1.
General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon
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The General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon is a single-engine supersonic multirole fighter aircraft originally developed by General Dynamics for the United States Air Force. Designed as an air superiority day fighter, it evolved into a successful all-weather multirole aircraft, over 4,500 aircraft have been built since production was approved in 1976. Although no longer being purchased by the U. S. Air Force, in 1993, General Dynamics sold its aircraft manufacturing business to the Lockheed Corporation, which in turn became part of Lockheed Martin after a 1995 merger with Martin Marietta. The F-16 has an internal M61 Vulcan cannon and 11 locations for mounting weapons, the F-16 has also been procured to serve in the air forces of 25 other nations. As of 2015, it is the second most common operational military aircraft in the world. Experiences in the Vietnam War revealed the need for air superiority fighters, boyds work called for a small, lightweight aircraft that could maneuver with the minimum possible energy loss, and which also incorporated an increased thrust-to-weight ratio. Air Force F-X proponents remained hostile to the concept because they perceived it as a threat to the F-15 program, however, the Air Forces leadership understood that its budget would not allow it to purchase enough F-15 aircraft to satisfy all of its missions. The Advanced Day Fighter concept, renamed F-XX, gained political support under the reform-minded Deputy Secretary of Defense David Packard. As a result, in May 1971, the Air Force Prototype Study Group was established, with Boyd a key member and this was the region where USAF studies predicted most future air combat would occur. The anticipated average flyaway cost of a version was $3 million. This production plan, though, was only notional as the USAF had no plans to procure the winner. Five companies responded and in 1972, the Air Staff selected General Dynamics Model 401 and Northrops P-600 for the prototype development. GD and Northrop were awarded contracts worth $37.9 million and $39.8 million to produce the YF-16 and YF-17, respectively, with first flights of both prototypes planned for early 1974. To overcome resistance in the Air Force hierarchy, the Fighter Mafia, the high/low mix would allow the USAF to be able to afford sufficient fighters for its overall fighter force structure requirements. The mix gained broad acceptance by the time of the flyoff, defining the relationship of the LWF. The YF-16 was developed by a team of General Dynamics engineers led by Robert H. Widmer. The first YF-16 was rolled out on 13 December 1973, and its 90-minute maiden flight was made at the Air Force Flight Test Center at Edwards AFB, California and its actual first flight occurred accidentally during a high-speed taxi test on 20 January 1974. The test pilot, Phil Oestricher, decided to lift off to avoid a potential crash, the slight damage was quickly repaired and the official first flight occurred on time
2.
Aerial refueling
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The procedure allows the receiving aircraft to remain airborne longer, extending its range or loiter time on station. A series of air refuelings can give range limited only by crew fatigue, alternatively, a shorter take-off roll can be achieved because take-off can be at a lighter weight before refueling once airborne. Aerial refueling has also considered as a means to reduce fuel consumption on long-distance flights greater than 3,000 nautical miles. Potential fuel savings in the range of 35-40% have been estimated for long haul flights, usually, the aircraft providing the fuel is specially designed for the task, although refueling pods can be fitted to existing aircraft designs if the probe-and-drogue system is to be used. There is no known regular civilian in-flight refueling activity, for instance, in the Gulf War and the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait and the Iraq War, all coalition air sorties were air-refueled except for a few short-range ground attack sorties in the Kuwait area. The first mid-air refueling, based on the development of Alexander P. de Seversky, as the 1920s progressed, greater numbers of aviation enthusiasts vied to set new aerial long-distance records, using inflight air refueling. One such enthusiast, who would revolutionize aerial refueling was Sir Alan Cobham, member of the Royal Flying Corps in World War I, and a pioneer of long-distance aviation. During the 1920s, he made long-distance flights to places as far afield as Africa and Australia and this craft was eventually modified by Airspeed to Cobhams specification, for a non-stop flight from London to India, using in-flight refueling to extend the planes flight duration. Meanwhile, in 1929, a group of U. S. Army Air Corps fliers, led by then Major Carl Spaatz, set an endurance record of over 150 hours with the Question Mark over Los Angeles. Aerial refueling remained a dangerous process until 1935 when brothers Fred and Al Key demonstrated a spill-free refueling nozzle. They exceeded the Hunters record by nearly 100 hours in a Curtiss Robin monoplane, the US was mainly concerned about transatlantic flights for faster postal service between Europe and America. In 1931 W. Irving Glover, the assistant postmaster, wrote an extensive article for Popular Mechanics concerning the challenges. In his article he even mentioned the use of Aerial refueling after take off as a possible solution, by 1931 they had demonstrated refueling between two Vickers Virginias, with fuel flow controlled by an automatic valve on the hose which would cut off if contact was lost. Royal Air Force officer Richard Atcherley had observed the dangerous aerial-refueling techniques in use at barnstorming events in the US and determined to create a workable system. In 1934, Cobham sold off the airline Cobham Air Routes Ltd to Olley Air Service, atcherlys system was bought up by Cobhams company, and with some refinement and continuous improvement through the late 30s, it became the first practical refueling system. Sir Alan Cobhams Grappled-line looped-hose air-to-air refueling system borrowed from techniques patented by David Nicolson and John Lord, and was publicly demonstrated for the first time in 1935. In the system the aircraft, at one time an Airspeed Courier, trailed a steel cable which was then grappled by a line shot from the tanker. The line was drawn back into the tanker where the receivers cable was connected to the refueling hose
3.
Boeing
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The Boeing Company is an American multinational corporation that designs, manufactures, and sells airplanes, rotorcraft, rockets, and satellites worldwide. The company also provides leasing and product support services, Boeing stock is a component of the Dow Jones Industrial Average. The Boeing Companys corporate headquarters are located in Chicago and the company is led by President, Boeing is organized into five primary divisions, Boeing Commercial Airplanes, Boeing Defense, Space & Security, Engineering, Operations & Technology, Boeing Capital, and Boeing Shared Services Group. Boeing bought Heaths shipyard in Seattle on the Duwamish River, which became his first airplane factory. Boeing was incorporated in Seattle by William Boeing, on July 15,1916, Boeing was later incorporated in Delaware, the original Certificate of Incorporation was filed with the Secretary of State of Delaware on July 19,1934. Boeing, who studied at Yale University, worked initially in the timber industry and this knowledge proved invaluable in his subsequent design and assembly of airplanes. The company stayed in Seattle to take advantage of the supply of spruce wood. William Boeing founded his company a few months after the June 15 maiden flight of one of the two B&W seaplanes built with the assistance of George Conrad Westervelt, a U. S. Navy engineer. Boeing and Westervelt decided to build the B&W seaplane after having flown in a Curtiss aircraft, Boeing bought a Glenn Martin Flying Birdcage seaplane and was taught to fly by Glenn Martin himself. Boeing soon crashed the Birdcage and when Martin informed Boeing that replacement parts would not become available for months, Westervelt agreed to build a better airplane and soon produced the B&W Seaplane. This first Boeing airplane was assembled in a hangar located on the northeast shore of Seattles Lake Union. Many of Boeings early planes were seaplanes, on April 6,1917, the U. S. declared War on Germany and later in the year entered World War I. On May 9,1917, the became the Boeing Airplane Company. With the U. S. entering the war, Boeing knew that the U. S. Navy needed seaplanes for training, so Boeing shipped two new Model Cs to Pensacola, Florida, where the planes were flown for the Navy. The Navy liked the Model C and ordered 50 more, the company moved its operations to a larger former shipbuilding facility known as Boeing Plant 1, located on the lower Duwamish River, Washington state. Others, including Boeing, started selling other products, Boeing built dressers, counters, and furniture, along with flat-bottom boats called Sea Sleds. In 1919 the Boeing B-1, flying boat made its first flight and it accommodated one pilot and two passengers and some mail. Over the course of eight years, it made international airmail flights from Seattle to Victoria, on May 24,1920, the Boeing Model 8 made its first flight
4.
United States Air Force
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The United States Air Force is the aerial warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven American uniformed services. Initially part of the United States Army, the USAF was formed as a branch of the military on 18 September 1947 under the National Security Act of 1947. It is the most recent branch of the U. S. military to be formed, the U. S. Air Force is a military service organized within the Department of the Air Force, one of the three military departments of the Department of Defense. The Air Force is headed by the civilian Secretary of the Air Force, who reports to the Secretary of Defense, the U. S. Air Force provides air support for surface forces and aids in the recovery of troops in the field. As of 2015, the service more than 5,137 military aircraft,406 ICBMs and 63 military satellites. It has a $161 billion budget with 313,242 active duty personnel,141,197 civilian employees,69,200 Air Force Reserve personnel, and 105,500 Air National Guard personnel. According to the National Security Act of 1947, which created the USAF and it shall be organized, trained, and equipped primarily for prompt and sustained offensive and defensive air operations. The stated mission of the USAF today is to fly, fight, and win in air, space and we will provide compelling air, space, and cyber capabilities for use by the combatant commanders. We will excel as stewards of all Air Force resources in service to the American people, while providing precise and reliable Global Vigilance, Reach and it should be emphasized that the core functions, by themselves, are not doctrinal constructs. The purpose of Nuclear Deterrence Operations is to operate, maintain, in the event deterrence fails, the US should be able to appropriately respond with nuclear options. Dissuading others from acquiring or proliferating WMD, and the means to deliver them, moreover, different deterrence strategies are required to deter various adversaries, whether they are a nation state, or non-state/transnational actor. Nuclear strike is the ability of forces to rapidly and accurately strike targets which the enemy holds dear in a devastating manner. Should deterrence fail, the President may authorize a precise, tailored response to terminate the conflict at the lowest possible level, post-conflict, regeneration of a credible nuclear deterrent capability will deter further aggression. Finally, the Air Force regularly exercises and evaluates all aspects of operations to ensure high levels of performance. Nuclear surety ensures the safety, security and effectiveness of nuclear operations, the Air Force, in conjunction with other entities within the Departments of Defense or Energy, achieves a high standard of protection through a stringent nuclear surety program. The Air Force continues to pursue safe, secure and effective nuclear weapons consistent with operational requirements, adversaries, allies, and the American people must be highly confident of the Air Forces ability to secure nuclear weapons from accidents, theft, loss, and accidental or unauthorized use. This day-to-day commitment to precise and reliable nuclear operations is the cornerstone of the credibility of the NDO mission, positive nuclear command, control, communications, effective nuclear weapons security, and robust combat support are essential to the overall NDO function. OCA is the method of countering air and missile threats, since it attempts to defeat the enemy closer to its source
5.
French Air Force
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The French Air Force is the air force of the French Armed Forces. It was formed in 1909 as the Service Aéronautique, an arm of the French Army. The number of aircraft in service with the French Air Force varies depending on source, the French Air Force has 233 combat aircraft in service, with the majority being 125 Dassault Mirage 2000 and 108 Dassault Rafale. As of early 2016, the French Air Force employs a total of 42,607 regular personnel, the reserve element of the air force consisted of 5,187 personnel of the Operational Reserve. The Minister of Defence is responsible for execution of military policy and he is advised by the Chief of Staff of the Armies in regard to the use of forces and the control of military operations. The Chief of Staff of the French Air Force determines the air force doctrines and advises the CEMA how to deploy French air assets and he is responsible for the preparation and logistic support of the air force. The French took active interest in developing the air force from 1909 and had the first World War I fighter pilots, in the post–World War II era, the French made a successful effort to develop a domestic aircraft industry. Dassault Aviation led the way mainly with delta-wing designs, which formed the basis for the Mirage series of jet fighters. The Mirage demonstrated its abilities in the Six-Day War, Yom Kippur War, the Falklands War, the French Air Force participated in several protracted colonial wars in Africa and French Indochina after the Second World War, and continues to employ its air power in Africa. The Military Air Transport Command had previously formed in February 1962 from the Groupement dUnités Aériennes Spécialisées. The Dassault Mirage IV, the principal French strategic bomber, was designed to strike Soviet positions as part of the French nuclear triad, also created in 1964 was the Escadron des Fusiliers Commandos de lAir, seemingly grouping all FCA units. CFAS had two squadrons of S-3 IRBMs at the Plateau dAlbion, six squadrons of Mirage IVAs, coTAM counted 28 squadrons, of which ten were fixed-wing transport squadrons, and the remainder helicopter and liaison squadrons, at least five of which were overseas. CAFDA numbered 14 squadrons mostly flying the Mirage F. 1C, two other commands had flying units, the Air Force Schools Command, and the Air Force Transmissions Command, with four squadrons and three trials units. In 1994 the Commandement des Fusiliers Commandos de lAir was established, the French Air Force is expanding and replacing aircraft inventory. After an absence lasting several decades, the French President Nicolas Sarkozy confirmed that France will rejoin the NATO integrated command, from 2008-2010 the Air Force underwent an organisational streamlining process. This project was called Air 2010, which was the year of the deadline for all transitions, the main targets of this project were to simplify the command structure, to regroup all military and civil air force functions and to rationalise and optimise all air force units. Five major commands, were formed, instead of the former 13, CDAOA CFA CSFA DRHAA SAGF The last remaining squadron of Dassault Mirage F1s were retired in July 2014 and replaced by the Rafale. The Chief of Staff of the French Air Force determines air force doctrine and he is responsible for the preparation and logistic support of the air force
6.
Turkish Air Force
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The Turkish Air Force is the aerial warfare service branch of the Turkish Armed Forces. The Turkish Armed Forces initiated a $160 billion modernization program, $45 billion is earmarked to go to the overhaul of the Turkish Air Force. As part of program, Ankara aims to commission new combat aircraft. The history of Ottoman military aviation dates back to between June 1909 and July 1911, the Ottoman flight squadrons participated in the Balkan Wars and World War I. The fleet size reached its apex in December 1916, when the Ottoman aviation had 90 active combat aircraft, the General Inspectorate of Air Forces trying to reconstruct itself on July 29,1918 had no personnel, but only remained as a title on paper. During the Turkish War of Independence, Turkish pilots joined the Konya Air Station, a few damaged aircraft belonging to the GNA were repaired, and afterwards used in combat. On 1 February 1921, the Branch of Air Forces was renamed as the General Directorate of Air Forces at Eskişehir and on 5 July 1922 reorganized as the Inspectorate of Air Forces at Konya. After the proclamation of independence and sovereignty with the Treaty of Lausanne, originally consisting of 3 normal and 1 naval aviation units, and an air school, the number of units was increased to 10 normal and 3 naval aviation units. Starting in 1924, personnel were sent abroad for flight education, in 1925 the Air School was reestablished in Eskişehir and its first students graduated in that same year. The Inspectorate of Air Forces was reorganized as Underdecretariat of the Ministry of Defense in 1928, some personnel were sent to United Kingdom and France for training, others were sent to the United States and Italy in 1930. On July 1,1932, air regiments were considered to be a combat arm. The Turkish aviators began to wear uniforms from 1933. Sabiha Gökçen became the first female pilot in military history in 1937. Another key event in 1937 was the establishment of the Air War College, by 1940, Turkish air brigades had more than 500 combat aircraft in its inventory, becoming the largest air force in the Balkans and the Middle East. The growing inventory of air brigades required another structural change, which was made in 1940, the Air Undersecretariat under the Ministry of National Defense for logistical affairs and the General Staff for educational affairs were united to form the Air Force Command in 1944. Thus, the Air Force became a branch of the Turkish Armed Forces. The first Commander of the Turkish Air Force was General Zeki Doğan, Turkey did not enter World War II on the side of the Allies until February 1945. Within a year, Turkeys borders were surrounded by German forces in the northwest and west, the large cities in western Turkey were darkened at nights, and anti-aircraft guns and searchlights were deployed for defence against possible enemy planes
7.
Republic of Singapore Air Force
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The Republic of Singapore Air Force is the air arm of the Singapore Armed Forces. It was first established in 1968 as the Singapore Air Defence Command, in 1975, it was renamed the Republic of Singapore Air Force. In January 1968, the British announced the imminent withdrawal of all their troops east of Suez by the end of 1971, the predecessor to the RSAF, the SADC, was formed in September 1968. The SADCs immediate task was to set up the Flying Training School to train pilots, qualified flying instructors were obtained through Airwork Services Limited, a UK-based company specialising in defence services. Basic training for pilots was carried out using two Cessna light aircraft hired from the Singapore Flying Club, finally, the first batch of six pilot trainees were sent to the United Kingdom in August 1968 to undergo training in various technical disciplines. The training was based on the Hawker Hunter, the SADCs first air defence fighter, the following month, another pioneer group of technicians, this time from the rotary wing, were sent to France to begin their technical training on the Aérospatiale Alouette III helicopter. In 1969, a number of local RAF technicians were released to join the fledging SADC, eight Cessna 172K aircraft – the SADCs first – arrived in May 1969 to be used for basic pilot training. By December, the first batch of students completed the course, of these, six were sent to the UK to receive further training. On their return to Singapore in 1970, they were ready to operate the newly acquired Hawker Hunter fighter aircraft. The pace of training pilots and ground crew picked up gradually, on 1 August 1969, Minister for the Interior and Defence, Lim Kim San, inaugurated the Flying Training School at Tengah Air Base. The inauguration of FTS brought SADC closer to its goal of fulfilling the heavy responsibility of defending Singapores airspace. The subsequent arrival of the BAC Strikemasters in 1969, used for advanced flying training. The first batch of locally trained fighter pilots were trained at the FTS, amongst this batch was 2LT Goh Yong Siang, who later rose to the appointment of Chief of Air Force on 1 July 1995. Gradually, the SADC had its own pilots, flying instructors, air traffic controllers, when Britain brought forward its plan to withdraw its forces by September 1971, the SADC was suddenly entrusted with a huge responsibility and resources. Britains former air bases – Tengah, Seletar, Sembawang and Changi – were handed over to the SADC, as well as its air defence radar station, in 1973, the SADC procured Shorts Skyvan search-and-locate aircraft and Douglas A-4 Skyhawk fighter-bombers. With a reliable mix of fighters, fighter-bombers, helicopters and transport aircraft, on 1 April 1975, the SADC was renamed the Republic of Singapore Air Force. One of its first commanders was LTC Ee Tean Chye, wars involving Singapore Air Force, 2004-2008 Multi-National Force – Iraq. Aircraft participated in the Iraq War and returned home after two or three months deployment in the Persian Gulf without any ground troops involved, Singapores withdrawal was acknowledged on 23 December 2008
8.
United States dollar
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The United States dollar is the official currency of the United States and its insular territories per the United States Constitution. It is divided into 100 smaller cent units, the circulating paper money consists of Federal Reserve Notes that are denominated in United States dollars. The U. S. dollar was originally commodity money of silver as enacted by the Coinage Act of 1792 which determined the dollar to be 371 4/16 grain pure or 416 grain standard silver, the currency most used in international transactions, it is the worlds primary reserve currency. Several countries use it as their currency, and in many others it is the de facto currency. Besides the United States, it is used as the sole currency in two British Overseas Territories in the Caribbean, the British Virgin Islands and Turks and Caicos Islands. A few countries use the Federal Reserve Notes for paper money, while the country mints its own coins, or also accepts U. S. coins that can be used as payment in U. S. dollars. After Nixon shock of 1971, USD became fiat currency, Article I, Section 8 of the U. S. Constitution provides that the Congress has the power To coin money, laws implementing this power are currently codified at 31 U. S. C. Section 5112 prescribes the forms in which the United States dollars should be issued and these coins are both designated in Section 5112 as legal tender in payment of debts. The Sacagawea dollar is one example of the copper alloy dollar, the pure silver dollar is known as the American Silver Eagle. Section 5112 also provides for the minting and issuance of other coins and these other coins are more fully described in Coins of the United States dollar. The Constitution provides that a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and that provision of the Constitution is made specific by Section 331 of Title 31 of the United States Code. The sums of money reported in the Statements are currently being expressed in U. S. dollars, the U. S. dollar may therefore be described as the unit of account of the United States. The word dollar is one of the words in the first paragraph of Section 9 of Article I of the Constitution, there, dollars is a reference to the Spanish milled dollar, a coin that had a monetary value of 8 Spanish units of currency, or reales. In 1792 the U. S. Congress passed a Coinage Act, Section 20 of the act provided, That the money of account of the United States shall be expressed in dollars, or units. And that all accounts in the offices and all proceedings in the courts of the United States shall be kept and had in conformity to this regulation. In other words, this act designated the United States dollar as the unit of currency of the United States, unlike the Spanish milled dollar the U. S. dollar is based upon a decimal system of values. Both one-dollar coins and notes are produced today, although the form is significantly more common
9.
Fiscal year
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A fiscal year is the period used by governments for accounting and budget purposes, which vary between countries. It is also used for reporting by business and other organizations. Taxation laws generally require accounting records to be maintained and taxes calculated on an annual basis, the calculation of tax on an annual basis is especially relevant for direct taxation, such as income tax. Many annual government fees—such as Council rates, licence fees, etc. —are also levied on a year basis. The fiscal year end is the date marks the end of the fiscal year. Some companies—such as Cisco Systems—end their fiscal year on the day of the week each year. Under such a system, some years will have 52 weeks. Many universities have a year which ends during the summer. In the northern hemisphere this is July to the next June, in the southern hemisphere this is calendar year, January to December. Some media/communication-based organizations use a broadcast calendar as the basis for their fiscal year, the American football league NFL uses the term league year, which in effect forms the leagues fiscal year. In Afghanistan, the year was recently changed from 1 Hamal –29 Hoot to 1 Jadi –30 Qaus. The fiscal year runs with the Afghan calendar, thus resulting in difference of the Gregorian dates once in a four-year span, in Australia, a fiscal year is commonly called a financial year and starts on 1 July and ends on the next 30 June. Financial years are designated by the year of the second half of the period. For example, financial year 2017 is the 12-month period ending on 30 June 2017 and it is used for official purposes, by individual taxpayers and by the overwhelming majority of business enterprises. Business enterprises may opt to use a year that ends at the end of a week. All entities within the one group must use the financial year. The Commonwealth adopted the near-ubiquitous financial year standard since its inception in 1901, the reason given for the change was for convenience, as Parliament typically sits during May and June, while it was difficult for it to meet in November and December to pass a budget. In Austria the fiscal year is the year,1 January to 31 December
10.
Boeing 367-80
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The Boeing 367-80, known simply as the Dash 80, was an American four-engine prototype aircraft built by Boeing to demonstrate the advantages of jet propulsion for commercial aviation. It served as base for the design of the KC-135 tanker, the Dash 80 first flew in 1954, less than two years from project launch. Its US$16 million cost was a risk for Boeing, which at the time had no committed customers. Only one example was built, which has preserved and is currently on public display at the Udvar-Hazy Center in Virginia. By the late 1940s two developments encouraged Boeing to begin considering building a passenger jet, the first was the maiden flight in 1947 of the B-47 Stratojet. The second was the flight in 1949 of the world’s first jet airliner. Boeing felt it had mastered the swept wing and podded engines which it saw as key technologies that would enable it to improve on the Comet, in 1950 Boeing tentatively produced a specification for a jet airliner dubbed the Model 473-60C. Boeing was experienced at selling to the military but had not enjoyed the success with civil airliners. Boeing decided the way to overcome the airlines suspicion of the jet –. As the first of a new generation of jets, Boeing wanted the aircrafts model number to emphasize the difference from its previous propeller-driven aircraft which bore 300-series numbers. The 400-, 500- and 600-series were already used by missiles and other products, so Boeing decided that the jets would bear 700-series numbers, and the first would be the 707. Although the design was announced publicly as the Model 707, the prototype was referred to within Boeing simply as the Dash 80 or -80. The Dash 80 fuselage was wide enough at 132 inches for five-abreast seating, the fuselage diameter for the production KC-135 was widened to 144 inches and Boeing originally hoped to build the 707 fuselage with that width. This decision did not unduly delay introduction of the model since the -80 had been largely hand-built. By early 1952 the designs were complete and in April the Boeing board approved the program, construction of the Dash 80 started in November in a walled-off section of Boeings Renton plant. As a proof of concept prototype there was no certification and no production line, the aircraft was not fitted with an airline cabin, a plywood lining housed the instrumentation for the flight test program. The Dash 80 rolled out of the factory on May 15,1954, during a series of taxi trials the port landing gear collapsed on May 22, the damage was quickly repaired and the first flight was on July 15,1954. Following flights revealed a propensity to Dutch roll - an alternating yawing and rolling motion, Boeing already had experience with this on the B-47 Stratojet and B-52 Stratofortress and had developed a yaw damper system on the B-47 that could be adapted to the Dash 80
11.
Boeing NC-135
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The Boeing NC-135 and NKC-135 are special versions of the Boeing C-135 Stratolifter and Boeing KC-135 Stratotanker modified to operate on several different programs. These aircraft were based at Kirtland Air Force Base, work was initiated in 1963 and the aircraft remained in service until 1976, flying principally for Sandia, the Los Alamos National Laboratory, and the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. The Atomic Energy Commission maintained controlling oversight of the NC-135 flight test aircraft, after 1976, the aircraft flew for Air Force Weapons Laboratory. Program scientists petitioned the AEC to allow for a program-within-a-program to use the aircraft for scientific research. The petition was approved, and research continued through 1975, the first eclipse mission took place from Pago Pago International Airport in 1965. Flying in conjunction with other science aircraft, one of the NC-135s managed to fly within eclipse totality for 160 seconds. Eclipse missions were flown in 1970,1972,1973,1979 and 1980. Big Crow is the designation of the two NKC-135 test-bed aircraft heavily modified for electronic warfare testing and these planes were also used as a target simulator for flight testing the Boeing YAL-1 Airborne Laser. On March 15,2007, the YAL-1 successfully fired this laser in flight, the target was the NKC-135E Big Crow 1 test aircraft that had been specially modified with a signboard target on its fuselage. The test validated the ability to track an airborne target and measure. Big Crow aircraft are used as downrange telemetry assets in conjunction with Western Launch. Since 2008, 55-3132 and 63-8050 have been retired, and relegated to the AMARC (Davis-Monthan AFB, Tucson, one aircraft, serial 61-2666, has been modified as an NC-135W to test systems and equipment used on RC-135V and W Rivet Joint reconnaissance aircraft. From 1975 to 1984, the US used an NKC-135 for its Airborne Laser Lab program, the modified NKC-135A carried 10.6 micrometer Carbon Dioxide Laser. Tests included successful interceptions of small missiles and of drone aircraft. Despite the combat potential of the system, it was strictly experimental. However, the SCUD threat faced during the Gulf War reignited interest in a laser system. United States United States Air Force United States Navy Since 1984 NKC-135 Airborne Laser Lab has been on display at the National Museum of the United States Air Force in Dayton, Ohio. In August 2011 it was removed from display in the Museums Air Park to make room for the arrival of the Museums C-5A Galaxy, the aircraft is currently in storage
12.
Boeing 707
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The Boeing 707 is a mid-sized, long-range, narrow-body, four-engine jet airliner built by Boeing Commercial Airplanes from 1958 to 1979. Its name is pronounced as seven oh seven. Versions of the aircraft have a capacity from 140 to 219 passengers, developed as Boeings first jet airliner, the 707 is a swept-wing design with podded engines. Although it was not the first jetliner in service, the 707 was the first to be commercially successful, dominating passenger air transport in the 1960s and remaining common through the 1970s, the 707 is generally credited with ushering in the Jet Age. It established Boeing as one of the largest manufacturers of passenger aircraft, the later 720,727,737, and 757 share elements of the 707s fuselage design. The 707 was developed from the Boeing 367-80, a prototype jet first flown in 1954, a larger fuselage cross-section and other modifications resulted in the initial-production 707-120, powered by Pratt & Whitney JT3C turbojet engines, which first flew on December 20,1957. Pan American World Airways began regular 707 service on October 26,1958, later derivatives included the shortened long-range 707-138 and the stretched 707-320, both of which entered service in 1959. A smaller short-range variant, the 720, was introduced in 1960, the 707 has been used on domestic, transcontinental, and transatlantic flights, and for cargo and military applications. A convertible passenger-freighter model, the 707-320C, entered service in 1963, military derivatives include the E-3 Sentry airborne reconnaissance aircraft and the C-137 Stratoliner VIP transports. Boeing produced and delivered 1,011 airliners including the smaller 720 series, ten Boeing 707s were in commercial service in July 2013. During and after World War II, Boeing was known for its military aircraft, the company had produced innovative and important bombers, from the B-17 Flying Fortress and B-29 Superfortress, to the jet-powered B-47 Stratojet and B-52 Stratofortress. The companys civil aviation department lagged far behind Douglas and other competitors, during 1949–1950, Boeing embarked on studies for a new jet transport, realizing that any design must be aimed at both the military and civilian markets. At the time, aerial refueling was becoming a standard technique for military aircraft, with the advent of the Jet Age, a new tanker was required to meet the USAFs fleet of jet-powered bombers, this was where Boeings new design would potentially win military orders. Boeing studied numerous wing and engine layouts for its new transport/tanker, some of which were based on the B-47 and C-97, before settling on 367–80. The Dash 80 took less than two years from launch in 1952 to rollout on May 14,1954, then first flew on July 15,1954. The prototype was an aircraft for both military and civilian use. The United States Air Force was the first customer, using it as the basis for the KC-135 Stratotanker aerial refueling platform, whether the passenger 707 would be profitable was far from certain. In a demonstration flight over Lake Washington outside Seattle, on August 7,1955, the 132-inch wide fuselage of the Dash 80 was large enough for four-abreast seating like the Stratocruiser
13.
Airliner
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An airliner is a type of aircraft for transporting passengers and air cargo. Such aircraft are most often operated by airlines, although the definition of an airliner can vary from country to country, an airliner is typically defined as an aircraft intended for carrying multiple passengers or cargo in commercial service. The largest airliners are wide-body jets and these aircraft are frequently called twin-aisle aircraft because they generally have two separate aisles running from the front to the back of the passenger cabin. These aircraft are used for long-haul flights between airline hubs and major cities with many passengers. A smaller, more class of airliners is the narrow-body or single aisle aircraft. These smaller airliners are used for short to medium-distance flights with fewer passengers than their wide-body counterparts. Regional airliners typically seat fewer than 100 passengers and may be powered by turbofans or turboprops and these airliners are the non-mainline counterparts to the larger aircraft operated by the major carriers, legacy carriers, and flag carriers and are used to feed traffic into the large airline hubs. These regional routes then form the spokes of an air transport model. The Beechcraft 1900, for example, has only 19 seats, when the Wright brothers made the world’s first sustained heavier-than-air flight, they laid the foundation for what would become a major transport industry. Their flight in 1903 was just 11 years before what is defined as the world’s first airliner. These airliners would have a significant impact on society, economics. If an airliner is defined as an aircraft intended for carrying passengers in commercial service. The Ilya Muromets was an aircraft with a separate passenger saloon, wicker chairs, bedroom, lounge. The aircraft also had heating and electrical lighting, the Ilya Muromets first flew on December 10,1913. On February 25,1914, it took off for its first demonstration flight with 16 passengers aboard, from June 21 – June 23, it made a round-trip from Saint Petersburg to Kiev in 14 hours and 38 minutes with one intermediate landing. However, it was never used as a commercial airliner due to the onset of World War I, in 1915 the very first airliner was used by Elliot Air Service. The aircraft was a Curtiss JN4, a biplane which was used mainly in World War I as a trainer. Later, it was used as a tour and familiarization flight aircraft in the early 1920s
14.
Boeing C-135 Stratolifter
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The Boeing C-135 Stratolifter is a transport aircraft derived from the prototype Boeing 367-80 jet airliner in the early 1950s. It has a fuselage and is shorter than the 707. Boeing gave the aircraft the designation of Model 717. Since the first one was built in August 1956, the C-135, a large majority of the 820 units were developed as KC-135A Stratotankers for mid-air refueling. However, they have performed numerous transport and special-duty functions. Forty-five base-model aircraft were built as C-135A or C-135B transports with the tanking equipment excluded, as is the case with the KC-135, the C-135 is also recognized as the Model 717 by Boeing. Fifteen C-135As, powered by Pratt & Whitney J57 turbojets, were built, in later years, almost all were upgraded with Pratt & Whitney TF33 turbofan engines and wide-span tail planes, and were re-designated C-135E. Most were converted to special roles, including airborne command posts, missile-tracking platforms, and VIP transports. Thirty C-135Bs were built with the TF33 turbofans and wide-span tail planes from the start, ten were modified for a weather reconnaissance role and designated WC-135B Stratolifter. Additional airframes were converted to RC-135s from the 1970s to 2006, the C-135C designation applies to three WC-135B weather reconnaissance aircraft, which reverted to transport status. Most of the other C-135Bs were converted to various special mission variants following their service with the Military Airlift Command, developmental tests using this aircraft have demonstrated the capability to fly precision approaches using a local area differential GPS system. This modified C-135 has been fitted with a millimeter wave camera, Speckled Trout is the official name of a combined SAF/CSAF support mission and concurrent test mission. It was also the nickname given to a modified C-135C, serial number 61-2669, that was used by the Secretary. The 412th Flight Test Squadron of the Air Force Material Command at Edwards AFB, California operated the C-135 Speckled Trout airframe, the name Speckled Trout applies to both the organization and the aircraft. The name was chosen in honor of a program monitor, Faye Trout. The word speckled was added because Trout apparently had a lot of freckles, Speckled Trout acquired the C-135C, serial number 61-2669, in 1974 and retired the aircraft on 13 January 2006. The current KC-135R Speckled Trout also supports additional tests and air refueling requirements that the C-135C could not, the C-135F were new-built aircraft used by France as dual-role tanker/cargo and troop carrier aircraft. C-135A Cargo/passenger variant of the KC-135A with seating for 126 passengers and it is given the Boeing model number 717-157
15.
Boeing KC-97 Stratofreighter
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The Boeing KC-97 Stratofreighter is a United States strategic tanker aircraft based on the Boeing C-97 Stratofreighter. It was succeeded by the Boeing KC-135 Stratotanker, the KC-97 Stratofreighter was an aerial refueling tanker variant of the C-97 Stratofreighter, greatly modified with all the necessary tanks, plumbing, and a flying boom. The cavernous upper deck was capable of accommodating oversize cargo accessed through a very large right-side door, in addition, transferrable jet fuel was contained in tanks on the lower deck. Both decks were heated and pressurized for high altitude operations, note, Occasionally the KC-97 has been quoted as Stratotanker. However, all reputable sources refer to the KC-97 as Stratofreighter and this includes both Boeing and the USAF themselves. The USAF began operating the KC-97 in 1950 and it purchased a total of 811 KC-97s from Boeing, as opposed to only 74 of the C-97 cargo version. The KC-97 carried aviation gasoline for its own piston engines but it carried jet fuel for its refueling mission, however, it was able to offload its aviation gas to a receiver in an emergency in a procedure known as a SAVE. These tankers were vitally important to the world-wide Boeing B-47 Stratojet strategic operations, an example was the support of Arctic reconnaissance flights from Thule Air Base. While it was a tanker, the KC-97s slow speed. B-52s typically lowered their flaps and rear landing gear to slow the aircraft enough to refuel from the KC-97, in addition, a typical B-52 refueling engagement profile would involve a descent that allowed the aircraft pair to maintain a higher airspeed. In the early 1960s, the Tactical Air Command added General Electric J47 jet pods from retired KB-50 tankers to produce the KC-97L, the jet pods increased performance and made the KC-97 more compatible with jet aircraft. In 1956, SAC began phasing out the KC-97 in favor of the KC-135, KC-97s continued operating with Tactical Air Command, the Air Force Reserve, and the Air National Guard. Most KC-97 were finally retired completely in 1978, when the Texas Air National Guard and Utah Air National Guard exchanged their KC-97Ls for C-130s and KC-135s, source, AIRTime KC-97A Three C-97As were converted into aerial refueling tankers with rear loading door removed and a flight refueling boom added. After the design was proven, they were converted back into the standard C-97A, kC-97E aerial refueling tankers with rear loading doors permanently closed,60 built. Some were later converted into transports as the C-97E, KC-97F 3800hp R-4360-59B engines and minor changes,159 built. Some were later converted into transport as the C-97F, KC-97G Dual-role aerial refueling tankers/cargo transportation aircraft. KC-97G models carried underwing fuel tanks, eC-97G ELINT conversion of three KC-97Gs. 53-106 was operated by the CIA for covert ELINT operations in the West Berlin Air Corridor, c-97G135 KC-97Gs converted to transports
16.
Vietnam War
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It was the second of the Indochina Wars and was officially fought between North Vietnam and the government of South Vietnam. The war is considered a Cold War-era proxy war. As the war continued, the actions of the Viet Cong decreased as the role. U. S. and South Vietnamese forces relied on air superiority and overwhelming firepower to conduct search and destroy operations, involving ground forces, artillery, in the course of the war, the U. S. conducted a large-scale strategic bombing campaign against North Vietnam. The North Vietnamese government and the Viet Cong were fighting to reunify Vietnam and they viewed the conflict as a colonial war and a continuation of the First Indochina War against forces from France and later on the United States. The U. S. government viewed its involvement in the war as a way to prevent a communist takeover of South Vietnam and this was part the domino theory of a wider containment policy, with the stated aim of stopping the spread of communism. Beginning in 1950, American military advisors arrived in what was then French Indochina, U. S. involvement escalated in the early 1960s, with troop levels tripling in 1961 and again in 1962. Regular U. S. combat units were deployed beginning in 1965, despite the Paris Peace Accord, which was signed by all parties in January 1973, the fighting continued. In the U. S. and the Western world, a large anti-Vietnam War movement developed as part of a larger counterculture, the war changed the dynamics between the Eastern and Western Blocs, and altered North–South relations. Direct U. S. military involvement ended on 15 August 1973, the capture of Saigon by the North Vietnamese Army in April 1975 marked the end of the war, and North and South Vietnam were reunified the following year. The war exacted a huge human cost in terms of fatalities, estimates of the number of Vietnamese soldiers and civilians killed vary from 966,000 to 3.8 million. Some 240, 000–300,000 Cambodians,20, 000–62,000 Laotians, and 58,220 U. S. service members died in the conflict. Various names have applied to the conflict. Vietnam War is the most commonly used name in English and it has also been called the Second Indochina War and the Vietnam Conflict. As there have been several conflicts in Indochina, this conflict is known by the names of its primary protagonists to distinguish it from others. In Vietnamese, the war is known as Kháng chiến chống Mỹ. It is also called Chiến tranh Việt Nam, France began its conquest of Indochina in the late 1850s, and completed pacification by 1893. The 1884 Treaty of Huế formed the basis for French colonial rule in Vietnam for the seven decades
17.
Gulf War
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The Iraqi Armys occupation of Kuwait that began 2 August 1990 was met with international condemnation, and brought immediate economic sanctions against Iraq by members of the UN Security Council. US President George H. W. Bush deployed US forces into Saudi Arabia, an array of nations joined the coalition, the largest military alliance since World War II. The great majority of the military forces were from the US, with Saudi Arabia, the United Kingdom. Kuwait and Saudi Arabia paid around US$32 billion of the US$60 billion cost, the war was marked by the introduction of live news broadcasts from the front lines of the battle, principally by the US network CNN. The war has also earned the nickname Video Game War after the daily broadcast of images from cameras on board US bombers during Operation Desert Storm. The initial conflict to expel Iraqi troops from Kuwait began with an aerial and naval bombardment on 17 January 1991 and this was followed by a ground assault on 24 February. This was a victory for the coalition forces, who liberated Kuwait. The coalition ceased its advance, and declared a ceasefire 100 hours after the campaign started. Aerial and ground combat was confined to Iraq, Kuwait, Iraq launched Scud missiles against coalition military targets in Saudi Arabia and against Israel. The following names have been used to describe the conflict itself, Gulf War, a problem with these terms is that the usage is ambiguous, having now been applied to at least three conflicts, see Gulf War. The use of the term Persian Gulf is also disputed, see Persian Gulf naming dispute, with no consensus of naming, various publications have attempted to refine the name. Other language terms include French, la Guerre du Golfe and German, Golfkrieg, German, Zweiter Golfkrieg, French, most of the coalition states used various names for their operations and the wars operational phases. Operation Desert Storm was the US name of the conflict from 17 January 1991. Operation Desert Sabre was the US name for the offensive against the Iraqi Army in the Kuwaiti Theater of Operations from 24–28 February 1991, in itself. Operation Desert Farewell was the given to the return of US units and equipment to the US in 1991 after Kuwaits liberation. Operation Granby was the British name for British military activities during the operations, Opération Daguet was the French name for French military activities in the conflict. Operation Friction was the name of the Canadian operations Operazione Locusta was the Italian name for the operations, in addition, various phases of each operation may have a unique operational name. The US divided the conflict into three campaigns, Defense of Saudi Arabian country for the period 2 August 1990, through 16 January 1991
18.
McDonnell Douglas KC-10 Extender
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The McDonnell Douglas KC-10 Extender is an aerial refueling tanker aircraft – the military version of the three-engined DC-10 airliner - operated by the United States Air Force. The KC-10 was developed from the Advanced Tanker Cargo Aircraft Program and it incorporates military-specific equipment for its primary roles of transport and aerial refueling. It was developed to supplement the KC-135 Stratotanker following experiences in Southeast Asia, the KC-10 was the second McDonnell Douglas transport aircraft to be selected by the Air Force following the C-9. A total of 60 KC-10s were produced for the USAF, the Royal Netherlands Air Force operates two similar tankers designated KDC-10 that were converted from DC-10s. The KC-10 plays a key role in the mobilization of US military assets and these aircraft performed airlift and aerial refueling during the 1986 bombing of Libya, the 1990–91 Gulf War with Iraq, the NATO bombing of Yugoslavia, War in Afghanistan, and Iraq War. The KC-10 is expected to serve until 2043, during the Vietnam War, doubts began to be raised regarding the Boeing KC-135 Stratotanker fleets ability to meet the needs of the United States global commitments. The aerial refueling fleet was deployed to Southeast Asia to support aircraft and strategic bombers. Consequently, the Air Force sought an aerial tanker with greater capabilities than the KC-135, in 1972, two DC-10s were flown in trials at Edwards Air Force Base, simulating air refuelings to check for possible wake issues. Boeing performed similar tests with a 747, during the 1973 Yom Kippur War, the Air Force commenced Operation Nickel Grass to supply Israel with weapons and supplies. The only serious contenders were Boeing and McDonnell Douglas, on 19 December 1977, McDonnell Douglass DC-10 was chosen. The primary reason of this choice was the KC-10s ability to operate from shorter runways, initially, a batch of 12 aircraft was ordered, but this was later increased to 60. The KC-10 Extender first flew on 12 July 1980, but it was not until October the same year that the first aerial refuel sortie was performed, the design for the KC-10 involved modifications from the DC-10-30CF design. Unnecessary airline features were replaced by an improved cargo-handling system and military avionics, meanwhile, the KC-10 retains 88% commonality with its commercial counterparts, giving it greater access to the worldwide commercial support system. Other changes from the DC-10-30CF include the removal of most windows, early aircraft featured a distinctive light gray, white and blue paint scheme, but a gray-green camouflage scheme was used on later tankers. The paint scheme was switched to a gray color by the late 1990s. The most notable changes were the addition of the McDonnell Douglas Advanced Aerial Refueling Boom, the extra tanks increase the KC-10s fuel capacity to 356,000 lb, nearly doubling the KC-135s capacity. The KC-10 boom operator is located in the rear of the aircraft with a window for monitoring refueling. The operator controls refueling operations through a digital fly-by wire system, unlike the KC-135, the KC-10s hose-and-drogue system allows refueling of Navy, Marine Corps, and most allied aircraft, all in one mission
19.
Boeing KC-46 Pegasus
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The Boeing KC-46 Pegasus is a military aerial refueling and strategic military transport aircraft developed by Boeing from its 767 jet airliner. In February 2011, the tanker was selected by the United States Air Force as the winner in the KC-X tanker competition to replace older KC-135 Stratotankers. The first 18 combat-ready aircraft are scheduled to be delivered to the U. S. Air Force in early 2018 under the terms of the development contract. The U. S. Air Force ran a procurement program to replace around 100 of its oldest KC-135E Stratotankers, the Boeing tanker received the KC-767A designation from the United States Department of Defense in 2002 and appeared in the 2004 edition of DoD model designation report. The Air Force decided to lease 100 KC-767 tankers from Boeing, despite several nations leasing military aircraft, there was criticism. US Senator John McCain and others criticized the draft leasing agreement as being wasteful, in response to the protests, the Air Force struck a compromise in November 2003, whereby it would purchase 80 KC-767 aircraft and lease 20 more. The Air Forces KC-767A contract was canceled by the DoD in January 2006. In 2006, the USAF released a request for proposal for a new program, KC-X. Boeing had also announced it may enter an even higher capability tanker based on the Boeing 777, Airbus partnered with Northrop Grumman to offer the Airbus A330 MRTT, the tanker version of the A330, which was being marketed to the USAF under the company name, KC-30. In late January 2007 the USAF issued the KC-X Aerial Refueling Aircraft Request for Proposal, the RFP called for 179 tankers, in a contract worth an estimated US$40 billion. However, Northrop and EADS expressed their displeasure at how the RFP was structured and threatened to withdraw, on 12 February 2007, Boeing announced it was offering the KC-767 Advanced Tanker for the KC-X Tanker competition. Boeing stated that for KC-Xs requirements, the KC-767 was a better fit than the KC-777, on 11 April 2007, Boeing submitted its KC-767 tanker proposal to U. S. Air Force. The KC-767 uses manual control, allowing unrestricted maneuverability to avoid threats anywhere in the flight envelope. Boeing submitted the final version of its proposal on 3 January 2008, on 29 February 2008, the DoD chose the Northrop Grumman/EADS KC-30, over the KC-767. The KC-30 was subsequently designated KC-45A by the Air Force, Boeing submitted a protest to the United States Government Accountability Office on 11 March 2008 and began waging a public relations campaign in support of their protest. On 18 June, following a series of admissions by the Air Force on the flaws in the bidding process, on 9 July 2008, Defense Secretary Robert Gates announced that the Air Force would reopen bidding on the tanker contract. Secretary Gates put the contract for the KC-45 into an expedited recompetition with Defense Undersecretary John Young in charge of the process instead of the Air Force. A draft of the revised RFP was provided to the contractors on 6 August 2008 for comments, by mid-August the revised RFP was to be finalized
20.
Cold War
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The Cold War was a state of geopolitical tension after World War II between powers in the Eastern Bloc and powers in the Western Bloc. Historians do not fully agree on the dates, but a common timeframe is the period between 1947, the year the Truman Doctrine was announced, and 1991, the year the Soviet Union collapsed. The term cold is used there was no large-scale fighting directly between the two sides, although there were major regional wars, known as proxy wars, supported by the two sides. The Cold War split the temporary alliance against Nazi Germany, leaving the Soviet Union. The USSR was a Marxist–Leninist state ruled by its Communist Party and secret police, the Party controlled the press, the military, the economy and all organizations. In opposition stood the West, dominantly democratic and capitalist with a free press, a small neutral bloc arose with the Non-Aligned Movement, it sought good relations with both sides. The two superpowers never engaged directly in full-scale armed combat, but they were armed in preparation for a possible all-out nuclear world war. The first phase of the Cold War began in the first two years after the end of the Second World War in 1945, the Berlin Blockade was the first major crisis of the Cold War. With the victory of the communist side in the Chinese Civil War and the outbreak of the Korean War, the USSR and USA competed for influence in Latin America, and the decolonizing states of Africa and Asia. Meanwhile, the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 was stopped by the Soviets, the expansion and escalation sparked more crises, such as the Suez Crisis, the Berlin Crisis of 1961, and the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. The USSR crushed the 1968 Prague Spring liberalization program in Czechoslovakia, détente collapsed at the end of the decade with the beginning of the Soviet–Afghan War in 1979. The early 1980s were another period of elevated tension, with the Soviet downing of Korean Air Lines Flight 007, the United States increased diplomatic, military, and economic pressures on the Soviet Union, at a time when the communist state was already suffering from economic stagnation. In the mid-1980s, the new Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev introduced the reforms of perestroika and glasnost. Pressures for national independence grew stronger in Eastern Europe, especially Poland, Gorbachev meanwhile refused to use Soviet troops to bolster the faltering Warsaw Pact regimes as had occurred in the past. The result in 1989 was a wave of revolutions that peacefully overthrew all of the communist regimes of Central, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union itself lost control and was banned following an abortive coup attempt in August 1991. This in turn led to the dissolution of the USSR in December 1991. The United States remained as the only superpower. The Cold War and its events have left a significant legacy and it is often referred to in popular culture, especially in media featuring themes of espionage and the threat of nuclear warfare
21.
Jet airliner
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A jet airliner is an airliner powered by jet engines. Airliners usually have two or four jet engines, three-engined designs were popular in the 1970s but are common today. Most airliners today are powered by jet engines, because they are capable of operating at high speeds. The first airliners, introduced in the 1950s, used the simpler turbojet engine, these were supplanted by designs using turbofans. Airliners are commonly classified as either the generally long-haul widebody aircraft and they retained the two inboard piston engines, the jets being housed in the outboard nacelles. The first airliner with jet power only was the Nene-powered Vickers VC.1 Viking G-AJPH, also developed in 1949 was the Avro Canada C102 Jetliner, which never reached production, however the term jetliner came into use as a generic term for passenger jet aircraft. National prestige was attached to developing prototypes and bringing these first generation designs into service, there was also a strong nationalism in purchasing policy, so that US Boeing and Douglas aircraft became closely associated with Pan Am, while BOAC ordered British Comets. Aeroflot used Soviet Tupolevs, while Air France introduced French Caravelles, Boeing became the most successful of the early manufacturers. The KC-135 Stratotanker and military versions of the 707 remain operational, the Pratt & Whitney JT3 turbojets powered the original Boeing 707 and DC-8 models, in the early 1960s the JT3 was modified into the JT3D low-bypass turbofan for long-range 707 and DC-8 variants. The second-generation of jet airliners was known for the advancement of turbofan technology, the rear-engined T-tail arrangement is still used for jetliners with a maximum takeoff weight of less than 50 tons. Other second-generation developments, such as rocket assisted takeoff, water-injection, and afterburners used on supersonic jetliners such as Concorde, the third generation of jet airliners introduced wide-body craft and high-bypass turbofan engines. There was also the debut of the European consortium Airbus. In 1978, Boeing unveiled the twin-engine Boeing 757 to replace its 727, the mid-size 757 and 767 launched to market success, due in part to 1980s extended-range twin-engine operational performance standards regulations governing transoceanic twinjet operations. These regulations allowed twin-engine airliners to make ocean crossings at up to three hours distance from emergency diversionary airports, under ETOPS rules, airlines began operating the 767 on long-distance overseas routes that did not require the capacity of larger airliners. By the late 1980s, DC-10 and L-1011 models were approaching retirement age, mcDonnell Douglas were working on the MD-11, a stretched and upgraded successor of the DC-10. Airbus, thanks to the success of its A320 family, developed the medium-range A330 twinjet, in 1988, Boeing began developing what would be the 777 twinjet, using the twin-engine configuration given past design successes, projected engine developments, and reduced-cost benefits. In addition, Boeing also released an update on their 747. Airliner Aviation Business jet Freight aircraft Jet aircraft Wide-body aircraft List of jet airliners
22.
Fuselage
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The fuselage is an aircrafts main body section. It holds crew, passengers, and cargo, the fuselage also serves to position control and stabilization surfaces in specific relationships to lifting surfaces, which is required for aircraft stability and maneuverability. This type of structure is still in use in lightweight aircraft using welded steel tube trusses. A box truss fuselage structure can also be out of wood—often covered with plywood. Simple box structures may be rounded by the addition of supported lightweight stringers, allowing the fabric covering to form an aerodynamic shape. Geodesic structural elements were used by Barnes Wallis for British Vickers between the wars and into World War II to form the whole of the fuselage, including its aerodynamic shape. In this type of construction multiple flat strip stringers are wound about the formers in opposite spiral directions and this proved to be light, strong, and rigid and had the advantage of being made almost entirely of wood. A similar construction using aluminum alloy was used in the Vickers Warwick with less materials than would be required for other structural types, the geodesic structure is also redundant and so can survive localized damage without catastrophic failure. A fabric covering over the completed the aerodynamic shell. The logical evolution of this is the creation of fuselages using molded plywood, in this method, the exterior surface of the fuselage is also the primary structure. A typical early form of this was built using molded plywood, a later form of this structure uses fiberglass cloth impregnated with polyester or epoxy resin, instead of plywood, as the skin. An example of a larger molded plywood aircraft is the de Havilland Mosquito fighter/light bomber of World War II, no plywood-skin fuselage is truly monocoque, since stiffening elements are incorporated into the structure to carry concentrated loads that would otherwise buckle the thin skin. The use of molded fiberglass using negative molds is prevalent in the production of many modern sailplanes. The use of molded composites for fuselage structures is being extended to large aircraft such as the Boeing 787 Dreamliner. This is the method of constructing an all-aluminum fuselage. First, a series of frames in the shape of the cross sections are held in position on a rigid fixture. These frames are then joined with lightweight longitudinal elements called stringers and these are in turn covered with a skin of sheet aluminum, attached by riveting or by bonding with special adhesives. The fixture is then disassembled and removed from the fuselage shell, which is then fitted out with wiring, controls
23.
Strategic Air Command
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At a lower echelon, headquarters divisions included Aircraft Engineering, Missile Concept, and Strategic Communications. In 1992, as part of an overall post-Cold War reorganization of the U. S. Planning to reorganize for a separate and independent postwar U. S. Air Force had begun by the fall of 1945, with the Simpson Board tasked to plan. the reorganization of the Army, SAC initially totaled 37,000 USAAF personnel. S. Air Force as an independent service, kenney, initial units reporting to the Strategic Air Command headquarters on 21 March 1946 included the Second Air Force, the IX Troop Carrier Command and the 73d Air Division. In addition to the bombing mission, SAC also devoted significant resources to aerial reconnaissance. An F-13 squadron, the F-13 later re-designated as the RB-29 Superfortress, was also established, SAC conducted routine aerial reconnaissance missions near the Soviet borders or near the 12-mile international waters limit, although some missions actually penetrated into Soviet airspace. The flight profiles of these missions—above 30,000 feet and in excess of 300 knots—made interception by Soviet air forces difficult until the Soviets 1948 introduction of the MiG-15 jet fighter. Project Nanook, the Cold War’s first Top Secret reconnaissance effort, used the first RB-29 missions for mapping and visual reconnaissance in the Arctic, later missions were Project LEOPARD along the Chukchi Peninsula, followed by Projects RICKRACK, STONEWORK, and COVERALLS. In 1946, the US possessed only nine atomic bombs and twenty-seven B-29s capable at any one time of delivering them, unfortunately, postwar budget and personnel cuts had had an insidious effect on SAC as its Deputy Commander, Major General Clements McMullen, implemented mandated force reductions. This continued to wear down SAC as a command and morale plummeted, as a result, by the end of 1947, only two of SACs eleven groups were combat ready. In terms of overall Air Force basing and infrastructure, SAC continued to acquire a share of USAF infrastructure. In 1947, before the USAF was established as an independent service, construction commenced on Limestone AAF, Maine, fort Dix AAF, New Jersey, Spokane AAF, Washington, and Wendover Field, Utah were also transferred to SAC between 30 April and 1 September 1947. Following establishment of the USAF as a service, SAC bases in the United States consisted of
24.
Harold E. Talbott
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Harold Elstner Talbott, Jr. was the third United States Secretary of the Air Force. He was born in Dayton, Ohio, in March 1888 and he attended The Hill School in Pottstown, Pennsylvania, and spent two years at Yale University before returning to his fathers construction company in 1911. He was a polo player. Talbotts father was an engineer who was involved in the construction of the Soo Locks on Lake Superior and had various railroad. Talbott Sr. was the first mayor of Oakwood, Ohio and he was also involved in the recovery of Dayton from the 1913 flood. He served as the director of the City National Bank of Dayton and his mother was active in the Dayton anti-suffrage league, which opposed giving women the right to vote. She was also involved in the Anti-Saloon League and was a patroness of the Dayton Westminster Choir and his brother Nelson Bud Talbott was the coach for the Dayton Triangles professional football team, a predecessor to todays Indianapolis Colts. His great-nephew Strobe Talbott was a deputy secretary of state in the Clinton administration, Harold and Margarets children included Margaret Noyes, Pauline Toland, John Thayer Talbott, and H. E. In 1960 his wife committed suicide by jumping from the 12th story of their Fifth Avenue apartment in New York City, during World War II, the Runnymede Playhouse on the Talbott family estate in a residential neighborhood of Oakwood, Montgomery County, Ohio hosted the Dayton Project. Charles Allen Thomas, a Delco-GM and Monsanto Company chemist who was in charge of the project, was married to Harolds sister Margaret, from 1906 to about 1913 Harold Talbott served as president of Platt Iron Works in Dayton along with his polo teammate Edwin F. Platt. Talbotts interest in aviation dated from the days of the Wright brothers. He was a pupil of Katharine Wright and a customer of the Wrights bicycle shop, in 1915 Talbott helped build one of the first wind tunnels for aviation experiments in Dayton. The young Talbott became the president, while Orville Wright received a courtesy position as a consulting engineer. Talbott was a passenger on Orvilles last flight in 1918, at the beginning of World War I, Deeds joined the US Army with the rank of colonel and became Chief of Aircraft Production. Deeds supervised aircraft procurement at McCook Field, a precursor to Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, the Dayton-Wright Company took over the newly built Delco-Light plant. The expanded plant turned out about 400 training planes and constructed the two-seat fighter, in 1918 the plant, which employed 12,000 people, produced 38 planes per day and manufactured more wartime aircraft overall than any other U. S. plant. During September 1918, Talbott was commissioned a major in the Air Service of the Signal Corps and his assignment as one of a group of officers in charge of aircraft maintenance and repair in France was canceled by the armistice. In October 1918 Supreme Court Justice Charles Evans Hughes and Attorney General Thomas Watt Gregory reported to President Wilson on the results of an investigation into wartime aircraft production, Justice Hughes criticized the close relationship between Colonel Deeds and Dayton-Wright
25.
Castle Air Force Base
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Castle Air Force Base is a former United States Air Force Strategic Air Command base located northeast of Atwater, northwest of Merced and about 115 miles south of Sacramento, California. The base, located in unincorporated Merced County, was closed after the end of the Cold War in 1995 and it is now known as the Castle Airport Aviation and Development Center. The airfield was opened on 20 September 1941 as the Army Air Corps Basic Flying School and it provided basic air training for beginning pilots and crewmen. Many pilots and crews were trained here during the war including a number of Womens Air Service Pilots, the 444th operated from Merced for about six months with the 678th BS being re-designated as the 10th Recon Squadron and its aircraft being converted to the RB-29 configuration. The three B-29 squadrons inactivated at Merced on 6 May 1946 with the 10th Reconnaissance Squadron relocating to Davis-Monthan Field, the 444th was inactivated on 16 November 1947. During the summer of 1945, when most other air fields were winding down, after the war ended, Merced was home to several air tanker squadrons and remained a training center for pilots and air crews. Merced Army Air Field was renamed Castle Field on 17 January 1946, the 93rd Bombardment Group was activated at Merced on 21 June 1946, starting a nearly 50-year relationship with the airfield. The 93rd was a former Eighth Air Force B-24 Liberator group which was assigned to Merced for Boeing B-29 Superfortress training, the 93rd was one of SACs first ten bomb groups. There were three operational squadrons which absorbed the equipment and aircraft of the inactivated 444th BG. On 1 October 1946, the base was put on minimal operations on caretaker status, the 93rd Bomb Group, however remained active. It, along with the 509th Composite Group at Roswell Army Air Field, the base remained in this status until 1 May 1947 when it was reactivated. On 1 May 1947, Castle Field was reactivated under Strategic Air Command, on 28 July 1947, the 93rd Bombardment Wing, was established and took over responsibility from the group. During 1947–1948, it flew Boeing B-29 Superfortresses, but soon received the version of the B-29. In 1948, the wing deployed to Kadena AB, Okinawa. Castle Field was renamed Castle Air Force Base on 13 January 1948 with the establishment of the USAF as a military service. On 27 June 1949, the Air Force Reserve 447th Bombardment Group was activated at Castle, the 447th remained active until 16 June 1951 when the group was activated and the aircraft and personnel sent to Far East Air Forces as replacements for combat losses during the Korean War. With the units departure, the 447th was inactivated, the Convair B-36 Peacemaker entered SACs inventory in 1948. The huge plane dwarfed the earlier bombers, the 93rd, along with all other B-29 and B-50 bomb groups, was re-designated Medium
26.
California
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California is the most populous state in the United States and the third most extensive by area. Located on the western coast of the U. S, California is bordered by the other U. S. states of Oregon, Nevada, and Arizona and shares an international border with the Mexican state of Baja California. Los Angeles is Californias most populous city, and the second largest after New York City. The Los Angeles Area and the San Francisco Bay Area are the nations second- and fifth-most populous urban regions, California also has the nations most populous county, Los Angeles County, and its largest county by area, San Bernardino County. The Central Valley, an agricultural area, dominates the states center. What is now California was first settled by various Native American tribes before being explored by a number of European expeditions during the 16th and 17th centuries, the Spanish Empire then claimed it as part of Alta California in their New Spain colony. The area became a part of Mexico in 1821 following its war for independence. The western portion of Alta California then was organized as the State of California, the California Gold Rush starting in 1848 led to dramatic social and demographic changes, with large-scale emigration from the east and abroad with an accompanying economic boom. If it were a country, California would be the 6th largest economy in the world, fifty-eight percent of the states economy is centered on finance, government, real estate services, technology, and professional, scientific and technical business services. Although it accounts for only 1.5 percent of the states economy, the story of Calafia is recorded in a 1510 work The Adventures of Esplandián, written as a sequel to Amadis de Gaula by Spanish adventure writer Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo. The kingdom of Queen Calafia, according to Montalvo, was said to be a land inhabited by griffins and other strange beasts. This conventional wisdom that California was an island, with maps drawn to reflect this belief, shortened forms of the states name include CA, Cal. Calif. and US-CA. Settled by successive waves of arrivals during the last 10,000 years, various estimates of the native population range from 100,000 to 300,000. The Indigenous peoples of California included more than 70 distinct groups of Native Americans, ranging from large, settled populations living on the coast to groups in the interior. California groups also were diverse in their organization with bands, tribes, villages. Trade, intermarriage and military alliances fostered many social and economic relationships among the diverse groups, the first European effort to explore the coast as far north as the Russian River was a Spanish sailing expedition, led by Portuguese captain Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, in 1542. Some 37 years later English explorer Francis Drake also explored and claimed a portion of the California coast in 1579. Spanish traders made unintended visits with the Manila galleons on their trips from the Philippines beginning in 1565
27.
Empennage
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The empennage, also known as the tail or tail assembly, provides stability for aircraft, in a way similar to the feathers on an arrow. The term derives from the French language word empenner which means to feather an arrow, most aircraft feature an empennage incorporating vertical and horizontal stabilising surfaces which stabilise the flight dynamics of yaw and pitch, as well as housing control surfaces. In spite of effective control surfaces, many aircraft that lacked a stabilising empennage were virtually unflyable. Even so-called tailless aircraft usually have a tail fin, heavier-than-air aircraft without any kind of empennage are rare. Structurally, the empennage consists of the tail assembly, including the tailfin, the tailplane. On an airliner this would be all the flying and control surfaces behind the pressure bulkhead. The front section of the tailplane is called the tailplane or horizontal stabiliser and is used to pitch stability. The rear section is called the elevator, and is hinged to the horizontal stabiliser. The elevator is a movable aerofoil that controls changes in pitch, some aircraft employ an all-moving stabiliser and elevators in one unit, known as a stabilator or full-flying stabiliser. The vertical tail structure has a front section called the vertical stabiliser. The rear section of the fin is the rudder, a movable aerofoil that is used to turn the aircrafts nose to one side or the other. When used in combination with the ailerons, the result is a banking turn, some aircraft are fitted with a tail assembly that is hinged to pivot in two axes forward of the fin and stabiliser, in an arrangement referred to as a movable tail. The entire empennage is rotated vertically to actuate the horizontal stabiliser, in some aircraft trim devices are provided to eliminate the need for the pilot to maintain constant pressure on the elevator or rudder controls. The trim device may be, a tab on the rear of the elevators or rudder which act to change the aerodynamic load on the surface. Usually controlled by a wheel or crank. an adjustable stabiliser into which the stabiliser may be hinged at its spar. Usually controlled by a cockpit crank, a bungee trim system which uses a spring to provide an adjustable preload in the controls. Usually controlled by a cockpit lever, an anti-servo tab used to trim some elevators and stabilators as well as increased control force feel. Usually controlled by a wheel or crank
28.
Horizontal stabilizer
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Not all fixed-wing aircraft have tailplanes. The function of the tailplane is to provide stability and control, in particular, the tailplane helps adjust for changes in the center of pressure or center of gravity caused by changes in speed and attitude, fuel consumption, or dropping cargo or payload. The tailplane comprises the fixed horizontal stabiliser and movable elevator. Besides its planform, it is characterised by, Number of tailplanes - from 0 to 3 Location of tailplane - mounted high, mid or low on the fuselage, fixed stabilizer and movable elevator surfaces, or a single combined stabilator or flying tail. This means that any disturbance which raises the nose produces a pitching moment which tends to raise the nose further. The longitudinal stability of an aircraft may change when it is flown hands-off, i. e. when the controls are subject to aerodynamic forces. In addition to giving a restoring force a tailplane gives damping and this is caused by the relative wind seen by the tail as the aircraft rotates around the center of mass. For example, when the aircraft is oscillating, but is aligned with the overall vehicles motion. Depending on the design and flight regime, its tailplane may create positive lift or negative lift. It is sometimes assumed that on an aircraft this will always be a net down force. On some pioneer designs, such as the Bleriot XI, the center of gravity was between the center of pressure from the wings and the tailplane, which provided positive lift. However this arrangement can be unstable and these often had severe handling issues. Later examples of aircraft from World War I and onwards into the years that had positive lift tailplanes include, chronologically. But with care a lifting tailplane can be made stable, an example is provided by the Bachem Ba 349 Natter VTOL rocket-powered interceptor, which had a lifting tail and was both stable and controllable in flight. In many modern aircraft, the center of gravity is placed ahead of the center of pressure of the main wing. The wing lift then exerts a pitch-down moment around the centre of gravity, a disadvantage is that it generates trim drag. Using a computer to control the elevator allows aerodynamically unstable aircraft to be flown in the same manner, aircraft such as the F-16 are flown with artificial stability. The advantage of this is a significant reduction drag caused by the tailplane, at transonic speeds, an aircraft can experience a shift rearwards in the center of pressure due to the buildup and movement of shockwaves
29.
Vertical stabilizer
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It is analogous to a skeg on boats and ships. On aircraft, vertical stabilizers generally point upwards and these are also known as the vertical tail, and are part of an aircrafts empennage. If the vertical stabilizer was mounted on the underside, it would produce a positive feedback whenever the aircraft dove or banked, the trailing end of the stabilizer is typically movable, and called the rudder, this allows the aircraft pilot to control yaw. Often navigational radio or airband transceiver antennas are placed on or inside the vertical tail, in all known trijets, the vertical stabilizer houses the central engine or engine inlet duct. Vertical stabilizers, or fins, have also used in automobiles, specifically in top level motor sports. A few aircraft models have a fin under the rear end. Normally this is small, or can fold sideways, to allow landing, the vertical stabilizer is mounted exactly vertically, and the horizontal stabilizer is directly mounted to the empennage. This is the most common vertical stabilizer configuration, a T-tail has the horizontal stabilizer mounted at the top of the vertical stabilizer. It is commonly seen on aircraft, such as the Bombardier CRJ200, the Fokker 70, the Boeing 727, the Vickers VC10 and Douglas DC-9. T-tails are often incorporated on configurations with fuselage mounted engines to keep the horizontal stabilizer away from the engine exhaust plume, T-tail aircraft are more susceptible to pitch-up at high angles of attack. This pitch-up results from a reduction in the horizontal stabilizers lifting capability as it passes through the wake of the wing at moderate angles of attack and this can also result in a deep stall condition. T-tails present structural challenges since loads on the stabilizer must be transmitted through the vertical tail. The cruciform tail is arranged like a cross, the most common configuration having the horizontal stabilizer intersecting the vertical tail somewhere near the middle, the PBY Catalina uses this configuration. Falconjets from Dassault always have cruciform tail, rather than a single vertical stabilizer, a twin tail has two. These are vertically arranged, and intersect or are mounted to the ends of the horizontal stabilizer, the Beechcraft Model 18 and many modern military aircraft such as the American F-14, F-15, and F/A-18 use this configuration. A variation on the tail, it has three vertical stabilizers. An example of configuration is the Lockheed Constellation. On the Constellation it was done to give the maximum vertical stabilizer area while keeping the overall height low enough so that it could fit into maintenance hangars
30.
Dihedral (aeronautics)
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Dihedral angle is the upward angle from horizontal of the wings or tailplane of a fixed-wing aircraft. Anhedral angle is the given to negative dihedral angle, that is. Dihedral angle has an influence on dihedral effect, which is named after it. Dihedral effect is the amount of roll moment produced per degree of sideslip, dihedral effect is a critical factor in the stability of an aircraft about the roll axis. It is also pertinent to the nature of an aircrafts Dutch roll oscillation, longitudinal dihedral is a comparatively obscure term related to the pitch axis of an airplane. It is the angle between the zero axis of the wing and horizontal tail. Longitudinal dihedral can influence the nature of controllability about the pitch axis, when the term dihedral is used by itself it is usually intended to mean dihedral angle. However, context may otherwise indicate that dihedral effect is the intended meaning, dihedral Angle is the upward angle from horizontal of the wings of a fixed-wing aircraft, or of any paired nominally-horizontal surfaces on any aircraft. The term can apply to the wings of a bird. Dihedral Angle is also used in some types of such as box kites. Wings with more than one Angle change along the span are said to be polyhedral. Dihedral Angle has important stabilizing effects on flying bodies because it has an influence on the dihedral effect. Dihedral effect of an aircraft is a rolling moment resulting from the vehicle having an angle of sideslip. Increasing the dihedral angle of an aircraft increases the effect on it. However, many other parameters also have a strong influence on dihedral effect. Some of these important factors are, wing sweep, vertical center of gravity, dihedral angle on an aircraft almost always implies the angle between two paired surfaces, one on each side of the aircraft. Even then, it is almost always between the left and right wings, however, mathematically dihedral means the angle between any two planes. Longitudinal dihedral can also mean the angle between the zero axis of the wing and tail instead of between the root chords of the two surfaces
31.
Reconnaissance
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In military operations, reconnaissance is the exploration outside an area occupied by friendly forces to gain information about natural features and enemy presence. Examples of reconnaissance include patrolling by troops, ships or submarines, manned/unmanned reconnaissance aircraft, satellites, espionage normally is not reconnaissance, because reconnaissance is a militarys special forces operating ahead of its main forces, spies are non-combatants operating behind enemy lines. Often called recce or recon, the verb is reconnaître. Traditionally, reconnaissance was a role that was adopted by the cavalry, speed was key in these maneuvers, thus infantry was ill suited to the task. From horses to vehicles, for warriors throughout history, commanders procured their ability to have speed and mobility, to mount and dismount, skirmishing is a traditional skill of reconnaissance, as well as harassment of the enemy. Reconnaissance conducted by ground forces includes special reconnaissance, armored reconnaissance, amphibious reconnaissance, aerial reconnaissance is reconnaissance carried out by aircraft. The purpose is to weather conditions, map terrain, and may include military purposes such as observing tangible structures, particular areas. Naval forces use aerial and satellite reconnaissance to observe enemy forces, navies also undertake hydrographic surveys and intelligence gathering. Reconnaissance satellites provide military commanders with photographs of enemy forces and other intelligence, military forces also use geographical and meteorological information from Earth observation satellites. A tracker needs to pay attention to both the environment and the psychology of his enemy. Knowledge of human psychology, sociology, and cultural backgrounds is necessary to know the actions of the enemy and this is almost as necessary as to know the physical character of the country, its climate and products. Certain people will do certain things almost without fail, certain other things, perfectly feasible, they will not do. There is no danger of knowing too much of the habits of an enemy. One should neither underestimate the enemy nor credit him with superhuman powers, fear and courage are latent in every human being, though roused into activity by very diverse means. Types of reconnaissance, Terrain-oriented reconnaissance is a survey of the terrain, force-oriented reconnaissance focuses on the enemy forces and may include target acquisition. Civil-oriented reconnaissance focuses on the dimension of the battlespace. The techniques and objectives are not mutually exclusive, it is up to the commander whether they are carried out separately or by the same unit, some military elements tasked with reconnaissance are armed only for self-defense, and rely on stealth to gather information. Others are well-enough armed to also deny information to the enemy by destroying their reconnaissance elements, reconnaissance-in-force is a type of military operation or military tactics used specifically to probe an enemys disposition
32.
Boeing RC-135
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Based on the C-135 Stratolifter airframe, various types of RC-135s have been in service since 1961. Unlike the C-135 and KC-135 which are recognized by Boeing as the Model 717, many variants have been modified numerous times, resulting in a large variety of designations, configurations, and program names. The first RC-135 variant, the RC-135A, was ordered in 1962 by the United States Air Force to replace the Boeing RB-50 Superfortress, originally nine were ordered but this was later reduced to four. Boeing allocated the variant the designation Boeing 739-700 but they were modified variant of the KC-135A then in production. They used the same Pratt & Whitney J57 turbojet engines as the tanker variant and they had no refueling system fitted and they were to be used for photographic and surveying tasks. The next variant ordered was the RC-135B to be used as an electronic intelligence aircraft to replace the Boeing RB-47H Stratojet on ELINT duties, unlike the earlier variants, the RC-135Bs were fitted with Pratt & Whitney TF33 turbofans rather than the older J57s. These ten aircraft were delivered directly Martin Aircraft beginning in 1965 for installation of their operational electronics suite, by 1967, they emerged as RC-135Cs and all entered service that year. The refueling boom was not fitted and the boom operator station was used as a bay for a KA-59 camera. Externally, the aircraft were fitted with sideways looking airborne radar antenna on the forward fuselage. The RC-135Bs were the last of the new aircraft built, all further reconnaissance variants that followed were modified aircraft, either from earlier RC-135 variants or from tankers and transports. The AMP standard includes conversion from analog readouts to a glass cockpit configuration. The current RC-135 fleet is the latest iteration of modifications to this pool of aircraft dating back to the early 1960s, initially employed by Strategic Air Command for reconnaissance, the RC-135 fleet has participated in every armed conflict involving U. S. forces during its tenure. RC-135s have maintained a constant presence in Southwest Asia since the early 1990s and they were stalwarts of Cold War operations, with missions flown around the periphery of the USSR and its client states in Europe and around the world. Originally, all RC-135s were operated by Strategic Air Command, since 1992 they have been assigned to Air Combat Command. The RC-135 fleet is based at Offutt Air Force Base, Nebraska. The 55th Wing operates 22 platforms in three variants, three RC-135S Cobra Ball, two RC-135U Combat Sent, and 17 RC-135V/W Rivet Joint. On August 9,2010, the Rivet Joint recognized its 20th anniversary of service in Central Command. This represents the longest unbroken presence of any aircraft in the Air Force inventory, the RAF received the first RC-135W in September 2013, which was deployed from July 2014 to support coalition action against combat Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant militants in Iraq
33.
Boeing EC-135
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The Boeing EC-135 was a command and control version of the Boeing C-135 Stratolifter. Modified for the Operation Looking Glass mission, during the Cold War, the EC-135N variant served as a tracking aircraft for the Apollo program. During the early 1960s, NASA and the Department of Defense needed a very mobile tracking and telemetry platform to support the Apollo space program, in 1994, the ARIA fleet relocated again to Edwards AFB, California, as part of the 412th Test Wing. However, taskings for the ARIA dwindled because of costs and improved satellite technology. Operations began in 1961 with the 34th Air Refueling Squadron at Offutt Air Force Base, Nebraska, other Offutt-based units included the 38th Strategic Reconnaissance Squadron, the 2d Airborne Command and Control Squadron, and the 7th Airborne Command and Control Squadron. All aircraft have retired or repurposed. The U. S. nuclear strategy depends on its ability to command, control, Looking Glass is intended to guarantee that U. S. strategic forces will act only in the manner dictated by the President. It took the nickname Looking Glass because the mission mirrored ground-based command, control, besides being the program name, Looking Glass is the official name for the C model aircraft of the EC-135. It has a crew of at least 15, including at least one or more general officers, on July 24,1990, The Glass ceased continuous airborne alert, but remained on ground or airborne alert 24 hours a day. The EC-135A flew the Command Post mission until EC-135C were delivered starting in 1963. EC-135s flew all the missions except one, on March 4,1980, about a week after the flight, Washington deleted the funds for additional E-4 aircraft. On June 1,1992, SAC was inactivated and replaced by the United States Strategic Command, on October 1,1998, the Navys E-6 Mercury TACAMO replaced the USAFs EC-135C in the Looking Glass mission. One former Looking Glass aircraft remains in service as a WC-135C Constant Phoenix, notes ^1 Ellsworth AFB maintained additional EC-135 aircraft on Satellite Alert at Minot AFB to monitor the North Dakota missile silos. Operation Silk Purse program provided four EC-135H command post aircraft to the Commander, european Command, which were based at RAF Mildenhall in the United Kingdom. Flown by the 10th Airborne Command and Control Squadron 1970-87, onboard secure/non-secure communications and avionics equipment was maintained by the 513th Avionics Maintenance Squadron. Aircraft S/Ns 61-0282,285,286 and 291, Operation Scope Light provided five EC-135J/P command post aircraft to the Commander in Chief, U. S. Atlantic Command, which were based at Langley AFB, VA, operated by the 6th Airborne Command and Control Squadron 1972-92. Operation Blue Eagle provided five EC-135J/P command post aircraft to the Commander in Chief, pacific Command, which were based at Hickam AFB, HI
34.
Operation Looking Glass
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Looking Glass is the code name for an airborne command and control center operated by the United States, in more recent years it has been more officially referred to as the ABNCP. It would provide command and control of U. S. nuclear forces in the event that ground-based command centers have been destroyed or otherwise rendered inoperable. The AEAO is supported by a staff of approximately 20 people. The Looking Glass was initiated by the U. S. Air Forces Strategic Air Command in 1961 and operated by the 34th Air Refueling Squadron, Offutt AFB, Nebraska. S. At DEFCON2 or higher, the Looking Glass pilot and co-pilot were both required to wear an eye patch, retrieved from their Emergency War Order kit. In the event of a blinding flash from a nuclear detonation. Later, the eye patch was replaced by goggles that would turn opaque when exposed to a nuclear flash. The Looking Glass was also designed to ensure continuity and reconstitution of the US government in the event of a nuclear attack on North America. Although the two types of aircraft are distinct, the Doomsday Plane nickname is also associated with the E-4 Nightwatch Advanced Airborne Command Post mission. The Looking Glass was the anchor in what was known as the World Wide Airborne Command Post network and this network of specially equipped EC-135 aircraft would launch from ground alert status and establish air-to-air wireless network connections in the event of a U. S. national emergency. Members of the WWABNCP network included, Operation Silk Purse for the Commander in Chief, european Command, based at RAF Mildenhall in the United Kingdom, Operation Scope Light for the Commander in Chief, U. S. Atlantic Forces, based at Langley AFB, VA, Operation Blue Eagle for the Commander in Chief, pacific Command, based at Hickam AFB, HI, and Operation Nightwatch which supported the President of the United States and were based at Andrews AFB, Maryland. In the early 1970s the E-4B aircraft replaced the EC-135s on this mission, the Eastern Auxiliary and Western Auxiliary Command Posts were also part of the WWABNCP network and were capable of assuming responsibility for Looking Glass as the anchor. After 1975, East Aux was assumed from the Looking Glass backup ground alert aircraft launched from Offutt AFB, with the assumption of this mission, a battle staff now flies with the TACAMO crew. If the USSTRATCOM Global Operations Center is unable to function in its role, [ There was some speculation that the mystery plane seen flying over the White House on September 11,2001, was some newer incarnation of Looking Glass. tacamo. navy. mil/wing/index. asp. This article incorporates public domain material from the United States Government document http and this article incorporates public domain material from the United States Government document https, //www. stratcom. mil/factsheets/1/Airborne_Command_Post/. KPTM Story on USSTRATCOMs Looking Glass
35.
Air Combat Command
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Air Combat Command is one of ten Major Commands in the United States Air Force, reporting to Headquarters, United States Air Force at the Pentagon. ACC is headquartered at Langley Field, Joint Base Langley–Eustis, Virginia and its commander is General Herbert Hawk Carlisle, with Major General Jerry D. Harris Jr. as Vice Commander, and Chief Master Sergeant Steve K. McDonald as the Command Chief Master Sergeant, in addition, ACC augments the forces of the United States European Command, United States Pacific Command and United States Central Command when needed. Air Combat Command consists of approximately 98,000 active duty members, in 2015, responsibility for the B-1 Lancer bomber fleet was also transferred from ACC to AFGSC. Air Combat Command was created 1 June 1992 after the inactivation of the Tactical Air Command, Strategic Air Command, furthermore, ACC had some KC-135 and KC-10 aerial refueling tankers and C-130 tactical airlift aircraft in its composite, reconnaissance, and certain other combat wings. In 1993, control of the ICBM force was transferred to the Air Force Space Command until transferred again to Air Force Global Strike Command on 1 Dec 2009. S, Air Force and the U. S. Navy. Historically, combat command was an air unit designation. During 1941 and early 1942, the air units of the War Department, formerly known as the GHQ Air Force. The AFCC was dissolved in the reorganization of the United States Army, effective 9 March 1942, not long after activation, ACC underwent organizational and mission changes. The first such change was the transfer of the combat search. With the realigning of search and rescue units, ACC gained additional resources, the formal transfer took place on 1 February 1993, when the Air Rescue Service was assigned to ACC. On 2 July of the year, the ARS was disestablished. The USAF Combat Rescue School was subsequently assigned to the 57th Wing at Nellis AFB, one of the most significant changes for Air Combat Command resulted from an overhaul of flying training responsibilities. Following its activation, ACC was responsible for aircrew training, including initial weapon system. On 1 July 1993, the 58th and 325th Fighter Wings—F-16 and F-15 training units transferred from ACC to Air Education and Training Command. Concurrently, Luke AFB, Arizona, and Tyndall AFB, Florida, for which those respective wings were the host units, however, on 1 October 2012, both Tyndall AFB and the 325th Fighter Wing returned to the control of ACC. The next major change resulted from a fine-tuning of aerial refueling. From its activation, Air Combat Command had assumed ownership of some C-130 Hercules theater airlift assets and KC-10 Extender, there was historical precedent for the reassignment of C-130s to Air Combat Command
36.
United States Navy
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The United States Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The U. S. Navy is the largest, most capable navy in the world, the U. S. Navy has the worlds largest aircraft carrier fleet, with ten in service, two in the reserve fleet, and three new carriers under construction. The service has 323,792 personnel on duty and 108,515 in the Navy Reserve. It has 274 deployable combat vessels and more than 3,700 operational aircraft as of October 2016, the U. S. Navy traces its origins to the Continental Navy, which was established during the American Revolutionary War and was effectively disbanded as a separate entity shortly thereafter. It played a role in the American Civil War by blockading the Confederacy. It played the role in the World War II defeat of Imperial Japan. The 21st century U. S. Navy maintains a global presence, deploying in strength in such areas as the Western Pacific, the Mediterranean. The Navy is administratively managed by the Department of the Navy, the Department of the Navy is itself a division of the Department of Defense, which is headed by the Secretary of Defense. The Chief of Naval Operations is an admiral and the senior naval officer of the Department of the Navy. The CNO may not be the highest ranking officer in the armed forces if the Chairman or the Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The mission of the Navy is to maintain, train and equip combat-ready Naval forces capable of winning wars, deterring aggression, the United States Navy is a seaborne branch of the military of the United States. The Navys three primary areas of responsibility, The preparation of naval forces necessary for the prosecution of war. The development of aircraft, weapons, tactics, technique, organization, U. S. Navy training manuals state that the mission of the U. S. Armed Forces is to prepare and conduct prompt and sustained combat operations in support of the national interest, as part of that establishment, the U. S. Navys functions comprise sea control, power projection and nuclear deterrence, in addition to sealift duties. It follows then as certain as that night succeeds the day, that without a decisive naval force we can do nothing definitive, the Navy was rooted in the colonial seafaring tradition, which produced a large community of sailors, captains, and shipbuilders. In the early stages of the American Revolutionary War, Massachusetts had its own Massachusetts Naval Militia, the establishment of a national navy was an issue of debate among the members of the Second Continental Congress. Supporters argued that a navy would protect shipping, defend the coast, detractors countered that challenging the British Royal Navy, then the worlds preeminent naval power, was a foolish undertaking. Commander in Chief George Washington resolved the debate when he commissioned the ocean-going schooner USS Hannah to interdict British merchant ships, and reported the captures to the Congress
37.
Boeing E-6 Mercury
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The Boeing E-6 Mercury is an airborne command post and communications relay based on the Boeing 707-320. The original E-6A manufactured by Boeings defense division entered service with the United States Navy in July 1989 and it conveyed instructions from the National Command Authority to fleet ballistic missile submarines, a mission known as TACAMO. The E-6B model deployed in October 1998 kept this role, but added further command post capabilities and control of land-based missiles, the E-6B replaced Air Force EC-135Cs in the Looking Glass role, providing command and control of U. S. nuclear forces should ground-based control become inoperable. With production lasting until 1991, the E-6 was the new derivative of the Boeing 707 to be built. Like the E-3 Sentry airborne warning and control aircraft, the E-6 is adapted from Boeings 707-320 airliner. The first E-6 made its flight from Boeings Renton Factory on 19 February 1987. The aircraft was delivered to the Navy for testing on 22 July 1988, the E-6A was renamed Mercury in autumn 1991 by request of the US Navy. Sixteen were delivered from 1988 to 1992, the E-6B is an upgrade of the E-6A. It included an area and updated mission equipment. The flight deck systems were replaced with an off-the-shelf 737 Next Generation cockpit. This greatly increases the awareness of the pilot and saves significant cost over the previous custom avionics package. The first E-6B was accepted in December 1997, all 16 E-6A aircraft were modified to the E-6B standard, with the final delivery taking place on 1 December 2006. The term looking glass is used because it mirrors the abilities of the US Navy to control nuclear forces, the E-6 fleet is based at Tinker Air Force Base, Oklahoma, and operated by Fleet Air Reconnaissance Squadron 3 and VQ-4. Data from Navy Fact File General characteristics Crew,22 Capacity,22 Length,150 ft 4 in Wingspan,148 ft 4 in Height,42 ft 5 in Loaded weight,342,000 lb Max. Takeoff weight,342,000 lb Powerplant,4 × CFM International CFM56-2A-2 high-bypass turbofans Performance Maximum speed, Mach 0. org E-6 Mercury page on tech. military. com
38.
Pratt & Whitney J57
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The Pratt & Whitney J57 was an axial-flow turbojet engine developed by Pratt & Whitney in the early 1950s. The J57 was the first 10,000 lbf thrust class engine in the United States, the J57/JT3C was developed into the J75/JT4A turbojet, JT3D/TF33 turbofan and the PT5/T57 turboprop. The J57 was a development of the XT45 turboprop engine intended for the XB-52, as the B-52 power requirements grew, the design evolved into a turbojet, the JT3. The prestigious Collier Trophy for 1952 was awarded to Leonard S. Hobbs, Chief Engineer of United Aircraft Corporation, on May 25,1953, a J57-powered YF-100A exceeded Mach 1 on its maiden flight. The engine was produced from 1951 to 1965 with a total of 21,170 built, one XT57 was installed in the nose of a JC-124C, and tested in 1956
39.
Water injection (engine)
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In jet engines it increases engine thrust at low speeds and at takeoff. Water injection was used historically to increase the output of military aviation engines for short durations. However it has also used in motor sport and notably in drag racing. In Otto cycle engines, the effects of water injection also enables greater compression ratios by reducing engine knocking. Depending on the engine, improvements in power and fuel efficiency can also be obtained solely by injecting water, water injection may also be used to reduce NOx or carbon monoxide emissions. Water injection is used in some turbine engines and in some turboshaft engines, normally when a momentary high-thrust setting is needed to increase power. Water has a high heat of vaporization. As the ambient temperature water is injected into the engine, heat transfers from the hot cylinder head and this makes it evaporate, cooling the intake charge. A cooler intake charge means it is dense and also has a lower tendency to knock. However, the water vapor displaces some air, negating some of the intake charge benefit. Knocking is generally more of a problem in forced induction engines rather than naturally aspirated, many water injection systems use a mixture of water and alcohol, with trace amounts of water-soluble oil. The water provides the cooling effect due to its great density. The alcohol is combustible, and also serves as an antifreeze for the water, the main purpose of the oil is to prevent corrosion of water injection and fuel system components, it may also assist in engine lubrication when running in a high power state. Because the alcohol mixed into the solution is often methanol. In high performance automotive applications some tuners use 100% methanol as opposed to a water-methanol mixture, safety concerns and part longevity concerns keep this as a controversial option. In the United States, the system is commonly referred to as anti-detonant injection. In a piston engine, the injection of water cools the fuel-air mixture significantly. The water may absorb heat as the charge is compressed, thus reducing compression work and this also converts part of combustion energy from the form of heat to the form of pressure
40.
Afterburner
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An afterburner is a component present on some jet engines, mostly those used on military supersonic aircraft. Its purpose is to provide an increase in thrust, usually for supersonic flight, takeoff, afterburning is achieved by injecting additional fuel into the jet pipe downstream of the turbine. Pilots can activate and deactivate afterburners in-flight, and jet engines are referred to as operating wet when afterburning is being used, an engine producing maximum thrust wet is at maximum power, while an engine producing maximum thrust dry is at military power. Jet-engine thrust is governed by the principle of mass flow rate. Thrust depends on two things, the velocity of the exhaust gas and the mass of that gas, a jet engine can produce more thrust by either accelerating the gas to a higher velocity or by having a greater mass of gas exit the engine. Designing a basic turbojet engine around the second produces the turbofan engine. Turbofans are highly efficient and can deliver high thrust for long periods. To generate increased power with a compact engine for short periods. The afterburner increases thrust primarily by accelerating the exhaust gas to a higher velocity, while the mass of the fuel added to the exhaust does contribute to an increase in exhaust mass, this effect is negligible compared to the increase in exhaust velocity. This temperature is known as the Turbine Entry Temperature, one of the engine operating parameters. After passing the turbine, the gas expands at a constant entropy. The afterburner then injects fuel downstream of the turbine and reheats the gas, in conjunction with the added heat, the pressure rises in the tailpipe and the gas is ejected through the nozzle at a higher velocity. The mass flow is slightly increased by the addition of the fuel. Afterburners do produce markedly enhanced thrust as well as a large flame at the back of the engine. This exhaust flame may show shock diamonds, which are caused by shock waves formed due to differences between ambient pressure and the exhaust pressure. These imbalances cause oscillations in the exhaust jet diameter over distance and this technique was developed to give greater thrust for take-off and supersonic performance in an aircraft similar to, but of higher weight, than the Hawker Siddeley Harrier. A jet engine afterburner is an extended exhaust section containing extra fuel injectors, since the jet engine upstream will use little of the oxygen it ingests, additional fuel can be burned after the gas flow has left the turbines. When the afterburner is turned on, fuel is injected and igniters are fired, the resulting combustion process increases the afterburner exit temperature significantly, resulting in a steep increase in engine net thrust
41.
Reciprocating engine
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A reciprocating engine, also often known as a piston engine, is typically a heat engine that uses one or more reciprocating pistons to convert pressure into a rotating motion. This article describes the features of all types. The main types are, the combustion engine, used extensively in motor vehicles, the steam engine, the mainstay of the Industrial Revolution. There may be one or more pistons, the hot gases expand, pushing the piston to the bottom of the cylinder. This position is known as the Bottom Dead Center, or where the piston forms the largest volume in the cylinder. The piston is returned to the top by a flywheel. This is where the forms the smallest volume in the cylinder. In most types the expanded or exhausted gases are removed from the cylinder by this stroke, the exception is the Stirling engine, which repeatedly heats and cools the same sealed quantity of gas. The stroke is simply the distance between the TDC and the BDC, or the greatest distance that the piston can travel in one direction, in some designs the piston may be powered in both directions in the cylinder, in which case it is said to be double-acting. In most types, the movement of the piston is converted to a rotating movement via a connecting rod. A flywheel is used to ensure smooth rotation or to store energy to carry the engine through an un-powered part of the cycle. The more cylinders an engine has, generally, the more vibration-free it can operate. The power of an engine is proportional to the volume of the combined pistons displacement. A seal must be made between the piston and the walls of the cylinder so that the high pressure gas above the piston does not leak past it. This seal is provided by one or more piston rings. These are rings made of a metal, and are sprung into a circular groove in the piston head. The rings fit tightly in the groove and press against the wall to form a seal. Cylinder capacities may range from 10 cm³ or less in model engines up to several thousand cubic centimetres in ships engines, the compression ratio affects the performance in most types of reciprocating engine
42.
Elephant walk (aeronautics)
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An elephant walk is a USAF term for the taxiing of military aircraft right before takeoff, when they are in close formation. Often, it takes place right before a Minimum Interval Takeoff, the term elephant walk dates to World War II when large fleets of allied bombers would conduct attacks in missions containing 1,000 aircraft. Over time, it was incorporated into the lexicon of the United States Air Force to identify a maximum sortie surge, the benefits of an elephant walk include being able to show the capability of the units as well as teamwork. It is often performed to prepare squadrons for war time operations, during the Operations Linebacker and Linebacker II during the Vietnam War, the term was used as a nickname for the long lines of Boeing B-52 Stratofortress aircraft as they approached their targets. Although the tight groupings were necessary for warfare, their paths were predictable. Within two weeks the Air Force had altered their methods and began to vary the paths of bombers. In addition to changing this aspect of the attack, the bombers were told to take turns after discharging their load, instead of the sharp turn which gave them greater radar exposure. Video of a B-52 elephant walk and MITO at Minot AFB, ND The Story Behind The Air Force Elephant Walk
43.
Air Force Reserve Command
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The Air Force Reserve Command is a Major Command of the United States Air Force, with its headquarters at Robins Air Force Base, Georgia. It is the federally controlled Air Reserve Component of the U. S. Air Force, consisting of duly appointed commissioned officers, AFRC supports the Air Force mission to defend the United States through the control and exploitation of air and space by supporting Global Engagement. AFRC also plays an role in the day-to-day Air Force mission and is not strictly a force held in reserve for possible war or contingency operations. The inventory, both AFRC-controlled and active duty Regular Air Force-controlled, includes the latest, most capable models of aircraft that are assigned to the U. S. Air Force. On any given day,99 percent of AFRCs aircraft are mission-ready, in addition to flying units, AFRC has numerous ground organizations ranging from medical units to civil engineers, intelligence and space operations, and security forces, just to name a few. In combination with the Air National Guard, the Air Force Reserve comprises half of what is known as the Air Reserve Component of the United States Air Force, AFRC forces are under the administrative control of the Commander, Air Force Reserve Command. The Air Force Reserve also contains other specialized capabilities not found in active duty Air Force units. A third unique mission set in the Air Force Reserve, Aerial Firefighting, is conducted in tandem with the Air National Guard, there are several categories of service for personnel in the Air Force Reserve. However, many Air Force Reservists, especially those in a flying status, serve well in excess of this minimum duty requirement. A smaller but equally important category of TR is the Individual Mobilization Augmentee and their job is to bring Air Force Reserve expertise to the planning and decision-making processes at senior levels within the Air Force, other services, and the Unified Combatant Commands. Like the Air National Guard, the Air Force Reserve Command also requires two categories of personnel to perform functions that require full-time manning. These full-time positions are filled via the two programs as employed by the Air National Guard, the Active Guard and Reserve program. Air Force Reservists who become members of the Active Guard and Reserve receive full active duty pay, the majority of AGRs are former TRs and they serve four-year controlled tours of special duty that can be renewed. S. Air Force, on the staffs of Unified Combatant Commands, on the Joint Staff, AFRC Recruiting is another field that employs AGR personnel. AGRs also have the option with good performance to serve 20 or more years on duty and receive a retirement after 20 or more years. Another category of Air Force Reservists serving full-time are those in the Air Reserve Technician Program, ARTs are accessed from either the active duty Regular Air Force, the AGR program, Traditional Guardsmen in the Air National Guard, or TRs in the Air Force Reserve. This category also includes all full-time ART personnel and they are predominantly assigned to the Unit Program or as IMAs. Standby Reserve Includes Reservists whose civilian jobs are considered key to defense or who have temporary disability or personal hardship
44.
Air National Guard
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When Air National Guard units are used under the jurisdiction of the state governor they are fulfilling their militia role. However, if federalized by order of the President of the United States and they are jointly administered by the states and the National Guard Bureau, a joint bureau of the Army and Air Force that oversees the National Guard of the United States. The ANG of the territories of Guam and the Virgin Islands have no aircraft assigned, ANG units typically operate under Title 32 USC. However, when operating under Title 10 USC all ANG units are operationally-gained by an active duty USAF major command. ANG units of the Combat Air Forces based in the Continental United States, conversely, CONUS-based ANG units in the Mobility Air Forces, plus the Puerto Rico ANGs airlift wing and the Virgin Islands ANGs civil engineering squadron are gained by the Air Mobility Command. The vast majority of ANG units fall under either ACC or AMC, established under Title 10 and Title 32 of the U. S. S. When not in a status, the Air National Guard operates under their respective state. The exception to rule is the District of Columbia Air National Guard. Because both state Air National Guard and the Air National Guard of the United States relatively go hand-in-hand, Air National Guard of the United States units or members may be called up for federal active duty in times of Congressionally sanctioned war or national emergency. The United States Air National Guard has about 110,000 men and women in service, even traditional part-time air guardsmen, especially pilots, navigators/combat systems officers, air battle managers and enlisted aircrew, often serve 100 or more man-days annually. As such, the concept of Air National Guard service as representing only one weekend a month, the Georgia Air National Guard and the Kansas Air National Guard previously flew the B-1B Lancer prior to converting to the E-8 Joint STARS and KC-135R Stratotanker, respectively. In addition, the 131st Fighter Wing of the Missouri Air National Guard transitioned from flying the F-15C/D Eagle at St and these proposals were eventually overruled and cancelled by the U. S. Congress. As state militia units, the units in the Air National Guard are not in the normal United States Air Force chain of command and they are under the jurisdiction of the United States National Guard Bureau unless they are federalized by order of the President of the United States. Air National Guard units are trained and equipped by the United States Air Force, the state ANG units, depending on their mission, are operationally gained by a major command of the USAF if federalized. Air National Guard personnel are expected to adhere to the moral and physical standards as their full-time active duty Air Force. The same ranks and insignia of the U. S. Air Force are used by the Air National Guard, the Air National Guard also bestows a number of state awards for local services rendered in a service members home state or equivalent. The creation of the regiments was caused by the perceived need to defend the Bay Colony against American Indians. This organization formed the basis of subsequent colonial and, post-independence, state and this distinction accounts for why there are no National Guard components in the U. S. Navy, U. S. Marine Corps or U. S. Coast Guard
45.
Pratt & Whitney JT3D
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The Pratt & Whitney JT3D is an early turbofan aircraft engine derived from the Pratt & Whitney JT3C turbojet. It was first run in 1958 and was first flown in 1959 under a B-45 Tornado test aircraft, over 8,000 JT3Ds were produced between 1959 and 1985. Most JT3D engines still in service today are used on military aircraft, a 2-stage fan replaced the first 3 stages of the 9-stage JT3C LP compressor. On the LP turbine, the stage was enlarged and a third stage added. Unlike GE with the CJ805-23, Pratt & Whitney had not undertaken any transonic fan research prior to designing the JT3D, instead P&W designed a 2-stage unit based on some research they had done to support the J91 nuclear turbojet. Nevertheless, the overall P&W engine design was quite an elegant solution to produce a turbofan to compete with the Rolls-Royce Conway in a short timescale. Indeed,55 years later, the architecture of the JT3D can still be seen in modern large American civil turbofans, such as the GE90, PW4000. On the Boeing 707 the JT3D fan nacelle was relatively short, Pratt & Whitney provided a kit whereby JT3Cs could be converted to the JT3D standard in an overhaul shop. In 1959, important orders for the engine were the Boeing 707-120B and Boeing 720B when American Airlines ordered one 707 powered by JT3D turbofans, the earlier 707s had been powered by the turbojet JT3C and the improved efficiency of the turbofan soon attracted the airlines. A JT3D powered 707-123B and 720-023B entered service with American Airlines on the same day, the Boeing KC-135 Stratotankers were all originally powered by turbojet engines. Over 150 aircraft were modified and the former KC-135A were re-designated the KC-135E, after long service for both airlines and air forces the number of JT3D powered aircraft is steadily decreasing. 135 KC-135s use the JT3D while 354 were fitted with CFM International CFM56 engines which provide greater thrust, the noise of the JT3D is one of the reasons NATO has debated re-engining their E-3 Sentry AWACS fleet, since the aircraft are subject to restrictions that modern-engined aircraft are not. Another well known aircraft which is fitted with the JT3D is the Boeing B-52H Stratofortress, the H model of the B-52 was the only production variant of the famous bomber to be fitted with turbofan engines, and the only model remaining in US Air Force service
46.
Turbofan
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The turbofan or fanjet is a type of airbreathing jet engine that is widely used in aircraft propulsion. Thus, whereas all the air taken in by a turbojet passes through the turbine, a turbofan thus can be thought of as a turbojet being used to drive a ducted fan, with both of those contributing to the thrust. The ratio of the mass-flow of air bypassing the engine compared to the mass-flow of air passing through the core is referred to as the bypass ratio. Most commercial aviation jet engines in use today are of the high-bypass type, afterburners are not used on high-bypass turbofan engines but may be used on either low-bypass turbofan or turbojet engines. Other noise sources are the fan, compressor and turbine, Jet noise is reduced with chevrons, sawtooth patterns on the exhaust nozzles, on the Rolls-Royce Trent 1000 and General Electric GEnx engines used on the Boeing 787. Turbofans are thus the most efficient engines in the range of speeds from about 500 to 1,000 km/h, turbofans retain an efficiency edge over pure jets at low supersonic speeds up to roughly Mach 1.6. Modern turbofans have either a large single-stage fan or a fan with several stages. An early configuration combined a low-pressure turbine and fan in a single rear-mounted unit, early turbojet engines were not very fuel-efficient as their overall pressure ratio and turbine inlet temperature were severely limited by the technology available at the time. In 1939-1941 Soviet designer Arkhip Lyulka elaborated the design for the worlds first turbofan engine, although several prototypes were built and ready for testing, Lyulka was in 1941 forced to abandon his research and evacuate to the Urals following the Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union. So the first turbofan to run was apparently the German Daimler-Benz DB670 with a first run date of 27 May 1943, turbomachinery testing, using an electric motor, had started on 1 April 1943. The engine was abandoned later while the war went on and problems could not be solved, the British wartime Metrovick F.2 axial flow jet was given a fan, as the Metrovick F.3 in 1943, to create the first British turbofan. The original low-bypass turbofan engines were designed to improve efficiency by reducing the exhaust velocity to a value closer to that of the aircraft. The Rolls-Royce Conway, the worlds first production turbofan, had a ratio of 0.3. Civilian turbofan engines of the 1960s, such as the Pratt & Whitney JT8D and the Rolls-Royce Spey had bypass ratios closer to 1, the first General Electric turbofan was the aft-fan CJ805-23 based on the CJ805-3 turbojet. It was followed by the aft-fan General Electric CF700 engine with a 2.0 bypass ratio and this was derived from the General Electric J85/CJ610 turbojet to power the larger Rockwell Sabreliner 75/80 model aircraft, as well as the Dassault Falcon 20 with about a 50% increase in thrust. The CF700 was the first small turbofan in the world to be certified by the Federal Aviation Administration, there were at one time over 400 CF700 aircraft in operation around the world, with an experience base of over 10 million service hours. The CF700 turbofan engine was used to train Moon-bound astronauts in Project Apollo as the powerplant for the Lunar Landing Research Vehicle. A high-specific-thrust/low-bypass-ratio turbofan normally has a fan, developing a relatively high pressure ratio and, thus
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