1.
Qantas
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Qantas Airways is the flag carrier airline of Australia and its largest airline by fleet size, international flights and international destinations. It is the third oldest airline in the world, after KLM and Avianca having been founded in November 1920, the Qantas name comes from QANTAS, an acronym for its original name, Queensland and Northern Territory Aerial Services, and it is nicknamed The Flying Kangaroo. Qantas is a member of the Oneworld airline alliance. The airline is based in the Sydney suburb of Mascot with its hub at Sydney Airport. As of March 2014, Qantas had a 65% share of the Australian domestic market and carried 14. 9% of all passengers travelling in, various subsidiary airlines operate to regional centres and on some trunk routes within Australia under the QantasLink banner. Its subsidiary Jetconnect provides services between Australia and New Zealand, flying under the Qantas brand, Qantas was founded in Winton, Queensland on 16 November 1920 as Queensland and Northern Territory Aerial Services Limited. The airlines first aircraft was an Avro 504K, in 1920 Queensland and Northern Territory Aerial Services Ltd had its headquarters in Winton before moving to Longreach, Queensland in 1921 and Brisbane in 1930. In 1934, QANTAS and Britains Imperial Airways formed a new company, the new airline commenced operations in December 1934, flying between Brisbane and Darwin. QEA flew internationally from May 1935, when the service from Darwin was extended to Singapore, after World War II began, enemy action and accidents destroyed half of the fleet of ten, when most of the fleet was taken over by the Australian government for war service. Flying boat services were resumed in 1943, with flights between Swan River, Perth and Koggala lake in Ceylon and this linked up with the British Overseas Airways Corporation service to London. Qantas kangaroo logo was first used on the Kangaroo Route, begun in 1944, from Sydney to Karachi, in 1947, QEA was nationalised by the Australian government led by Labor Prime Minister Ben Chifley. QANTAS Limited was then wound up, after nationalisation, Qantas remaining domestic network, in Queensland, was transferred to the also nationally owned Trans Australian Airlines, leaving Qantas with a purely international network. Shortly after nationalisation, QEA began its first services outside the British Empire – to Tokyo, Services to Hong Kong began around the same time. In 1957 a head office, Qantas House, opened in Sydney, in June 1959 Qantas entered the jet age when the first Boeing 707-138 was delivered. On 14 September 1992, Qantas merged with nationally owned domestic airline, the airline started to be rebranded to Qantas in the following year. Qantas was gradually privatised between 1993 and 1997, under the legislation passed to allow the privatisation, Qantas must be at least 51% owned by Australian shareholders. In 1998, Qantas co-founded the oneworld alliance with American Airlines, British Airways, Canadian Airlines, the main domestic competitor to Qantas, Ansett Australia, collapsed on 14 September 2001. Market share for Qantas immediately neared 90%, but with the entry of new budget airline Virgin Blue into the domestic market, in 2004, the Qantas group expanded into the Asian budget airline market with Jetstar Asia Airways, in which Qantas owns a minority stake
2.
John Travolta
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John Joseph Travolta is an American actor, producer, dancer, and singer. Travolta first became known in the 1970s, after appearing on the television series Welcome Back, Kotter and starring in the box office successes Saturday Night Fever, Travolta was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actor for performances in Saturday Night Fever and Pulp Fiction. He won his only Golden Globe Award for Best Actor in a Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy for his performance in Get Shorty and has received a total of six nominations, in 2014, he received the IIFA Award for Outstanding Achievement in International Cinema. Travolta, the youngest of six children, was born and raised in Englewood, New Jersey and his father, Salvatore Travolta, was a semi-professional American football player turned tire salesman and partner in a tire company. His mother, Helen Cecilia, was an actress and singer who had appeared in The Sunshine Sisters, a vocal group. His siblings, Joey, Ellen, Ann, Margaret, and his father was a second-generation Italian American and his mother was Irish American, he grew up in an Irish-American neighborhood and has said that his household was predominantly Irish in culture. He was raised Roman Catholic, but converted to Scientology in 1975, Travolta attended Dwight Morrow High School, but dropped out as a junior at age 17 in 1971. After attending Dwight Morrow High School, Travolta moved across the Hudson River to New York City and landed a role in the company of the musical Grease. Singing the Sherman Brothers song Dream Drummin and he then moved to Los Angeles to further his career in show business. Travoltas first California-filmed television role was as a victim in Emergency. In September 1972, but his first significant movie role was as Billy Nolan, around the same time, he landed his star-making role as Vinnie Barbarino in the TV sitcom Welcome Back, Kotter, in which his sister, Ellen, also occasionally appeared. Travolta had a hit single entitled Let Her In, peaking at ten on the Billboard Hot 100 chart in July 1976. In the next few years, he appeared in two of his most noted screen roles, Tony Manero in Saturday Night Fever and as Danny Zuko in Grease, the films were among the most commercially successful pictures of the decade and catapulted Travolta to international stardom. Saturday Night Fever earned him an Academy Award nomination for Best Actor, at age 24, Travolta became one of the youngest performers ever nominated for the Best Actor Oscar. His mother and his sister Ann appeared in roles in Saturday Night Fever. Travolta performed several of the songs on the Grease soundtrack album, in 1980, Travolta inspired a nationwide country music craze that followed on the heels of his hit film, Urban Cowboy, in which he starred with Debra Winger. After Urban Cowboy, Travolta starred in a series of financial and critical failures that sidelined his acting career and these included Perfect, co-starring Jamie Lee Curtis, and Two of a Kind, a romantic comedy reteaming him with Olivia Newton-John. During that time he was offered, but turned down, lead roles in what would become box office hits, including American Gigolo and An Officer and a Gentleman, both of which went to Richard Gere
3.
Paris Air Show
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The Paris Air Show claims to be the worlds calendar-oldest air show. Established in 1909, it is held every odd year at Le Bourget Airport in north Paris. The 2015 Paris Air Show, from 15–21 June 2015, became the 51st, the format is similar to the Farnborough International Airshow in Britain and the ILA Berlin Air Show, both of which are staged in alternate years to the Paris show. The Paris event starts with four days closed to the general public. The Paris Air Show is organised by the French aerospace industrys primary representative body, according to GIFAS, the 2011 Paris show attracted 151,500 professional visitors and 204,000 members of the general public, and 3,250 journalists from 80 countries. It is a commercial event, with a major purpose being to demonstrate military. It claims to be the most prestigious aircraft exposition in the world, major aircraft sales contracts are announced by manufacturers during the show. All major international manufacturers, as well as representatives of the forces of many countries. The Paris Air Show traces its history back to the first decade of the 20th century, in 1908 a section of the Paris Motor Show was dedicated to aircraft. The following year, an air show was held at the Grand Palais from 25 September to 17 October, during which 100,000 visitors turned out to see products. There were four further shows before the First World War, the show restarted in 1919, and from 1924 it was held every two years before being interrupted again by the Second World War. It restarted again in 1946 and since 1949, has held in every odd year. The air show continued to be held at the Grand Palais, in 1953, the show was relocated from the Grand Palais to Le Bourget. Since the 1970s, the show emerged as the international reference of the aeronautical sector. Among major accidents, there were two crashes of Convair B-58 Hustler bombers, in 1961 and 1965, at the Paris Air Show on June 3,1973, the second Tupolev Tu-144 production aircraft crashed during its display. It stalled while attempting a rapid climb, the cause of this accident remains controversial. A Mikoyan MiG-29 crashed during a flight with no loss of life. The then Soviet space shuttle Buran and its aircraft the Antonov An-225 were displayed
4.
Jet airliner
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A jet airliner is an airliner powered by jet engines. Airliners usually have two or four jet engines, three-engined designs were popular in the 1970s but are common today. Most airliners today are powered by jet engines, because they are capable of operating at high speeds. The first airliners, introduced in the 1950s, used the simpler turbojet engine, these were supplanted by designs using turbofans. Airliners are commonly classified as either the generally long-haul widebody aircraft and they retained the two inboard piston engines, the jets being housed in the outboard nacelles. The first airliner with jet power only was the Nene-powered Vickers VC.1 Viking G-AJPH, also developed in 1949 was the Avro Canada C102 Jetliner, which never reached production, however the term jetliner came into use as a generic term for passenger jet aircraft. National prestige was attached to developing prototypes and bringing these first generation designs into service, there was also a strong nationalism in purchasing policy, so that US Boeing and Douglas aircraft became closely associated with Pan Am, while BOAC ordered British Comets. Aeroflot used Soviet Tupolevs, while Air France introduced French Caravelles, Boeing became the most successful of the early manufacturers. The KC-135 Stratotanker and military versions of the 707 remain operational, the Pratt & Whitney JT3 turbojets powered the original Boeing 707 and DC-8 models, in the early 1960s the JT3 was modified into the JT3D low-bypass turbofan for long-range 707 and DC-8 variants. The second-generation of jet airliners was known for the advancement of turbofan technology, the rear-engined T-tail arrangement is still used for jetliners with a maximum takeoff weight of less than 50 tons. Other second-generation developments, such as rocket assisted takeoff, water-injection, and afterburners used on supersonic jetliners such as Concorde, the third generation of jet airliners introduced wide-body craft and high-bypass turbofan engines. There was also the debut of the European consortium Airbus. In 1978, Boeing unveiled the twin-engine Boeing 757 to replace its 727, the mid-size 757 and 767 launched to market success, due in part to 1980s extended-range twin-engine operational performance standards regulations governing transoceanic twinjet operations. These regulations allowed twin-engine airliners to make ocean crossings at up to three hours distance from emergency diversionary airports, under ETOPS rules, airlines began operating the 767 on long-distance overseas routes that did not require the capacity of larger airliners. By the late 1980s, DC-10 and L-1011 models were approaching retirement age, mcDonnell Douglas were working on the MD-11, a stretched and upgraded successor of the DC-10. Airbus, thanks to the success of its A320 family, developed the medium-range A330 twinjet, in 1988, Boeing began developing what would be the 777 twinjet, using the twin-engine configuration given past design successes, projected engine developments, and reduced-cost benefits. In addition, Boeing also released an update on their 747. Airliner Aviation Business jet Freight aircraft Jet aircraft Wide-body aircraft List of jet airliners
5.
Boeing Commercial Airplanes
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Boeing Commercial Airplanes is a division of The Boeing Company. It designs, assembles, markets, and sells jet airliners and business jets, it also provides product-related maintenance and training to customers worldwide. It operates from headquarters in Renton, Washington, with more than a dozen engineering, manufacturing. BCA includes the assets of the Douglas Aircraft division of the former McDonnell Douglas Corporation, Boeing Canada Boeing Training & Flight Services CDG Jeppesen, formerly Jeppesen Sanderson. Kevin G. McAllister was named President and CEO of Boeing Commercial Airplanes, McAllister is 53 years old and is a former executive at GE Aviation. For all models sold beginning with the Boeing 707 in 1957, all model designations from 707 through 787 have been assigned, leaving 797 as the only 7X7 model name not assigned to a product. Unlike other models, the 787 uses a single digit to designate the series and this convention was followed in the development of the newest version of the 747, the 747-8. The 747 is the model to use both the triple and single-digit designations. Passenger aircraft that are manufactured as passenger aircraft and later converted to freighter configuration by Boeing carry the suffix BCF designating a Boeing converted freighter. The table below lists only airliners from the jet era, the Boeing 707-138B was a shortened-fuselage, long-range model only sold to Qantas. The Boeing 757-200M was a model built for Royal Nepal Airlines. This plane could be converted between passenger and freighter configuration and it was launched by Royal Nepal Airlines in 1986 and delivered two years later. Boeing 747 The Shuttle Carrier Aircraft The Boeing 747 Large Cargo Freighter is a cargo aircraft. The 747SP production resumed nearly four years after the supposedly final 747SP was built and it had a cockpit crew of two instead of the three-crew layout of other 747SPs. Two Boeing VC-25s were built for the US Air Force as Presidential Air Force One transports and this model was a highly modified 747-200B. Boeing was a consultant to Sukhoi on the Russian Regional Jet program that became the Sukhoi Superjet 100 twin-engine narrowbody airliner. Boeing 2707 – supersonic airliner, canceled, Boeing 7J7 – high-efficiency propfan airliner, canceled and may later resume for Y1. Boeing 747-300 Trijet - high-efficiency trijet version of the Boeing 747-200, Boeing New Large Airplane – double-deck jumbo airliner, canceled
6.
Pan American World Airways
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It was also a founding member of the International Air Transport Association, the global airline industry association. Identified by its blue logo, the use of the word Clipper in aircraft names and call signs, and the white pilot uniform caps. In an era dominated by flag carriers that were wholly or majority government-owned, during most of the jet era, Pan Ams flagship terminal was the Worldport located at John F. Kennedy International Airport in New York City. Arnold and Spaatz drew up the prospectus for Pan American when SCADTA hired a company in Delaware to obtain air mail contracts from the U. S. government. Pan American was able to obtain the U. S. mail delivery contract to Cuba and their operation had the all-important landing rights for Havana, having acquired American International Airways, a small airline established in 1926 by John K. Bevier as a service from Key West, Florida, to Havana. ACA met its deadline of having an air service operating by October 19,1927 by chartering a Fairchild FC-2 floatplane from a small Dominican Republic carrier. The Atlantic, Gulf, and Caribbean Airways company was established on October 11,1927 by New York City investment banker Richard Hoyt and this company merged with PAA and ACA on June 23,1928. Richard Hoyt was named as president of the new Aviation Corporation of the Americas, Trippe became operational head of Pan American Airways, the new companys principal operating subsidiary. The government further helped Pan Am by insulating it from its U. S. competitors, the airline expanded internationally, benefiting from a virtual monopoly on foreign routes. Trippe and his associates planned to extend Pan Ams network through all of Central, by the end of the year, Pan Am offered flights along the west coast of South America to Peru. Its Brazilian subsidiary NYRBA do Brasil was later renamed as Panair do Brasil, Pan Am also partnered with Grace Shipping Company in 1929 to form Pan American-Grace Airways, better known as Panagra, to gain a foothold to destinations in South America. The Aviation Corporation of the Americas changed its name to Pan American Airways Corporation in 1931, during the day, use of the compass while judging drift from sea currents was normal procedure, at night, all flight crews were trained to use celestial navigation. In bad weather, pilots used dead reckoning and timed turns, making landings at fogged-in harbors by landing out to sea. Many pilots had merchant marine certifications and radio licenses as well as pilot certificates, before World War II it was not unusual for a captain to make engine repairs at remote locations. Pan Ams mechanics and support staff were similarly trained, newly hired applicants were frequently paired with experienced flight mechanics in several areas of the company until they had achieved proficiency in all aircraft types. Many crews supported repair operations by flying in spare parts to planes stranded overseas, Pan Am started its South American routes with Consolidated Commodore and Sikorsky S-38 flying boats. The S-40, larger than the eight-passenger S-38, began flying for Pan Am in 1931, carrying the nicknames American Clipper, Southern Clipper, and Caribbean Clipper, they were the first of the series of 28 Clippers that symbolized Pan Am between 1931 and 1946
7.
Trans World Airlines
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Trans World Airlines was a major American airline from 1924 until 2001. It was formed as Transcontinental & Western Air to operate a route from New York City to Los Angeles via St. Louis, Kansas City, and other stops, with Ford Trimotors. With American, United, and Eastern, it was one of the Big Four domestic airlines in the United States formed by the Spoils Conference of 1930. Hughes gave up control in the 1960s, and the new management of TWA acquired Hilton International and Century 21 in an attempt to diversify the companys business. As the Airline Deregulation Act of 1978 led to a wave of airline failures, start-ups, Carl Icahn acquired control of TWA and took the company private in a leveraged buyout in 1988. TWA became saddled with debt, sold its London routes, underwent Chapter 11 restructuring in 1992 and 1995, in 2001, TWA filed for a third and final bankruptcy and was acquired by American Airlines. American laid off many former TWA employees in the wake of the September 11,2001 attacks and closed its St. Louis hub in 2003. TWA was headquartered at one time in Kansas City, Missouri, and planned to make Kansas City International Airport its main domestic and international hub, the airline later developed its largest hub at Lambert-St. Its main trans-Atlantic hub was the TWA Flight Center at John F. Kennedy International Airport in New York City, TWAs corporate history dates from the July 16,1930, forced merger of Transcontinental Air Transport and Western Air Express to form Transcontinental & Western Air. The companies merged at the urging of Postmaster General Walter Folger Brown, both airlines brought high-profile aviation pioneers who would give the airline the panache of being called The Airline Run by Flyers. The airlines were known for years as being on the cutting edge of aviation. Transcontinental, the bigger of the two, had the expertise of Charles Lindbergh and was already offering a 48-hour combination of plane. Western, which was older, having been founded in 1925, had the expertise of Jack Frye. On October 25,1930, the airline offered one of the first all-plane scheduled service from coast to coast, the route took 36 hours and initially called for overnights in Kansas City. In summer 1931, TWA moved its headquarters from New York to Kansas City, investigation revealed that the wings wooden structure had deteriorated. In the wake of the crash, the Fokker F.10 was temporarily grounded, the F. 10s public image, and that of all wooden-structured aircraft, suffered badly from the crash. The dominant manufacturer of the day was Bill Boeing, but his contract with United Air Lines did not allow him to sell his 247 to competing lines, Frye and other members of TWA approached several other manufacturers, including Donald Douglas, with specifications for a larger plane. On September 20,1932, the contract was signed with Douglas and the DC-1 was delivered to TWA in December 1933 and this was followed by the delivery of 32 Douglas DC-2s that started operations in May 1934
8.
Continental Airlines
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Continental Airlines was a major United States airline, founded in 1934 and eventually headquartered in Houston, Texas. It had ownership interests and brand partnerships with several carriers, Continental was a minority owner of ExpressJet Airlines, which operated under the Continental Express trade name but was a separately managed and public company. Chautauqua Airlines also flew under the Continental Express identity, and Cape Air, Colgan Air, CommutAir, Continental did not have any ownership interests in these companies. Continental started out as one of the carriers in the United States. Post 1978, Continental grew into one of the countrys largest carriers despite facing financial troubles and other issues, in May 2010, the airline announced that it would merge with UAL Corporation, the parent company of United Airlines, via a stock swap. Continentals shares were acquired by UAL Corporation, the acquisition was completed in October 2010, at which time the holding company was renamed United Continental Holdings. During the integration period, each ran a separate operation under the direction of a combined leadership team. The integration was completed on March 3,2012, the airline commenced operations with the Lockheed Vega, a single-engine plane that carried four passengers. Following cancellation of all domestic airmail contracts by the Roosevelt administration in 1934, Six learned of an opportunity to buy into the Southwest Division of Varney Speed Lines which needed money to handle its newly won Pueblo-El Paso route. Six was introduced to Louis Mueller, Mueller had helped found the Southwest Division of Varney in 1934 with Walter T. Varney. As an upshot of all this, Six bought into the airline with US$90,000, Varney was awarded a 17-cent-rate airmail contract between Pueblo and El Paso, it carried passengers as a sideline. The carrier was renamed Continental Air Lines on July 8,1937, Six relocated the airlines headquarters to Denver Union Airport in Denver in October 1937. Six changed the name to Continental because he wanted the name to reflect his desire to have the airline fly all directions throughout the United States. During World War II Continentals Denver maintenance base converted Boeing B-17 Flying Fortresses, Boeing B-29 Superfortresses, profits from military transportation and aircraft conversion enabled Continental to contemplate expansion and acquisition of new airliners after the war. Among those were the Douglas DC-3, the Convair 240 and the Convair 340, the Convairs were Continentals first pressurized airliners. The airlines early route was El Paso to Denver, with routes being added during the war from Denver and Albuquerque across Kansas, Oklahoma, in 1946 Continental flew Denver to Kansas City, Tulsa, and to Oklahoma City, and from El Paso and Albuquerque to San Antonio. Each route included stops in several of 22 smaller cities, in 1955 Continental merged with Pioneer Airlines, gaining access to 16 more cities in Texas and New Mexico. Pioneers Executive Vice President Harding Luther Lawrence arrived at Continental as a result of the merger, Bob Six commented on more than on occasion that, the reason we bought Pioneer was to get Harding
9.
Saha Airlines
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Saha Airlines is an Iranian airlines based in Tehran that operating scheduled domestic flights. The company was established in 1990 as Saha Airlines and was owned by the Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force. It operated domestic services using two Airbus A300s and one Boeing 707, with cargo charters having been carried out with two Boeing 747 freighters when required. It was the last civil operator of the Boeing 707, on 3 May 2013, all flight operations were suspended until 2017 that Saha Airlines with procurement of two new aircraft began operating again. Gears and/or a tire failed after touchdown and the flight overran the far end of the runway, of the 12 crew and 157 passengers on board,3 passengers were killed
10.
Boeing 367-80
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The Boeing 367-80, known simply as the Dash 80, was an American four-engine prototype aircraft built by Boeing to demonstrate the advantages of jet propulsion for commercial aviation. It served as base for the design of the KC-135 tanker, the Dash 80 first flew in 1954, less than two years from project launch. Its US$16 million cost was a risk for Boeing, which at the time had no committed customers. Only one example was built, which has preserved and is currently on public display at the Udvar-Hazy Center in Virginia. By the late 1940s two developments encouraged Boeing to begin considering building a passenger jet, the first was the maiden flight in 1947 of the B-47 Stratojet. The second was the flight in 1949 of the world’s first jet airliner. Boeing felt it had mastered the swept wing and podded engines which it saw as key technologies that would enable it to improve on the Comet, in 1950 Boeing tentatively produced a specification for a jet airliner dubbed the Model 473-60C. Boeing was experienced at selling to the military but had not enjoyed the success with civil airliners. Boeing decided the way to overcome the airlines suspicion of the jet –. As the first of a new generation of jets, Boeing wanted the aircrafts model number to emphasize the difference from its previous propeller-driven aircraft which bore 300-series numbers. The 400-, 500- and 600-series were already used by missiles and other products, so Boeing decided that the jets would bear 700-series numbers, and the first would be the 707. Although the design was announced publicly as the Model 707, the prototype was referred to within Boeing simply as the Dash 80 or -80. The Dash 80 fuselage was wide enough at 132 inches for five-abreast seating, the fuselage diameter for the production KC-135 was widened to 144 inches and Boeing originally hoped to build the 707 fuselage with that width. This decision did not unduly delay introduction of the model since the -80 had been largely hand-built. By early 1952 the designs were complete and in April the Boeing board approved the program, construction of the Dash 80 started in November in a walled-off section of Boeings Renton plant. As a proof of concept prototype there was no certification and no production line, the aircraft was not fitted with an airline cabin, a plywood lining housed the instrumentation for the flight test program. The Dash 80 rolled out of the factory on May 15,1954, during a series of taxi trials the port landing gear collapsed on May 22, the damage was quickly repaired and the first flight was on July 15,1954. Following flights revealed a propensity to Dutch roll - an alternating yawing and rolling motion, Boeing already had experience with this on the B-47 Stratojet and B-52 Stratofortress and had developed a yaw damper system on the B-47 that could be adapted to the Dash 80
11.
Boeing 720
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The Boeing 720 is a four-engine narrow-body short- to medium-range passenger jet airliner. Developed by Boeing in the late 1950s from the Boeing 707, the 720 first flew in November 1959 and the model entered service with launch customer United Airlines in July 1960. Two primary versions of the aircraft were built, the original 720 with Pratt & Whitney JT3C turbojet engines entered service in 1960, while the improved 720B with Pratt & Whitney JT3D turbofans entered service in 1961. Some 720s were later converted to 720B specification, although only 154 were built, the Boeing 720 and 720B were profitable due to the low research and development costs of their being slightly modified versions of the 707-120. They were later replaced by the Boeing 727, some 720s are on display at the Utah Aviation Museum. Boeing announced its plans to develop a new version of the 707 in July 1957 and it was developed from the 707-120 to provide for short- to medium-range flights from shorter runways. The model was originally designated 707-020 before being changed to 720 at the input of United Airlines, compared to the 707-120, it has four fewer frames in front of the wing and one fewer aft, a total length reduction of 8 feet 4 inches. The new model was designed to a maximum takeoff weight with a modified wing. This modification increased the top speed over the -120 and it had four Pratt & Whitney JT3C-7 turbojet engines producing 12,500 lbf each. Because the aircraft systems were similar to the Boeing 707, no prototype Boeing 720 was built, the first 720 took its maiden flight on November 23,1959. The type certificate for the 720 was issued on June 30,1960 and it was first put into service by United Airlines on July 5,1960,65 of the original version were built. The 720B version of the 720 had JT3D turbofan engines, producing 17,000 lbf each, the JT3D engines had lower fuel consumption and higher thrust. The maximum takeoff weight for the 720B was increased to 234,000 lb, as a modification of an existing model, the 720 had minimal research and development costs, which allowed it to be successful despite few sales. The company built 154 Boeing 720s and 720Bs from 1959 to 1967, the 720s wing modification was later added on the -120B and on -120s retrofitted to the B standard. The Boeing 720 is a four-engined low-wing cantilever monoplane, the rearmost of the 707s over-wing emergency exits was deleted on each side, which reduced passenger capacity, while two over-wing exits were an option for higher-density configurations. The 720 uses a wing based on the 707 wing. The wingspan remained the same as the 707-120, for the 720, the wing was changed between the fuselage and inner engines by adding a wing root glove. This glove reduced the drag of the wing by decambering the root, the wing root glove reportedly increased the drag divergence Mach number of the wing by Mach 0.02
12.
Boeing C-137 Stratoliner
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The Boeing C-137 Stratoliner was a VIP transport aircraft derived from the Boeing 707 jet airliner used by the United States Air Force. Other nations also bought new and used 707s for military service, primarily as VIP or tanker transports. In addition, the 707 served as the basis for several specialized versions, the designation C-18 covers several later variants based on the 707-320B/C series. USAF procurement of the Boeing 707 was very limited, amounting to three Model 707-153s designated VC-137A. When delivered in 1959 these had four 13,500 lb dry thrust Pratt & Whitney J57 turbojets, Two further non-presidential C-137C aircraft were later added. To supplement its VC-137s, the USAF converted several C-135 airframes to VC-135 VIP standard, the C-18 is the US military designation for the conversions of the 707-320B series. C-18B One C-18A modified with instrumentation and equipment to support the Military Strategic, eC-18B Four C-18As modified alongside examples of the C-135 for Advanced Range Instrumentation Aircraft missions in support of the Apollo space program. The designation E-7 was originally applied to modified Boeing 707s before being replaced by the EC-18 designation, eC-18C Original designation for two prototype J-STAR aircraft, later redesignated E-8A. EC-18D Two C-18As modified as a Cruise Missile Mission Control Aircraft, tC-18E Two second-hand 707-331 aircraft modified for E-3 pilot and crew training. TC-18F Two second-hand 707-382 aircraft modified for E-6 pilot training, VC-137B The three VC-137As re-engined with four Pratt & Whitney JT3D-3 engines, operated by the 89th Military Airlift Wing, redesignated C-137B. C-137B The three VC-137Bs redesignated when downgraded from VIP role, vC-137C Two 707-353Bs were purchased by the USAF for service as presidential transports with call signs SAM26000 and SAM27000, later redesignated C-137C. C-137C The two VC-137Cs were redesignated when downgraded from presidential use, Two further C-137Cs were acquired by the USAF, one 707-396C and one 707-382B bought second hand in 1987. EC-137D Two aircraft built as Early Warning and Control System prototypes, a further second-hand 707-355C aircraft was acquired and configured as an airborne special operations command post. Boeing E-3 Sentry Airborne warning and control aircraft that provides all-weather surveillance, command, control and communications, to the United States, NATO. Based on the 707-320B, production ended in 1992 after 68 had been built, Boeing E-6 Mercury A version of the 707-320, it operates as an airborne command post and communications center, relaying instructions from the National Command Authority. Its role in relaying to the ballistic missile submarines, known as Take Charge and Move Out. Only one version of the E-6 currently exists, the E-6B, cT-49A NATO Trainer-Cargo Aircraft operated to support E-3A AWACS training and air transport/cargo for NATO based on Boeing 707-320B. CC-137 Husky Canadian Forces designation for the 707-347C, five were purchased new in 1970
13.
Boeing E-3 Sentry
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The Boeing E-3 Sentry, commonly known as AWACS, is an American airborne early warning and control aircraft developed by Boeing as the prime contractor. The E-3 is distinguished by the rotating radar dome above the fuselage. Production ended in 1992 after 68 aircraft had been built, in the mid-1960s, the US Air Force was seeking an aircraft to replace its piston-engined Lockheed EC-121 Warning Star, which had been in service for over a decade. After issuing preliminary development contracts to three companies, the USAF picked Boeing to construct two airframes to test Westinghouse Electric and Hughess competing radars, both radars used pulse-Doppler technology, with Westinghouses design emerging as the contract winner. Testing on the first production E-3 began in October 1975, the first USAF E-3 was delivered in March 1977, and during the next seven years, a total of 34 aircraft were manufactured. NATO, as an identity, also had 18 aircraft manufactured. The E-3 was also sold to the United Kingdom and France, in 1991, when the last aircraft had been delivered, E-3s participated in Operation Desert Storm, playing a crucial role of directing coalition aircraft against the enemy. Throughout the aircrafts service life, numerous upgrades were performed to enhance its capabilities, in 1963, the USAF asked for proposals for an Airborne Warning and Control System to replace its EC-121 Warning Stars, which had served in the airborne early warning role for over a decade. The new aircraft would take advantage of improvements in technology and in computer aided radar data analysis. Contracts were issued to Boeing, Douglas, and Lockheed, the latter being eliminated in July 1966, in 1967, a parallel program was put into place to develop the radar, with Westinghouse Electric and the Hughes Aircraft being asked to compete in producing the radar system. In 1968, it was referred to as Overland Radar Technology during development tests on the modified EC-121Q, the Westinghouse radar antenna was going to be used by whichever company won the radar competition, since Westinghouse had pioneered in the design of high-power RF phase-shifters. Boeing initially proposed an aircraft, but tests indicated it would not outperform the already-operational 707. To increase endurance, this design was to be powered by eight General Electric TF34s and it would carry its radar in a rotating dome mounted at the top of a forward-swept tail, above the fuselage. Boeing was selected ahead of McDonnell Douglass DC-8-based proposal in July 1970, initial orders were placed for two aircraft, designated EC-137D as test beds to evaluate the two competing radars. The first EC-137 made its flight on 9 February 1972. Favorable test results led to the selection of Westinghouses radar for the production aircraft, Hughess radar was initially thought to be a certain winner, simply because much of its design was also going into the new F-15 Eagles radar program. The Westinghouse radar used a pipelined fast fourier transform to digitally resolve 128 Doppler frequencies, Westinghouses engineering team won this competition by using a programmable 18-bit computer whose software could be modified before each mission. This computer was the AN/AYK-8 design from the B-57G program, and this radar also multiplexed a beyond-the-horizon pulse mode that could complement the pulse-Doppler radar mode
14.
Boeing E-6 Mercury
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The Boeing E-6 Mercury is an airborne command post and communications relay based on the Boeing 707-320. The original E-6A manufactured by Boeings defense division entered service with the United States Navy in July 1989 and it conveyed instructions from the National Command Authority to fleet ballistic missile submarines, a mission known as TACAMO. The E-6B model deployed in October 1998 kept this role, but added further command post capabilities and control of land-based missiles, the E-6B replaced Air Force EC-135Cs in the Looking Glass role, providing command and control of U. S. nuclear forces should ground-based control become inoperable. With production lasting until 1991, the E-6 was the new derivative of the Boeing 707 to be built. Like the E-3 Sentry airborne warning and control aircraft, the E-6 is adapted from Boeings 707-320 airliner. The first E-6 made its flight from Boeings Renton Factory on 19 February 1987. The aircraft was delivered to the Navy for testing on 22 July 1988, the E-6A was renamed Mercury in autumn 1991 by request of the US Navy. Sixteen were delivered from 1988 to 1992, the E-6B is an upgrade of the E-6A. It included an area and updated mission equipment. The flight deck systems were replaced with an off-the-shelf 737 Next Generation cockpit. This greatly increases the awareness of the pilot and saves significant cost over the previous custom avionics package. The first E-6B was accepted in December 1997, all 16 E-6A aircraft were modified to the E-6B standard, with the final delivery taking place on 1 December 2006. The term looking glass is used because it mirrors the abilities of the US Navy to control nuclear forces, the E-6 fleet is based at Tinker Air Force Base, Oklahoma, and operated by Fleet Air Reconnaissance Squadron 3 and VQ-4. Data from Navy Fact File General characteristics Crew,22 Capacity,22 Length,150 ft 4 in Wingspan,148 ft 4 in Height,42 ft 5 in Loaded weight,342,000 lb Max. Takeoff weight,342,000 lb Powerplant,4 × CFM International CFM56-2A-2 high-bypass turbofans Performance Maximum speed, Mach 0. org E-6 Mercury page on tech. military. com
15.
Northrop Grumman E-8 Joint STARS
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The Northrop Grumman E-8 Joint Surveillance Target Attack Radar System is a United States Air Force Airborne ground surveillance, battle management and command and control aircraft. It tracks ground vehicles and some aircraft, collects imagery, and relays tactical pictures to ground, the aircraft is operated by both active duty Air Force and Air National Guard units and also carries specially trained U. S. Army personnel as additional flight crew. Joint STARS evolved from separate United States Army and Air Force programs to develop, detect, locate, in 1982, the programs were merged and the U. S. Air Force became the lead agent. The concept and sensor technology for the E-8 was developed and tested on the Tacit Blue experimental aircraft, the prime contract was awarded to Grumman Aerospace Corporation in September 1985 for two E-8A development systems. In late 2005, Northrop Grumman was awarded a contract for upgrading engines, pratt & Whitney, in a joint venture with Seven Q Seven, will produce and deliver JT8D-219 engines for the E-8s. Their greater efficiency will allow the Joint STARS to spend time on station, take off from a wider range of runways, climb faster. In December 2008, an E-8C test aircraft took its first flight with the new engines, in 2009, the company began engine replacement and additional upgrade efforts. However, the funding was temporarily halted in 2009 as the Air Force began to consider other options for performing the JSTARS mission. The Air Force began an analysis of alternatives in March 2010 for its next generation ground moving target indication radar aircraft fleet. The study was completed in March 2012 and recommended buying a new business jet-based ISR aircraft, such as an Air Force version of the Navy P-8 Poseidon, and the RQ-4B Global Hawk Block 40. However, at a Senate Armed Services Committee meeting on 20 March 2012, the E-8 is considered viable in the near and medium terms. As of October 2012, a test plane has had a Hewlett-Packard central computer installed, before the AOA started, Northrop Grumman received funds for two batches of new engines. One set of engines has flown on a JSTARS test plane, the Air Force does not plan to replace the engines of the 16-plane fleet due to the fiscal environment. The company wants to replace the aircrafts data link, but the Air Force will not, due to cost, Northrop also wants to upgrade its communications with Force XXI Battle Command Brigade and Below because of the Armys shift towards the system. The Air Force says JSTARS is in a phase of the capability improvements and is expected to remain in operation through 2030, on 23 January 2014, the USAF revealed a plan for the acquisition of a new business jet-class replacement for the E-8C JSTARS. The program is called JSTARS Recap and plans for the aircraft to reach operating capability by 2022. The airframe must be efficient, and separate contracts will be awarded for developing the aircraft, airborne sensor, battle management command and control system. JSTARS Recap is currently unfunded and the Air Force FY2014 budget did not include requests, the program may be launched in FY2015
16.
Nautical mile
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A nautical mile is a unit of measurement defined as exactly 1852 meters. Historically, it was defined as one minute of latitude, which is equivalent to one sixtieth of a degree of latitude. Today it is an SI derived unit, being rounded to a number of meters. The derived unit of speed is the knot, defined as one mile per hour. The geographical mile is the length of one minute of longitude along the Equator, there is no internationally agreed symbol. M is used as the abbreviation for the mile by the International Hydrographic Organization and by the International Bureau of Weights. NM is used by the International Civil Aviation Organization, nm is used by the U. S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Nmi is used by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, the word mile is from the Latin word for a thousand paces, mīlia. In 1617 the Dutch scientist Snell assessed the circumference of the Earth at 24,630 Roman miles, around that time British mathematician Edmund Gunter improved navigational tools including a new quadrant to determine latitude at sea. He reasoned that the lines of latitude could be used as the basis for a unit of measurement for distance, as one degree is 1/360 of a circle, one minute of arc is 1/21600 of a circle. These sexagesimal units originated in Babylonian astronomy, Gunter used Snells circumference to define a nautical mile as 6,080 feet, the length of one minute of arc at 48 degrees latitude.3 metres. Other countries measure the minute of arc at 45 degrees latitude, in 1929, the international nautical mile was defined by the First International Extraordinary Hydrographic Conference in Monaco as 1,852 meters. Imperial units and United States customary units used a definition of the nautical mile based on the Clarke Spheroid, the United States nautical mile was defined as 6,080.20 feet based in the Mendenhall Order foot of 1893. It was abandoned in favour of the nautical mile in 1954.181 meters. It was abandoned in 1970 and, legally, references to the unit are now converted to 1,853 meters. Conversion of units Orders of magnitude
17.
Podded engine
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A podded engine is a jet engine in a pod, typically attached below the wing or to the tail of the aircraft. The pod itself is called a nacelle, placing engines on the wing provides beneficial wing bending relief in flight. The further the engines are away from the fuselage the greater the wing bending relief so engines buried in the wing root provide little relief, almost all modern large jet airplanes use engines in pods located a significant distance from the wing root for substantial wing bending relief. The pods are in front of the wing to avoid flutter of the wing which, in turn. Locating the pod below the wing provides each engine with air undisturbed by the fuselage or wing, smaller jet airplanes like the Cessna Citation are generally not suited to podded engines below the wing because they would be too close to the ground. This is also the case with aircraft designed to operate from unimproved grass or gravel runways. Instead, in cases it is common to mount two podded engines located at the rear of the fuselage, where they are less likely to be damaged by ingesting foreign objects from the ground. This mounting location provides no wing bending relief but, following an engine failure, careful examination of such engines will show them typically mounted nose-high. These engines are mounted to face the local flow of air, the Antonov An-72 and the Boeing YC-14 also place their engines above the wings, but very close to the wing. This placement utilizes the Coandă effect allowing a lower minimum flight speed and decreasing the amount of runway needed for takeoff, another unusual scheme is to mount the engine in a pod above the fuselage. The Heinkel He 162, and the Cirrus Vision SF50 are two examples, in both cases the idea is to mount the engine where it will receive good air flow, be distant from the ground to avoid foreign object damage, and not occupy fuselage space. The Piper PA-47 PiperJet is similar except the pod is attached to the tail above the fuselage, some jet fighters use podded engines, typically under and mounted directly to the wing. An example was the Messerschmitt Me 262, which had the nacelles mounted directly under the wings, the A-10 Thunderbolt II ground-attack aircraft uses fuselage-mounted podded turbofan engines. The Heinkel He 162 had a single BMW 003E jet engine in a pod mounted over the fuselage, stealthy designs do not use podded engines. Instead the engines are contained within the fuselage to minimize radar cross section, many military transport aircraft, bombers, and tankers use podded engines. On the wings can act as vortex generators, can be located significantly outboard on the wing, where the wing thickness is too small to accommodate a buried engine. The further outboard, the greater the wing bending relief, in front of the wing provide maximum resistance to flutter of the wing. This is why almost all of the pod is located ahead of the leading edge of the wing
18.
Aviation
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Aviation is the practical aspect or art of aeronautics, being the design, development, production, operation and use of aircraft, especially heavier than air aircraft. The word aviation was coined by French writer and former naval officer Gabriel La Landelle in 1863, from the verb avier, itself derived from the Latin word avis and the suffix -ation. The modern age of aviation began with the first untethered human lighter-than-air flight on November 21,1783, the practicality of balloons was limited because they could only travel downwind. It was immediately recognized that a steerable, or dirigible, balloon was required, jean-Pierre Blanchard flew the first human-powered dirigible in 1784 and crossed the English Channel in one in 1785. Rigid airships became the first aircraft to transport passengers and cargo over great distances, the best known aircraft of this type were manufactured by the German Zeppelin company. The most successful Zeppelin was the Graf Zeppelin and it flew over one million miles, including an around-the-world flight in August 1929. However, the dominance of the Zeppelins over the airplanes of that period, the Golden Age of the airships ended on May 6,1937 when the Hindenburg caught fire, killing 36 people. The cause of the Hindenburg accident was blamed on the use of hydrogen instead of helium as the lift gas. An internal investigation by the manufacturer revealed the coating used to protect the material over the frame was highly flammable. Changes to the coating formulation reduced the risk of further Hindenburg type accidents, although there have been periodic initiatives to revive their use, airships have seen only niche application since that time. In 1799 Sir George Cayley set forth the concept of the airplane as a fixed-wing flying machine with separate systems for lift, propulsion. Seven years later, on 14 October 1897, Aders Avion III was tested without success in front of two officials from the French War ministry, the report on the trials was not publicized until 1910, as they had been a military secret. In November 1906 Ader claimed to have made a flight on 14 October 1897. Although widely believed at the time, these claims were later discredited, however, the most widely accepted date is December 17,1903 by the Wright brothers. The Wright brothers were the first to fly in a powered and controlled aircraft, previous flights were gliders or free flight, but the Wright brothers combined both, setting the new standard in aviation records. Aircraft began to transport people and cargo as designs grew larger, the Wright brothers took aloft the first passenger, Charles Furnas, one of their mechanics, on May 14,1908. By the beginning of World War II, many towns and cities had built airports, the war brought many innovations to aviation, including the first jet aircraft and the first liquid-fueled rockets. Manufacturers such as Cessna, Piper, and Beechcraft expanded production to provide aircraft for the new middle-class market
19.
Boeing 727
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The Boeing 727 is a midsized, narrow-body three-engined jet aircraft built by Boeing Commercial Airplanes from the early 1960s to 1984. It can carry 149 to 189 passengers and later models can fly up to 2,700 nautical miles nonstop, intended for short and medium-length flights, the 727 can use relatively short runways at smaller airports. It has three Pratt & Whitney JT8D engines below the T-tail, one on side of the rear fuselage with a center engine that connects through an S-duct to an inlet at the base of the fin. The 727 is Boeings only trijet aircraft, the 727 followed the 707, a quad-jet airliner, with which it shares its upper fuselage cross-section and cockpit design. The 727-100 first flew in February 1963 and entered service with Eastern Air Lines in February 1964, the 727 became a mainstay of airlines domestic route networks and was also used on short- and medium-range international routes. Passenger, freighter, and convertible versions of the 727 were built, the 727 was heavily produced into the 1970s, the last 727 was completed in 1984. As of July 2016, a total of 64 Boeing 727s were in service with 26 airlines, plus a few more in government. Airport noise regulations have led to 727s being equipped with hush kits, United Airlines requested a four-engine aircraft for its flights to high-altitude airports, especially its hub at Stapleton International Airport in Denver, Colorado. American Airlines, which was operating the four-engined Boeing 707 and Boeing 720, eventually, the three airlines agreed on a trijet design for the new aircraft. In 1959, Lord Douglas, chairman of British European Airways, suggested that Boeing and de Havilland Aircraft Company work together on their trijet designs, the two designs had a similar layout, the 727 being slightly larger. At that time Boeing intended to use three Allison AR963 turbofan engines, license-built versions of the Rolls-Royce RB163 Spey used by the Trident, Boeing and de Havilland each sent engineers to the other companys locations to evaluate each others designs, but Boeing eventually decided against the joint venture. Once Pratt & Whitney agreed to go ahead with development of the JT8D, Eddie Rickenbacker, chairman of the board of Eastern, told Boeing that the airline preferred the JT8D for its 727s. Boeing had not offered the JT8D, as it was about 1,000 lb heavier than the RB163, though more powerful. Boeing reluctantly agreed to offer the JT8D as an option on the 727, with high-lift devices on its wing, the 727 could use shorter runways than most earlier jets. The airliners middle engine at the rear of the fuselage gets air from an inlet ahead of the vertical fin through an S-shaped duct. This S-duct proved to be troublesome in that flow distortion in the duct induced a surge in the engine on the take-off of the first flight of the 727-100. This was fixed by the addition of several large vortex generators in the inside of the first bend of the duct, the 727 was designed for smaller airports, so independence from ground facilities was an important requirement. This led to one of the 727s most distinctive features, the built-in airstair that opens from the underbelly of the fuselage
20.
Boeing 737
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The Boeing 737 is an American short- to medium-range twinjet narrow-body airliner. The 737 is Boeings only narrow-body airliner in production, with the 737 Next Generation variants currently being built, production has also begun on the re-engined and redesigned 737 MAX, which is set to enter service in 2017. Originally envisioned in 1964, the initial 737-100 made its first flight in April 1967, Next, the lengthened 737-200 entered service in April 1968. In the 1980s Boeing launched the -300, -400, and -500 models, the 737 Classics added capacity and incorporated CFM56 turbofan engines along with wing improvements. In the 1990s, Boeing introduced the 737 Next Generation, with changes including a redesigned, increased span laminar flow wing, upgraded glass cockpit. The 737 Next Generation comprises the four -600, -700, -800, Boeing Business Jet versions of the 737 Next Generation are also produced. The 737 series is the best-selling jet commercial airliner in history, the 737 has been continuously manufactured by Boeing since 1967 with 9,401 aircraft delivered and 4,423 orders yet to be fulfilled as of February 2017. Assembly of the 737 is performed at the Boeing Renton Factory in Renton, Washington, many 737s serve markets previously filled by 707,727,757, DC-9, and MD-80/MD-90 airliners, and the aircraft currently competes primarily with the Airbus A320 family. As of 2006, there were an average of 1,250 Boeing 737s airborne at any given time, Boeing had been studying short-haul jet aircraft designs and wanted to produce another aircraft to supplement the 727 on short and thin routes. Preliminary design work began on May 11,1964, and Boeings intense market research yielded plans for a 50- to 60-passenger airliner for routes 50 to 1,000 mi long, consultation with Lufthansa over the previous winter resulted in an increase in capacity to 100 seats. On April 5,1965, Boeing announced an order by United Airlines for 40 737s, United wanted a slightly larger airplane than the original 737. So Boeing stretched the fuselage 91 centimeters ahead of, and 102 cm behind the wing, the longer version was designated 737-200, with the original short-body aircraft becoming the 737-100. Detailed design work continued on both variants at the same time, Boeing was far behind its competitors when the 737 was launched, as rival aircraft BAC-111, Douglas DC-9, and Fokker F28 were already into flight certification. To expedite development, Boeing used 60% of the structure and systems of the existing 727 and this fuselage permitted six-abreast seating compared to the rival BAC-111 and DC-9s five-abreast layout. Design engineers decided to mount the nacelles directly to the underside of the wings to reduce the landing gear length and kept the low to the ground for easy ramp inspection. Originally, the arrangement of the airfoil sections of the 737 wing was planned to be very similar to that of the 707 and 727. However, an improvement in drag at high Mach numbers was achieved by altering these sections near the nacelle. The engine chosen was the Pratt & Whitney JT8D-1 low-bypass ratio turbofan engine, with the wing-mounted engines, Boeing decided to mount the horizontal stabilizer on the fuselage rather than the T-tail style of the Boeing 727
21.
Boeing 757
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The Boeing 757 is a mid-size, narrow-body twin-engine jet airliner that was designed and built by Boeing Commercial Airplanes. It is the manufacturers largest single-aisle passenger aircraft and was produced from 1981 to 2004. Intended to replace the smaller three-engine 727 on short and medium routes, the 757 was designed concurrently with a wide-body twinjet, the 767, and owing to shared features pilots can obtain a common type rating that allows them to operate both aircraft. The 757 was produced in two fuselage lengths, the original 757-200 entered service in 1983, the 757-200PF, a package freighter variant, and the 757-200M, a passenger-freighter combi model, debuted in the late 1980s. The stretched 757-300, the longest narrow-body twinjet ever produced, began service in 1999, passenger 757-200s have been modified to special freighter specification for cargo use, while military derivatives include the C-32 transport, VIP carriers, and other multi-purpose aircraft. Private and government operators have also customized the 757 for research, all 757s are powered by Rolls-Royce RB211 or Pratt & Whitney PW2000 series turbofans. Eastern Air Lines and British Airways placed the 757 in commercial service in 1983, the narrow-body twinjet succeeded earlier single-aisle airliners, and became commonly used for short and mid-range domestic routes, shuttle services, and transcontinental U. S. flights. After regulators granted approval for extended flights over water in 1986, major customers for the 757 included U. S. mainline carriers, European charter airlines, and cargo companies. The airliner has recorded eight hull-loss accidents, including seven fatal crashes, production of the 757 ended in October 2004, after 1,050 had been built for 54 customers. The 757-200 was by far the most popular model, with 913 built, diminished sales amid an airline industry trend toward smaller jetliners led Boeing to end production without a direct replacement, in favor of the 737 family. The last 757 was delivered to Shanghai Airlines in November 2005, in July 2015,738 of the narrow-body twinjets were in airline service, Delta Air Lines is the largest operator with 138 aircraft. In the early 1970s, following the launch of the wide-body 747, designed for short and medium length routes, the three-engined 727 was the best-selling commercial jetliner of the 1960s and a mainstay of the U. S. domestic airline market. Studies focused on improving the 189-seat 727-200, the most successful 727 variant, two approaches were considered, a stretched 727-300, and an all-new aircraft code-named 7N7. United Airlines provided input for the proposed 727-300, which Boeing was poised to launch in late 1975, although the 727-300 was offered to Braniff International Airways and other carriers, customer interest remained insufficient for further development. Instead, airlines were drawn to the high-bypass-ratio turbofan engines, new flight technologies, lower weight, improved aerodynamics. These features were included in a parallel development effort for a new mid-size wide-body airliner, code-named 7X7. Work on both proposals accelerated as a result of the airline industry upturn in the late 1970s, by 1978, development studies focused on two variants, a 7N7-100 with seating for 160, and a 7N7-200 with room for over 180 seats. New features included a wing, under-wing engines, and lighter materials, while the forward fuselage, cockpit layout
22.
Prototype
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A prototype is an early sample, model, or release of a product built to test a concept or process or to act as a thing to be replicated or learned from. It is a used in a variety of contexts, including semantics, design, electronics. A prototype is used to evaluate a new design to enhance precision by system analysts. Prototyping serves to provide specifications for a real, working system rather than a theoretical one, in some design workflow models, creating a prototype is the step between the formalization and the evaluation of an idea. The word prototype derives from the Greek πρωτότυπον prototypon, primitive form, neutral of πρωτότυπος prototypos, original, primitive, from πρῶτος protos, first and τύπος typos, a Working Prototype represents all or nearly all of the functionality of the final product. A Visual Prototype represents the size and appearance, but not the functionality, a User Experience Prototype represents enough of the appearance and function of the product that it can be used for user research. A Functional Prototype captures both function and appearance of the design, though it may be created with different techniques. A Paper Prototype is a printed or hand-drawn representation of the interface of a software product. In some cases, the final production materials may still be undergoing development themselves, process - Mass-production processes are often unsuitable for making a small number of parts, so prototypes may be made using different fabrication processes than the final product. Differences in fabrication process may lead to differences in the appearance of the prototype as compared to the final product, verification - The final product may be subject to a number of quality assurance tests to verify conformance with drawings or specifications. These tests may involve custom inspection fixtures, statistical sampling methods, prototypes are generally made with much closer individual inspection and the assumption that some adjustment or rework will be part of the fabrication process. Prototypes may also be exempted from some requirements that apply to the final product. Engineers and prototype specialists will attempt to minimize the impact of these differences on the role for the prototype. Engineers and prototyping specialists seek to understand the limitations of prototypes to exactly simulate the characteristics of their intended design and it is important to realize that by their very definition, prototypes will represent some compromise from the final production design. Due to differences in materials, processes and design fidelity, it is possible that a prototype may fail to perform acceptably whereas the design may have been sound. In general, it can be expected that individual prototype costs will be greater than the final production costs due to inefficiencies in materials. Prototypes are also used to revise the design for the purposes of reducing costs through optimization and it is possible to use prototype testing to reduce the risk that a design may not perform as intended, however prototypes generally cannot eliminate all risk. As an alternative, rapid prototyping or rapid application development techniques are used for the prototypes, which implement part
23.
Pratt & Whitney J57
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The Pratt & Whitney J57 was an axial-flow turbojet engine developed by Pratt & Whitney in the early 1950s. The J57 was the first 10,000 lbf thrust class engine in the United States, the J57/JT3C was developed into the J75/JT4A turbojet, JT3D/TF33 turbofan and the PT5/T57 turboprop. The J57 was a development of the XT45 turboprop engine intended for the XB-52, as the B-52 power requirements grew, the design evolved into a turbojet, the JT3. The prestigious Collier Trophy for 1952 was awarded to Leonard S. Hobbs, Chief Engineer of United Aircraft Corporation, on May 25,1953, a J57-powered YF-100A exceeded Mach 1 on its maiden flight. The engine was produced from 1951 to 1965 with a total of 21,170 built, one XT57 was installed in the nose of a JC-124C, and tested in 1956
24.
Rolls-Royce Conway
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The Rolls-Royce RB.80 Conway was the first by-pass engine in the world to enter service. Development started at Rolls-Royce in the 1940s, but it was used briefly in the late 1950s. The Conway powered versions of the Handley Page Victor, Vickers VC10, Boeing 707-420, the name Conway is an Anglo-Saxon permutation of River Conwy, in Wales, in keeping with Rolls use of river names for gas turbine engines. In early jet engines the exhaust was much faster and hotter than it had to be for efficient thrust, the turboprop is an obvious example, which uses a series of additional turbine stages to capture this energy to power a propeller. However, there is a tradeoff in propeller efficiency compared to speed, so while the turboprops are efficient engines. This meant there was a spot between the high efficiencies of the turboprop at low speeds and the jet at high speeds that was not being directly addressed. This spot, between about 450 mph and 700 mph, was precisely where the vast majority of commercial jet aircraft spent most of their time, the basic concept of bypass had been studied from the earliest days of jet engine design. Frank Whittles Power Jets also studied a number of bypass configurations, however, the need to get jet engines into service during the war meant this work had to be put aside in favour of the simpler turbojet designs with shorter introduction times. Rolls-Royce termed the design a Bypass Turbojet, griffith suggested building a purely experimental bypass design using parts of the Avon and another experimental jet engine, the AJ.25 Tweed.2 low-level version of the Vickers Valiant bomber. A go-ahead to start construction of larger design was given in October, under the RB.80 name. During development it was decided to improve the basic design by adding another feature then becoming common. Earlier engines generally consisted of a series of compressor stages connected via a shaft to one or more turbine stages, although this arrangement is mechanically simple, it has the disadvantage of lowering the efficiency of the compressor. Compressor stages run at their maximum efficiency when spinning at a speed for any given input air pressure - in a perfect compressor each stage would run at a separate speed. Two- and three-spool designs are common, beyond that the complexity is too great. The new version had a four-stage low-pressure compressor driven by a two-stage turbine and an eight stage high-pressure compressor driven by another two-stage turbine. Now known by the Ministry of Supply designation as the RCo.2, design work was completed in January 1950, by this time, the low-level Valiant Pathfinder had been abandoned and so the first example was also destined to be the last. Nevertheless, it proved the concept sound and ran perfectly for the whole of its 133 hours life. The work on the RCo.2 was soon put to good use, Vickers also planned on developing a passenger version of the same basic design as the VC-7
25.
Turbofan
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The turbofan or fanjet is a type of airbreathing jet engine that is widely used in aircraft propulsion. Thus, whereas all the air taken in by a turbojet passes through the turbine, a turbofan thus can be thought of as a turbojet being used to drive a ducted fan, with both of those contributing to the thrust. The ratio of the mass-flow of air bypassing the engine compared to the mass-flow of air passing through the core is referred to as the bypass ratio. Most commercial aviation jet engines in use today are of the high-bypass type, afterburners are not used on high-bypass turbofan engines but may be used on either low-bypass turbofan or turbojet engines. Other noise sources are the fan, compressor and turbine, Jet noise is reduced with chevrons, sawtooth patterns on the exhaust nozzles, on the Rolls-Royce Trent 1000 and General Electric GEnx engines used on the Boeing 787. Turbofans are thus the most efficient engines in the range of speeds from about 500 to 1,000 km/h, turbofans retain an efficiency edge over pure jets at low supersonic speeds up to roughly Mach 1.6. Modern turbofans have either a large single-stage fan or a fan with several stages. An early configuration combined a low-pressure turbine and fan in a single rear-mounted unit, early turbojet engines were not very fuel-efficient as their overall pressure ratio and turbine inlet temperature were severely limited by the technology available at the time. In 1939-1941 Soviet designer Arkhip Lyulka elaborated the design for the worlds first turbofan engine, although several prototypes were built and ready for testing, Lyulka was in 1941 forced to abandon his research and evacuate to the Urals following the Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union. So the first turbofan to run was apparently the German Daimler-Benz DB670 with a first run date of 27 May 1943, turbomachinery testing, using an electric motor, had started on 1 April 1943. The engine was abandoned later while the war went on and problems could not be solved, the British wartime Metrovick F.2 axial flow jet was given a fan, as the Metrovick F.3 in 1943, to create the first British turbofan. The original low-bypass turbofan engines were designed to improve efficiency by reducing the exhaust velocity to a value closer to that of the aircraft. The Rolls-Royce Conway, the worlds first production turbofan, had a ratio of 0.3. Civilian turbofan engines of the 1960s, such as the Pratt & Whitney JT8D and the Rolls-Royce Spey had bypass ratios closer to 1, the first General Electric turbofan was the aft-fan CJ805-23 based on the CJ805-3 turbojet. It was followed by the aft-fan General Electric CF700 engine with a 2.0 bypass ratio and this was derived from the General Electric J85/CJ610 turbojet to power the larger Rockwell Sabreliner 75/80 model aircraft, as well as the Dassault Falcon 20 with about a 50% increase in thrust. The CF700 was the first small turbofan in the world to be certified by the Federal Aviation Administration, there were at one time over 400 CF700 aircraft in operation around the world, with an experience base of over 10 million service hours. The CF700 turbofan engine was used to train Moon-bound astronauts in Project Apollo as the powerplant for the Lunar Landing Research Vehicle. A high-specific-thrust/low-bypass-ratio turbofan normally has a fan, developing a relatively high pressure ratio and, thus
26.
Pratt & Whitney JT3D
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The Pratt & Whitney JT3D is an early turbofan aircraft engine derived from the Pratt & Whitney JT3C turbojet. It was first run in 1958 and was first flown in 1959 under a B-45 Tornado test aircraft, over 8,000 JT3Ds were produced between 1959 and 1985. Most JT3D engines still in service today are used on military aircraft, a 2-stage fan replaced the first 3 stages of the 9-stage JT3C LP compressor. On the LP turbine, the stage was enlarged and a third stage added. Unlike GE with the CJ805-23, Pratt & Whitney had not undertaken any transonic fan research prior to designing the JT3D, instead P&W designed a 2-stage unit based on some research they had done to support the J91 nuclear turbojet. Nevertheless, the overall P&W engine design was quite an elegant solution to produce a turbofan to compete with the Rolls-Royce Conway in a short timescale. Indeed,55 years later, the architecture of the JT3D can still be seen in modern large American civil turbofans, such as the GE90, PW4000. On the Boeing 707 the JT3D fan nacelle was relatively short, Pratt & Whitney provided a kit whereby JT3Cs could be converted to the JT3D standard in an overhaul shop. In 1959, important orders for the engine were the Boeing 707-120B and Boeing 720B when American Airlines ordered one 707 powered by JT3D turbofans, the earlier 707s had been powered by the turbojet JT3C and the improved efficiency of the turbofan soon attracted the airlines. A JT3D powered 707-123B and 720-023B entered service with American Airlines on the same day, the Boeing KC-135 Stratotankers were all originally powered by turbojet engines. Over 150 aircraft were modified and the former KC-135A were re-designated the KC-135E, after long service for both airlines and air forces the number of JT3D powered aircraft is steadily decreasing. 135 KC-135s use the JT3D while 354 were fitted with CFM International CFM56 engines which provide greater thrust, the noise of the JT3D is one of the reasons NATO has debated re-engining their E-3 Sentry AWACS fleet, since the aircraft are subject to restrictions that modern-engined aircraft are not. Another well known aircraft which is fitted with the JT3D is the Boeing B-52H Stratofortress, the H model of the B-52 was the only production variant of the famous bomber to be fitted with turbofan engines, and the only model remaining in US Air Force service
27.
Transatlantic flight
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A transatlantic flight is the flight of an aircraft across the Atlantic Ocean, from Europe, Africa or the Middle East to North America, Central America, South America, or vice versa. Such flights have been made by fixed-wing aircraft, airships, balloons, early aircraft engines did not have the reliability needed for the crossing, nor the power to lift the required fuel. There are difficulties navigating over featureless expanses of water for thousands of miles, since the middle of the 20th century, however, transatlantic flight has been routine, for commercial, military, diplomatic, and other purposes. Experimental flights still present challenges for transatlantic fliers, the idea of transatlantic flight came about with the advent of the balloon. The balloons of the period were inflated with gas, a moderate lifting medium compared to hydrogen or helium. In 1859, John Wise built an enormous aerostat named the Atlantic, the flight lasted less than a day, crash-landing in Henderson, New York. Lowe prepared a massive balloon of 725,000 cubic feet called the City of New York to take off from Philadelphia in 1860, the possibility of transatlantic flight by aircraft emerged after the First World War, which had seen tremendous advances in aerial capabilities. In April 1913 the London newspaper The Daily Mail offered a prize of £10,000 to The competition was suspended with the outbreak of war in 1914 but reopened after Armistice was declared in 1918. Between 8 and 31 May 1919, the Curtiss seaplane NC-4 made a crossing of the Atlantic flying from the U. S. to Newfoundland, then to the Azores and on to mainland Portugal, the whole journey took 23 days, with six stops along the way. A trail of 53 station ships across the Atlantic gave the points to navigate by. This flight was not eligible for the Daily Mail prize since it more than 72 consecutive hours. With the war over, there were four teams competing to be the first non-stop across the Atlantic and they were Australian pilot Harry Hawker with observer Kenneth Mackenzie-Grieve in a single engine Sopwith Atlantic, Frederick Raynham and C. W. F. Morgan in a Martinsyde, the Handley Page Group, led by Mark Kerr, each group had to ship its aircraft to Newfoundland and make a rough field for the take off. Hawker and Mackenzie-Grieve made the first attempt on 18 May, Raynham and Morgan also made an attempt on 18 May but crashed on take off due to the high fuel load. The Handley Page team was in the stages of testing its aircraft for the flight in June. During 14–15 June 1919, the British aviators Alcock and Brown made the first non-stop transatlantic flight, Alcocks enthusiasm impressed Vickerss team, and he was appointed as its pilot. Work began on converting the Vimy for the flight, replacing its bomb racks with extra petrol tanks. Shortly afterwards Brown, who was unemployed, approached Vickers seeking a post, Alcock and Brown flew the modified Vickers Vimy, powered by two Rolls-Royce Eagle 360 hp engines
28.
Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress
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The Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress is a four-engine heavy bomber developed in the 1930s for the United States Army Air Corps. Competing against Douglas and Martin for a contract to build 200 bombers, although Boeing lost the contract because the prototype crashed, the air corps ordered 13 more B-17s for further evaluation. From its introduction in 1938, the B-17 Flying Fortress evolved through numerous design advances, the B-17 was primarily employed by the United States Army Air Forces in the daylight strategic bombing campaign of World War II against German industrial and military targets. The B-17 also participated to an extent in the War in the Pacific, early in World War II. From its prewar inception, the USAAC promoted the aircraft as a weapon, it was a relatively fast, high-flying. It developed a reputation for toughness based upon stories and photos of badly damaged B-17s safely returning to base, the B-17 developed a reputation as an effective bomber, dropping more bombs than any other U. S. aircraft in World War II. Of the 1.5 million tonnes of bombs dropped on Germany, in addition to its role as a bomber, the B-17 was also employed as a transport, antisubmarine aircraft, drone controller, and search-and-rescue aircraft. As of May 2015, ten aircraft remain airworthy, none of them are combat veterans. Dozens more are in storage or on static display, the oldest of these is a D-series veteran of combat in the Pacific and the Caribbean. On 8 August 1934, the U. S. Army Air Corps tendered a proposal for a bomber to replace the Martin B-10. The air corps was looking for a capable of reinforcing the air forces in Hawaii, Panama. Requirements were that it would carry a useful bombload at an altitude of 10,000 ft for ten hours with a top speed of at least 200 mph. They also desired, but did not require, a range of 2,000 mi, the competition for the air corps contract would be decided by a fly-off between Boeings design, the Douglas DB-1, and the Martin Model 146 at Wright Field in Dayton, Ohio. The prototype B-17, with the Boeing factory designation of Model 299, was designed by a team of engineers led by E. Gifford Emery and Edward Curtis Wells and it combined features of the experimental Boeing XB-15 bomber with the Boeing 247 transport aircraft. The B-17s armament consisted of up to 4,800 lb of bombs on two racks in the bay behind the cockpit, and initially possessed five.30 caliber machine guns. It was powered by four Pratt & Whitney R-1690 Hornet radial engines each producing 750 hp at 7,000 ft, the first flight of the Model 299 was on 28 July 1935 with Boeing chief test-pilot Leslie Tower at the controls. Richard Williams, a reporter for the Seattle Times, coined the name Flying Fortress with his comment, Why, when the Model 299 was rolled out bristling with multiple machine gun installations. The most unusual gun emplacement was the installation which allowed the single machine gun to be fired toward almost any frontal angle
29.
Boeing B-29 Superfortress
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The Boeing B-29 Superfortress is a four-engine propeller-driven heavy bomber designed by Boeing which was flown primarily by the United States during World War II and the Korean War. It was one of the largest aircraft operational during World War II and it was the single most expensive weapons project undertaken by the United States in World War II, exceeding the cost of the Manhattan Project by between 1 and 1.7 billion dollars. A manned tail gun installation was semi-remote, the name Superfortress continued the pattern Boeing started with its well-known predecessor, the B-17 Flying Fortress. Designed for the strategic bomber role, the B-29 also excelled in low-altitude nighttime incendiary bombing missions. One of the B-29s final roles during World War II was carrying out the bomb attacks on Hiroshima. The B-29 served in roles throughout the 1950s. The Royal Air Force flew the B-29 as the Washington until phasing out the type in 1954, the Soviet Union produced an unlicensed reverse-engineered copy as the Tupolev Tu-4. The B-29 was the progenitor of a series of Boeing-built bombers, transports, tankers, reconnaissance aircraft, the type was retired in the early 1960s. The B-29 production total was 3,970 aircraft, dozens of B-29s remain as static displays but only two examples, Fifi and Doc, have been restored to flying status, with Doc flying again for the first time from McConnell AFB on July 17,2016. A transport developed from the B-29 was the Boeing C-97 Stratofreighter, first flown in 1944, followed by its commercial airliner variant and this bomber-to-airliner derivation was similar to the B-17/Model 307 evolution. In 1948 Boeing introduced a variant of the B-29 as the KB-29. A heavily modified line of outsized-cargo variants of the Stratocruiser is the Guppy / Mini Guppy / Super Guppy which remain in service today with operators including NASA, Boeing began work on pressurized long-range bombers in 1938, in response to a United States Army Air Corps request. Boeings design study for the Model 334 was a derivative of the Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress with nosewheel undercarriage. Although the Air Corps did not have money to pursue the design, in April 1939, Charles Lindbergh convinced general Henry H. Arnold to produce a new bomber in large numbers to counter the Nazi production, Boeings previous private venture studies formed the starting point for its response to this specification. Boeing submitted its Model 345 on 11 May 1940, in competition with designs from Consolidated Aircraft, Lockheed, Consolidated continued to work on its Model 33 as it was seen by the Air Corps as a backup in case of problems with Boeings design. Boeing received a production order for 14 service test aircraft and 250 production bombers in May 1941. The B-29 featured a design with circular cross-section for strength
30.
Boeing B-47 Stratojet
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The Boeing B-47 Stratojet was an American long range, six-engine, turbojet-powered strategic bomber designed to fly at high subsonic speed and at high altitude to avoid enemy interceptor aircraft. The B-47s primary mission was to drop bombs on the Soviet Union. With its engines carried in nacelles under the wing, the B-47 was a major innovation in post-World War II combat jet design. The B-47 entered service with the United States Air Forces Strategic Air Command in 1951 and it never saw combat as a bomber, but was a mainstay of SACs bomber strength during the late 1950s and early 1960s, and remained in use as a bomber until 1965. The B-47 arose from an informal 1943 requirement for a reconnaissance bomber. In December 1944, North American Aviation, the Convair Corp, Boeing and the Glenn Martin Company submitted proposals for the new long-range jet bomber. The USAAF awarded study contracts to all four companies, requiring that North American and Convair concentrate on four-engined designs, while Boeing, the powerplant was to be General Electrics new TG-180 turbojet engine. In May 1945, the von Kármán mission of the Army Air Forces inspected the secret German aeronautics laboratory near Braunschweig, on von Kármáns team was the eminent chief of the technical staff at Boeing, George S. Schairer. He wired his home office, Stop the bomber design, analysis work by Boeing engineer Vic Ganzer suggested an optimum sweepback angle of about 35 degrees. Boeings aeronautical engineers modified their Model 432 design to include swept wings and tail, resulting in the Model 448, the Model 448 retained its four TG-180 jet engines in its forward fuselage, with two more TG-180s in the rear fuselage. The flush-mounted air intakes for the engines were inadequate, while the USAAF disliked the installation of engines within the fuselage. The Army Air Force liked this new configuration, and so Boeings team of engineers continued to refine it, with the engines being moved further inboard. As the landing gear arrangement made rotation impossible, the gear was designed so that the aircraft rested on the ground at the proper angle for takeoff. The USAAF was very pleased with the refined Model 450 design, and in April 1946, the first XB-47 was rolled out on 12 September 1947, a few days before the USAAF became a separate service, the U. S. Air Force, on 18 September 1947. The XB-47 prototype flew its first flight on 17 December 1947, with the test pilots Robert Robbins and it flew from Boeing Field in Seattle to the Moses Lake Airfield in central Washington state, in a flight that lasted just 27 minutes, with no major problems. In Feb.1949, Russ Schleeh and Joe Howell broke all coast-to-coast speed records flying from Moses Lake Air Force Base to Andrews Air Force Base and they averaged 607.8 miles per hour. During early tests of the XB-47 prototype, the canopy came off at high speed, the copilot safely landed the aircraft. This resulted in a redesign, and the hiring of pilot Tex Johnston as chief test pilot
31.
Boeing B-52 Stratofortress
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The Boeing B-52 Stratofortress is an American long-range, subsonic, jet-powered strategic bomber. The B-52 was designed and built by Boeing, which has continued to provide support and it has been operated by the United States Air Force since the 1950s. The bomber is capable of carrying up to 70,000 pounds of weapons, the B-52 took its maiden flight in April 1952. Built to carry weapons for Cold War-era deterrence missions, the B-52 Stratofortress replaced the Convair B-36. A veteran of wars, the B-52 has dropped only conventional munitions in combat. The B-52s official name Stratofortress is rarely used, informally, the aircraft has become referred to as the BUFF. The B-52 has been in service with the USAF since 1955. As of December 2015,58 were in service with 18 in reserve. The B-52 completed sixty years of service with its original operator in 2015. After being upgraded between 2013 and 2015, it is expected to serve into the 2040s, the aircraft was to have a crew of five or more turret gunners, and a six-man relief crew. It was required to cruise at 300 mph at 34,000 feet with a radius of 5,000 miles. The armament was to consist of a number of 20 mm cannon and 10,000 pounds of bombs. On 13 February 1946, the Air Force issued bid invitations for these specifications, with Boeing, Consolidated Aircraft, and Glenn L. Martin Company submitting proposals. On 5 June 1946, Boeings Model 462, an aircraft powered by six Wright T35 turboprops with a gross weight of 360,000 pounds. On 28 June 1946, Boeing was issued a letter of contract for US$1.7 million to build a full-scale mock-up of the new XB-52 and do preliminary engineering and testing. However, by October 1946, the air began to express concern about the sheer size of the new aircraft. In response, Boeing produced Model 464, a smaller version with a 230,000 pound gross weight. Boeing responded with two powered by the T-35 turboprops
32.
Douglas Aircraft Company
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The Douglas Aircraft Company was an American aerospace manufacturer based in Southern California. It was founded in 1921 by Donald Wills Douglas, Sr. Douglas Aircraft Company largely operated as a division of McDonnell Douglas after the merger. MD later merged with Boeing in 1997, the Douglas Aircraft Company was founded by Donald Wills Douglas, Sr. on July 22,1921 in Santa Monica, California, following dissolution of the Davis-Douglas Company. An early claim to fame was the first circumnavigation of the world by air in Douglas airplanes in 1924. In 1923, the U. S. Army Air Service was interested in carrying out a mission to circumnavigate the Earth for the first time by aircraft, Donald Douglas proposed a modified Douglas DT to meet the Armys needs. The two-place, open cockpit DT biplane torpedo bomber had previously produced for the U. S. Navy. The DTs were taken from the lines at the companys manufacturing plants in Rock Island, Illinois and Dayton. The modified aircraft known as the Douglas World Cruiser, also was the first major project for Jack Northrop who designed the system for the series. After the prototype was delivered in November 1923, upon the completion of tests on 19 November. Due to the expedition ahead, spare parts, including 15 extra Liberty L-12 engines,14 extra sets of pontoons. These were sent to airports along the route, the last of these aircraft was delivered to the U. S. Army on 11 March 1924. After the success of the World Cruiser, the Army Air Service ordered six similar aircraft as observation aircraft. The success of the DWC established the Douglas Aircraft Company among the aircraft companies of the world. Douglas adopted a logo that showed aircraft circling a globe, replacing the original winged heart logo, the logo evolved into an aircraft, a rocket, and a globe. It was later adopted by the McDonnell Douglas Corporation, and then became the basis of the current logo of the Boeing Company after their 1997 merger, many Douglas aircraft had long service lives. Douglas Aircraft designed and built a variety of aircraft for the U. S. military, including the Navy, Army Air Forces, Marine Corps, Air Force. The company initially built torpedo bombers for the U. S. Navy, within five years, the company was building about 100 aircraft annually. Among the early employees at Douglas were Ed Heinemann, Dutch Kindelberger, and Jack Northrop, the company retained its military market and expanded into amphibian airplanes in the late 1920s, also moving its facilities to Clover Field at Santa Monica, California
33.
Boeing 314 Clipper
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The Boeing 314 Clipper was a long-range flying boat produced by the Boeing Airplane Company between 1938 and 1941. One of the largest aircraft of the time, it used the wing of Boeing’s earlier XB-15 bomber prototype to achieve the range necessary for flights across the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Twelve Clippers were built, nine were brought into service for Pan Am, the remaining three were sold to British Overseas Airways Corporation by Pan Am and delivered in early 1941. Pan American had requested a boat with unprecedented range that could augment the airlines trans-Pacific Martin M-130. Boeings bid was successful and on July 21,1936, Pan American signed a contract for six, Boeing engineers adapted the cancelled XB-15s 149 ft wing, and replaced the 850 hp Pratt & Whitney Twin Wasp radial engines with the 1,600 hp Wright Twin Cyclone. Pan Am ordered six aircraft with increased engine power and capacity for 77 daytime passengers as the Boeing 314A. The huge flying boat was assembled at Boeings Plant 1 on the Duwamish River in Seattle, the first flight was on June 7,1938, piloted by Edmund T. At first the aircraft had a vertical tail, and Allen found he had inadequate directional control. The aircraft returned to the factory and was fitted with the endplates on the ends of the tail in place of the single vertical fin. This too was found to be lacking and finally the centerline vertical fin was restored, the 314 used a series of heavy ribs and spars to create a robust fuselage and cantilevered wing, obviating the need for external drag-inducing struts to brace the wings. Boeing also incorporated Dornier-style sponsons into the hull structure, passengers and their baggage were weighed, with each passenger allowed up to 77 pounds free baggage allowance but then charged $3.25 per lb for exceeding the limit. To fly the long ranges needed for service, the 314 carried 4,246 US gallons of gasoline. The later 314A model carried a further 1,200 US gallons, a capacity of 300 US gallons of oil was required for operation of the radial engines. Pan Ams Clippers were built for luxury air travel, a necessity given the long duration of transoceanic flights. The seats could be converted into 36 bunks for overnight accommodation, the 314s had a lounge and dining area, and the galleys were crewed by chefs from four-star hotels. Men and women were provided with separate dressing rooms, and white-coated stewards served five, most of the flights were transpacific, with a one-way ticket from San Francisco to Hong Kong via the stepping-stone islands posted at $760. The Pan Am Boeing 314 Clippers brought exotic destinations like the Far East within reach of air travelers, equally critical to the 314s success was the proficiency of its Pan Am flight crews, who were extremely skilled at long-distance, over-water flight operations and navigation. For training, many of the flights carried a second crew
34.
Boeing 307 Stratoliner
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The Boeing Model 307 Stratoliner was the first commercial transport aircraft to enter service with a pressurized cabin. This feature allowed the aircraft to cruise at an altitude of 20,000 ft, the pressure differential was 2.5 psi, so at 14,700 ft the cabin air pressure was equivalent to an altitude of 8,000 ft. The Model 307 had capacity for a crew of six and 33 passengers, the cabin was nearly 12 ft across. It was the first land-based aircraft to include an engineer as a crew member. In addition to its service it was also flown as the Boeing C-75 Stratoliner by the United States Army Air Forces. In 1935 Boeing designed a four-engine airliner based on its B-17 heavy bomber, then in development, calling it the Model 307. It combined the wings, tail, rudder, landing gear, at the time the United States entered World War II in December 1941, flying across oceans was a rare luxury. Additional fuel tanks were added to them the extra range required. Before World War II ended their production, ten commercial 307s had been built, TWA converted their 307s to military service in January 1942, and its Intercontinental Division then operated these C-75s under contract to the Armys Air Transport Command until July 1944. These were the only U. S. built commercial aircraft able to cross the Atlantic with a payload until the arrival of the Douglas C-54 Skymaster in November 1942. Space was thus provided for crew requirements on extremely long flights, the landing gear was strengthened, the maximum takeoff weight was increased from 45,000 to 56,000 lb ), and the exterior painted military olive drab. The maiden flight of the first Boeing 307 Stratoliner, registration NX19901 took place from Boeing Field and it crashed on March 18,1939, while its performance with two engines inoperative on one wing was being demonstrated to representatives of KLM. When the engines were shut down, the moved the rudder to maximum deflection to counter the resulting yaw. The Stratoliner then experienced rudder lock, where the control loads prevented the rudder from being re-centered, as a result, the 307 went into a spin and crashed. Subsequent wind tunnel testing showed that the addition of a dorsal fin ahead of. This was incorporated into the 307s rudder redesign, while also being incorporated in Boeings rear fuselage redesign for their models E through G B-17 bomber, deliveries to Pan Am started in March 1940, with TWA receiving its first 307 in April. TWAs Stratoliners flew three-stop flights between Los Angeles and New York while Pan Ams flew from Miami to Latin America, ten 307s were built, three being delivered to Pan-Am and five to TWA with one aircraft going to Hughes. The Army returned its five C-75s to TWA in 1944, who sent them back to Boeing for rebuilding
35.
Aerial refueling
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The procedure allows the receiving aircraft to remain airborne longer, extending its range or loiter time on station. A series of air refuelings can give range limited only by crew fatigue, alternatively, a shorter take-off roll can be achieved because take-off can be at a lighter weight before refueling once airborne. Aerial refueling has also considered as a means to reduce fuel consumption on long-distance flights greater than 3,000 nautical miles. Potential fuel savings in the range of 35-40% have been estimated for long haul flights, usually, the aircraft providing the fuel is specially designed for the task, although refueling pods can be fitted to existing aircraft designs if the probe-and-drogue system is to be used. There is no known regular civilian in-flight refueling activity, for instance, in the Gulf War and the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait and the Iraq War, all coalition air sorties were air-refueled except for a few short-range ground attack sorties in the Kuwait area. The first mid-air refueling, based on the development of Alexander P. de Seversky, as the 1920s progressed, greater numbers of aviation enthusiasts vied to set new aerial long-distance records, using inflight air refueling. One such enthusiast, who would revolutionize aerial refueling was Sir Alan Cobham, member of the Royal Flying Corps in World War I, and a pioneer of long-distance aviation. During the 1920s, he made long-distance flights to places as far afield as Africa and Australia and this craft was eventually modified by Airspeed to Cobhams specification, for a non-stop flight from London to India, using in-flight refueling to extend the planes flight duration. Meanwhile, in 1929, a group of U. S. Army Air Corps fliers, led by then Major Carl Spaatz, set an endurance record of over 150 hours with the Question Mark over Los Angeles. Aerial refueling remained a dangerous process until 1935 when brothers Fred and Al Key demonstrated a spill-free refueling nozzle. They exceeded the Hunters record by nearly 100 hours in a Curtiss Robin monoplane, the US was mainly concerned about transatlantic flights for faster postal service between Europe and America. In 1931 W. Irving Glover, the assistant postmaster, wrote an extensive article for Popular Mechanics concerning the challenges. In his article he even mentioned the use of Aerial refueling after take off as a possible solution, by 1931 they had demonstrated refueling between two Vickers Virginias, with fuel flow controlled by an automatic valve on the hose which would cut off if contact was lost. Royal Air Force officer Richard Atcherley had observed the dangerous aerial-refueling techniques in use at barnstorming events in the US and determined to create a workable system. In 1934, Cobham sold off the airline Cobham Air Routes Ltd to Olley Air Service, atcherlys system was bought up by Cobhams company, and with some refinement and continuous improvement through the late 30s, it became the first practical refueling system. Sir Alan Cobhams Grappled-line looped-hose air-to-air refueling system borrowed from techniques patented by David Nicolson and John Lord, and was publicly demonstrated for the first time in 1935. In the system the aircraft, at one time an Airspeed Courier, trailed a steel cable which was then grappled by a line shot from the tanker. The line was drawn back into the tanker where the receivers cable was connected to the refueling hose
36.
Boeing KC-97 Stratofreighter
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The Boeing KC-97 Stratofreighter is a United States strategic tanker aircraft based on the Boeing C-97 Stratofreighter. It was succeeded by the Boeing KC-135 Stratotanker, the KC-97 Stratofreighter was an aerial refueling tanker variant of the C-97 Stratofreighter, greatly modified with all the necessary tanks, plumbing, and a flying boom. The cavernous upper deck was capable of accommodating oversize cargo accessed through a very large right-side door, in addition, transferrable jet fuel was contained in tanks on the lower deck. Both decks were heated and pressurized for high altitude operations, note, Occasionally the KC-97 has been quoted as Stratotanker. However, all reputable sources refer to the KC-97 as Stratofreighter and this includes both Boeing and the USAF themselves. The USAF began operating the KC-97 in 1950 and it purchased a total of 811 KC-97s from Boeing, as opposed to only 74 of the C-97 cargo version. The KC-97 carried aviation gasoline for its own piston engines but it carried jet fuel for its refueling mission, however, it was able to offload its aviation gas to a receiver in an emergency in a procedure known as a SAVE. These tankers were vitally important to the world-wide Boeing B-47 Stratojet strategic operations, an example was the support of Arctic reconnaissance flights from Thule Air Base. While it was a tanker, the KC-97s slow speed. B-52s typically lowered their flaps and rear landing gear to slow the aircraft enough to refuel from the KC-97, in addition, a typical B-52 refueling engagement profile would involve a descent that allowed the aircraft pair to maintain a higher airspeed. In the early 1960s, the Tactical Air Command added General Electric J47 jet pods from retired KB-50 tankers to produce the KC-97L, the jet pods increased performance and made the KC-97 more compatible with jet aircraft. In 1956, SAC began phasing out the KC-97 in favor of the KC-135, KC-97s continued operating with Tactical Air Command, the Air Force Reserve, and the Air National Guard. Most KC-97 were finally retired completely in 1978, when the Texas Air National Guard and Utah Air National Guard exchanged their KC-97Ls for C-130s and KC-135s, source, AIRTime KC-97A Three C-97As were converted into aerial refueling tankers with rear loading door removed and a flight refueling boom added. After the design was proven, they were converted back into the standard C-97A, kC-97E aerial refueling tankers with rear loading doors permanently closed,60 built. Some were later converted into transports as the C-97E, KC-97F 3800hp R-4360-59B engines and minor changes,159 built. Some were later converted into transport as the C-97F, KC-97G Dual-role aerial refueling tankers/cargo transportation aircraft. KC-97G models carried underwing fuel tanks, eC-97G ELINT conversion of three KC-97Gs. 53-106 was operated by the CIA for covert ELINT operations in the West Berlin Air Corridor, c-97G135 KC-97Gs converted to transports
37.
North American F-100 Super Sabre
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The North American F-100 Super Sabre was an American supersonic jet fighter aircraft that served with the United States Air Force from 1954 to 1971 and with the Air National Guard until 1979. The first of the Century Series of USAF jet fighters, it was the first USAF fighter capable of speed in level flight. The F-100 was designed by North American Aviation as a higher performance follow-on to the F-86 Sabre air superiority fighter, adapted as a fighter bomber, the F-100 was supplanted by the Mach two class F-105 Thunderchief for strike missions over North Vietnam. The F-100 flew extensively over South Vietnam as the air forces primary close air support jet until being replaced by the more efficient subsonic LTV A-7 Corsair II, the F-100 also served in other NATO air forces and with other U. S. allies. In its later life, it was referred to as the Hun. In January 1951, North American Aviation delivered an unsolicited proposal for a day fighter to the United States Air Force. Named Sabre 45 because of its 45° wing sweep, it represented an evolution of the F-86 Sabre, the mockup was inspected on 7 July 1951, and after over a hundred modifications, the new aircraft was accepted as the F-100 on 30 November 1951. Extensive use of titanium throughout the aircraft was notable, on 3 January 1952, the USAF ordered two prototypes followed by 23 F-100As in February and an additional 250 F-100As in August. The YF-100A first flew on 25 May 1953, seven ahead of schedule. It reached Mach 1.04 in spite of being fitted with a de-rated XJ57-P-7 engine, the second prototype flew on 14 October 1953, followed by the first production F-100A on 9 October 1953. These findings were confirmed during Project Hot Rod operational suitability tests. Particularly troubling was the yaw instability in certain regimes of flight which produced inertia coupling, the aircraft could develop a sudden yaw and roll which would happen too fast for the pilot to correct and would quickly over-stress the aircraft structure to disintegration. It was under conditions that North Americans chief test pilot. Another control problem stemmed from handling characteristics of the wing at high angles of attack. As the aircraft approached stall speeds, loss of lift on the tips of the caused an violent pitch-up. This particular phenomenon became known as the Sabre dance, nevertheless, delays in the Republic F-84F Thunderstreak program pushed the Tactical Air Command to order the raw F-100A into service. Tactical Air Command also requested that future F-100s be fighter-bombers, with the capability of delivering nuclear bombs, the North American F-107 was a follow-on Mach 2 development of the F-100 with the air intake moved above and behind the cockpit. It was not produced in quantity in favor of the Republic F-105 Thunderchief, the F-100A officially entered USAF service on 27 September 1954, with the 479th Fighter Wing at George AFB, California
38.
United States Air Force
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The United States Air Force is the aerial warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven American uniformed services. Initially part of the United States Army, the USAF was formed as a branch of the military on 18 September 1947 under the National Security Act of 1947. It is the most recent branch of the U. S. military to be formed, the U. S. Air Force is a military service organized within the Department of the Air Force, one of the three military departments of the Department of Defense. The Air Force is headed by the civilian Secretary of the Air Force, who reports to the Secretary of Defense, the U. S. Air Force provides air support for surface forces and aids in the recovery of troops in the field. As of 2015, the service more than 5,137 military aircraft,406 ICBMs and 63 military satellites. It has a $161 billion budget with 313,242 active duty personnel,141,197 civilian employees,69,200 Air Force Reserve personnel, and 105,500 Air National Guard personnel. According to the National Security Act of 1947, which created the USAF and it shall be organized, trained, and equipped primarily for prompt and sustained offensive and defensive air operations. The stated mission of the USAF today is to fly, fight, and win in air, space and we will provide compelling air, space, and cyber capabilities for use by the combatant commanders. We will excel as stewards of all Air Force resources in service to the American people, while providing precise and reliable Global Vigilance, Reach and it should be emphasized that the core functions, by themselves, are not doctrinal constructs. The purpose of Nuclear Deterrence Operations is to operate, maintain, in the event deterrence fails, the US should be able to appropriately respond with nuclear options. Dissuading others from acquiring or proliferating WMD, and the means to deliver them, moreover, different deterrence strategies are required to deter various adversaries, whether they are a nation state, or non-state/transnational actor. Nuclear strike is the ability of forces to rapidly and accurately strike targets which the enemy holds dear in a devastating manner. Should deterrence fail, the President may authorize a precise, tailored response to terminate the conflict at the lowest possible level, post-conflict, regeneration of a credible nuclear deterrent capability will deter further aggression. Finally, the Air Force regularly exercises and evaluates all aspects of operations to ensure high levels of performance. Nuclear surety ensures the safety, security and effectiveness of nuclear operations, the Air Force, in conjunction with other entities within the Departments of Defense or Energy, achieves a high standard of protection through a stringent nuclear surety program. The Air Force continues to pursue safe, secure and effective nuclear weapons consistent with operational requirements, adversaries, allies, and the American people must be highly confident of the Air Forces ability to secure nuclear weapons from accidents, theft, loss, and accidental or unauthorized use. This day-to-day commitment to precise and reliable nuclear operations is the cornerstone of the credibility of the NDO mission, positive nuclear command, control, communications, effective nuclear weapons security, and robust combat support are essential to the overall NDO function. OCA is the method of countering air and missile threats, since it attempts to defeat the enemy closer to its source
39.
Boeing KC-135 Stratotanker
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The Boeing KC-135 Stratotanker is a military aerial refueling aircraft. It and the Boeing 707 airliner were developed from the Boeing 367-80 prototype and it is the predominant variant of the C-135 Stratolifter family of transport aircraft. The KC-135 was the US Air Forces first jet-powered refueling tanker, the KC-135 entered service with the United States Air Force in 1957, it is one of six military fixed-wing aircraft with over 50 years of continuous service with its original operator. The KC-135 is supplemented by the larger KC-10, studies have concluded that many of the aircraft could be flown until 2040, although maintenance costs have greatly increased. The aircraft will eventually be replaced by the Boeing KC-46 Pegasus, like its sibling, the commercial Boeing 707 jet airliner, the KC-135 was derived from the Boeing 367-80 jet transport proof of concept demonstrator, which was commonly called the Dash-80. The KC-135 is similar in appearance to the 707, but has a fuselage and is shorter than the 707. The KC-135 predates the 707, and is quite different from the civilian airliner. Boeing gave the future KC-135 tanker the initial designation Model 717, in 1954 USAFs Strategic Air Command held a competition for a jet-powered aerial refueling tanker. Lockheeds tanker version of the proposed Lockheed L-193 airliner with rear fuselage-mounted engines was declared the winner in 1955, in the end, orders for the Lockheed tanker were dropped rather than supporting two tanker designs. Lockheed never produced its jet airliner, while Boeing would eventually dominate the market with a family of airliners based on the 707. In 1954, the Air Force placed an order for 29 KC-135As. The first aircraft flew in August 1956 and the initial production Stratotanker was delivered to Castle Air Force Base, California, the last KC-135 was delivered to the Air Force in 1965. These basic features make it resemble the commercial Boeing 707 and 720 aircraft. The USAF EC-135 Looking Glass was subsequently replaced in its role by the U. S. Navy E-6 Mercury aircraft, the KC-135Q variant was modified to carry JP-7 fuel necessary for the Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird, segregating the JP-7 from the KC-135s own fuel supply. The tanker also had special fuel systems for moving the different fuels between different tanks, the only external difference between a KC-135R and a KC-135T is the presence of a clear window on the underside of the empennage of the KC-135T where a remote controlled searchlight is mounted. It also has two ground refueling ports, located in rear wheel well so ground crews can fuel both the body tanks and wing tanks separately. Eight KC-135R aircraft are receiver-capable tankers, commonly referred to as KC-135R, All eight aircraft were with the 22d Air Refueling Wing at McConnell AFB, Kansas, in 1994. They are primarily used for extension and Special Operations missions
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Boeing 377 Stratocruiser
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The Boeing 377 Stratocruiser was a large long-range airliner developed from the C-97 Stratofreighter military transport, itself a derivative of the B-29 Superfortress. The Stratocruisers first flight was on July 8,1947 and its design was advanced for its day, its innovative features included two passenger decks and a pressurized cabin, a relatively new feature on transport aircraft. It could carry up to 100 passengers on the main deck plus 14 in the lower deck lounge, typical seating was for 63 or 84 passengers or 28 berthed, the Stratocruiser was larger than the Douglas DC-6 and Lockheed Constellation and cost more to buy and operate. Its reliability was poor, chiefly due to problems with the four 28-cylinder Pratt & Whitney Wasp Major radial engines, only 55 Model 377s were built for airlines, along with the single prototype. The Boeing 377 Stratocruiser was a derivative of the Boeing Model 367, the Boeing C-97 Stratofreighter. William Allen, who had become President of The Boeing Company in September 1945, although in a recession in late 1945, Allen ordered 50 Stratocruisers, spending capital on the project without an airline customer. On November 29,1945 Pan American World Airways became the customer with the largest commercial aircraft order in history. Earlier in 1945 a Boeing C-97 had flown from Seattle to Washington, outside diameter of the upper lobe was 132 inches, compared to 125 inches for the DC-6 and other Douglas types. The lower deck served as a lounge, seating 14, the wing was the Boeing 117 airfoil, regarded as the fastest wing of its time. In all,4,000,000 man-hours went into the engineering of the 377, First flight of the 377 was on July 8,1947, two years after the first commercial order. The flight test fleet of three 377s underwent 250,000 mi of flying to test its limits before certification, as the launch customer, Pan Am was the first to begin scheduled service, from San Francisco to Honolulu in April 1949. By the fall of 1950, Northwest Orient was serving New York City, Chicago, Detroit, paul, Milwaukee and Spokane with the aircraft and was also operating the Stratocruiser nonstop between Seattle and Honolulu. For a short time Pan Am flew their B377s to Beirut, also in 1954, United was operating nonstop service with the Stratocruiser between Los Angeles and Honolulu and also between Seattle and San Francisco. According to its August 1,1954 system timeable, Uniteds service between Honolulu and Los Angeles and San Francisco operated with the B377 featured an all first class cabin at this time as well, in 1955 BOAC B377s had 50 First Class seats or 81 Tourist seats. In 1956 Pan Am was flying the B377 from Los Angeles and San Francisco to Sydney with stops at Honolulu, Canton Island and Suva. By 1958 Pan Am was operating the Stratocruiser between Seattle and Fairbanks, Juneau and Ketchikan in Alaska and between Seattle and Whitehorse in the Yukon Territory of Canada, a total of 56 were built, one prototype and 55 production aircraft. In these first six years, the Stratocruiser fleet had flown 169,859,579 miles and it was also one of but a few double deck airliners, another being its French contemporary, the Breguet Deux-Ponts, as well as Boeings own 747 and the Airbus A380. The last 377 was delivered to BOAC in May 1950, on this delivery flight, Boeing engineer Wellwood Beall accompanied the final 377 to England, and returned with news of the De Havilland Comet, the first jet airliner, and its appeal
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Barrel roll
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It is sometimes described as a combination of a loop and a roll. The g-force is kept positive on the object throughout the maneuver, the barrel roll is commonly confused with an aileron roll. A more common modern visualization is to imagine an airplane trying to fly in a corkscrew around the line of the direction of travel. Although the maneuver predates the name, the term was first used in 1917, in aviation, the barrel roll is an aerobatic maneuver in which an aircraft performs a helical roll around its relative forward motion, with the nose ending up pointed along the original flightpath. It is performed by doing a combination of a roll and a loop, the maneuver includes a constant variation of aircraft attitude in two or perhaps all three axes. It consists of a rotation along the axis through the application of elevator input. Sometimes rudder input is applied to help assist the roll through the yaw axis, at the midpoint of the roll, the aircraft should be flying inverted, with the nose pointing at roughly a right angle to the general flightpath. The aircraft will have also gained altitude and travelled a distance from the original flightpath. Flying inverted, the plane continues through the roll, descending in altitude, upon completing the roll, the airplane should end up flying along the same flightpath, and at roughly the same altitude at which the maneuver began. The term barrel roll is used, incorrectly, to refer to any roll by an airplane. The barrel roll was called a side somersault. It was first performed in 1905 by Daniel Maloney and he was flying a glider owned by John Joseph Montgomery during an exhibition show, which was lifted by balloon and then released. Outside of aerobatic competition, the Boeing 367-80 and Concorde prototype were barrel rolled during testing, the Boeing 367-80 was rolled twice by Tex Johnston in an unauthorized maneuver while demonstrating the aircraft to the International Air Transport Association over Lake Washington, Seattle. Concorde was rolled multiple times by her test pilots, including Jean Franchi, Avro test pilot Roly Falk rolled the Avro Vulcan during a display at the 1955 Farnborough airshow, gaining height during the maneuver. To do a roll in its purest form, from the pilots perspective. Starting from a flight, the pilot will usually pick such a point on the horizon as a reference. This point can be anything in that area, like a distant lake, mountain peak, the pilot will then pull back on the stick, bringing the plane up into a brief climb. As the nose passes through the horizon, the pilot begins to apply aileron input, as the airplane rolls it will continue to pitch in the direction of the lift vector
42.
Douglas DC-8
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The Douglas DC-8 is a four-engine long-range narrow-body jet airliner built from 1958 to 1972 by the Douglas Aircraft Company. The DC-8s design allowed it a larger cargo capacity than the 707. After World War II Douglas had a position in the commercial aviation market. Boeing had pointed the way to the modern all-metal airliner in 1933 with its Model 247, Douglas produced a succession of piston-engined aircraft through the 1930s, 1940s, and 1950s. When de Havilland flew the first jet airliner, the Comet, in 1949, all three companies were working on a new generation of piston-engined designs, with an eye to turboprop conversion in the future. De Havillands pioneering Comet entered airline service in 1952, initially it was a success, but it was grounded after several fatal crashes in 1953 and 1954. The understanding of metal fatigue that the Comet investigation produced would play a part in the good safety record of later types like the DC-8. In 1952 Douglas remained the most successful of the aircraft manufacturers. They had almost 300 orders on hand for the piston-engined DC-6 and its successor, the DC-7, the Comet disasters, and the airlines subsequent lack of interest in jets, seemed to show the wisdom of their staying with propeller-driven aircraft. Boeing took the step of starting to plan a pure-jet airliner as early as 1949. Boeings military arm had gained experience with large, long-range jets through the B-47 Stratojet, with thousands of jet bombers on order or in service, Boeing had developed a close relationship with the US Air Forces Strategic Air Command. Boeing also supplied the SACs refueling aircraft, the piston-engined KC-97 Stratofreighters, the B-52, in particular, had to descend from its cruising altitude and then slow almost to stall speed to work with the KC-97. Believing that a requirement for a tanker was a certainty. As an airliner it would have seating capacity to the Comet. First presented in 1950 as the Model 473-60C, Boeing failed to any interest at the airlines. Boeing remained convinced that the project was worthwhile, and decided to press ahead with a prototype, after spending $16 million of their own money on construction, the Dash-80 rolled out on May 15,1954, and flew the next month. Boeings plans became obvious, despite the older model number. Douglas secretly began jet transport project studies in mid-1952
43.
Joseph John "Tym" Tymczyszyn
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Joseph John Tym Tymczyszyn was an American World War II pilot, and test pilot for the United States Army Air Corps and the Federal Aviation Administration. He was born in Wilkes Barre, Pennsylvania in 1918, the son of Polish immigrants Anna. Tymczyszyn became an instructor for the Civilian Pilot Training Corps, teaching students to fly in anticipation of war. He served as a pilot and engineering pilot in the Pacific during World War II, flying the North American P-51 Mustang. After the war, he settled in Kirkland, Washington and attended the University of Washington, after graduation, Tymczyszyn joined the Civil Aeronautics Authority and attended the U. S. Air Force Test Pilot School. The major milestones of his flight test achievements resulted from flights at Edwards Air Force Base and he flight tested the Boeing 707, Boeing 747, the Douglas DC-6 through 10, the Convair 340 through 990, all Lockheed Constellation models, and the Electra. He tested hundreds of general aviation aircraft, and certified the popular Robinson R22 helicopter, Tymczyszyn is most recognized as the Test Pilot on Americas first jet transport, the Boeing 707. He later flew into the turbulence of various aircraft and helicopters to determine safe separation distance between various aircraft. He was the president of the Society of Experimental Test Pilots. Tymczyszyn helped found the SETPs Scholarship Foundation, the purpose of the scholarship being to provide educational assistance to children of deceased or disabled Society members. Tymczyszyn is survived by his five sons, eight grandchildren and two great-grandchildren, command pilot Tymczyszyn received the first SETP Iven C. Kincheloe Award with James Gannett for flight testing the Boeing 707, in 1976 he was awarded the Aviation Week & Space Technology Distinguished Service Award. In 2014 Tymczyszyn was posthumously inducted onto the Flight Path Museum “aviation walk of fame” on Sepulveda Boulevard at the Northeast corner of Los Angeles International Airport, Tymczyszyn bio at Aerospace walk of honor Society of Experimental Test Pilots History Society of Experimental Test Pilots Past Presidents Iven C. Kincheloe Awards Flight Safety Foundation Awards NASA Dryden 50 year History NASA NEWS
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Iven C. Kincheloe Award
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Kincheloe Award recognizes outstanding professional accomplishment in the conduct of flight testing. It was established in 1958 by the Society of Experimental Test Pilots and honors the memory of test pilot, Kincheloe, United States Air Force, who died during flight testing. The Kincheloe Trophy consists of four columns and an aerospace vehicle that points toward the shield of the society. The columns represent the foundation on which the society was created—courage, integrity, knowledge, the vehicle reinforces the role played by the society in the development of aerospace systems. Plaques bearing the name of each honoree are mounted around the sides of the onyx base, the Society lists three criteria for nominations to this award, The recipient must be a living member of the Society. Grissom, Capt USAF Walter M. Schirra, CDR USN Alan B, shepard, CDR USN Donald K. Slayton, Maj USAF1964 Pilots of YF12A Lockheed Super-Secret Project Louis W. Schalk William C. F-16 Flight Test Program Robert C,1985 William W. Lowe, McDonnell Douglas AV-8B High Angle of Attack Corporation Test Program 1986 David A. Kerzie, Lockheed Corp. U-2/TR-1 extremely high altitude investigative and exploratory flights to determine flutter characteristics,1987 Guy Mitaux-Maurouard, Avions Marcel Dassault Rafale Flight Test Program Dick Rutan, Voyager Aircraft, Inc
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