later dynasties claimed to be heirs of the Achaemenids, Persia was then ruled by the Parthian Empire which supplanted the Hellenistic Seleucid Empire, and then by the Sassanian Empire which ruled up until mid 7th century. It is important to note that many of these empires referred to themselves as Persian, they were often ethnically ruled by Medes, Babylonians. Iranian dynastic history was interrupted by the Arab Muslim conquest of Persia in 651 AD, establishing the even larger Islamic Caliphate, the main religion of ancient Persia was the native Zoroastrianism, but after the seventh century, it was replaced by Islam. Since 1979 and the downfall of the Pahlavi dynasty during Iranian Revolution, Persia has had a Shiah theocratic government
23.
Elephant
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Elephants are large mammals of the family Elephantidae and the order Proboscidea. Three species are recognised, the African bush elephant, the African forest elephant, Elephants are scattered throughout sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, and Southeast Asia. Elephantidae is the surviving family of the order Proboscidea, other, now extinct, members of the order include deinotheres, gomphotheres, mammoths. Male African elephants are the largest extant terrestrial animals and can reach a height of 4 m, all elephants have several distinctive features, the most notable of which is a long trunk or proboscis, used for many purposes, particularly breathing, lifting water, and grasping objects. Their incisors grow into tusks, which can serve as weapons and as tools for moving objects, Elephants large ear flaps help to control their body temperature. Their pillar-like legs can carry their great weight, African elephants have larger ears and concave backs while Asian elephants have smaller ears and convex or level backs. Elephants are herbivorous and can be found in different habitats including savannahs, forests, deserts and they prefer to stay near water. They are considered to be keystone species due to their impact on their environments, other animals tend to keep their distance from elephants while predators, such as lions, tigers, hyenas, and wild dogs, usually target only young elephants. Females tend to live in groups, which can consist of one female with her calves or several related females with offspring. The groups are led by a known as the matriarch. Elephants have a society in which multiple family groups come together to socialise. Males leave their family groups when they reach puberty and may live alone or with other males, calves are the centre of attention in their family groups and rely on their mothers for as long as three years. Elephants can live up to 70 years in the wild and they communicate by touch, sight, smell, and sound, elephants use infrasound, and seismic communication over long distances. Elephant intelligence has been compared with that of primates and cetaceans and they appear to have self-awareness and show empathy for dying or dead individuals of their kind. African elephants are listed as vulnerable by the International Union for Conservation of Nature while the Asian elephant is classed as endangered, one of the biggest threats to elephant populations is the ivory trade, as the animals are poached for their ivory tusks. Other threats to elephants include habitat destruction and conflicts with local people. Elephants are used as working animals in Asia, in the past, they were used in war, today, they are often controversially put on display in zoos, or exploited for entertainment in circuses. Elephants are highly recognisable and have featured in art, folklore, religion, literature
24.
Composite bow
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A composite bow is a traditional bow made from horn, wood, and sinew laminated together, cf. laminated bow. The horn is on the belly, facing the archer, when the bow is drawn, the sinew and horn store more energy than wood for the same length of bow. The strength can be similar to that of all-wood self bows, with similar draw-length. However, making a bow requires more varieties of material than a self bow, its construction takes much more time. Composite bows have been known from archaeology and art since the second millennium BCE and they originated among Asiatic pastoralists who used them as daily necessities, classically for mounted archery although they can also be used on foot. The use of horn in a bow was even remarked on in Homers epic, The Odyssey, the details of manufacture varied between the various cultures that used them. Initially the tips of the limbs were made to bend when the bow was drawn. Later, the tips were stiffened with bone or antler laths, post-classical bows usually have stiff tips, known as siyahs, like other bows, they lost importance with the introduction and increasing accuracy of guns. In some areas composite bows were used and were further developed for leisure purposes. Later Turkish bows are specialized for flight archery, Composite bows are still made and used in Korea and in China, and the tradition has been revived elsewhere. Modern replicas are available, often made with fiberglass bellies and backs with a natural or man-made core, the wooden core gives the bow its shape and dimensional stability. It is often made of pieces, joined with animal glue in V-splices. Pieced construction allows the sharp bends that many designs require, the wood of the bending part of the limb must endure intense shearing stress, and denser woods such as hard maples are normally used in Turkish bows. Bamboo, and wood of the family, are traditional in China. Some composite bows have nonbending tips, which need to be stiff and light, a thin layer of horn is glued onto what will be the belly of the bow, the side facing the archer. Water buffalo horn is very suitable, as is horn of several such as gemsbok, oryx, ibex. Goat and sheep horn can also be used, most forms of cow horn are not suitable, as they soon delaminate with use. The horn can store more energy than wood in compression, the sinew, soaked in animal glue, is then laid in layers on the back of the bow, the strands of sinew are oriented along the length of the bow
25.
Taq Bostan
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This example of Sassanid art is located 5 km from the city center of Kermanshah. It is located in the heart of the Zagros mountains, where it has endured almost 1,700 years of wind, originally, several sources were visible next to and below the reliefs and arches, some of which are now covered. Sources next to the reliefs still feed a large basin in front of the rock, the site has been turned into an archaeological park and a series of late Sasanian and Islamic column capitals have been brought together. The carvings, some of the finest and best-preserved examples of Persian sculpture under the Sassanids, include representations of the investitures of Ardashir II, Sassanid kings chose a beautiful setting for their rock reliefs along an historic Silk Road caravan route waypoint and campground. The reliefs are adjacent a sacred springs that empty into a reflecting pool at the base of a mountain cliff. Taq owsa and its rock relief are one of the 30 surviving Sassanid relics of the Zagros mountains. According to Arthur Pope, the founder of Iranian art and archeology Institute in the USA, art was characteristic of the Iranian people, the Taq-e Bostan complex comprise a rock relief standing on its own and several more reliefs associated with two rock cut arches. They illustrate the investiture ceremonies of Ardashir II, Shapur II, Shapur III and they also depict the hunting scenes of Khosrau II. The first Taq owsa or Taq bostan relief, and apparently the oldest, is a relief of the crowning ceremony of Ardashir II by his predecessor Shapur II or Ahura Mazda. There may be a mixture of the iconography of both identities. The two main figures are standing on the fallen Roman emperor Julianus Apostata, Ardashir played an important role in his defeat during the reign of Shapur II. Exceptional within Sasanian art is the fact that this is a portrait, Ardashir II was installed as interim ruler, awaiting the coming of age of the royal heir Shapur III. The fourth figure is the god Mithra who holds a barsum in his hands and stands on a lotus flower and he is the protector of oaths and is witness to this pact. Local beliefs and Persian folk tale interpreted the scene as the victory of the first Sasanian kings on Artabanus IV, the Mithra figure became the visual inspiration for representations of the prophet Zoroaster. Relief panel measured on 15.08.07 is approx, the smaller arch or iwan has on the upper part of the back wall two Pahlavi inscriptions identifying two royal figures as Shapur II and his son Shapur III. They are shown facing each other, the archs vestibule measures 6 x 5 x 3.6 meters. It has been suggested as having been built during the reign of Shapur III, however, the royal crown of Shapur III does not agree with those on his coins and is closer to that of his predecessor Ardashir II. It has been argued that the texts represent an usurpation of Ardashirs relief by Shapur III
26.
Hunting dog
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A hunting dog refers to a canine that hunts with or for humans. There are several types of hunting dogs developed for various tasks, the major categories of hunting dogs include hounds, terriers, dachshunds, cur type dogs, and gun dogs. Among these categories further divisions can be based upon the dogs skill sets. For a list of breeds of each type, see the articles for each category. Spaniels are the oldest class of gundog in existence, going back at least to the late Renaissance, flushing spaniels combine hunting, flushing, and retrieving skills. The larger two chiefly are used for retrieveing and flushing game in thick grass or mild underbrush, with the Brittany having working habits closest to later developed pointers and they fall into the water spaniel category. Like spaniels, hounds generally fall into two types, Sighthounds and scenthounds, the scenthounds are the younger of the two classes. Typical examples of the family include the Beagle, Bloodhound, members of the Coonhound family. Coonhounds were originally bred in the American South, Sighthounds are different from scenthounds in their methods and adaptations. In many cases this class is older than the group, the greyhound, the Scottish Deerhound. They are independent in nature, and are worked singly or in a brace of two or three dogs, Sighthounds are generally quiet and placid dogs compared to other hunting breeds, but are capable of explosive speed. Rhodesian Ridgebacks are one of the few breeds with both capabilities, and, though they are not the fastest runners, they are notable for having exceptionable endurance. Water dogs fall into two categories, the retrievers and multi-purpose, Retrievers are excellent swimmers with characteristic webbed feet, and many derive from either Canadian, American, or British stock. Retrievers typically have oily coats that help repel icy water, and are noted for having high intelligence, standard Poodles fall into the water dog category because they originally were used by wealthy Germans to hunt ducks, they predate most types of water dogs. They are excellent swimmers whose coat requires a bath after a swim. Some weighed only 20 pounds and were easy to keep in small apartments and it became very profitable for working-class men to have a profession where they trained small dogs to sniff out and kill as many rats as they could as fast as they could. They required dogs that had very fast reflexes, had a high tolerance for pain, and a ruthless never say die attitude. In fox hunting, they are paired with hounds should prey go to ground, since most breeds of terrier will pull the fox out of its hole
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Bay dog
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A bay dog is a dog that is specially trained to find, chase, and then bay, or howl at from a safe distance from large animals during a hunt, such as during a wild boar hunt. Bay dogs chase and circle the boar, keeping it cornered in one place and this behavior is known as baying or keeping the boar at bay. In Australia the terms bay-dogs and baying are not in common usage, in Australia these are colloquially referred to as bailers and bailing, respectively. The vocalizing of the dogs at bay signals the modern firearms hunter to close the distance with the pack and once caught up, the dogs used for baying are typically curs, hounds, and various purpose-bred crosses. Some crossing has occurred between bay & catch dogs, due to being raised together for generations, along with purpose-breeding, so, some hog dogs have shared traits and abilities. But they are kept separate, and used according to their own unique abilities. Very often this is used in conjuncture with a team of using fixed positions to take moose moving away from the baying dog
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Catch dog
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A catch dog is a specially trained dog that is used to catch large animals in hunting, working livestock, and baiting. As hunters, catch dogs are contrasted with bay dogs who corner prey animals and alert their handler by howling, catch dogs are typically outfitted with chest armor to prevent being speared by the boars tusk, and neck armor to prevent neck injury. According to the 2009 edition of Websters Dictionary of American English, the entry identifies the term as being American, and dating to circa 1857, although the practice is known to date at least back to the ancient Romans. Catch dogs physically take hold of the boar, typically seizing the base of the boars ear, once the catch dogs have physical control of the boar, they will hold it down by the head indefinitely until the hunter arrives. The hunter then comes in from behind the boar, and dispatches the boar with a knife or spear and it is not unusual for hunters to utilize both bay and catch dogs in the same hunt. Bay dogs are used to find the boar, initiate the chase, sometimes the boar will run from the bay dogs at first, but at some point during the chase either stop to fight or become cornered. At this point catch dogs are released to keep the stationary for the hunter. Most catch dogs are descended from the Old English Bulldog and Cordoba Fighting Dog bloodlines, and some are crossed with athletic Molosser-like dogs, such as the Cane Corso
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Cur
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The term cur refers to a mixed-breed dog. Originally the word cur referred to a certain English purpose-bred, short-tailed cattle driving dog known only from records, the cur dog. Among dog experts curs are any of several closely related North American purpose-bred treeing hounds, the derivation of the word cur dates from the 13th century. It is thought to be short for the Middle English curdogge, according to the Dictionary of True Etymologies the original root of the word may be Germanic, possibly from the Old Norse kurra meaning to grumble. If so, the word may be onomatopoeic, among dog experts, the terms cur and feist both refer to purpose-bred North American treeing hounds. The term feist, however, is used for only the smallest of these, such as the DenMark Feist, Mullins Feist. In addition, the term feist is one of terms that have been used to refer to the Rat Terrier. They are chiefly employed in driving cattle, in which way they are extremely useful and they are larger, stronger, and fiercer than the Shepherds Dog, and their hair is smoother and shorter. They are mostly black and white colour and their ears are half-pricked, and many of them are whelped with short tails, which seem as if they had been cut, These are called Self-tailed Dogs. They bite very keenly, and as they make their attack at the heels, the cattle have no defence against them, In this way they are more than a match for a Bull. Although these dogs had actually been bred, they were thought of as lesser mongrels. In the Scottish periodical, Blackwoods Magazine in 1819, the article, Species and Historic lineage of Canine derivations, penned by Sir P. Sean Lacey of London, cites separating the miscreants and cur breeds from those of honourable standing. This may have led to the term found in an early Websters Dictionary which defined cur a worthless dog. The resultant diversity in appearance within these breeds can present a challenge in judging conformation exhibitions of Cur breeds, Cur breeders assert that their breeding selections focus on working mentality and physical ability results in the Cur breeds tending to be genetically sound and healthy. Today the United Kennel Club has a registration program and competition hunting program for these dogs
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Catahoula Cur
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The Catahoula Cur is an American dog breed named after Catahoula Parish, Louisiana, United States. Also known as the Catahoula Leopard Dog, it became the dog of Louisiana in 1979. The breed is referred to as the Catahoula Hound or Catahoula Leopard Hound because of its spots, although it is not a true hound. It is also called the Catahoula Hog Dog, reflecting its use in hunting wild boar. Both the Catahoula lineage and the origins of the name Catahoula are uncertain, one theory posits that the Catahoula is the result of Native Americans having bred their own dogs with molossers and greyhounds brought to Louisiana by Hernando de Soto in the 16th century. As for the aforementioned Native American dog breeds, for a time it was believed that they were bred with or from red wolves, in fact, these studies indicate that Native Americans brought several lines of already domesticated dogs with them on their journeys from Asia to North America. Another theory suggests that the breed originated three centuries later, some time in the 19th century, after French settlers introduced the Beauceron to the North American continent, there are two theories regarding the origin of the word Catahoula. One theory is that the word is a combination of two Choctaw words okhata, meaning lake, and hullo, meaning beloved, another possibility is that the word is a French transformation of the Choctaw Indian word for their own nation, Couthaougoula pronounced Coot-ha-oo-goo-la. In 1979, Governor Edwin Edwards signed a bill making the Catahoula the official dog of Louisiana in recognition of their importance in the history of the region. As a working dog, Catahoulas have been bred primarily for temperament, as a result, the physical characteristics of the Catahoula are somewhat varied. Catahoulas may range greatly in size with males averaging larger than females. Typical height ranges from 20–26 and weight between 40 and 112 lbs, Catahoulas come in many different colors including blue merle, red merle, brindle, and solid colors. Often, solid coat Catahoulas have small splashes of other such as white on their face. The leopard-like coat of most Catahoulas is the result of the merle gene, the merle gene does not normally affect the entire coat of the dog, but dilutes the color only in areas that randomly present the characteristic of the gene. Red Leopard, These are various shades of brown and tan, known as red merle in other breeds. Blue Leopard, These are various shades of greys, black. Known as blue merle in other breeds, Black or Black Leopard, These are leopards least affected by the merle gene but will display smaller patches of blue or gray. Gray or Silver Leopard, Blue Leopards where the color has been diluted to gray
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Rhodesian Ridgeback
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The Rhodesian ridgeback is a dog breed developed in Rhodesia, now Zimbabwe. Its European forebears can be traced to the pioneers of the Cape Colony of southern Africa. The original breed standard was drafted by F. R. Barnes, in Bulawayo, Southern Rhodesia, based on that of the Dalmatian, the standard was approved by the South African Kennel Union in 1927. This dog measured approximately 18 inches at the withers, with a lean, the ears have been described both as erect and hanging, but the most distinctive feature was the length of hair often growing in the reverse direction along its back. Van Rooyen saw Helms pair of bitches and decided to breed his own dogs with them to incorporate their guarding abilities, after trying pointers and Airedales, crossing with collies gave van Rooyen the best lion hunters, as his son Cornelius Jr. tells us. Pointers, bulldogs and greyhounds are generally credited in the European core of this mix, with larger terriers such as Irish terriers and perhaps great Danes. These dogs were used to hunt not only lions but also other game, including pigs and baboons. In 1927, Barnes standard was approved by the South African Kennel Union with the name amended to Rhodesian ridgeback, outside the subcontinent and internationally, the first Rhodesian ridgebacks in Britain were shown by Mrs. Edward Foljambe in 1928. In 1950, Mr. and Mrs. William H. OBrien of Arizona brought six carefully selected Ridgebacks to the US from South Africa and he and his wife and Margaret Lowthian of California began the process of getting the breed accepted by the American Kennel Club. Similarly, in 1952, The Rhodesian Ridgeback Club of Great Britain was founded at Crufts to promote the breed around the United Kingdom to show judges, so a standard for the breed might be recognized. The Rhodesian ridgebacks distinguishing feature is the ridge of hair running along its back in the direction from the rest of its coat. It consists of an area formed by two whorls of hair and tapers from immediately behind the shoulders down to the level of the hips. The ridge is usually about 2 inches in width at its widest point and it is believed to originate from the dog used by the original African dog population which had a similar ridge. The first depiction of a ridgeback is a wall painting describing the life of the Boers, male ridgebacks usually stand 25–27 in at the withers and weigh about 85 lb, females are typically 24–26 inches tall and about 70 lb in weight. Ridgebacks are typically muscular and have a light wheaten to red coat, which should be short, dense, sleek and glossy in appearance. White is acceptable on the chest and toes, the FCI standard states that excessive black hairs throughout the coat are highly undesirable. Ridgebacks sometimes have a dark mask, the dogs nose should be black or brown in keeping with the color of the dog. No other colored nose is permissible, the brown nose is a recessive gene
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Black Mouth Cur
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The Black Mouth Cur is a hunting and cattle dog that has its origins in the South. Solid white and piebald colors are not allowed in Black Mouth Curs, but in rare occasions may appear in a litter due to recessive genes from several generations back matching up. According to the standard of the United Kennel Club, up to ten percent of the coat may be white with the amounts of white on the toes, tail, nose and chest are acceptable. As of this date the Louisiana Catahoula Leopard Cur is recognized by UKC as the Louisiana Catahoula Leopard Dog, the name cur is a descriptive term for a general, short-coated, drop-eared, farm and ranch working dog. Black Mouth Curs are primarily herding dogs able to hunt big or small game, the breed has an average litter size of 3-12, and a lifespan of 12–18 years. Black Mouth Curs have short coats, either coarse or fine, Black Mouth Curs come in many colors. All shades of red, yellow and fawn, black, brown, buckskin, or brindle, with or without black muzzle or mask. Very small amounts of white are allowed under the chin, around the nose, on the neck, chest, legs, and tip of tail, provided that no more than ten percent total of the dogs body may be white. Dilute coat colors are acceptable and may be identified by the traits, green, yellow, or light brown eyes, white toenails. Never spotted, mottled, merle, or with white collar and it may have a melanistic mask, which is most often black. Maskless dogs are allowed but not preferred, the name Black Mouth refers to the dark pigmentation around the lips that also extends into the interior of the mouth including the roof of the mouth, gums, and cheeks, excluding the tongue. The ears are medium-sized and hanging and may either be melanistic like the muzzle or the color as the coat. The tail of a Black Mouth Cur can be of any length, long, medium, bob tailed, some owners of curs that are born with a tail will dock their dogs tail, and some cur dogs are born with little or no tail at all. The feet are of size, compact and well arched. Pads are large, tough, and well cushioned, single or double dewclaws may be present. The adult weight ranges depending on the line from 35 pounds minimum for tree dogs to 50 pounds and their height can also vary with a minimum height of 16 inches tall. Males in the lines are normally larger than females. Black Mouth Curs are great family dogs and they are very social dogs if trained properly
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Blue Lacy
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The Lacy Dog or Blue Lacy Dog is a breed of working dog that originated in Texas in the mid-19th century. The Lacy was first recognized in 2001 by the Texas Senate,436, the 77th Legislature honored the Lacy as a true Texas breed. In June 2005, Governor Rick Perry signed the legislation adopting the Blue Lacy as the official State Dog Breed of Texas, as expected, the vast majority of Lacy dogs are found in Texas. However, as the breed becomes more well recognized, there are breeding populations being established across the United States, Canada, Lacy dogs are strong and fast, lightly built but proportional within the height-to-weight ratio. Height at the withers is from 43 to 56 cm, dependent on height and general conditioning, weight should be approximately 11 to 20 kg for females and 16 to 25 kg for males. Though they are called blue Lacys, there are three permissible color varieties of the Lacy. Blues are any shade of gray from light silver to dark charcoal, reds range from light cream to rust. The Tri combines a blue base with red markings as appropriate for trim. White may also be present on one or more paws, excessive white is discouraged, and markings on the face or above mid-line are a disqualifying fault. Their eyes are sharp and alert, ranging in color from yellow to rich amber. The coat should be short, smooth and tight, an excessively long or rough coat is a disqualification. Lacys shed, but require minimal grooming, Blue Lacy Dogs in general are intelligent, intense, active, and alert. Developed to be hunting and herding dogs, they display great drive and determination to work with big game. Young dogs may have too much energy and drive for small children and they are easy to train, learning new skills quickly. The Lacy is a breed, and does much better when given a job. Work they excel at includes herding livestock, blood trailing or tracking, treeing game, running trap lines, modern activities like agility that stress intelligence, passion, speed and nimbleness may be appropriate substitutes for traditional work. Herding instincts and trainability can be measured at noncompetitive herding tests, Lacys generally exhibit herding instincts, and can be trained to compete in stock dog trials, or hog bays. During recent years, Lacy dogs have become recognized for their great tracking skills
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Scent hound
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Scent hounds are a type of hound that primarily hunts by scent rather than sight. These breeds are hunting dogs and are regarded as having some of the most sensitive noses among canines. Hounds are hunting dogs that hunt by following the scent of a game animal or by following the animal by sight. There are many breeds in the type, and scenthounds may do other work as well. Kennel clubs assign breeds of dogs to Groups, which are based on breed types. Each kennel club determines which breeds it will place in a given group, scent hounds specialize in following a smell or scent. Most of these breeds have long, drooping ears, one theory says that this trait helps to collect scent from the air and keep it near the dogs face and nose. They also have large cavities, which also helps to help them smell better. Their typically loose, moist lips are said to assist in trapping scent particles, most of these breeds have deep, booming voices and use them actively when running, and especially when following a scent trail. The best scent hounds can follow a scent trail even across running water, most scent hounds are used for hunting in packs of multiple dogs. Longer-legged hounds run more quickly and usually require that the follow on horseback. The hunters then go to the spot on foot, following the sound of the dogs baying, the Fédération Cynologique Internationale places scent hounds into their classification Group 6. This includes a subdivision, Section 2, Leash Hounds, some examples of which are the Bavarian Mountain Scenthound, the Hanoverian Scenthound, in addition, the Dalmatian and the Rhodesian Ridgeback are placed in Group 6 as Related breeds. The United Kennel Club divides its Scenthound Group into two categories, the first, Tree Hounds, includes the American hunting dogs known as coonhounds and the European hounds from which they were developed. The second category is named Trailing Scenthounds, and includes dogs used for the tracking of game animals and they are also used for explosives detection. The Trailing group are reputedly descended from a type of bloodhound kept by monks in Belgium, genetic studies confirm the long-standing belief that all scent hounds share a more recent common ancestor with each other than they do with other branches on the dog family tree. The scent hound type includes the following breeds, The Scenthound Group is the category used by the United Kennel Club. The first includes the American hunting dogs known as coonhounds and the European hounds from which they were developed and these are referred to as Tree Hounds
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Treeing Walker Coonhound
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The Treeing Walker Coonhound is a breed of hound descended from the English and American Foxhounds. The breed originated in the United States when a dog known as Tennessee Lead, was crossed into the Walker Hound in the 19th century, the Treeing Walker Coonhound was recognized officially as a breed by the United Kennel Club in 1945 and by the American Kennel Club in 2012. The Treeing Walker Coonhound was bred to hunt small game, particularly raccoons, however, some hunters use it for large game such as bear. The breed is vocal with a bay that allows its owner to identify their hound from great distances. It has a clear, ringing voice that changes to steady chop at the tree, the Treeing Walker Coonhound was developed in the Colonial era from crosses of English Foxhounds. Two breeders from Kentucky, John W. Walker and George Washington Maupin, are given credit for the initial development. The dogs they bred were referred to as Walker Hounds, and were used to hunt raccoons, in the 1800s, a stolen black and tan dog named Tennessee Lead was crossed into the Walker Hound. Tennessee Lead was of unknown origin, but he greatly influenced the Walker, the Walker Coonhound, Treeing, was first recognized by the United Kennel Club in 1905 as a part of the English Coonhound breed, at the request of breeders. The name was changed to Treeing Walker Coonhound, and it was fully recognized as a separate breed in 1945. It was recognized by the American Kennel Club in January 2012, the Treeing Walker Coonhound should give an impression of a working dog. According to the UKC standard, it may stand 20 to 27 inches high at maturity, the common weight range is 50 to 70 pounds, with males being larger than females. The skull should be broad, with a muzzle and long, hanging ears. Eyes are dark and have a soft expression, all four legs should be straight when viewed from the front or back, with cat-like, compact feet. In conformation shows, blindness or deafness is a disqualification, the smooth coat is fine and glossy and comes in a tricolor and a bi-color pattern. Tricolor, white with black and tan markings, is preferred, although bicolor dogs, black and white or tan, the Treeing Walker Coonhound has a clear bay on trail, which should change to a distinct chop when treed. Its temperament should be kind but fearless and courageous on the hunt, the Treeing Walker Coonhound is bred primarily for mouth, looks, and ability. It is first and foremost a hunting dog, although it may be kept as a pet and it is described as affectionate and good with children, but its energy requires an outlet and it must be trained. The Treeing Walker Coonhound lives an average of 12 to 13 years, Treeing Walker Coonhounds are loving, intelligent, confident, and enjoy interacting with humans
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Foxhound
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A foxhound is a type of large hunting hound bred for strong hunting instincts, great energy, and, like all scent hounds, a keen sense of smell. Old Drum - said to have been the inspiration for the phrase Mans Best Friend which arose from an 1870 court case regarding him, Mountain and Muse - In 1814 the Duke of Leeds gave two Irish foxhounds, Mountain and Muse, to a visiting guest, Bolton Jackson. This famous pair of hounds changed hands several times going to Charles Carroll at his Homewood estate. Descendants of Mountain and Muse still hunt territories in Maryland that were hunted by George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, Charles Carroll. Anglo-Français and Français Masters of Foxhounds Association of America, US Masters of Foxhounds Association, UK International Foxhound Association Fox hound
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Plott Hound
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The Plott Hound is a large scent hound, originally bred for hunting boar. The Plott Hound is one of the least known breeds of dog in the United States, the Plott Hound should be athletic, muscular, and agile in appearance. It should be neither low-set and heavy, nor leggy and light and its expression should be one of intelligence, confidence, and determination. Its skin should not be baggy like that of a Bloodhound, the Plott is a strongly built yet moderate hound, with a distinct brindle-colored coat. Its appearance suggests the capacity for speed, stamina and endurance, the Plott may have an identification mark on it that is used to identify the dog when hunting. Such a mark is not penalized in conformation shows, the Plott Hounds hair should be fine to medium in texture, short or medium in length, and have a smooth and glossy appearance. According to the National Plott Hound Association, the hair should be brindled. Brindled is defined as Finely streaked or striped effect or pattern of black or tan hairs with hairs of a lighter or darker background color, shades of colors accepted, yellow brindle, red brindle, tan brindle, brown brindle, black brindle, grey brindle, and maltese. Acceptable colors are any of the above-mentioned brindles, black with brindle trim in the alternative. The Association dictates that while some white on chest and/or feet is permissible, a Plott Hound should measure approximately 20 to 25 in at the withers for males,20 to 23 in for females. Males should weigh 50 to 60 lb, females should weigh 40 to 55 lb. Of the seven breeds of United Kennel Club registered coonhounds, the Plott Hound does not trace its ancestry to the foxhound, and, of those seven breeds, we can be most certain of the Plott’s heritage and the men most responsible for its development. The ancestors of today’s Plott Hounds were used for hunting in Germany many years ago. Originally from Germany, in 1750 Johannes “George” Plott emigrated to the English colony of North Carolina and he brought a few wild boar hounds with him. These dogs had been bred for generations for their stamina and gameness, george and his wife Margaret with their family settled in the mountains of western North Carolina. The Plott Balsams are a range that carries the family name to this day. Plott supposedly kept his strain entirely pure, making no outcrosses, in 1780, the Plott pack passed into the hands of Henry Plott. He was so impressed that he borrowed one of Montraville Plott’s top stud dogs for a year to breed to his own bitches and this single cross is the only known instance of new blood being introduced into the Plott Hound since it first came to this country
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Schweizerischer Niederlaufhund
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The Schweizerischer Niederlaufhund (translated into English as the Swiss Hound, is a breed of dog of the scenthound type from Switzerland. The breed has a number of different varieties, the Swiss Niederlaufhund is an excellent hunting dog used to find and follow a scent even through difficult ground. This dog is often used to pursue and find wounded animals. These dogs‘ height lies between 35 and 43 cm for the males and 33 and 40 cm for the females, the general appearance is of a hound similar to the Schweizer Laufhund, with a smaller body and shorter legs. They appear to be square but are a longer than they are tall. The head is clearly shaped and noble with a friendly. The legs are strong with a robust structure, at a calm pace they carry the tail low, when they run it is a bit lifted. The breed has long ears and a long tail. The coat can be short and smooth or a bit longer, the varieties of the Schweizerischer Niederlaufhund are arranged by coat colour and texture, Small Bernese Hound - tricolour, white, black and tan, tan marks over the eyes. Small Lucerne Hound - smooth white coat speckled with grey or black to give an appearance, with black patches. Small Schwyz Hound - smooth white coat with yellow-red to orange-red patches and this type is bred short-haired and wire-haired and always tri-colored, white, black and tan. The base color is white with big black spots, over the eyes and on the cheeks these dogs have maroon-colored spots. The skin is black pigmented under the coat and marbled under the white coat. This type usually has a smooth coat, a deep black color with some maroon colored spots over the eyes, on the cheeks, chest and legs is preferred. A maroon base color with a mantle is also allowed. White spots are tolerated only on the chest if they are not too big, the skin is dark pigmented under the black coat and paler under the spots. This type has a smooth, short coat, the base color is white, white and gray mottled or white and black mottled. Some bigger black spots or mantle are allowed, marooned colored spots over the eyes and on the cheeks can appeare
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American Bulldog
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The American Bulldog is a breed of utility dog. There are two types of American Bulldog, Standard and Classic, additionally, there are also hybrids of the two types. The American bulldog is a stocky, well built, strong-looking dog, with a large head and its coat is short and generally smooth. The breed is a light to moderate shedder, the color conformation is quite varied, but solid black or any degree of merle is considered a cosmetic fault, and a blue color is a disqualification by the NKC Breed Standard. Black pigmentation on the nose and eye rims is traditionally preferred, eye color is usually brown, but heterochromia also occurs, although this is also considered a cosmetic fault. American Bulldogs are known to more than other breeds of dog, this varies and is more prevalent in the Bully type. Standard or Performance types are more athletic with longer muzzles. It is important to note that many modern American Bulldogs are a combination of the two types usually termed hybrid, American Bulldogs are typically confident, social, and active dogs that are at ease with their families. It is not uncommon for an American Bulldog to require a level of attention due to their highly emotional personality. They bond strongly with their owners and they are capable of jumping in excess of 3 feet vertical due to the dense muscle build of the breed. Young American Bulldogs may be aloof with strangers, but as they mature the breeds normal confidence should assert itself. This breed tolerates children and can do well with them, provided they are socialized early. The more exposure to good training practices, other dogs, and people, early training and socialization both in the home and outside of the home is essential for this breed. Even the slight modifications the bulldog underwent in Spain and England up to the Industrial Revolution, were absent in the working strains. Most settlers of the American South came from the West Midlands of England, the Old English Bulldog was preserved by working class immigrants who brought their working dogs with them to the American South. Small farmers and ranchers used this all-around working dog for many tasks including farm guardians, stock dogs and these dogs were not an actual breed as considered by todays standards but were a generic bulldog type. There were no recorded pedigrees or records and breeding decisions were dependent on the best working farm dogs despite breed or background, several separate strains of the bulldog type dogs were kept by ranchers as utilitarian working dogs. The bulldogs were the only means of sufficiently dealing with the vermin
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American Pit Bull Terrier
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The American Pit Bull Terrier is a dog breed. It is a medium-sized, solidly-built, intelligent, short-haired dog whose early ancestors came from the British Isles, when compared with the English Staffordshire Bull Terrier, the American Pit Bull Terrier is larger by margins of 6–8 inches in height and 25–35 pounds in weight. The American Pit Bull Terrier varies in size, males normally are about 18-21 inches in height and around 35-60 pounds in weight. Females are normally around 17-20 inches in height and 30-50 pounds in weight, the American Pit Bull is medium-sized, and has a short coat and smooth well-defined muscle structure. Its eyes are round to almond-shaped, and its ears are small to medium in length, the tail is slightly thick and tapers to a point. The coat is glossy, smooth, short, and stiff to the touch, any color, color pattern, or combination of colors is acceptable, both the ADBA and UKC do not recognize merle coloring. Color patterns that are typical in the breed are spotted, brindled, solid, the state of New South Wales in Australia places restrictions on the breed, including mandatory sterilization. The breed is banned in the United Kingdom, in the Canadian province of Ontario and these dogs were bred in England, and arrived in the United States where they became the direct ancestors of the American Pitbull Terrier. In the United Kingdom, pit bulls were used in such as bull baiting. These bloodsports were officially eliminated in 1835 as Britain began to introduce animal welfare laws, since dogfights were cheaper to organise and far easier to conceal from the law than bull or bear baits, bloodsport proponents turned to pitting their dogs against each other instead. Dog fighting was used as both a bloodsport and a way to continue to test the quality of their stock, for decades afterwards, dog fighting clandestinely took place in small areas of Britain and America. In the early 20th century, pitbulls were used as dogs in America for semi-wild cattle and hogs, to hunt, and drive livestock. Some have been bred for their fighting prowess. Pit Bull Terriers successfully fill the role of dogs, and police dogs. 60 temperament-screened dogs were adopted until the program was halted, after several of the newly adopted pit bulls killed cats. The New York City Center for Animal Care and Control tried a similar approach in 2004, relabeling their pit bulls as New Yorkies, but dropped the idea in the face of overwhelming public opposition. The UKC gives this description of the characteristics of the American Pit Bull Terrier, The essential characteristics of the American Pit Bull Terrier are strength, confidence and this breed is eager to please and brimming over with enthusiasm. APBTs make excellent family companions and have always noted for their love of children
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Molosser
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Molosser is a category of solidly built, large dog breeds that all descend from the same common ancestor. The name derives from Molossia, an area of ancient Epirus, Molossers typically have heavy bones, pendant ears, a relatively short and well-muscled neck, and a short, broad muzzle. Although study of the genome is causing the revision of phenotype-based taxonomies such as Mégnins. Molossers are used for a variety jobs that require strength and size, some molosser types are used for search and rescue dogs, such as the Newfoundland and the Saint Bernard. Some are used as dogs to protect property from intruders. Livestock guardian dogs live alongside livestock and offer protection against large predators and poachers, the Greater Swiss Mountain Dog has been used as a cart dog. Since the ancient region of Epirus has historically claimed by such modern countries as Greece and Albania. The dogs were considered valuable in Babylon, and are mentioned in cuneiform in the 4th century BC, a large Mastiff-like dog is shown on the ancient terra cotta by Birs Nimrud. The dog is 90 centimetres tall at the withers, has a stocky head, the dogs were used for hunting in ancient Assyria. Archeological digs of the Ashurbanipal palace revealed pictures of dogs felling wild horses, assyrian Mastiffs were also used for military purposes and for protection. The ancient Mastiffs would later be imported from Assyria and Babylon to Egypt, xerxes I of Persia led predatory wars to enlarge the borders of his empire, taking with him large war dogs in his army. Mastiffs were used to fight in the Roman amphitheater against lions and they are the root of many shepherd and mountain dog breeds. The Alans kept Mastiff-like dogs taken from Eastern Europe which acted as retrievers, guard dogs, the name associated with these dogs is Alaunt, or in Spanish, Alano. The Mastiffs were used in unison with sighthounds to hunt wisent, aurochs, groups of Alanian tribes came to Europe during the Migration Period, fighting on the territory of modern Portugal, Spain, France, Italy, and North Africa, taking with them their dogs. The Alanian Mastiff then spread to the British Isles, the Mastiffs of the Alps, the Alpine Mastiff, was a progenitor of the St. Bernard and contributed to the modern English Mastiff. The Newfoundland dog is the only Canadian Molosser-type dog breed, Portuguese fishermen have fished off the shores of Newfoundland for centuries, and the Newfoundland breed was the result of Portuguese Mastiffs breeding with St. Johns water dog. The Bulldog breeds split from the Molossers in Europe and spread to the New World with colonization, though smaller, Bulldogs are still considered to be Molosser breeds. In contemporary culture they are known as Mastín, Dogue or Dogo
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Bullmastiff
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The Bullmastiff is a large-sized breed of domestic dog, with a solid build and a short muzzle. The Bullmastiff shares the characteristics of molosser dogs, and was developed by 19th-century gamekeepers to guard estates. The breeds bloodlines are drawn from the English Mastiff and the extinct Old English Bulldog and it was recognized as a purebred dog by the English Kennel Club in 1924. They are quiet dogs and very rarely bark, males should stand 25–27 inches tall at the withers and weigh110–130 pounds. Females should be 24–26 inches at the withers, and 100–120 pounds, exceeding these dimensions is discouraged by breeders. A Bullmastiffs coat may appear in fawn, red, or brindle and these are the only acceptable colors in the AKC standard. The fawn can range from a light brown to a reddish brown. Red can range from a light red-fawn to a dark, rich red, brindles are a striped overlay of the fawn or red. A Bullmastiff should have no markings, except for on the chest where a little white is allowed. Bullmastiffs are a working breed originating in Britain in the mid 1800s as estate guardians to ward off poachers. They were bred by gamekeepers for strength, size and speed using a cross of the tough, heavy and aggressive Bulldog of the 19th century with the large, strong, as a result, the Bullmastiff is known as the Gamekeepers Night Dog. The preferred color, by gamekeepers, was brindle, as this works as a more effective camouflage. The Bullmastiff breed was deemed pure by the English Kennel Club in 1924, with a background of approximately 60% Mastiff. In 1934, the AKC recognized the Bullmastiff, the first standard for the breed was approved in 1935. The standard has undergone several revisions since then, the most current version is available on the AKC website, Bullmastiffs are strong, powerful, but sensitive dogs. For a Bullmastiff to become a family member, consistency is needed. Training and socialization is of importance, as the breed can be independent. Dogs of this breed are natural guardians of their home and owners, no special guard training is needed for a Bullmastiff to react appropriately if its family is endangered
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Cane Corso
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The Cane Corso is a large Italian Molosser, which is closely related to the Neapolitan Mastiff. In name and form the Cane Corso predates its cousin the Neapolitan Mastiff and it is well muscled and less bulky than most other Mastiff breeds. The breed is known as a true and quite possibly the last of the coursing Mastiffs, the official Fédération Cynologique Internationale standard expects ideal dogs to stand 58–70 cm at the withers, with females in the lower range and males in the higher. Weight should be in keeping with the size and stature of these dogs, ranging from 45 to 50 kg for males, the overall impression should be of power, balanced with athleticism. A Corso should be moderately tight skinned, however, some dewlap on the neck is normal, the head of the Cane Corso is arguably its most important feature. The forehead should be flat and convergent to the muzzle, the muzzle is flat, rectangular, and generally as wide as it is long, approximately 33% the total length of the skull. The eyes are almond in shape, set straight and when viewed from the front, darker eyes are preferred, however, the color of the eyes tends to emulate the shade of brindling in the coat. The tail of the Corso is traditionally docked fairly long, at the 4th vertebra, again, with trends in cosmetic surgeries for dogs changing, many Corsos now have full tails, which should be carried erect, but never curled over the back. Cane Corso appear in two basic colours, black and fawn. This is further modified by genetic pigment dilution to create blue, brindling of varying intensity is common on both basic coat colours as well, creating tigrato, and Grigio Tigrato. White markings are common on the chest, tips of toes, the chin, large white patches are not desirable. The average life expectancy is 10 to 12 years, the Cane Corso is not recommended for novice dog owners. As a puppy, it requires strong leadership and consistent training, ideally the Cane Corso should be indifferent when approached and should only react in a protective manner when a real threat is present. Cane Corsos can also be loyal, loving family pets who are good with strangers who do not offer a threat to the family, the Cane Corso is a descendant of the canis pugnax, dogs used by the Romans in warfare. Its name derives from cane da corso, an old term for those catch dogs used in activities as distinct from cane da camera which indicates the catch dog kept as a bodyguard. In the recent past, its distribution was limited to regions of Southern Italy, especially in Basilicata, Campania. The Cane Corso is a dog used with cattle and swine. Cane Corso were also used to guard property, livestock, and families, historically it has also been used by night watchmen, keepers, and, in the past, by carters and drovers
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Dogo Argentino
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It was first bred in 1928, from the Cordoba Fighting Dog along with a wide array of other breeds including the Great Dane. The Dogo Argentino is a large white short-coated dog with muscular, breed Standard Height, for females is 60–65 centimetres and for males is 60–68 centimetres, measured at the withers. The length of the body is just slightly longer than the height, the length of the front leg is approximately equal to one-half of the dogs height at the withers. The head has a broad, slightly domed skull and the muzzle is slightly higher at the nose than the stop, the tail is set low, thick at the base and tapers to a point. It has been described as looking similar to the American Bulldog, the breed has also been described as looking similar to the American Pit Bull Terrier, even though the American Pit Bull Terrier is far smaller. In 1928, Antonio Nores Martinez, a doctor, professor and surgeon, set out to breed a big game hunting dog that was also capable of being a loyal pet. Antonio Martinez picked the Cordoba Fighting Dog to be the base for the breed and this breed is extinct today, but it was said that as a large and ferocious dog, it was a great hunter. Martinez crossed it with the Great Dane, Boxer, Spanish Mastiff, Old English Bulldog, Bull Terrier, Great Pyrenees, Pointer, Irish Wolfhound, Nores Martinez continued to develop the breed via selective breeding to introduce the desired traits. Dogos are big-game hunters and are trained for search and rescue, police assistance, service dogs, guide for the blind, competitive obedience, Schutzhund. As with all breeds, the Dogo Argentino can be good with children, Dogo Argentinos have been bred specifically to allow better socialization with other dogs and are well suited for group environments. They get along with other pets in most rural and urban settings ranging from a complete outdoor farm dog to urban housing with a small yard, because aggressive traits are purposely bred out, attacks on humans or other pets are extremely rare. The Dogo has a life expectancy of 10 to 12 years, as in the Dalmatian, white Boxer, and the white Bull Terrier, the dogo may experience pigment-related deafness. There is possibility of an approximate 10% deafness rate overall with some dogos afflicted uniaurally, studies have shown that the incidence of deafness is drastically reduced when the only breeding stock used is that with bilaterally normal hearing. Aggressive traits inherent in the Cordoban Dog were specifically bred out to enable a stable cooperative nature in a pack, however, in areas where illegal dog fighting continues, the Dogo Argentino has been used for fighting due to its fearless nature and great stamina. Dogos of these lines are not suited for big game hunting, the Dogo Argentino is banned in certain countries including Ukraine, Iceland, Fiji, Australia, Singapore and the Cayman Islands. In the United Kingdom, under the Dangerous Dogs Act 1991, bombon Carlos Soríns, a 2005 film starring a Dogo Argentino named Gregorio On Animal Planets Pit Boss episode Shortys Top Dog, Shorty and Hercules adopted a Dogo Argentino puppy named Mario
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Dogue de Bordeaux
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The Dogue de Bordeaux, Bordeaux Mastiff, French Mastiff or Bordeauxdog is a large French Mastiff breed—and one of the most ancient French dog breeds. A typical brachycephalic molossoid type breed, the Bordeaux is a powerful dog. This brawny breed has been put to work in different capacities, from pulling carts and hauling heavy objects, to guarding flocks and, historically. The Dogue de Bordeaux was known in France as early as the fourteenth century, hence, the city lent its name to this large dog. A uniform breed type of the Bordeaux Dog did not exist before about 1920, the French placed emphasis on keeping the old breeding line pure. Black masks were considered an indication of the crossing in of the English Mastiff, as an important indication of purity of the breed, attention was paid to the self colored nose, lighter eye color, and red mask. The Dogue de Bordeaux was at one time known to come in two varieties, Dogues and Doguins, the Dogue being considerably larger than the Doguin. The smaller Doguin has withered away to nothing more than a mention in breed history books, the history of the breed is believed to predate the Bullmastiff and the Bulldog. It is said that the Dogue can be found in the background of the Bullmastiff, another theory is the Dogue de Bordeaux originates from the Tibetan Mastiff and it is also said that the Dogue is related to the Greco Roman molossoids used for war. As there was a similar to the Dogue de Bordeaux in Rome at the time of Julius Caesars reign. Others suggest that the Dogue de Bordeaux is a descendent of a breed which existed in ancient France, whichever theory is true, it is obvious that the Dogue de Bordeaux shares the same common links as all modern molossers. The ancestral Dogue de Bordeaux had various colors, such as brindle. It had scissor bites in some regions, undershot in others, a big head or a small head, another controversial aspect was the mask, red, none or black. The Dogue de Bordeaux of Bordeaux of the time also sported cropped ears, regardless, it had a general type similar to todays Dogue de Bordeaux. In 1863, the first canine exhibition was held at the Jardin dAcclimatation in Paris, the winner of the Dogue de Bordeaux was a female named Magentas. The Dogue de Bordeaux was then given the name of the capital of its region of origin, during the 1960s, a group of breeders of the Dogue de Bordeaux in France, headed by Raymond Triquet, worked on the rebuilding of the foundation of the breed. In 1970, a new standard was written for the breed and this standard is the basis of the standard written for the AKC in 2005. Between 1969 and 1980, imported Dogues de Bordeaux in the USA were scarce, limited to a few breeders who worked closely with the French Dogue de Bordeaux Club, the SADB
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Bandog
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The term Bandog is believed to have originated in the Middle Ages in England. The original Bandogs were bred with a purpose, as were all working breeds. The Bandogs of old were strictly working dogs, often of various crosses, the name Bandog was then not a breed, it was a description of a duty or purpose. Early incarnations of the Bandog probably had bloodlines from bull baiting dogs, william Harrison, in his description of England during 1586, describes the type as. Finding various undesired traits in existing guard dogs, for centuries and millennia and this practice produced many breeds that are in existence today. Some of these breeds have become mainstream guardian breeds, while others have remained relatively rare. In the pursuit of ones own preference of perfection, various programs have created some breeds similar to what is now accepted as the modern day Bandog but did not use that name for their breed. Some examples of such breeds would include the Perro de Presa Canario, Cane Corso, Boerboel, the popularity of the name Bandog itself was revived in the mid-1960s when a veterinarian John B. Swinford selected quality specimens of specific foundation breeds to create what he considered to be the guard dog. Using performance selection, Dr. Swinford concentrated the desired attributes for his creation, Swinford worked on his program for several generations, and came to receive significant recognition for his work in various books and journals. But unfortunately Dr. Swinford died in November 1971 before solidifying the future of his creation, today there are many versions of the modern day Bandog, and as a result the Bandog today lacks a unified breed standard or direction. For these reasons, there is little or nothing in common between the modern Bandog programs and Dr. Swinfords program other than the Bandog name itself. That said, there are indeed some high-quality modern Bandog programs in existence today that do have specific goals even though these goals may not be unanimous between one breeder and the next. For these reasons, it is wise for those interested in the Bandog to put forth significant research about their expectations from such dogs. While the Bandog is still a rare breed, those familiar with a well-bred Bandog often develop the opinion of it being the perfect protection dog for their needs. There are a few programs in existence today that have put forth the commitment necessary to produce multiple generations of Bandogs that are consistently producing working class lines of the breed. The Bandog should be a dog, moderate to heavily boned, heavily muscled, intimidating when seen. Dogs should generally be a minimum of 90# and 25 at the withers, bitches should be a minimum of 80# and 24, and also have no upper limits as long as they too are able to perform efficiently
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Crossbreed
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A crossbreed or crossbred usually refers to an organism with purebred parents of two different breeds, varieties, or populations. The term outcross is used to describe a type of crossbreeding used within a breed to increase the genetic diversity within the breed. In animal breeding, crossbreed describes crosses within a single species, in plant breeding terminology, the term crossbreed is uncommon. No universal term is used to distinguish hybridization or crossing within a population from those between populations, or even those between species, however, some nascent breeds such as the Aegean cat are developed entirely from a local landrace population. Most experimental cat breeds are crossbreeds, in cattle, there are systems of crossbreeding. In many crossbreeds, one is larger than the other, the large number of breeds of sheep, which vary greatly, creates an opportunity for crossbreeding to be used to tailor production of lambs to the goal of the individual stockman. Results of crossbreeding classic and woolly breeds of llama are unpredictable, the resulting offspring displays physical characteristics of either parent, or a mix of characteristics from both, periodically producing a fleeced llama. The results are increasingly unpredictable when both parents are crossbreeds, with possibility of the offspring displaying characteristics of a grandparent, not obvious in either parent. A crossbred dog is a cross between two known breeds, and is distinguished from a mixed-breed dog, which has ancestry from many sources. Crossbreeds are popular, due to the belief that they have increased vigor without loss of attractiveness of the dog, certain planned crossbreeding between purebred dogs of different breeds can produce puppies worth more than their purebred parents, due to a high demand. Crossbreeding in horses is often done with the intent of creating a new breed of horse. One type of modern crossbreeding in horses is used to create many of the warmblood breeds, a hybrid animal is one with parentage of two separate species, differentiating it from crossbred animals, which have parentage of the same species. Hybrids are usually, but not always, sterile, one of the most ancient types of hybrid animal is the mule, a cross between a female horse and a male donkey. The liger is a cross between a male lion and female tiger. The yattle is a cross between a cow and a yak, other crosses include the tigon and yakalo. The Incas recognized that hybrids of Lama glama and Lama pacos resulted in a hybrid with none of the advantages of either parent, at one time it was thought that dogs and wolves were separate species, and the crosses between dogs and wolves were called wolf hybrids. Today wolves and dogs are both recognized as Canis lupus, but the old term wolf hybrid is still used, a mixed-breed animal is defined as having undocumented or unknown parentage, while a crossbreed generally has known, usually purebred parents of two distinct breeds or varieties. A dog of unknown parentage is often called a mixed-breed dog, a cat of unknown parentage is often referred to as domestic short-haired or domestic long-haired cat generically, and in some dialects is often called a moggy
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