1.
Military transport aircraft
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Originally derived from bombers, military transport aircraft were used for delivering airborne forces during the Second World War and towing military gliders. Fixed-wing transport aircraft are defined in terms of their range capability as strategic airlift or [[tactical |-, for example, the military transport helicopter is the primary transport asset of US Marines deploying from LHDs and LHA. Transport helicopters are operated in assault, medium and heavy classes, air assault helicopters are usually the smallest of the transport types, and designed to move an infantry squad or section and their equipment. Helicopters in the role are generally armed for self-protection both in transit and for suppression of the landing zone. This armament may be in the form of door gunners, or the modification of the helicopter with wings and pylons to carry missiles. For example, the Sikorsky S-70, fitted with the ESSM, the assault helicopter can be thought of as the modern successor to the military glider. Finally, there is the term utility helicopter, which generally refers to medium-lift designs. Unlike the assault helicopter they are not expected to land directly in a contested landing zone. Examples include the versions of the Mil Mi-8, Super Puma. The lower speed, range and increased consumption of helicopters are more than compensated by their ability to operate virtually anywhere
2.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
3.
Boeing Rotorcraft Systems
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Boeing Rotorcraft Systems is the former name of a US aircraft manufacturer, now known as the Mobility Division of Boeing Military Aircraft, a division of Boeing Defense, Space & Security. The headquarters and main factory is in Ridley Park, Pennsylvania. Production of Apache attack helicopters in Mesa, Arizona, formerly part of Rotorcraft Systems, is now under the Global Strike Division of Boeing Military Aircraft. Other names by which the division sometimes referred to itself in correspondence over the years were Boeing Aircraft Company, Vertol Division, the company was responsible for the design and production of the CH-46 Sea Knight and the CH-47 Chinook. The name became Boeing Helicopters in 1987, and the current name was adopted in 2002, when Boeing merged with McDonnell Douglas, the former Hughes Helicopters operations in Mesa, Arizona were placed under Boeing Helicopters. A year and a half later Boeing sold the line of helicopters to MD Helicopter Holdings Inc. an indirect subsidiary of the Dutch company. By December 2006 Columbia Helicopters of Aurora, Oregon had purchased the Type certificate of the Boeing Vertol 107-II, the Columbia Helicopters is seeking FAA issuance of a Production Certificate to produce parts with eventual issuance of a PC to produce aircraft. For much of the 1970s, Boeing Vertol entered the rolling stock market in an attempt to keep government-funded contracts in the wake of the Vietnam War. This cost Boeing and the vehicles two buyers, Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority and San Francisco Municipal Railway millions and led to retirement of the vehicles. Boeing Military Aircrafts Mobility division, headquartered at Ridley Park, PA
4.
United States Army
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The United States Armed Forces are the federal armed forces of the United States. They consist of the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, from the time of its inception, the military played a decisive role in the history of the United States. A sense of unity and identity was forged as a result of victory in the First Barbary War. Even so, the Founders were suspicious of a permanent military force and it played an important role in the American Civil War, where leading generals on both sides were picked from members of the United States military. Not until the outbreak of World War II did a standing army become officially established. The National Security Act of 1947, adopted following World War II and during the Cold Wars onset, the U. S. military is one of the largest militaries in terms of number of personnel. It draws its personnel from a pool of paid volunteers. As of 2016, the United States spends about $580.3 billion annually to fund its military forces, put together, the United States constitutes roughly 40 percent of the worlds military expenditures. For the period 2010–14, the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute found that the United States was the worlds largest exporter of major arms, the United States was also the worlds eighth largest importer of major weapons for the same period. The history of the U. S. military dates to 1775 and these forces demobilized in 1784 after the Treaty of Paris ended the War for Independence. All three services trace their origins to the founding of the Continental Army, the Continental Navy, the United States President is the U. S. militarys commander-in-chief. Rising tensions at various times with Britain and France and the ensuing Quasi-War and War of 1812 quickened the development of the U. S. Navy, the reserve branches formed a military strategic reserve during the Cold War, to be called into service in case of war. Time magazines Mark Thompson has suggested that with the War on Terror, Command over the armed forces is established in the United States Constitution. The sole power of command is vested in the President by Article II as Commander-in-Chief, the Constitution also allows for the creation of executive Departments headed principal officers whose opinion the President can require. This allowance in the Constitution formed the basis for creation of the Department of Defense in 1947 by the National Security Act, the Defense Department is headed by the Secretary of Defense, who is a civilian and member of the Cabinet. The Defense Secretary is second in the chain of command, just below the President. Together, the President and the Secretary of Defense comprise the National Command Authority, to coordinate military strategy with political affairs, the President has a National Security Council headed by the National Security Advisor. The collective body has only power to the President
5.
Japan Ground Self-Defense Force
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The Japan Ground Self-Defense Force, or JGSDF, is the main branch of the Japan Self-Defense Forces, responsible for land-based military operations, and is the de facto army of Japan. Created on July 1,1954, it is the largest of the three services of the Japan Self-Defense Forces, the JGSDF is chiefly tasked with maintaining internal security in Japan. The Force operates under the command of the chief of the staff, based in the city of Ichigaya, Shinjuku. The present chief of staff is General Kiyofumi Iwata, the JGSDF numbered around 150,000 soldiers in 2008. As of 2010, the remained the same at approximately 150,000 personnel. Japan accepted the Potsdam Declaration in 1945, and, in compliance with Article 9, both were replaced by the United States Armed Forces occupation force, which assumed responsibility for the external defense of Japan. On the outbreak of the Korean War, many U. S. units were transferred to Korea, accordingly, in mid-1952, the National Police Reserve was expanded to 110,000 men and named the National Safety Forces. Japan continued to improve its defensive capabilities, the enabling legislation for this was the 1954 Self-Defense Forces Act. For a long period, the Japan Ground Self-Defense Force possessed an ability to hold off a Soviet invasion of Hokkaido. Zbigniew Brzezinski observed in 1972 that it seemed optimized to fight ‘a Soviet invasion conducted on American patterns of a quarter of a century ago, in 1989, basic training for lower-secondary and upper-secondary academy graduates began in the training brigade and lasted approximately three months. Specialized enlisted and non-commissioned officer candidate courses were available in branch schools, advanced technical, flight, medical and command and staff officer courses were also run by the JGSDF. Like the maritime and air forces, the JGSDF ran a youth cadet program offering technical training to school graduates below military age in return for a promise of enlistment. Because of population density and urbanization on the Japanese islands, only limited areas are available for large-scale training, the JGSDF has two reserve components, the rapid-reaction reserve component and the main reserve component. Members of the rapid-reaction component train 30 days a year, members of the main reserve train five days a year. As of December 2007, there were 8,425 members of the reserve component and 22,404 members of the main reserve component. JGSDF divisions and brigades are combined arms units with infantry, armored and they are regionally independent and permanent entities. The divisions strength varies from 6,000 to 9,000 personnel
6.
Royal Netherlands Air Force
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The Royal Netherlands Air Force, is the military aviation branch of the Netherlands Armed Forces. It was created in 1953, though its ancestor, the Luchtvaartafdeling of the Dutch Army was founded with four pilots on 1 July 1913, the aerobatic display team of the Royal Netherlands Air Force is the Solo Display Team. The Royal Netherlands Air Force is the second youngest operational part of the Dutch Armed Forces, Dutch air power started in July 1913 with the founding of the Army Aviation Group at Soesterberg airfield. When founded, the Army Aviation Group operated one aircraft, the Brik and these aircraft were soon outdated and the Dutch government ordered several fighter/reconnaissance Nieuport and Caudron aircraft to replace them. The Netherlands maintained a position during World War I and the Army Aviation Group did not take part in any action. Pilot training was opened for ranks below officer, and technical, aerial photography, meteorological, New airfields were established at Arnhem, Gilze-Rijen air base, Venlo and Vlissingen. After the end of World War I the Dutch government cut the defence budget, lack of standardisation and resulting maintenance issues added to the complexity of the rebuilding task. As war loomed, in July 1939 the Army Aviation Group was renamed the Army Aviation Brigade, within five days the Dutch Army Aviation Brigade was taken out by the German Luftwaffe. All of the Brigades bombers, along with 30 D. XXI and 17 G. I fighters were shot down, two G. I were captured by German forces, one of which was later flown to England by a Fokker pilot. The cost was high – almost 95% of the Dutch pilots were lost, in recognition of their actions Queen Wilhelmina granted the highest Dutch military decoration, the Militaire Willemsorde, to the Army Aviation Brigade collectively. Some aircrews escaped to England and on 1 June 1940,320 Squadron and 321 Squadron were established there under RAF operational command, due to a shortage of personnel,321 Squadron was absorbed by 320 Sqn in January 1941. Although their personnel were predominantly from the Navy Air Service, Army Aviation aircrew also served with 320 Sqn until the end of the war, the separate Militaire Luchtvaart van het Koninklijk Nederlands-Indisch Leger continued in the Netherlands East Indies, until its occupation by Japan in 1942. Some personnel escaped to Australia and Ceylon,321 Squadron was re-formed in Ceylon, in March 1942, from Dutch aviators. In 1942,18 Squadron, a joint Dutch-Australian unit was established, in Canberra and it saw action in the New Guinea campaign and over the Dutch East Indies. In 1943,120 Squadron was established, equipped with Kittyhawk fighters, it flew many missions under Australian command, including the recapturing of Dutch New Guinea. In June 1943, a Dutch fighter squadron was established in England,322 Squadron, equipped with the Supermarine Spitfire, saw action as part of the RAF. 322 Sqn aircraft featured the British RAF roundels as well as the Dutch orange triangle,322 Sqn was successfully deployed against incoming V-1 flying bombs. From mid-1944, during the invasion of Normandy, it executed ground attack missions over France, in July 1944, the Directorate of Netherlands Airpower was established in London
7.
Boeing Vertol CH-46 Sea Knight
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The Boeing Vertol CH-46 Sea Knight is a medium-lift tandem rotor transport helicopter powered by twin turboshaft aircraft engines. It was used by the United States Marine Corps to provide all-weather, day-or-night assault transport of troops, supplies. Additional tasks included combat support, search and rescue, support for refueling and rearming points, CASEVAC and Tactical Recovery of Aircraft. The Sea Knight was also the United States Navys standard medium-lift utility helicopter until it was phased out in favor of the MH-60S Knighthawk in the early 2000s, Canada also operated the Sea Knight, designated as CH-113, and operated them in the SAR role until 2004. Other export customers include Japan, Sweden, and Saudi Arabia, the commercial version is the BV 107-II, commonly referred to simply as the Vertol. Piasecki Helicopter was a developer of tandem-rotor helicopters, with the most famous previous helicopter being the H-21 Flying Banana. Piasecki Helicopter became Vertol in 1955 and work began on a new tandem rotor helicopter designated the Vertol Model 107 or V-107 in 1956, the V-107 prototype had two Lycoming T53 turboshaft engines, producing 877 shp each. The first flight of the V-107 took place on 22 April 1958, the V-107 was then put through a flight demonstration tour in the United States and overseas. In June 1958, the U. S. Army awarded a contract to Vertol for ten production aircraft designated YHC-1A. The order was decreased to three, so that the Army could divert funds for the V-114, also a turbine powered tandem. The Armys three YHC-1As were powered by GE-T-58 engines, the YHC-1As first flew in August 1959, and were followed by an improved commercial/export model, the 107-II. During 1960, the U. S. Marine Corps evolved a requirement for a medium-lift and that same year Boeing acquired Vertol and renamed the group Boeing Vertol. Following a competition, Boeing Vertol was selected to build its model 107M as the HRB-1, early in 1961. In 1962 the U. S. Air Force ordered 12 XCH-46B Sea Knights with the XH-49A designation, following the Sea Knights first flight in August 1962, the designation was changed to CH-46A. In November 1964, introduction of the Marines CH-46A and the Navys UH-46As began, the UH-46A variant was modified for the vertical replenishment role. The CH-46A was equipped with a pair of T58-GE8-8B turboshaft engines rated at 1,250 shp each, Production of the improved CH-46D followed with deliveries beginning in 1966. Its improvements included modified rotor blades and more powerful T58-GE-10 turboshaft engines rated at 1,400 shp each, the increased power allowed the D-model to carry 25 troops or 7,000 pounds of cargo. The CH-46D was introduced to the Vietnam theater in late 1967, supplementing the U. S. Marine Corps existing unreliable, along with the USMCs CH-46Ds, the U. S. Navy received a small number of UH-46Ds for ship resupply
8.
Boeing Chinook (UK variants)
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The Boeing Chinook is a tandem rotor helicopter operated by the Royal Air Force. A series of variants based on the United States Armys Boeing CH-47 Chinook, in March 1967 an order was placed for fifteen Chinook HC Mk1s, standing for Helicopter, Cargo Mark 1, for the Royal Air Force to replace the Bristol Belvedere. This original MK1 variant was to be based on the CH-47B, UK Chinook procurement ambitions were revived in 1978 with an announced requirement for a new heavy-lift helicopter to replace the Westland Wessex. Thirty Chinooks were ordered at a price of US$200 million and these helicopters, comparable to the CH-47C with Lycoming T55-L-11E engines, were again designated Chinook HC Mk1, and entered service in December 1980. Eight more Mk1s were delivered from 1984 to 1986 with the CH-47Ds Lycoming T55-L-712 turboshafts, the replacement of the Mk1s metal rotor blades with aluminium and glass fibre composite rotor blades saw these aircraft designated Chinook HC Mk1B. All surviving aircraft were returned to Boeing and updated to the Chinook HC Mk2 standard for further service within the RAF. The US Armys next generation Chinook, the CH-47D, entered service in 1982, the RAF returned their original Mk1s to Boeing for upgrading to CH-47D standard, the first of which returned to the UK in 1993. Three additional HC Mk2 Chinooks were ordered with delivery beginning in 1995, one Argentine CH-47C was captured during the Falklands War, and used by the RAF as a training aid. The rear fuselage was used to repair a crashed RAF Chinook in 2003. In 2006, the retirement dates for the Mk2 and Mk2A fleets were scheduled for 2015 and 2025 respectively, eight Chinook HC Mk3s were ordered in 1995 as dedicated special forces helicopters, which were intended to be low-cost variants of the US Armys MH-47E. The Mk3s include improved range, night vision sensors and navigation capability, the eight aircraft were to cost £259 million and the forecast in-service date was November 1998. Although delivered in 2001, the Mk3 could not receive airworthiness certificates as it was not possible to certify the avionics software. Unfortunately the procurement was a profoundly inept piece of procurement, Sir Peter Spencer, who as head of Defence Procurement inherited the project, said that, I mean, there were 100 essential requirements. One of them said to give protection against any missile coming from any direction, Spencer later commented, it is always hard to imagine why people think you would be able cost effectively to buy a bespoke requirement for a very small production run. The avionics were unsuitable due to risk analysis and necessary requirements omitted from the procurement contract. The Times claimed that the Ministry of Defence planned to perform software integration itself, without Boeings involvement, while lacking certification, the helicopters were only permitted to fly in visual meteorological conditions and subsequently stored in climate controlled hangars. The programme was estimated to cost £50–60 million, on 6 July 2009 the first of the eight modified Chinook HC Mk3s made its first test flight at MoD Boscombe Down as part of the flight testing and evaluation phase of the HC Mk3 reversion program. A programme to upgrade 46 Chinook Mk2/2A and Mk3 helicopters was initiated in December 2008, upgraded Mk2/2A and Mk3 aircraft will be redesignated Mk4 from Mk2/2a, and Mk5 from Mk3
9.
Tandem rotors
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Tandem rotor helicopters have two large horizontal rotor assemblies mounted one in front of the other. Currently this configuration is used for large cargo helicopters. Single rotor helicopters need a mechanism to neutralize the yawing movement produced by the large rotor. This is commonly accomplished by a rotor, coaxial rotors. Tandem rotor helicopters, however, use counter-rotating rotors, with each cancelling out the others torque, therefore all of the power from the engines can be used for lift, whereas a single rotor helicopter uses some of the engine power to counter the torque. An alternative is to mount two rotors in a coaxial configuration, the first successful tandem rotor helicopter was built by Nicolas Florine in 1927. Advantages of the system are a larger centre of gravity range. Disadvantages of the system are a complex transmission, and the need for two large rotors. The two rotors are linked by a transmission that ensures the rotors are synchronized and do not hit each other, tandem rotor designs achieve yaw by applying opposite left and right cyclic to each rotor, effectively pulling both ends of the helicopter in opposite directions. To achieve pitch, opposite collective is applied to each rotor, decreasing the lift produced at one end, while increasing lift at the opposite end, tandem rotor aerodynamics is a complex subject. Tandem rotor helicopters have the advantage of being able to more weight with shorter blades. However, the rear rotor works in the shadow of the front rotor. This loss can be minimized by increasing the distance between the two hubs, and by elevating one hub over the other. Tandem rotor helicopters tend to have a lower loading than single rotor helicopters. Tandem rotor helicopters typically require less power to hover and achieve low speed flight as compared to single rotor helicopters, both configurations typically require the same power to achieve high speed flight
10.
Heavy-lift helicopter
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Originally derived from bombers, military transport aircraft were used for delivering airborne forces during the Second World War and towing military gliders. Fixed-wing transport aircraft are defined in terms of their range capability as strategic airlift or [[tactical |-, for example, the military transport helicopter is the primary transport asset of US Marines deploying from LHDs and LHA. Transport helicopters are operated in assault, medium and heavy classes, air assault helicopters are usually the smallest of the transport types, and designed to move an infantry squad or section and their equipment. Helicopters in the role are generally armed for self-protection both in transit and for suppression of the landing zone. This armament may be in the form of door gunners, or the modification of the helicopter with wings and pylons to carry missiles. For example, the Sikorsky S-70, fitted with the ESSM, the assault helicopter can be thought of as the modern successor to the military glider. Finally, there is the term utility helicopter, which generally refers to medium-lift designs. Unlike the assault helicopter they are not expected to land directly in a contested landing zone. Examples include the versions of the Mil Mi-8, Super Puma. The lower speed, range and increased consumption of helicopters are more than compensated by their ability to operate virtually anywhere
11.
Piasecki Helicopter
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Piasecki Helicopter Corporation was a designer and manufacturer of helicopters located in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and nearby Morton, Pennsylvania, in the late 1940s and the 1950s. Its founder, Frank Piasecki, was ousted from the company in 1956 and started a new company, Piasecki Helicopter was renamed Vertol Corporation in early 1956. Vertol was acquired by Boeing in 1960 and renamed Boeing Vertol, the Piasecki Helicopter Corporation was founded in 1940 by Frank Piasecki as the P-V Engineering Forum. It first became known as Piasecki Helicopter in 1946, the PV-2 was the second helicopter flown in the United States, and was designed and flown by Frank Piasecki in 1943. Piasecki designed and successfully sold a series of tandem rotor helicopters to the United States Navy, the name would later be applied to other Piasecki helicopters of similar design. In 1949, Piasecki provided the H-21 Workhorse to the United States Air Force, Piaseckis tandem-rotor helicopters flew higher than competing single rotor designs, and offered a smoother ride. In 1946, to expansion, Piasecki sold a 51% interest in the company to Laurance Rockefeller. Felix du Pont, Jr. for $500,000, don R. Berlin was brought in as president and director of Piasecki Helicopters in 1953, while Frank Piasecki was chairman of the board. The majority owners eventually lost faith in Frank Piaseckis leadership and by May 1956 he was out of the company and he had formed a new company, Piasecki Aircraft Corporation to pursue the development of compound helicopters and other rotorcraft. The company was acquired by Boeing in 1960 and renamed Boeing Vertol and it became the Boeing Helicopter Division in 1987. High Frontier, A History of Aeronautics in Pennsylvania, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, University of Pittsburgh Press,1982
12.
Native Americans in the United States
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In the United States, Native Americans are people descended from the Pre-Columbian indigenous population of the land within the countrys modern boundaries. These peoples were composed of distinct tribes, bands, and ethnic groups. Most Native American groups had historically preserved their histories by oral traditions and artwork, at the time of first contact, the indigenous cultures were quite different from those of the proto-industrial and mostly Christian immigrants. Some of the Northeastern and Southwestern cultures in particular were matrilineal, the majority of Indigenous American tribes maintained their hunting grounds and agricultural lands for use of the entire tribe. Europeans at that time had patriarchal cultures and had developed concepts of property rights with respect to land that were extremely different. Assimilation became a consistent policy through American administrations, during the 19th century, the ideology of manifest destiny became integral to the American nationalist movement. Expansion of European-American populations to the west after the American Revolution resulted in increasing pressure on Native American lands and this resulted in the ethnic cleansing of many tribes, with the brutal, forced marches coming to be known as The Trail of Tears. As American expansion reached into the West, settler and miner migrants came into increasing conflict with the Great Basin, Great Plains and these were complex nomadic cultures based on horse culture and seasonal bison hunting. Over time, the United States forced a series of treaties and land cessions by the tribes, in 1924, Native Americans who were not already U. S. citizens were granted citizenship by Congress. Contemporary Native Americans have a relationship with the United States because they may be members of nations, tribes. The terms used to refer to Native Americans have at times been controversial, by comparison, the indigenous peoples of Canada are generally known as First Nations. It is not definitively known how or when the Native Americans first settled the Americas and these early inhabitants, called Paleoamericans, soon diversified into many hundreds of culturally distinct nations and tribes. The archaeological periods used are the classifications of archaeological periods and cultures established in Gordon Willey and Philip Phillips 1958 book Method and they divided the archaeological record in the Americas into five phases, see Archaeology of the Americas. The Clovis culture, a hunting culture, is primarily identified by use of fluted spear points. Artifacts from this culture were first excavated in 1932 near Clovis, the Clovis culture ranged over much of North America and also appeared in South America. The culture is identified by the distinctive Clovis point, a flaked flint spear-point with a notched flute, dating of Clovis materials has been by association with animal bones and by the use of carbon dating methods. Recent reexaminations of Clovis materials using improved carbon-dating methods produced results of 11,050 and 10,800 radiocarbon years B. P, other tribes have stories that recount migrations across long tracts of land and a great river, believed to be the Mississippi River. Genetic and linguistic data connect the people of this continent with ancient northeast Asians
13.
Chinookan peoples
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Chinookan peoples include several groups of indigenous people of the Pacific Northwest in the United States who speak the Chinookan languages. In the early 19th century, the Chinookan-speaking peoples resided along the lower and middle Columbia River, in 1805 the Lewis and Clark Expedition encountered the Chinook tribe on the lower Columbia. Since the late 20th century, the Chinook Indian Nation, made up of 2700 members of related peoples, has worked to obtain federal recognition. It gained this in 2001 from the Department of Interior under President Bill Clinton, after President George W. Bush was elected, his political appointees reviewed the case and, in a highly unusual action, revoked the recognition. The tribe has sought Congressional support for recognition by the legislature, the Chinookan peoples were relatively settled and occupied traditional tribal geographic areas, where they hunted and fished, salmon was a mainstay of their diet. The women also gathered and processed many nuts, seeds, roots and they had a society marked by social stratification, consisting of a number of distinct social castes of greater or lesser status. Upper castes included shamans, warriors, and successful traders and they composed a minority of the community population compared to common members. Members of the castes are said to have practiced social discrimination, limiting contact with commoners. Some Chinookan peoples practiced slavery, a practice borrowed from the northernmost tribes of the Pacific Northwest and they took slaves as captives in warfare, and used them to practice thievery on behalf of their masters. The latter refrained from such practices as unworthy of high status, the elite of some Chinookan tribes had the practice of head binding, flattening their childrens forehead and top of the skull as a mark of social status. They bound the infants head under pressure between boards when the infant was about 3 months old and continued until the child was one year of age. This custom was a means of marking social hierarchy, flat-headed community members had a rank above those with round heads and those with flattened skulls refused to enslave other persons who were similarly marked, thereby reinforcing the association of a round head with servility. The Chinook were known colloquially by early explorers in the region as Flathead Indians. Living near the coast of the Pacific Ocean, the Chinook were skilled elk hunters, the most popular fish was salmon. In the manner of numerous settled tribes, the Chinook resided in long houses, more than fifty people, related through extended kinship, often resided in one long house. The Chinook peoples have long had a community on the lower Columbia River and they re-organized in the 20th century, setting up an elected form of government and reviving tribal culture. They first sought recognition as a recognized sovereign tribe in the late 20th century, as this would provide certain benefits for education. The Department of Interiors Bureau of Indian Affairs rejected their application in 1997, since the late 20th century, the Chinook Indian Nation has engaged in a continuing effort to secure formal recognition, conducting research and developing documentation to demonstrate its history
14.
Washington (state)
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It was admitted to the Union as the 42nd state in 1889. Washington is sometimes referred to as Washington State or the State of Washington to distinguish it from Washington, Washington is the 18th largest state with an area of 71,362 square miles, and the 13th most populous state with over 7 million people. Washington is the second most populous state on the West Coast and in the Western United States, Mount Rainier, an active stratovolcano, is the states highest elevation at almost 14,411 feet and is the most topographically prominent mountain in the contiguous United States. Washington is a leading lumber producer and its rugged surface is rich in stands of Douglas fir, hemlock, ponderosa pine, white pine, spruce, larch, and cedar. Manufacturing industries in Washington include aircraft and missiles, shipbuilding and other equipment, lumber, food processing, metals and metal products, chemicals. Washington has over 1,000 dams, including the Grand Coulee Dam, built for a variety of purposes including irrigation, power, flood control, the Washington Territory was named after George Washington, the first President of the United States. The area was part of a region called the Columbia District after the Columbia River. The area was renamed Washington in order to avoid confusion with the District of Columbia, Washington is the only U. S. state named after a president. To distinguish it from the U. S. capital, which is named for George Washington, Washington is sometimes referred to as Washington State, or, in more formal contexts. Washingtonians and other residents of the Pacific Northwest refer to the state simply as Washington, calling the nations capital Washington, D. C. or, often, Washington is the northwestern-most state of the contiguous United States. Washington is bordered by Oregon to the south, with the Columbia River forming the western part, to the west of Washington lies the Pacific Ocean. The high mountains of the Cascade Range run north-south, bisecting the state, from the Cascade Mountains westward, Western Washington has a mostly marine west coast climate, with mild temperatures and wet winters, autumns and springs, and relatively dry summers. The Cascade Range contains several volcanoes, which reach altitudes significantly higher than the rest of the mountains, from the north to the south, these major volcanoes are Mount Baker, Glacier Peak, Mount Rainier, Mount St. Helens, and Mount Adams. Mount Rainier, the tallest mountain in the state, is 50 miles south of the city of Seattle and it is also covered with more glacial ice than any other peak in the contiguous 48 states. Western Washington also is home of the Olympic Mountains, far west on the Olympic Peninsula and these deep forests, such as the Hoh Rainforest, are among the only temperate rainforests in the continental United States. Eastern Washington – the part of the state east of the Cascades – has a dry climate. It includes large areas of steppe and a few truly arid deserts lying in the rain shadow of the Cascades. Farther east, the climate becomes less arid, with annual rainfall increasing as one goes east to 21.2 inches in Pullman, the Okanogan Highlands and the rugged Kettle River Range and Selkirk Mountains cover much of the northeastern quadrant of the state
15.
United States Department of the Army
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The Department of the Army is one of the three military departments within the Department of Defense of the United States of America. The Secretary of the Army is an official appointed by the President. The highest-ranking military officer in the department is the Chief of Staff of the Army, by amendments to the National Security Act of 1947 in 1949, the Department of the Army was transformed to its present-day status. The Department of the Army is a Military Department within the United States Department of Defense, the Department is headed by the Secretary of the Army, who by statute must be a civilian, appointed by the President with the confirmation by the United States Senate. The Department of the Army is divided between its Headquarters at the Seat of Government and the organizations of the Army. Only the Secretary of Defense has the authority to transfer of forces to. The Office of the Secretary and the Army Staff are organized along lines, with civilians. The Army Staff is led by the Chief of Staff of the Army, a general who is the highest-ranking officer in the Army. The Chief of Staff is assisted in managing the Army Staff by the Vice Chief of Staff of the United States Army, the Army Staff is divided into several directorates, each headed by a three-star general. A key official within the Army Staff is the Director of the Army Staff, the Director is responsible for integrating and synchronizing the work of the Office of the Secretary and the Army Staff so that they meet the goals and priorities of the Secretary of the Army. Army Regulation 10–87, Accessed on 2011-08-04, Army. mil Department of the Army in the Federal Register HQ DA organization
16.
Radial engine
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The radial engine is a reciprocating type internal combustion engine configuration in which the cylinders radiate outward from a central crankcase like the spokes of a wheel. It resembles a star when viewed from the front, and is called a star engine in some languages. The radial configuration was very commonly used for aircraft engines before gas turbine engines became predominant, instead, the pistons are connected to the crankshaft with a master-and-articulating-rod assembly. One piston, the uppermost one in the animation, has a rod with a direct attachment to the crankshaft. The remaining pistons pin their connecting rods attachments to rings around the edge of the master rod, extra rows of radial cylinders can be added in order to increase the capacity of the engine without adding to its diameter. Four-stroke radials have an odd number of cylinders per row, so that a consistent every-other-piston firing order can be maintained, for example, on a five-cylinder engine the firing order is 1,3,5,2,4 and back to cylinder 1. Moreover, this leaves a one-piston gap between the piston on its combustion stroke and the piston on compression. The active stroke directly helps compress the next cylinder to fire, if an even number of cylinders were used, an equally timed firing cycle would not be feasible. The radial engine normally uses fewer cam lobes than other types, as with most four-strokes, the crankshaft takes two revolutions to complete the four strokes of each piston. The camshaft ring is geared to spin slower and in the direction to the crankshaft. The cam lobes are placed in two rows for the intake and exhaust, for the example, four cam lobes serve all five cylinders, whereas 10 would be required for a typical inline engine with the same number of cylinders and valves. C. M. Manly constructed a water-cooled five-cylinder radial engine in 1901, manlys engine produced 52 hp at 950 rpm. This was installed in his triplane and made a number of short free-flight hops, another early radial engine was the three-cylinder Anzani, originally built as a W3 fan configuration, one of which powered Louis Blériots Blériot XI across the English Channel. Georges Canton and Pierre Unné patented the engine design in 1909, offering it to the Salmson company. It was similar in concept to the radial, the main difference being that the propeller was bolted to the engine. The problem of the cooling of the cylinders, a factor with the early stationary radials, was alleviated by the engine generating its own cooling airflow. Most German aircraft of the time used water-cooled inline 6-cylinder engines, in the early 1920s Le Rhône converted a number of their rotary engines into stationary radial engines. By 1918 the potential advantages of air-cooled radials over the inline engine
17.
Sikorsky CH-37 Mojave
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The Sikorsky CH-37 Mojave was an American large heavy-lift helicopter of the 1950s. The S-56 came into being as a transport for the United States Marine Corps. An order for the aircraft was placed in 1951 utilizing the U. S. Navy/U. S, Marine Corps designation of the time of HR2S. The first prototype, the XHR2S-1 flew in 1953 and production deliveries of the HR2S-1 began in July 1956 to Marine Helicopter Squadron One, the United States Army evaluated the prototype in 1954 and ordered 94 examples as the CH-37A, the first being delivered also in summer 1956. All Marine Corps and Army examples were delivered by mid-1960, Army examples were all upgraded to CH-37B status in the early 1960s, being given Lear auto-stabilization equipment and the ability to load and unload while hovering. In the 1962 unification of United States military aircraft designations, the USMC examples were redesignated from HR2S-1 to CH-37C, at the time of delivery, the CH-37 was the largest helicopter in the Western world and it was Sikorskys first twin-engined helicopter. Two Pratt & Whitney R-2800 Double Wasp radial engines were mounted in pods that also contained the retractable landing gear. This left the free for cargo, which could be loaded and unloaded through large clamshell doors in the nose. The early models could carry a payload of either three M422 Mighty Mite or 26 troops, for storage, the main rotor blades folded back on the fuselage and the tail rotor mast folded forward on the fuselage. The CH-37 was one of the last heavy helicopters to use piston engines, four CH-37Bs were deployed to Vietnam in 1963 to assist in the recovery of downed U. S. aircraft. They were very successful at this role, recovering over US$7.5 million worth of equipment, XHR2S-1 Prototype Assault Transport for the US Marine Corps, powered by two 1,900 hp R-2800-54 engines, four built. HR2S-1 Production model for USMC with modified engine nacelles, twin mainwheels and dorsal fin, hR2S-1W Airborne early warning aircraft for the US Navy, two built. YH-37 One HR2S-1 helicopter evaluated by the US Army, h-37A Mojave Military transport version of the HR2S for the US Army, changes included dorsal fin and modified rotor head fairing, redesignated CH-37A in 1962,94 built. H-37B Mojave All but four of the H-37As were modified with a cargo door, automatic stabilization equipment. S-56 Sikorsky company designation for H-37, s-60 a prototype sky-crane with a skeletal fuselage with a crew cockpit at the front. Subsequently changed to use S-64 rotor, United States United States Army United States Marine Corps United States Navy CH-37B is on display at the U. S. Army Aviation Museum at Fort Rucker, Alabama. CH-37B Tired Dude is on display at the Pima Air Museum adjacent to Davis-Monthan Air Force Base in Tucson, CH-37B is on display at the U. S. Army Transportation Museum at Fort Eustis, Virginia. CH-37B is on display at the Evergreen Aviation & Space Museum in McMinnville, CH-37C is on display at the National Museum of Naval Aviation at Naval Air Station Pensacola, Florida
18.
Gas turbine
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A gas turbine, also called a combustion turbine, is a type of internal combustion engine. It has an upstream rotating compressor coupled to a turbine. The basic operation of the gas turbine is similar to that of the power plant except that the working fluid is air instead of water. Fresh atmospheric air flows through a compressor that brings it to higher pressure, energy is then added by spraying fuel into the air and igniting it so the combustion generates a high-temperature flow. This high-temperature high-pressure gas enters a turbine, where it expands down to the exhaust pressure, the turbine shaft work is used to drive the compressor and other devices such as an electric generator that may be coupled to the shaft. The energy that is not used for shaft work comes out in the exhaust gases, the purpose of the gas turbine determines the design so that the most desirable energy form is maximized. Gas turbines are used to power aircraft, trains, ships, electrical generators,50, Heros Engine — Apparently, Heros steam engine was taken to be no more than a toy, and thus its full potential not realized for centuries. 1000, The Trotting Horse Lamp was used by the Chinese at lantern fairs as early as the Northern Song dynasty. When the lamp is lit, the heated airflow rises and drives an impeller with horse-riding figures attached on it,1629, Jets of steam rotated an impulse turbine that then drove a working stamping mill by means of a bevel gear, developed by Giovanni Branca. 1678, Ferdinand Verbiest built a model carriage relying on a jet for power. 1791, A patent was given to John Barber, an Englishman and his invention had most of the elements present in the modern day gas turbines. The turbine was designed to power a horseless carriage,1861, British patent no.1633 was granted to Marc Antoine Francois Mennons for a Caloric engine. The patent shows that it was a gas turbine and the show it applied to a locomotive. Also named in the patent was Nicolas de Telescheff, a Russian aviation pioneer,1872, A gas turbine engine was designed by Franz Stolze, but the engine never ran under its own power. 1894, Sir Charles Parsons patented the idea of propelling a ship with a turbine, and built a demonstration vessel. This principle of propulsion is still of some use,1895, Three 4-ton 100 kW Parsons radial flow generators were installed in Cambridge Power Station, and used to power the first electric street lighting scheme in the city. 1899, Charles Gordon Curtis patented the first gas engine in the USA. 1900, Sanford Alexander Moss submitted a thesis on gas turbines, in 1903, Moss became an engineer for General Electrics Steam Turbine Department in Lynn, Massachusetts
19.
Maiden flight
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The maiden flight of an aircraft is the first occasion on which an aircraft leaves the ground under its own power. This is similar to a maiden voyage. The first flight of a new type is always a historic occasion for the type. In the early days of aviation it could be dangerous, because the exact handling characteristics of the aircraft were generally unknown, the first flight of a new type is almost invariably flown by a highly experienced test pilot. First flights are usually accompanied by a plane, to verify items like altitude, airspeed. A first flight is one stage in the development of an aircraft type. Unless the type is a research aircraft, the aircraft must be tested extensively to ensure that it delivers the desired performance with an acceptable margin of safety. In the case of aircraft, a new type must be certified by a governing agency before it can enter operation. An incomplete list of first flights of aircraft types, organized by date. October 23,1906 – Alberto Santos-Dumont 14-bis flight, in Bagatelle park, Paris and he flew 5,080 feet, to win the Scientific American Trophy and its $2,500 purse. July 28,1935 – Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress – World War II American heavy bomber. December 17,1935 – Douglas DC-3 – propeller-driven passenger and cargo aircraft of more than 10,000 were produced December 29,1939 – Consolidated B-24 – World War II American heavy bomber. November 2,1947 – Hughes H-4 Hercules – only flight of this oversized flying boat, July 27,1949 – de Havilland Comet – first jet airliner. August 23,1954 – Lockheed C-130 Hercules – military transport plane, may 27,1955 – Sud Aviation Caravelle – first jet airliner with engines mounted in the tail. April 25,1962 – Lockheed A-12 Blackbird – supersonic reconnaissance plane, june 29,1962 – Vickers VC10 – first airliner with 4 engines mounted in the tail. April 9,1967 – Boeing 737 – short-to-medium-range airliner, october 4,1968 – Tupolev 154 – Soviet/Russian airliner, still in operation. December 31,1968 – Tupolev Tu-144 – Soviet supersonic airliner, february 9,1969 – Boeing 747 – first widebody airliner. March 2,1969 – Anglo-French Concorde – supersonic airliner, september 19,1969 – Mil Mi-24 – Russian/Soviet-made helicopter used by many countries to this day
20.
Cargo hook (helicopter)
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A cargo hook is a device suspended below a helicopter and allows the transport of external loads during flight. Common terms for this operation include slingwork, underslung loads, external loadwork, primary, or belly, hooks are designed to mount directly to the airframe belly, i. e. underside, of a helicopter. Because they are attached to the fuselage, or skin, of the aircraft, in the United States, belly hooks are governed under Federal Aviation Administration FAR Part 133. Belly hooks are designed, manufactured, and approved for use on specific aircraft models, belly hooks that have been certified by the FAA receive a Supplemental Type Certificate that describes the aircraft models that are authorized to use the hook for external load operations. For example, a belly hook approved for use by the FAA on a Eurocopter AS350 could not be used on a Bell 407 helicopter unless covered by the STC. For small to mid-size utility helicopters performing external load work, belly hooks are typically mounted to the fuselage using either a sling or a suspension configuration, the sling mount uses a single attachment point, whereas a suspension system uses four attachment points. Since suspension systems transfer the weight of the load across a larger swath of the aircraft. Remote hooks are suspended beneath the belly hook by a line, swivel. Because they are not attached directly to the airframe, they do not require aircraft-specific certification, key components of a cargo hook include the load beam, the keeper, and the attach point. The load beam is the piece of metal at the bottom of a cargo hook that supports the load. Usually it has a curved, narrow end which is used to load a ring, rope, the keeper is the locking, spring-operated mechanism that keeps the load from sliding off the load beam during transport. The attach point attaches the hook to the belly of the helicopter, swing system, the following table includes a list of helicopter models that are designed to carry underslung loads. Utility helicopter operators perform a variety of external load work that varies region to region and season to season
21.
Knot (unit)
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The knot is a unit of speed equal to one nautical mile per hour, approximately 1.151 mph. The ISO Standard symbol for the knot is kn, the same symbol is preferred by the IEEE, kt is also common. The knot is a unit that is accepted for use with the SI. Etymologically, the term derives from counting the number of knots in the line that unspooled from the reel of a log in a specific time. 1 international knot =1 nautical mile per hour,1.852 kilometres per hour,0.514 metres per second,1.151 miles per hour,20.254 inches per second,1852 m is the length of the internationally agreed nautical mile. The US adopted the definition in 1954, having previously used the US nautical mile. The UK adopted the international nautical mile definition in 1970, having used the UK Admiralty nautical mile. The speeds of vessels relative to the fluids in which they travel are measured in knots, for consistency, the speeds of navigational fluids are also measured in knots. Thus, speed over the ground and rate of progress towards a distant point are given in knots. Until the mid-19th century, vessel speed at sea was measured using a chip log, the chip log was cast over the stern of the moving vessel and the line allowed to pay out. Knots placed at a distance of 8 fathoms -47 feet 3 inches from each other, passed through a sailors fingers, the knot count would be reported and used in the sailing masters dead reckoning and navigation. This method gives a value for the knot of 20.25 in/s, the difference from the modern definition is less than 0. 02%. On a chart of the North Atlantic, the scale varies by a factor of two from Florida to Greenland, a single graphic scale, of the sort on many maps, would therefore be useless on such a chart. Recent British Admiralty charts have a latitude scale down the middle to make this even easier, speed is sometimes incorrectly expressed as knots per hour, which is in fact a measure of acceleration. Prior to 1969, airworthiness standards for aircraft in the United States Federal Aviation Regulations specified that distances were to be in statute miles. In 1969, these standards were amended to specify that distances were to be in nautical miles. At 11000 m, an airspeed of 300 kn may correspond to a true airspeed of 500 kn in standard conditions. Beaufort scale Hull speed, which deals with theoretical estimates of maximum speed of displacement hulls Knot count Knotted cord Metre per second Orders of magnitude Rope Kemp
22.
Attack helicopter
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An attack helicopter is an armed helicopter with the primary role of an attack aircraft, with the capability of engaging targets on the ground, such as enemy infantry and armored fighting vehicles. Due to their heavy armament they are sometimes called helicopter gunships, weapons used on attack helicopters can include autocannons, machine guns, rockets, and guided anti-tank missiles such as the Hellfire. Many attack helicopters are capable of carrying air-to-air missiles, though mostly for purposes of self-defense. Todays attack helicopter has two roles, first, to provide direct and accurate close air support for ground troops. Attack helicopters are used to supplement lighter helicopters in the armed scout role. In combat, a helicopter is projected to destroy around 17 times its own production cost before it is destroyed. S. Army artillery spotter units over France, these aircraft were field-outfitted with either two or four bazooka rocket launchers attached to the struts, against German armored fighting vehicles. During the summer of 1944, U. S. Army Major Charles Carpenter managed to take on an anti-armor role with his rocket-armed Piper L-4. The only American helicopter in use during the war years, the Sikorsky R-4, was only being used for rescue and were very much experimental in nature. In the early 1950s, various countries around the world started to make increased use of helicopters in their operations in transport and liaison roles. Later on it was realised that these helicopters, successors to the World War II-era Sikorsky R-4, early examples include armed Sikorsky H-34s in service with the US Air Force and armed Mil Mi-4 in service with the Soviet Air Forces. This trend continued into the 1960s with the deployment of armed Bell UH-1s and Mil Mi-8s during the Vietnam War, by the 1990s, the missile-armed attack helicopter evolved into a primary anti-tank weapon. Able to quickly move about the battlefield and launch fleeting pop-up attacks, the helicopter gunship became a major tool against tank warfare, and most attack helicopters became more and more optimized for the antitank mission. Based on this realization, and with the involvement in Vietnam, the U. S. Army developed the requirements for a dedicated attack helicopter. The aircraft design selected for this program in 1965, was Lockheeds AH-56 Cheyenne, as the Army began its acquisition of a dedicated attack helicopter, it sought options to improve performance over the continued use of improvised interim aircraft. The three highest-ranked aircraft, the Sikorsky S-61, Kaman H-2 Tomahawk, and the Bell AH-1 Cobra, were selected to compete in trials conducted by the Armys Aviation Test Activity. Upon completion of the evaluations, the Test Activity recommended Bells Huey Cobra to be an interim armed helicopter until the Cheyenne was fielded. On 13 April 1966, the U. S. Army awarded Bell Helicopter Company a production contract for 110 AH-1G Cobras, the Cobra had a tandem cockpit seating arrangement to make the aircraft a smaller frontal target, increased armor protection, and greater speed
23.
Composite material
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The individual components remain separate and distinct within the finished structure. The new material may be preferred for reasons, common examples include materials which are stronger, lighter. More recently, researchers have begun to actively include sensing, actuation, computation and communication into composites. The most advanced examples perform routinely on spacecraft and aircraft in demanding environments, the earliest man-made composite materials were straw and mud combined to form bricks for building construction. Ancient brick-making was documented by Egyptian tomb paintings, wattle and daub is one of the oldest man-made composite materials, at over 6000 years old. Concrete is also a material, and is used more than any other man-made material in the world. As of 2006, about 7.5 billion cubic metres of concrete are made each year—more than one metre for every person on Earth. 2181–2055 BC and was used for death masks Cob Mud Bricks, concrete was described by Vitruvius, writing around 25 BC in his Ten Books on Architecture, distinguished types of aggregate appropriate for the preparation of lime mortars. For structural mortars, he recommended pozzolana, which were volcanic sands from the beds of Pozzuoli brownish-yellow-gray in colour near Naples. Natural cement-stones, after burning, produced cements used in concretes from post-Roman times into the 20th century, the glass fiber is relatively strong and stiff, whereas the polymer is ductile. Thus the resulting fiberglass is relatively stiff, strong, flexible, concrete is the most common artificial composite material of all and typically consists of loose stones held with a matrix of cement. Concrete is a material, and will not compress or shatter even under quite a large compressive force. However, concrete cannot survive tensile loading, therefore, to give concrete the ability to resist being stretched, steel bars, which can resist high stretching forces, are often added to concrete to form reinforced concrete. Fibre-reinforced polymers or FRPs include carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer or CFRP, and glass-reinforced plastic or GRP, if classified by matrix then there are thermoplastic composites, short fiber thermoplastics, long fibre thermoplastics or long fibre-reinforced thermoplastics. There are numerous thermoset composites, including paper composite panels, many advanced thermoset polymer matrix systems usually incorporate aramid fibre and carbon fibre in an epoxy resin matrix. Shape memory polymer composites are high-performance composites, formulated using fibre or fabric reinforcement and they can also be reheated and reshaped repeatedly without losing their material properties. These composites are ideal for such as lightweight, rigid, deployable structures, rapid manufacturing. Although high strain composites exhibit many similarities to shape memory polymers, Composites can also use metal fibres reinforcing other metals, as in metal matrix composites or ceramic matrix composites, which includes bone, cermet and concrete
24.
Lockheed C-130 Hercules
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The Lockheed C-130 Hercules is a four-engine turboprop military transport aircraft designed and built originally by Lockheed. Capable of using unprepared runways for takeoffs and landings, the C-130 was originally designed as a troop, medevac and it is now the main tactical airlifter for many military forces worldwide. Over forty variants and versions of the Hercules, including a civilian one marketed as the Lockheed L-100, the C-130 entered service with the U. S. in the 1950s, followed by Australia and others. During its years of service, the Hercules family has participated in numerous military, the C-130 Hercules is the longest continuously produced military aircraft at over 60 years, with the updated Lockheed Martin C-130J Super Hercules currently being produced. The new transport would have a capacity of 92 passengers,72 combat troops or 64 paratroopers in a compartment that was approximately 41 feet long,9 feet high. Unlike transports derived from passenger airliners, it was to be designed from the ground-up as a transport with loading from a hinged loading ramp at the rear of the fuselage. A key feature was the introduction of the Allison T56 turboprop powerplant, as was the case on helicopters of that era, such as the UH-1 Huey, turboshafts produced much more power for their weight than piston engines. Lockheed would subsequently use the engines and technology in the Lockheed L-188 Electra. The Boeing C-97 Stratofreighter also had a ramp, which made it possible to drive vehicles onto the plane. The ramp on the Hercules was also used to airdrop cargo, the new Lockheed cargo plane design possessed a range of 1,100 nmi, takeoff capability from short and unprepared strips, and the ability to fly with one engine shut down. Fairchild, North American, Martin, and Northrop declined to participate, the remaining five companies tendered a total of ten designs, Lockheed two, Boeing one, Chase three, Douglas three, and Airlifts Inc. one. The contest was an affair between the lighter of the two Lockheed proposals and a four-turboprop Douglas design. The Lockheed design team was led by Willis Hawkins, starting with a 130-page proposal for the Lockheed L-206, both Hibbard and Johnson signed the proposal and the company won the contract for the now-designated Model 82 on 2 July 1951. The first flight of the YC-130 prototype was made on 23 August 1954 from the Lockheed plant in Burbank, the aircraft, serial number 53-3397, was the second prototype, but the first of the two to fly. The YC-130 was piloted by Stanley Beltz and Roy Wimmer on its 61-minute flight to Edwards Air Force Base, Jack Real, kelly Johnson flew chase in a Lockheed P2V Neptune. After the two prototypes were completed, production began in Marietta, Georgia, where over 2,300 C-130s have been built through 2009. The initial production model, the C-130A, was powered by Allison T56-A-9 turboprops with three-blade propellers, deliveries began in December 1956, continuing until the introduction of the C-130B model in 1959. Some A-models were equipped with skis and re-designated C-130D, four-bladed Hamilton Standard propellers replaced the Aeroproducts three-blade propellers that distinguished the earlier A-models
25.
Royal Air Force
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The Royal Air Force is the United Kingdoms aerial warfare force. Formed towards the end of the First World War on 1 April 1918, following victory over the Central Powers in 1918 the RAF emerged as, at the time, the largest air force in the world. The RAF describe its mission statement as, an agile, adaptable and capable Air Force that, person for person, is second to none, and that makes a decisive air power contribution in support of the UK Defence Mission. The mission statement is supported by the RAFs definition of air power, Air power is defined as the ability to project power from the air and space to influence the behaviour of people or the course of events. Today the Royal Air Force maintains a fleet of various types of aircraft. The majority of the RAFs rotary-wing aircraft form part of the tri-service Joint Helicopter Command in support of ground forces, most of the RAFs aircraft and personnel are based in the UK, with many others serving on operations or at long-established overseas bases. It was founded on 1 April 1918, with headquarters located in the former Hotel Cecil, during the First World War, by the amalgamation of the Royal Flying Corps, at that time it was the largest air force in the world. The RAFs naval aviation branch, the Fleet Air Arm, was founded in 1924, the RAF developed the doctrine of strategic bombing which led to the construction of long-range bombers and became its main bombing strategy in the Second World War. The RAF underwent rapid expansion prior to and during the Second World War, under the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan of December 1939, the air forces of British Commonwealth countries trained and formed Article XV squadrons for service with RAF formations. Many individual personnel from countries, and exiles from occupied Europe. By the end of the war the Royal Canadian Air Force had contributed more than 30 squadrons to serve in RAF formations, additionally, the Royal Australian Air Force represented around nine percent of all RAF personnel who served in the European and Mediterranean theatres. In the Battle of Britain in 1940, the RAF defended the skies over Britain against the numerically superior German Luftwaffe, the largest RAF effort during the war was the strategic bombing campaign against Germany by Bomber Command. Following victory in the Second World War, the RAF underwent significant re-organisation, during the early stages of the Cold War, one of the first major operations undertaken by the Royal Air Force was in 1948 and the Berlin Airlift, codenamed Operation Plainfire. Before Britain developed its own nuclear weapons the RAF was provided with American nuclear weapons under Project E and these were initially armed with nuclear gravity bombs, later being equipped with the Blue Steel missile. Following the development of the Royal Navys Polaris submarines, the nuclear deterrent passed to the navys submarines on 30 June 1969. With the introduction of Polaris, the RAFs strategic nuclear role was reduced to a tactical one and this tactical role was continued by the V bombers into the 1980s and until 1998 by Tornado GR1s. For much of the Cold War the primary role of the RAF was the defence of Western Europe against potential attack by the Soviet Union, with many squadrons based in West Germany. With the decline of the British Empire, global operations were scaled back, despite this, the RAF fought in many battles in the Cold War period
26.
Aerial firefighting
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Aerial firefighting is the use of aircraft and other aerial resources to combat wildfires. The types of aircraft used include fixed-wing aircraft and helicopters, smokejumpers and rappellers are also classified as aerial firefighters, delivered to the fire by parachute from a variety of fixed-wing aircraft, or rappelling from helicopters. Chemicals used to fight fires may include water, water enhancers such as foams and gels, a wide variety of terminology has been used in the popular media for the aircraft used in aerial firefighting. The terms airtanker or air tanker generally refer to fixed-wing aircraft based in the United States, the term waterbomber is used in some Canadian government documents for the same class of vehicles, though it sometimes has a connotation of amphibians. Air attack is a term used for the actual application of aerial resources. The Air Tactical Group Supervisor, often called air attack, is flying at an altitude above other resources assigned to the fire, often in a fixed-wing plane. A wide variety of helicopters and fixed-wing aircraft are used for aerial firefighting, helicopters may be fitted with tanks or they may carry buckets. Some helitankers, such as the Erickson AirCrane, are outfitted with a front-mounted foam cannon. Buckets are usually filled by submerging or dipping them in lakes, rivers, reservoirs, the most popular of the buckets is the flexible Bambi Bucket. Tanks can be filled on the ground or water can be siphoned from lakes, rivers, reservoirs, currently the worlds largest helicopter, the Mil Mi-26, uses a Bambi bucket. Various aircraft have used over the years for firefighting. In 1947, the United States Air Force and United States Forest Service experimented with World War II aircraft dropping water-filled bombs, the bombs were unsuccessful, and internal water tanks were used instead. Though World War II and Korean War-era bombers were for a time the mainstay of the aerial firefighting fleet. The smallest are the Single Engine Air Tankers and these are agricultural sprayers that generally drop about 800 US gallons of water or retardant. Both SEATs types are operated by Air Spray USA Ltd, another is the Soviet Antonov An-2 biplane which can be fitted with floats that can scoop water from the surface of a body of water. An advantage of the biplane is that it has a stall speed than a monoplane meaning it a can fly more slowly over a fire which enhances the accuracy of water or retardant drops. Conair also converted a number of Convair 580 and Fokker F27 Friendship turboprops to air tankers, the largest aerial firefighter ever used is a Boeing 747 aerial firefighter, known as the Global Supertanker that can carry 19,600 US gallons fed by a pressurized drop system. The Supertanker entered service for the first time in 2009, fighting a fire in Cuenca, the tanker made its first American operation on August 31,2009 at the Oak Glen Fire
27.
Logging
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Logging is the cutting, skidding, on-site processing, and loading of trees or logs onto trucks or skeleton cars. In forestry, the logging is sometimes used in a narrow sense concerning the logistics of moving wood from the stump to somewhere outside the forest. However, in usage, the term may be used to indicate a range of forestry or silviculture activities. Illegal logging refers to what in forestry might be called timber theft by the timber mafia and it can also refer to the harvesting, transportation, purchase, or sale of timber in violation of laws. Clearcut logging is not necessarily considered a type of logging but a harvesting or silviculture method, in the forest products industry logging companies may be referred to as logging contractors, with the smaller, non-union crews referred to as gyppo loggers. Cutting trees with the highest value and leaving those with lower value and it is sometimes called selective logging, and confused with selection cutting, the practice of managing stands by harvesting a proportion of trees. Logging usually refers to above-ground forestry logging, submerged forests exist on land that has been flooded by damming to create reservoirs. Such trees are logged using underwater logging or by the lowering of the reservoirs in question, ootsa Lake and Williston Lake in British Columbia, Canada are notable examples where timber recovery has been needed to remove inundated forests. Clearcutting, or clearfelling, is a method of harvesting that removes all the standing trees in a selected area. Silviculture objectives for clearcutting, and a focus on forestry distinguish it from deforestation, other methods include shelterwood cutting, group selective, single selective, seed-tree cutting, patch cut, and retention cutting. The above operations can be carried out by different methods, of which the three are considered industrial methods, Trees are felled and then delimbed and topped at the stump. The log is then transported to the landing, where it is bucked and loaded on a truck and this leaves the slash in the cut area, where it must be further treated if wild land fires are of concern. This ability is due to the advancement in the style felling head that can be used, the trees are then delimbed, topped, and bucked at the landing. This method requires that slash be treated at the landing, in areas with access to cogeneration facilities, the slash can be chipped and used for the production of electricity or heat. Full-tree harvesting also refers to utilization of the tree including branches. Cut-to-length logging is the process of felling, delimbing, bucking, harvesters fell the tree, delimb, and buck it, and place the resulting logs in bunks to be brought to the landing by a skidder or forwarder. This method is available for trees up to 900 mm in diameter. Harvesters are employed effectively in level to steep terrain
28.
Construction
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Construction is the process of constructing a building or infrastructure. Construction as an industry comprises six to nine percent of the domestic product of developed countries. Construction starts with planning, design, and financing, and continues until the project is built, large-scale construction requires collaboration across multiple disciplines. An architect normally manages the job, and a manager, design engineer. For the successful execution of a project, effective planning is essential, the largest construction projects are referred to as megaprojects. Construction is a term meaning the art and science to form objects, systems, or organizations. Construction is used as a verb, the act of building, and a noun, how a building was built, in general, there are three sectors of construction, buildings, infrastructure and industrial. Building construction is further divided into residential and non-residential. Infrastructure is often called heavy/highway, heavy civil or heavy engineering and it includes large public works, dams, bridges, highways, water/wastewater and utility distribution. Industrial includes refineries, process chemical, power generation, mills, there are other ways to break the industry into sectors or markets. Engineering News-Record is a magazine for the construction industry. Each year, ENR compiles and reports on data about the size of design and they publish a list of the largest companies in the United States and also a list the largest global firms. In 2014, ENR compiled the data in nine market segments and it was divided as transportation, petroleum, buildings, power, industrial, water, manufacturing, sewer/waste, telecom, hazardous waste plus a tenth category for other projects. In their reporting on the Top 400, they used data on transportation, sewer, hazardous waste, the Standard Industrial Classification and the newer North American Industry Classification System have a classification system for companies that perform or otherwise engage in construction. To recognize the differences of companies in this sector, it is divided into three subsectors, building construction, heavy and civil engineering construction, and specialty trade contractors, there are also categories for construction service firms and construction managers. Building construction is the process of adding structure to real property or construction of buildings, the majority of building construction jobs are small renovations, such as addition of a room, or renovation of a bathroom. Often, the owner of the property acts as laborer, paymaster, for this reason, those with experience in the field make detailed plans and maintain careful oversight during the project to ensure a positive outcome. Residential construction practices, technologies, and resources must conform to local building authority regulations, materials readily available in the area generally dictate the construction materials used
29.
Extraction of petroleum
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Peak oil, an event based on M. King Hubberts theory, is the point in time when the maximum rate of extraction of petroleum is reached, after which it is expected to enter terminal decline. Peak oil theory is based on the rise, peak, fall. It is often confused with oil depletion, however, peak oil is the point of production, while depletion refers to a period of falling reserves. Some observers, such as petroleum industry experts Kenneth S. Predictions vary greatly as to exactly these negative effects would be. Oil production forecasts on which predictions of peak oil are based are made within a range which includes optimistic and pessimistic scenarios. Pessimistic predictions of future oil production made after 2007 stated either that the peak had already occurred, that oil production was on the cusp of the peak, or that it would occur shortly. Hubberts original prediction that US peak oil would be in about 1970 seemed accurate for a time, in addition, Hubberts original predictions for world peak oil production proved premature. The idea that the rate of oil production would peak and irreversibly decline is an old one, in 1919, David White, chief geologist of the United States Geological Survey, wrote of US petroleum. The peak of production will soon be passed, possibly within 3 years, in 1953, Eugene Ayers, a researcher for Gulf Oil, projected that if US ultimate recoverable oil reserves were 100 billion barrels, then production in the US would peak no later than 1960. If ultimate recoverable were to be as high as 200 billion barrels, likewise for the world, he projected a peak somewhere between 1985 and 2000. Ayers made his projections without a mathematical model, King Hubbert used statistical modelling in 1956 to accurately predict that United States oil production would peak between 1965 and 1971. Hubbert used a semi-logistical curved model and he assumed the production rate of a limited resource would follow a roughly symmetrical distribution. Depending on the limits of exploitability and market pressures, the rise or decline of production over time might be sharper or more stable. That model and its variants are now called Hubbert peak theory, they have used to describe and predict the peak and decline of production from regions, countries. The same theory has also applied to other limited-resource production. In a 2006 analysis of Hubbert theory, it was noted that uncertainty in real world oil production amounts, by comparing the fit of various other models, it was found that Hubberts methods yielded the closest fit over all, but that none of the models were very accurate. In 1956 Hubbert himself recommended using a family of possible production curves when predicting a production peak, more recently, the term peak oil was popularized by Colin Campbell and Kjell Aleklett in 2002 when they helped form the Association for the Study of Peak Oil and Gas. In his publications, Hubbert used the peak production rate
30.
Bell UH-1 Iroquois
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The Bell UH-1 Iroquois is a utility military helicopter powered by a single turboshaft engine, with two-blade main and tail rotors. The UH-1 was the first turbine-powered helicopter to enter production in 1960 for the United States military, the Iroquois was originally designated HU-1, hence the Huey nickname, which has remained in common use, despite the official redesignation to UH-1 in 1962. The UH-1 first saw service in operations during the Vietnam War. The Bell 204 and 205 are Iroquois versions developed for the civil market, in 1952, the U. S. Army identified a requirement for a new helicopter to serve as medical evacuation, instrument trainer, and general utility aircraft. The Army determined that current helicopters were too large, underpowered, in November 1953, revised military requirements were submitted to the Department of the Army. Twenty companies submitted designs in their bid for the contract, including Bell Helicopter with the Model 204, on 23 February 1955, the Army announced its decision, selecting Bell to build three copies of the Model 204 for evaluation with the designatation XH-40. Powered by a prototype Lycoming YT53-L-1 engine producing 700 shp, the XH-40 first flew on 20 October 1956 at Fort Worth, Texas, with Bells chief test pilot, Floyd Carlson, at the controls. Two more prototypes were built in 1957, and the Army had previously ordered six YH-40 service test aircraft, in March 1960, the Army awarded Bell a production contract for 100 aircraft, which was designated as the HU-1A and officially named Iroquois after the Native American nations. The helicopter quickly developed a nickname derived from its designation of HU-1, the reference became so popular that Bell began casting the name on the helicopters anti-torque pedals. The official U. S. Army name was almost never used in practice, after September 1962, the designation for all models was changed to UH-1 under a unified Department of Defense designation system, but the nickname remained. The Army indicated the need for improved follow-on models even as the first UH-1As were being delivered, Army testing of the UH-1B started in November 1960, with the first production aircraft delivered in March 1961. Bell commenced development of the UH-1C in 1960 in order to correct deficiencies of the armed UH-1B. Bell fitted the UH-1C with a 1,100 shp T53-L-11 engine to provide the power needed to all weapons systems in use or under development. The Army would eventually refit all UH-1B aircraft with the same engine, a new rotor system was developed for the UH-1C to allow higher air speeds and reduce the incidence of retreating blade stall during diving engagements. The improved rotor resulted in better maneuverability and a speed increase. The increased power and a larger diameter rotor required Bells engineers to design a new boom for the UH-1C. The longer tail boom incorporated a wider chord fin on the tail rotor pylon. Bell also introduced a hydraulic control system for redundancy as well as an improved inlet filter system for the dusty conditions found in southeast Asia
31.
United States Army Aviation Branch
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The United States Army Aviation Branch is the administrative organization within the United States Army responsible for doctrine, manning and configuration for all aviation units. The Army would develop a new concept of using the helicopter that would show promise during the Korean War. Army Aviation traces its origins back to the American Civil War, both Union and Confederate forces used hydrogen-filled balloons to direct artillery fire, marking the beginning of U. S. military aeronautics and of aerial support of Army ground forces. The Army also used balloons during the Spanish–American War and World War I, Army Aviation began in 1909 with the Army’s acquisition of its first heavier-than-air aircraft, an airplane built to Army specifications by the Wright brothers. During World War I, the Armys aircraft strength grew from a few dozen to more than 11,000 planes, the Army Air Service was created in May 1918. After World War I, General William Mitchell and other Air Service leaders spoke out forcefully in favor of an independent air force, since they envisioned aviation as a separate striking force, capable of independent operations, they opposed its remaining an arm of the ground forces. Although Congress as well as most Army leaders rejected Mitchells argument, the Air Service did become a combat arm, equal in status to the infantry, cavalry. During the 1930s, many Army Air Corps leaders became preoccupied with strategic air operations, like Billy Mitchell before them, they advocated using air power independently of the Army ground forces to destroy enemy targets behind the lines of combat. This Air Corps emphasis on strategic operations disturbed some ground forces leaders, aerial support was particularly vital for artillery fire adjustment. The Army experimented with using small aircraft for artillery fire adjustment and other functions in maneuvers at Camp Beauregard. The tests were repeated on a scale in the Army maneuvers in Louisiana, Tennessee, Texas. The Armys Grasshoppers, as these light planes came to be called, proved to be more effective than the larger Air Corps planes used for the same purposes. It was this new World War II-era phenomenon with its few small single-engine spotter planes, organic Army Aviation, Organic Army Aviation first entered into combat in November 1942 on the coast of North Africa. After the creation of the Army Air Forces, the Army Ground Forces retained the use of aircraft for artillery forward observation. First use of the helicopter in combat is credited to the USAAF 1st Air Commando Group in Burma in 1943, the 1ACG operated six Sikorsky R-4 helicopters primarily for air rescue and medical evacuation. When the United States Air Force was established as a service in 1947. The Korean War and Vietnam War proved the capabilities of these aviation assets to perform a variety of missions not covered by the Air Force. The Korean War provided new challenges and opportunities for Army Aviation, Organic Army Aviation had acquired its first helicopters, thirteen H-13 Sioux, in 1947, shortly before the U. S. Air Force became independent of the Army
32.
Piasecki H-21
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The Piasecki H-21 Workhorse/Shawnee is an American helicopter, the fourth of a line of tandem rotor helicopters designed and built by Piasecki Helicopter. Commonly called the banana, it was a multi-mission helicopter, utilizing wheels, skis. The H-21 was originally developed by Piasecki as an Arctic rescue helicopter, the H-21 had winterization features permitting operation at temperatures as low as −65 °F, and could be routinely maintained in severe cold weather environments. Piasecki Helicopter designed and successfully sold to the United States Navy a series of tandem rotor helicopters, the HRP-1 was nicknamed the flying banana because of the upward angle of the aft fuselage that ensured the large rotors did not strike each other in flight. The name would later be applied to other Piasecki helicopters of similar design, in 1949, Piasecki proposed the YH-21 Workhorse to the United States Air Force, which was an improved, all-metal derivative of the HRP-1. Using two tandem, fully articulated three-bladed counter-rotating rotors, the H-21 was powered by one nine-cylinder Curtis-Wright R-1820-103 Cyclone supercharged 1,150 hp air-cooled radial engine. After its maiden flight in April 1952, the USAF ordered 32 H-21A SAR models and 163 of the more powerful H-21B assault transport variant. The H-21B was equipped with a version of the Wright 103 engine, developing 1425 shaft horsepower. With its improved capabilities, the H-21B could carry 22 fully equipped infantrymen, or 12 stretchers, in 1952, some H-21As were evaluated by USMC helicopter squadron HMX-1 in the air assault role. In 1957, an H-21B was loaned to the United States Marine Corps to evaluate the helicopter as a tug to tow disabled landing ships. During the evaluation, the H-21B towed an LST at 5 knots, the uprated 1425 hp Wright engine used in the H-21B was also used in subsequent variants sold to both the U. S. Army and the military forces of several other nations. In 1962, the H-21 was redesignated the CH-21 in U. S. Army service. In 1959 Vertol Aircraft, who had acquired Piasecki, came up with a concept for heavy lift over short distances where between two and six H-21Bs would be linked by beams to lift heavy loads. It was considered to be unsafe, because if one helicopter had mechanical problems during the lift it could cause an unbalanced situation, some French Air Force and Army aviation H-21C helicopters were subsequently armed with fixed, forward-firing rockets and machine guns. A few even had racks for bombs, but tests subsequently determined that the H-21C lacked the maneuverability, though the H-21 had been removed from the ground-attack role, official U. S. By the close of the Algerian War, troop-carrying H-21C helicopters were being used in concert with H-34 ground-attack helicopters in large-scale counterinsurgency operations, the H-21C saw extensive service with the U. S. Army, primarily for use in transporting troops and supplies. On 24 August 1954, with the assistance of inflight refueling provided by a U. S. Army U-1A Otter, a H-21C known as Amblin Annie became the first helicopter to cross the United States nonstop. Various experiments were made by the Army in arming the H-21C as a gunship, some Shawnees were armed with flex guns under the nose, one experimental version was tested stateside with a Boeing B-29 Superfortress.50 cal. remote turret mounted beneath the nose
33.
Sikorsky H-34
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The Sikorsky H-34 is a piston-engined military helicopter originally designed by American aircraft manufacturer Sikorsky as an anti-submarine warfare aircraft for the United States Navy. It has seen extended use when adapted to power by the British licensee as the Westland Wessex. H-34s served, mostly as transports, on every continent with the armed forces of twenty-five countries. It saw combat in Algeria, the Dominican Republic, Nicaragua, and throughout Southeast Asia, other uses included saving flood victims, recovering astronauts, fighting fires, and carrying presidents. It was one of the last piston-powered helicopter designs before its replacement by turbine-powered types such as the UH-1 Huey, a total of 2,108 H-34s were manufactured between 1953 and 1970. It retained the nose-mounted piston engine with the drive shaft passing through the cockpit placed high above the cargo compartment, the aircraft first flew on 8 March 1954. The U. S. Army and Marine Corps, respectively, under the United States Armys aircraft designation system, also used by the United States Air Force, the helicopter was designated H-34. The U. S. Army also applied the name Choctaw to the helicopter, in 1962, under the new unified DoD aircraft designation system, the Seabat was redesignated SH-34, the Seahorse as the UH-34, and the Choctaw as the CH-34. Roles included utility transport, anti-submarine warfare, search and rescue, a small fleet of H-34 helicopters served US Presidents Dwight D. Eisenhower and John F. Kennedy from 1958 to 1961 using the call sign Army One. A total of 135 H-34s were built in the U. S. and assembled by Sud-Aviation in France,166 were produced under licence in France by Sud-Aviation for the French Air Force, Navy and Army Aviation. The CH-34 was also built and developed under license from 1958 in the United Kingdom by Westland Aircraft as the turboshaft engined Wessex which was used by the Royal Navy, the RN Wessex was fitted out with weapons and ASW equipment for use in an antisubmarine role. The RAF used the Wessex, with engines, as an air/sea rescue helicopter. Wessexes were also exported to countries and produced for civilian use. By the time the war in Algeria had ended, eight officers and 23 non-commissioned officers from ALAT had given their lives in the course of their duties. U. S. Army H-34s did not participate in Vietnam and these saw little use due to a lack of spare parts and maintenance. Its higher availability and reliability due to its simplicity compared to the newer helicopters led Marines to ask for it by name. The phrases give me a HUS, get me a HUS and cut me a HUS entered the U. S. Marine Corps vernacular, being used even after the type was no longer in use to mean help me out. USMC H-34s were also among the first helicopter gunships trialled in theatre, being fitted with the Temporary Kit-1, the operations were met with mixed enthusiasm, and the armed H-34s, known as Stingers were quickly phased out
34.
Squad
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In military terminology, a squad is a sub-subunit led by a non-commissioned officer that is subordinate to an infantry platoon. In countries following the British Army tradition, this organization is referred to as a section, in most armies, a squad consists of eight to fourteen soldiers, and may be further subdivided into fireteams. During World War 2 the German Wehrmacht infantry squad or Gruppe was mainly a general purpose machine gun based unit, the MG34 or MG42 GPMGs were normally used in the light machine gun role. An infantry Gruppe consisted of ten men, an officer or Unteroffizier squad leader, deputy squad leader. The riflemen carried additional ammunition, hand grenades, explosive charges or a machine gun tripod as required and provided security and covering fire for the machine gun team. Historically, a squad in the US Army was a sub-unit of a section, the smallest tactical sub-unit being the section, which was also known as a half-platoon. Depending upon the period, the squad leader could be a sergeant, a corporal, a lance corporal. In 1891, the US Army officially defined a rifle squad as consisting of seven privates, under the Triangular Division organization plan in 1939 rifle squads were no longer organized into sections. This soldier could serve as a either the squad leaders messenger to the commander or could be used to relay orders to other squad elements. However, the obvious weakness of so large a squad under one NCO rapidly became obvious in light of the pre-war mobilization and was corrected in 1940 when a second NCO was added to the squad. This adjustment raised the squad leader to a sergeant and the assistant squad leader to a corporal, the platoon leader now became a staff sergeant. This squad organization included two men serving as “scout, ” who along with the leader, formed the security element, designated as “Able. ”The second element was a three-man Browning Automatic Rifle team consisting of an automatic rifleman, an assistant automatic rifleman. This element formed the “base of fire” and was designated as “Baker. ”Lastly, there were five riflemen and the assistant squad leader, the BAR man and the senior rifleman of the Charlie element became corporals and de facto team leaders, even though not officially designated as such. After WWII, in 1948, the Army decided to downsize” the rifle squad to an organization, as post-war analysis had shown that the 12-man squad was too large. The five riflemen of the team, now led by the squad leader. In 1951 the pay grades were reversed, with master sergeant becoming E-7 and sergeant first class becoming E-6, so that the leader became a sergeant and the assistant squad leader. In the 1956 the Army began reorganizing into its Pentomic” plan under the ROCID TO&Es, the rifle squad was reorganized into an eleven-man organization with a sergeant as squad leader and two five-man fire teams. Each fire team consisted of a team leader, an automatic rifleman, an assistant automatic rifleman, a grenadier
35.
Airlift
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An airlift is the organized delivery of military supplies or military personnel primarily via military transport aircraft. Airlifting consists of two types, strategic and tactical airlifting. Typically, strategic airlifting involves moving material long distances, whereas a tactical airlift focuses on deploying resources, depending on the situation, airlifted supplies can be delivered by a variety of means. When the destination and surrounding airspace is considered secure, the aircraft land at an appropriate airport or airbase to have its cargo unloaded on the ground. However, when the area is too small for this method, as with a base, and/or is too dangerous to land in. Serbian Air Force, made first transport of wounded soldiers from Serbia through Albania to Corfu and that was the first Medevac operation in air history. April 1923 aircraft of the RAFs Iraq Command flew 280 Sikh troops from Kingarban to Kirkuk in the first British air trooping operation, the worlds first long-range combat airlift took place in July 1936. Luftwaffe Ju 52 and Italian Air Force Savoia-Marchetti SM.81 were used by the Spanish Nationalists to transport troops from Spanish Morocco to Spain at the beginning of the Spanish Civil War. Airlifts became practical during World War II as aircraft became large and this joint effort is estimated to have saved more than a million lives in Biafra. Most airplanes departed from the Portuguese colony of Sao Tome and Principe to the landing strip of Uli, the only operational airport in Biafra. Flights were made flying at night all lights off and under near-total radio silence to avoid Nigerian MIG aircraft. All the airplanes, crews and logistics were paid, set up, JCA and their crews and aircraft kept flying into Biafra at the cost of many crews lives. Strategic airlift is the use of transport aircraft to transport materiel, weaponry. Typically, this involves airlifting the required items between two airbases which are not in the same vicinity and this allows commanders to bring items into a combat theater from a point on the other side of the planet, if necessary. Aircraft which perform this role are considered strategic airlifters and this contrasts with tactical airlifters, such as the C-130 Hercules and Transall C-160, which can normally only move supplies within a given theater of operations. This difficulty has prompted investment in lighter armoured fighting vehicles, as well as some research into alternative airlift technologies such as ground effect vehicles. Civilian aircraft are commonly used for transportation. For some civilian airlines, such as Miami Air International and Volga-Dnepr Airlines, tactical airlift is a military term for the airborne transportation of supplies and equipment within a theatre of operations
36.
Artillery
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Artillery is a class of large military weapons built to fire munitions far beyond the range and power of infantrys small arms. Early artillery development focused on the ability to breach fortifications, and led to heavy, as technology improved, lighter, more mobile field artillery developed for battlefield use. This development continues today, modern self-propelled artillery vehicles are highly mobile weapons of great versatility providing the largest share of an armys total firepower, in its earliest sense, the word artillery referred to any group of soldiers primarily armed with some form of manufactured weapon or armour. In common speech, the artillery is often used to refer to individual devices, along with their accessories and fittings. However, there is no generally recognised generic term for a gun, howitzer, mortar, and so forth, the United States uses artillery piece, the projectiles fired are typically either shot or shell. Shell is a widely used term for a projectile, which is a component of munitions. By association, artillery may also refer to the arm of service that customarily operates such engines, in the 20th Century technology based target acquisition devices, such as radar, and systems, such as sound ranging and flash spotting, emerged to acquire targets, primarily for artillery. These are usually operated by one or more of the artillery arms, Artillery originated for use against ground targets—against infantry, cavalry and other artillery. An early specialist development was coastal artillery for use against enemy ships, the early 20th Century saw the development of a new class of artillery for use against aircraft, anti-aircraft guns. Artillery is arguably the most lethal form of land-based armament currently employed, the majority of combat deaths in the Napoleonic Wars, World War I, and World War II were caused by artillery. In 1944, Joseph Stalin said in a speech that artillery was the God of War, although not called as such, machines performing the role recognizable as artillery have been employed in warfare since antiquity. The first references in the historical tradition begin at Syracuse in 399 BC. From the Middle Ages through most of the era, artillery pieces on land were moved by horse-drawn gun carriages. In the contemporary era, the artillery and crew rely on wheeled or tracked vehicles as transportation, Artillery used by naval forces has changed significantly also, with missiles replacing guns in surface warfare. The engineering designs of the means of delivery have likewise changed significantly over time, in some armies, the weapon of artillery is the projectile, not the equipment that fires it. The process of delivering fire onto the target is called gunnery, the actions involved in operating the piece are collectively called serving the gun by the detachment or gun crew, constituting either direct or indirect artillery fire. The term gunner is used in armed forces for the soldiers and sailors with the primary function of using artillery. The gunners and their guns are usually grouped in teams called either crews or detachments, several such crews and teams with other functions are combined into a unit of artillery, usually called a battery, although sometimes called a company
37.
MGM-31 Pershing
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The MGM-31A Pershing was the missile used in the Pershing 1 and Pershing 1a field artillery missile systems. Pershing later replaced the European-based MGM-13 Mace cruise missiles deployed by the United States Air Force, Development began in 1958, with the first test missile fired in 1960, the Pershing 1 system deployed in 1963 and the improved Pershing 1a deployed in 1969. The U. S. Army replaced the Pershing 1a with the Pershing II Weapon System in 1983 while the German Air Force retained Pershing 1a until all Pershings were eliminated in 1991. The U. S. Army Missile Command managed the development and improvements while the Field Artillery Branch deployed the systems and developed tactical doctrine. George Bunker, president of the Martin Company, paid a call on General John Medaris, USA, of the Army Ballistic Missile Agency at Redstone Arsenal. Medaris noted that it would be helpful to the Army if there was a plant near the Air Force Missile Test Center in Florida. The Martin Company subsequently began construction of their Sand Lake facility in Orlando, edward Uhl, the co-inventor of the bazooka, was the vice-president and general manager of the new factory, which continues to operate today as the Lockheed Martin Missiles and Fire Control facility. The U. S. Army began studies in 1956 for a missile with a range of about 500–750 nautical miles. Later that year, Secretary of Defense Charles Erwin Wilson issued the Wilson Memorandum that removed from the U. S. Army all missiles with a range of 200 miles or more. The United States Department of Defense rescinded the memorandum in 1958, the missile was initially called the Redstone-S, where the S meant solid propellant, but renamed to Pershing in honor of General of the Armies John J. Pershing. The Secretary of the Army, Wilber M. Brucker, the governor of Michigan – was apparently under pressure from his home state to award the contract to a company in Michigan. Chrysler was the contractor from Michigan, but Medaris persuaded Brucker to leave the decision entirely in the hands of the ABMA. The first launch of the XM14 R&D Pershing 1 test missile was on 25 February 1960, the first launch from the tactical transporter erector launcher was on 26 July 1960. For training there was an inert Pershing 1 missile designated XM19, in June 1963, the XM14 and XM19 Pershing missiles were redesignated as XMGM-31A and XMTM-31B, respectively. The production version of the missile was later designated as MGM-31A. President Eisenhower viewed the Pershing missile when he visited Cape Canaveral on 11 February 1960, president Kennedy viewed Pershing three times, as part of the inaugural parade in 1961, at Fort Bragg on 12 October 1961, and at White Sands Missile Range in 1963. Plans were for organization of ten battalions, one at Fort Sill, one in Korea and eight in West Germany. Each missile battalion organized at Fort Sill for deployment, each missile battalion had four launchers
38.
Lycoming T55
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The Lycoming T55 is a turboshaft engine used on American helicopters and fixed-wing aircraft, since the 1950s. It was designed at the Lycoming Turbine Engine Division in Stratford, both engines are now produced by Honeywell Aerospace. The T55 also serves as the core of the Lycoming ALF502 turbofan, since the T55 was first developed, progressive increases in airflow, overall pressure ratio and turbine inlet temperature have more than tripled the power output of the engine. Bell 309 Boeing CH-47 Chinook Boeing Chinook Boeing Model 360 Boeing RC-135- One T55 was fitted to the RC-135E derivative to provide power to the phased array radar. World Encyclopedia of Aero Engines, 5th Edition, phoenix Mill, Gloucestershire, England, UK, Sutton Publishing Limited
39.
Turboshaft
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A turboshaft engine is a form of gas turbine which is optimized to produce shaft power rather than jet thrust. In concept, turboshaft engines are similar to turbojets, with additional turbine expansion to extract heat energy from the exhaust. They are even similar to turboprops, with only minor differences. Turboshaft engines are used in applications that require a sustained high power output, high reliability, small size. These include helicopters, auxiliary units, boats and ships, tanks, hovercraft. A turboshaft engine may be made up of two major parts assemblies, the gas generator and the power section, the gas generator consists of the compressor, combustion chambers with ignitors and fuel nozzles, and one or more stages of turbine. The power section consists of stages of turbines, a gear reduction system. The gas generator creates the hot expanding gases to drive the power section, depending on the design, the engine accessories may be driven either by the gas generator or by the power section. In most designs, the gas generator and power section are mechanically separate so they can rotate at different speeds appropriate for the conditions. A free power turbine can be a useful design feature for vehicles, as it allows the design to forgo the weight and cost of complex multiple-ratio transmissions. The general layout of a turboshaft is similar to that of a turboprop, the main difference is a turboprop is structurally designed to support the loads created by a rotating propeller, as the propeller is not attached to anything but the engine itself. In contrast, turboshaft engines usually drive a transmission which is not structurally attached to the engine, the transmission is attached to the vehicle structure and supports the loads created instead of the engine. In practice, though, many of the engines are built in both turboprop and turboshaft versions, with only minor differences. Large helicopters use two or three engines for redundancy. The Mil Mi-26 uses two Lotarev D-136 at 11,400 hp each, while the Sikorsky CH-53E Super Stallion uses three General Electric T64 at 4,380 hp each. Early turboshaft engines were adaptations of turboprop engines, delivering power through a shaft driven directly from the gas generator shafts, examples of direct-drive turboshafts include marinised or industrial Rolls-Royce Dart engines. The first examples of a gas engine design ever considered for armoured fighting vehicles. The first true turboshaft engine for helicopters was built by the French engine firm Turbomeca, led by the founder, in 1948, they built the first French-designed turbine engine, the 100-shp 782
40.
Columbia Helicopters
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Columbia Helicopters, Incorporated, or CHI, is an aircraft manufacturing and operator company based in Aurora, Oregon, United States. They are known for operating tandem rotor helicopters, in present times, exclusively the Boeing Vertol 107, in addition the company operates a large FAA Repair Station supporting customers around the world. Columbia Helicopters was founded on April 24,1957 by Wes Lematta with a single Hiller 12B helicopter, with help from his brothers, he supported his young company with many odd jobs ranging from carrying Santa Claus to trapeze acts. He performed most of his flying on the weekends while working as a truck driver during the week. Lematta gained great notoriety on September 15,1957 rescuing 15 sailors from a sinking dredge near Coos Bay, for his heroic actions the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers awarded him the Army Air Medal. After purchasing the more powerful Hiller 12E, Wes began to more lift jobs. One of these jobs was working on the John Day Dam on his companys name sake Columbia River. Here Wes began performing precision lift jobs by using a longer than average cable, the concept was the pilot could lean out the side of the aircraft and see directly where they are placing the load. A few years later Wes brother Jim was flying a Sikorsky S-61 in the Colorado Rockies, Jim was so cold he was forced to land. In need of an enclosed cockpit Columbia went on to develop the first pilot bubble window, Jack Erickson, of Erickson Air-Crane fame, and Wes Lematta were able to demonstrate the first financially successful run of helicopter logging, or Heli-Logging in 1971. This was done with Wes Sikorsky S-61, registration number N318Y, on a U. S. Forest Service log sale near Taylorsville, the following year the 107s were used. Since the project used Wes helicopter and Jack had purchased the timber, another unusual feat was to pull a hoverbarge on snow, ice and water in 1982. As of December 15,2006 Columbia Helicopters has purchased the Type certificate of the Model 107, currently the company is seeking FAA issuance of a Production Certificate to produce parts, with eventual issuance of a PC to produce both aircraft. Columbia Helicopters aircraft have appeared in motion pictures, More American Graffiti Starman - KV-107 N185CH can be seen in company colors hauling away actor Jeff Bridges space ship. King Kong Lives - BV-107 N191CH, a former US Navy CH-46, runaway Train Under Siege - KV-107 N192CH flies Tommy Lee Jones band out to the Battleship. Demolition Man - BV-234 N241CH serves as a Los Angeles Police Department helicopter, the Lost World, Jurassic Park - BV-234 N241CH flies in a large cage to capture dinosaurs. X2, X-Men United - KV-107 N192CH performs various flight sequences and serves in the background of several scenes, many of the latter were obtained from New York Airways. In addition to the flying fleet CHI in 2005 purchased 8 surplus Canadian Forces CH-113 Labrador helicopters for fleet expansion, for fleet support CHI operates a Beechcraft 200C Super King Air
41.
Agusta
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Agusta was an Italian helicopter manufacturer. It was based in Samarate, Northern Italy, the company was founded by Count Giovanni Agusta in 1923, who flew his first airplane in 1907. The MV Agusta motorcycle manufacturer began as an offshoot of the Agusta aviation company at the end of the Second World War as a means to save the jobs of employees of the Agusta firm. In July 2000 Agusta merged with Westland Helicopters to form AgustaWestland S. p. A, a multinational helicopter design and manufacturing company, and a wholly owned subsidiary of Finmeccanica. From 1952 the company got involved in manufacturing, first building Bell helicopters under licence. The company also had ambitions to design and build its own helicopters, the Agusta A.101 and the Agusta A.106 can be considered the best of its earlier attempts. Others included the AB.102, A.103, A.104 and it also produced a small line of aero engines such as the GA.70 and GA.140. Developed in the 1970s, the Agusta A109 has undoubtedly been the companys biggest success, the A109 is a commercial and military twin turbine helicopter, of which the latest variants are still in production, hundreds having already been sold. In 1983 the Agusta A129 Mangusta anti-tank helicopter partook in its first official flight engagement and it was the first attack helicopter to be designed and produced in Western Europe. However, this helicopter has been a commercial success so far, seeing service with the Italian Army. The 1980s saw the start of several projects for Agusta. In 1981 Agusta and Westland of Britain started the EH101 medium-lift naval helicopter project in order to satisfy the requirements of the Royal Navy and the Italian Navy. 1990s projects include the Agusta A109 Power, a version of the A109 and the Agusta A119 Koala. In 1998 Agusta formed a joint venture with Bell Helicopter Textron called the Bell/Agusta Aerospace Company and its aim was to develop the Bell/Agusta AB139 helicopter and the Bell/Agusta BA609 tiltrotor aircraft. Bell later withdrew from the AW609 project, which is now known as the AgustaWestland AW609, in July 2000 Finmeccanica and GKN plc agreed to merge their respective helicopter subsidiaries, forming AgustaWestland. It was reported on 12 February 2013 that the chief executive, prosecutors allege he paid bribes to ensure the sale of 12 helicopters to the Indian government, when he was head of the groups AgustaWestland unit. On 13 February 2013 Finmeccanica’s Board of Directors named Mr Alessandro Pansa chief executive officer, a complaint has been filed seeking an investigation into the sale of 21 civil helicopters worth over Rs 7,000 crore by AgustaWestland between 2005-2013 in India. As per the complaint Agusta Westland has been selling civil helicopters in India through, both companies are promoted by twin brothers Nayan Jagjivan and Nakul Jagjivan
42.
AgustaWestland
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AgustaWestland S. p. A was a helicopter design and manufacturing company and wholly owned subsidiary of Finmeccanica S. p. a. It was formed in July 2000 as an Anglo-Italian multinational company, Finmeccanica acquired GKNs stake in AgustaWestland in 2004. From 1 January 2016, the activities of AgustaWestland were merged into Leonardo-Finmeccanicas Helicopter Sector, the Italy-based Finmeccanica and the United Kingdom-based GKN first announced their intention to merge their respective helicopter subsidiaries, Agusta and Westland Helicopters, in March 1999. On 26 May 2004, GKN confirmed that it had agreed to sell its share of AgustaWestland to Finmeccanica for £1.06 billion, the sale was approved by the British government in October 2004. In June 2008, AgustaWestland and the Russia-based helicopter manufacturer Russian Helicopters agreed to form a new joint venture company to assemble AW139 helicopters in Russia, construction of a $50 million helicopter assembly facility in the town of Tomilino near Moscow began in June 2010. In early 2010, AgustaWestland acquired PZL-Świdnik, a Polish helicopter manufacturer, in March 2013, AgustaWestland announced its Project Zero hybrid tiltrotor/fan-in-wing technology demonstrator. The unmanned demonstrator made its first tethered flight in June 2011 at AgustaWestland’s Cascina Costa, Italy facility. According to the company, the aircraft “employs no hydraulics, doesn’t burn fossil fuel and generates zero emissions. ”India signed a contract to purchase 12 AgustaWestland AW101 helicopters in February 2010 for the Communication Squadron of Indian Air Force to carry the president, PM and other VVIPs. K. Antony ordered a probe into the contract, in January 2014, India cancelled the US$630 million deal with AgustaWestland for purchasing 12 AW101 helicopters meant for use by VVIPs. Following this event, in June 2014 India recovered the entire sum of Rs 1,818 crore which it had paid to the company. The decision to annul the 2010 deal, being probed by the CBI for irregularities, according to the Defence Ministry, the government cancelled the contract on grounds of breach of the Pre-contract Integrity Pact and the agreement by AWIL. The contract was frozen in February 2013 after allegations surfaced that US$60 million had been paid as a bribe. com Helicopter History site
43.
Kawasaki Heavy Industries
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/kaʊ. əˈsɑːki/ is a Japanese public multinational corporation primarily known as a manufacturer of motorcycles, heavy equipment, aerospace and defense equipment, rolling stock and ships. It is also active in the production of industrial robots, gas turbines, boilers, the company is named after its founder Shōzō Kawasaki, and has dual headquarters in Chūō-ku, Kobe and Minato, Tokyo. KHI is known as one of the three major industrial manufacturers of Japan, alongside Mitsubishi Heavy Industries and IHI. Prior to World War II, KHI was part of the Kobe Kawasaki zaibatsu, after the war, KHI became part of the DKB Group. Kawasaki is active in a range of the aerospace industry. It is currently developing two large, next-generation aircraft, the XP-1 maritime patrol airplane and the XC-2 transport aircraft, Kawasaki also builds helicopters, including the BK117, jointly developed and manufactured with MBB. It also produces the CH-47J / JA helicopter, in the commercial aviation business, the company is involved in the joint international development and production of large passenger aircraft. It is involved in joint development and production of the Boeing 767, Boeing 777 and Boeing 787 with The Boeing Company, and the 170,175,190 and 195 jets with Empresa Brasileira de Aeronáutica. It is also involved in the joint international development and production of engines for passenger aircraft such as the V2500, the RB211/Trent, the PW4000. Kawasaki also works for the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency, the Company was responsible for the development and production of the payload fairings, payload attach fittings and the construction of the launch complex for the H-II rocket. It continues to provide services for the H-IIA rocket, main products Aircraft Space systems Helicopters Simulators Jet engines Missiles Electronic equipment Kawasaki is Japan’s largest manufacturer of rolling stock. It began operations in the industry in 1906 and it manufactures express and commuter trains, subway cars, freight trains, locomotives, monorails and new transit systems. Kawasaki is also involved in the development and design of high-speed trains such as Japan’s Shinkansen and its product range include high-performance LNG and LPG carriers, container ships, bulk carriers and VLCCs, as well as submarines. The Company is also involved in the development of offshore structures, Kawasaki also produces marine machinery and equipment, including main engines, propulsion systems, steering gears, deck and fishing machinery. It also offers industrial plant engineering from design to sales, main products Industrial plants Industrial robots Aerodynamic machinery Hydraulic equipment Kawasaki is involved in the development of equipment that prevents pollution in a wide range of industries. Among the leading products are fuel gas desulfurization and denitrification systems, the Company also supplies municipal refuse incineration plants, gasification and melting systems, sewage treatment and sludge incineration plants. Kawasaki has also been developing systems that enable a range of municipal and industrial waste to be recovered, recycled. The company offers of storage solutions for LNG, Kawasaki’s portfolio also includes retractable roofs, floors and other giant structures, for construction, Kawasaki produces products such as wheel loaders, tunnel machines, rollers, snowplows and purpose specific loaders
44.
Operation Crazy Horse
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The objective of the operation was to destroy the 2nd Viet Cong regiment believed to be in the area and thereby prevent a communist attack on the Vinh Thanh Civilian Irregular Defense Group camp. The U. S. forces had the objective of protecting Highway 19. Almost immediately the 1st Cavalry began mounting operations against communist forces in the Vinh Thanh valley,10 miles northwest of An Khe, Vinh Thanh Valley was small, approximately 12 miles long and less than 3 miles wide but heavily populated and dominated by the Viet Cong. 10 miles east of Vinh Thanh Valley was the Suoi Ca Valley, the two valleys were separated by a chain of heavily-forested mountains rising as much as 2,600 feet over the river valleys. The soldiers dubbed Suoi Ca Valley Happy Valley, a trail crossing the mountains between the two valleys was named the Oregon Trail. The U. S. estimated that a regiment of main force Viet Cong guerrillas controlled Suoi Ca Valley, in late 1965, sweeps through the two valleys by the 1st Cavalry failed to find large numbers of Viet Cong. They were believed to have fled the valleys, but to have returned after the 1st Cavalry withdrew to its base, in early May 1966, Montagnard irregulars and U. S. 1st Cavalry commander General John Norton ordered Operation Crazy Horse to preempt the attack, Norton was prepared to dedicate up to five battalions of 1st Cavalry troopers to the task. The Americans began Operation Crazy Horse with heavy harassing artillery fire designed to disrupt an attack on the CIDG camp. The initial helicopter landing was at Landing Zone Hereford on a ridge overlooking the Vinh Thanh valley, shortly after landing on May 16, Company E from the 2nd Battalion, 8th Cavalry Regiment became engaged with a Viet Cong battalion on a ridge near the landing zone. After an all-night fight at close quarters, the Viet Cong withdrew leaving behind 38 bodies, persuaded that they had located the Viet Cong regiment, the American sent in two battalions on May 17 to find and pursue the communists. The strategy was that the Americans would trap the Viet Cong between the two battalions, but, after initial firefights, the Americans searched eastward for several days mostly without success, on 21 May, the situation at Landing Zone Hereford had been quiet for several days. Less than an hour after the platoon was left alone, the Viet Cong attacked with mortars followed by an infantry assault, within the few minutes until reinforcements could arrive,15 American soldiers and a journalist, Sam Castan, were killed. The Viet Cong retired uncontested from the area, the peak allied strength devoted to Operation Crazy Horse was four American, one Vietnamese, one South Korean, and one CIDG battalions. One of the few significant clashes came on May 26 at Landing Zone Monkey where an American company was briefly under siege, by the end of May, it was apparent that most of the Viet Cong had escaped. Operation Crazy Horse was officially terminated on 5 June, despite the failure by the Americans to engage the Viet Cong in large battles of attrition, the U. S. declared Operation Crazy Horse a success. The U. S. estimated that 507 communist soldiers had killed at a loss of 83 Americans,14 South Koreans,8 South Vietnamese. The operation also revealed, however, a limitation of airmobile warfare in heavily forested mountains, three months later the 1st Cavalry was back in Binh Dinh again with Operation Thayer to attempt once again to eliminate North Vietnamese and Viet Cong influence in the province
45.
1st Cavalry Division (United States)
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The 1st Cavalry Division is a combined arms division and is one of the most decorated combat divisions of the United States Army, as well as the other four branches of the U. S. military. It is based at Fort Hood, Texas, as of 2013, the 1st Cavalry Division is subordinate to III Corps and is commanded by Major General John C. Thomson III. The history of the 1st Cavalry Division began in 1921 after the established a permanent cavalry division table of organization. Since 1st Cavalry Division was to assemble from existing units, it was able to go active in September 1921, even though the subordinate units did not arrive completely until as late as 1922. 1st Cavalry Division was assigned to the VIII Corps Area, with its headquarters and 2d Brigade located at Fort Bliss, Texas. The 1st Cavalry Division’s assembled at Douglas, Arizona, the 1st, 7th, and 8th Cavalry Regiments had previously been assigned to the wartime 15th Cavalry Division until they were returned to the VIII Corps Area troop list on 12 May 1918. 1st Cavalry Regiment remained assigned until it was transferred to 1st Cavalry Division on 20 August 1921 and this controversy continued until 18 December 1922, when the 5th Cavalry Regiment, then on the VIII Corps Area Troop List, swapped places with the 10th Cavalry Regiment. In 1923 the 1st Cavalry Division held division maneuvers for the first time, however, financial constraints made that impossible. Only in 1927, through the generosity of a few ranchers who provided land, was the division able to conduct such exercises again. In 1928 Major General Herbert B, crosby, Chief of Cavalry, faced with personnel cuts, reorganized the cavalry regiments, which in turn reduced the size of the 1st Cavalry Division. Crosbys goal was to decrease overhead while maintaining or increasing firepower in the regiment, the cavalry brigades machine gun squadrons were inactivated, while the responsibility for training and employing machine guns fell to the regimental commanders, as in the infantry. The new structure increased the size of the troop, expanded the medical unit to a squadron. A divisional aviation section, an armored car squadron, and tank company were added, the artillery battalion was expanded to a regiment. With the arrival of the 1930s, serious work started on the testing and refining of new equipment, to facilitate this, 1st Cavalry Division traded 1st Cavalry Regiment for 12th Cavalry Regiment on 3 January 1933. Like the 1937 infantry division test, the maneuvers concentrated on the cavalry regiments around which all other units were to be organized. The latter configuration allowed the division to deploy easily in two columns, which was accepted standard cavalry tactics, one headquarters would assume responsibility for the administration and disciplinary control for these forces. The special troops remained as structured in 1928, and no observation squadron or chemical detachment found a place in the division, with the paper changes in the cavalry divisions and other minor adjustments, the strength of a wartime divisional rose to 10,680. In order to prepare for war service, 1st Cavalry Division participated in the maneuvers, Toyahvale
46.
1st Infantry Division (United States)
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The 1st Infantry Division is a combined arms division of the United States Army, and is the oldest continuously serving in the Regular Army. It has seen service since its organization in 1917 during World War I. It was officially nicknamed The Big Red One after its shoulder patch and is also nicknamed The Fighting First, however, the division has also received troop monikers of The Big Dead One and The Bloody First as puns on the respective officially-sanctioned nicknames. It is currently based at Fort Riley, Kansas, sibert, from Army units then in service on the U. S. -Mexico border and at various Army posts throughout the United States. The total authorized strength of this TO&E was 18,919 officers, George S. Frank W. Coe, who later served as Chief of Coast Artillery, was the divisions first chief of staff. The first units sailed from New York City and Hoboken, New Jersey on 14 June 1917, throughout the remainder of the year, the rest of the division followed, landing at St. Nazaire, France, and Liverpool, England. After a brief stay in rest camps, the troops in England proceeded to France, the last unit arrived in St. Nazaire 22 December. Upon arrival in France, the division, less its artillery, was assembled in the First training area, on 4 July, the 2nd Battalion, 16th Infantry, paraded through the streets of Paris to bolster the sagging French spirits. At Lafayettes tomb, Captain C. E. Stanton of the 16th Infantry Regiment stepped forward and said, Lafayette, two days later,6 July, Headquarters, First Expeditionary Division was redesignated as Headquarters, First Division. The total authorized strength of this new TO&E was 27,120 officers, on the morning of 23 October, the first American shell of the war was fired toward German lines by a First Division artillery unit. Two days later, the 2nd Battalion of the 16th Infantry suffered the first American casualties of the war, by April 1918, the Germans had pushed to within 40 miles of Paris. In reaction to this thrust, the Big Red One moved into the Picardy Sector to bolster the exhausted French First Army, to the divisions front lay the small village of Cantigny, situated on the high ground overlooking a forested countryside. The 28th Infantry Regiment attacked the town, and within 45 minutes captured it along with 250 German soldiers and it was the first American victory of the war. The 28th was thereafter named the Black Lions of Cantigny, Soissons was taken by the First Division in July 1918. The Soissons victory was costly –700 men were killed or wounded, the First Infantry helped to clear the St. Mihiel salient by fighting continuously from 11 to 13 September 1918. The last major World War I battle was fought in the Meuse-Argonne Forest, the division advanced seven kilometers and defeated, in whole or part, eight German divisions. This victory was due to the efforts of George C. Marshall, who at the time was a captain in the 1st Division and organized soldiers movements, the war was over when the Armistice was signed
47.
M60 machine gun
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The M60, officially the United States Machine Gun, Caliber 7.62 mm, M60, is a family of American general-purpose machine guns firing 7. 62×51mm NATO cartridges from a disintegrating belt of M13 links. There are several types of ammunition approved for use in the M60, including ball, tracer, introduced in 1957, it has served with every branch of the U. S. military and still serves with other armed forces. S. The M60 is a machine gun that fires the 7. 62×51mm NATO cartridge commonly used in larger rifles. It is generally used as a weapon and operated by a team of two or three individuals. The team consists of the gunner, the assistant gunner, the guns weight and the amount of ammunition it can consume when fired make it difficult for a single soldier to carry and operate. The gunner carries the weapon and, depending on his strength and stamina, the assistant carries a spare barrel and extra ammunition, and reloads and spots targets for the gunner. The ammunition bearer carries additional ammunition and the tripod with associated traversing and elevation mechanism, if issued, the M60 can be accurately fired at short ranges from the shoulder thanks to its design. This was a requirement for the design and a hold-over in concept from the M1918 Browning Automatic Rifle. It may also be fired from the bipod, M122 tripod. M60 ammunition comes in a cloth bandolier containing a box of 100 pre-linked rounds. The M60 uses the M13 ammunition link, a change from the older M1 link system with which it was not compatible, the cloth bandolier is reinforced to allow it to be hung from the current version of the feed tray. The later models changed the ammunition box attachment point and made this adaptation unnecessary, the M60 machine gun began development in the late 1940s as a program for a new, lighter 7.62 mm machine gun. It was partly derived from German guns of World War II, early prototypes, notably the T52 and T161 bore a close resemblance to both the M1941 Johnson machine gun and the FG42. The final evaluation version was designated the T161E3 and it was intended to replace the M1918 Browning Automatic Rifle and M1919A6 Browning machine gun in the squad automatic weapon role, and in the medium machine gun role. One of the weapons tested against it during its procurement process was the FN MAG, the U. S. Army officially adopted the T161E3 as the M60 in 1957. The M60 later served in the Vietnam War as an automatic weapon with many U. S. units. Every soldier in the squad would carry an additional 200 linked rounds of ammunition for the M60. The up-gunned M113 armored personnel carrier ACAV added two M60 gunners beside the main.50 caliber machine gun, and the Patrol Boat, during the Vietnam War, the M60 received the nickname The Pig due to its bulky size
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Argentina (former)
Australia
Canada
Egypt
Greece – 31 in service, 5 on order as of May 2017[102]
India – 15 on order[103][104]
Iran
Italy
Japan
Libya
Morocco
Netherlands – 17 in service, 14 on order partly replacing older fleet for a total of 20 in service by 2020[105]
Oman
Republic of China (Taiwan)
South Korea
Saudi Arabia
Singapore
South Vietnam (former)
Spain
Thailand
Turkey (6-2016)[106]
United Kingdom – see Boeing Chinook (UK variants)
United Arab Emirates
United States
Vietnam (former)
