1.
Bogor Regency
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Bogor Regency is a regency of West Java, Indonesia, south of DKI Jakarta. It is considered a community for Jakarta, and is home to over five million people. Its administration is located in Cibinong and it is bordered by Lebak Regency to the west, although West Bogor Regency is in the process of being split off taking with it some 14 subdistricts. The area has witnessed significant population growth, in the 2010 census the Regency counted 4,770,744 people, of which 2,450,426 are male. The latest official estimate is 5,131,798, given that the regency covers 2,663.83 km2 after the spinoffs of Bogor and Depok cities, the density stands at 1,926 people per km2. The regency is subdivided into 40 districts, the Dutch name of the regency is Buitenzorg Regency. They are Curug Daun, Curug Nangka and Curug Kawung, about 8 kilometers from the gate there is another waterfall in Gunung Malang village, Gunung Malang district. The Curug Luhur falls are 50 meters high and easily accessible, official Website Nature reserve Dungus Iwul Nature reserve Yanlappa Nature reserve Telaga warna Nature reserve Pancoran Mas
2.
Bogor Palace
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The Bogor Palace is one of 6 Presidential Palaces of Indonesia, it is located in the city of Bogor, West Java. The palace is noted for its architectural and historical features. Istana Bogor was opened to the public in 1968 to public groups, with the permission of the acting President of Indonesia. The gardens of the covers a area of 284,000 square metres. During the colonial era the palace became residence of the Governors-General due to Bogors more adaptable climate. It was also favored by the late President Sukarno and became the presidential residence until his downfall in 1967. The palace remain mostly unused until February 2015, when the new president Joko Widodo moved the office from Merdeka Palace to Bogor Palace. The location for the new palace was discovered by Baron van Imhoff on 10 August 1744, on the site he ordered a mansion to be built, however the construction wasnt completed by the end of his career in 1750 and thus it was continued by his preceder Jacob Mossel. An extensive renovation of the palace occurred under Governor-General Herman Willem Daendels, the palace was further expanded into two floors, with a new wing added in the east and west of the original structure. In 1811 Stamford Raffles led a successful Invasion to Java and Britain took possession of the colony until 1816. Raffles had Buitenzorg Palace as his due to the temperate climate of the hills of Bogor. During his stay he had the garden of the Buitenzorg palace transformed into an English garden, later the new governor general Baron van der Capellen added a small dome on the roof of the main building and founded the botanical garden next to the palace ground. However, in 1834, an earthquake triggered by the eruption of Mount Salak. The ruined palace was demolished and rebuilt into its present form in 1856— this time with only one storey instead of the original two, as a precaution against further earthquakes. From 1870 to 1942 the Istana Bogor served as the residence of the Dutch Governor General. Since its foundation, a total of 44 Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies had resided in the palace, after the Indonesian independence, several feature of the palace was renovated in 1952. Major changes include a porch at the main entrance and connecting corridors for the main buildings to its wings. The palace became the residence of President Sukarno, but was later neglected by Suharto when he came to office
3.
Bogor Botanical Gardens
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The Bogor Botanical Gardens is a botanical garden located in Bogor, Indonesia,60 km south of Jakarta. It is currently operated by Indonesian Institute of Sciences, the Gardens are located in the city center and adjoin the presidential palace compound of Istana Bogor. It covers an area of 87 hectares and contains 13,983 different kinds of trees, the geographic position of Bogor means it rains almost daily, even in the dry season. This makes the Garden an advantageous location for the cultivation of tropical plants, since its foundation, Bogor Botanical garden has served as a major research center for agriculture and horticulture. It is the oldest botanical garden in Southeast Asia and this forest was created to protect seeds of rare trees. The forest remained neglected after the Sundanese kingdom was destroyed in the 16th century, in 1744 the Dutch East India Company established a garden and mansion at the site of the present Botanical Gardens in Buitenzorg. After the successful British invasion of Java in 1811, Stamford Raffles was appointed as the islands Lieutenant-Governor, during his rule in the palace, he had the garden re-landscaped into English-style garden. His wife, Olivia Mariamne Raffles, died in Buitenzorg on November 26,1814 and was buried in Batavia, a memorial monument was built in the garden, as a commemoration for her. When the Anglo-Dutch Treaty came into effect, the Netherlands sent officials to control of the colony in 1816. Among those on board are a German-born botanist named Caspar Georg Carl Reinwardt, a year later he proposed the establishment of a Botanical Garden, a move which was supported by Governor-General Van der Capellen. The Garden was officially founded on May 18,1817 next to the ground through a collaboration with two botanists, William Kent from Holland and James Hooper from Kew. The Garden was established as s Lands Plantentuin and he became its first director for five years, and gathered plants and seeds of economic potential from all over the archipelago for cultivation. Much of his work was catalogued by his predecessor Carl Ludwig Blume in 1823. In 1830, Johannes Elias Teijsmann, a Dutch botanist, became curator of Bogor Botanic Garden, seven years later Justus Carl Hasskarl was appointed as his assistant curator and convinced the director to re-arrange the plantings in the Garden by taxonomic families. Hasskarl proposed starting a library, which opened in 1842 as the Bibliotheca Bogoriensis, and constructed a building for the Herbarium Bogoriense. J. Teijsmann wrote the catalogue of plants which listed more than 2800 species by 1844. He also has the Garden significantly expanded in 1852, with a 120 hectares new garden branch laid down near the town of Cibodas. However the last original mother plant died in 1933, the Garden also played major role in the introduction of Cinchona trees to Java in 1854, which would ultimately make the island the largest producer of quinine bark for malaria treatment
4.
Kujang Monument
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The Kujang Monument is located in Bogor, Java, Indonesia. The Kujang is a weapon of the Sundanese people. The obelisk is located on Pajajaran Street near the Bogor Botanical Garden
5.
West Java
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West Java is a province of Indonesia. The provinces population is 46.3 million and it is the most populous, all these cities are suburban to Jakarta. The oldest human inhabitant archaeological findings in the region were unearthed in Anyer with evidence of bronze, the prehistoric Buni culture clay pottery were later developed with evidence found in Anyer to Cirebon. Artefacts, such as food and drink containers, were mostly as burial gifts. Records of Tarumanegaras administration lasted until the sixth century, which coincides with the attack of Srivijaya, the Sunda Kingdom subsequently became the ruling power of the region, as recorded on the Kebon Kopi II inscription. An Ulama, Sunan Gunung Jati, settled in Cirebon, with the intention of spreading the word of Islam in the pagan town, in the meantime, the Sultanate of Demak in central Java grew to an immediate threat against the Sunda kingdom. To defend against the threat, Prabu Surawisesa Jayaperkosa signed a treaty with the Portuguese in 1512, in return, the Portuguese were granted an accession to build fortresses and warehouses in the area, as well as form trading agreements with the kingdom. This first international treaty of West Java with the Europeans was commemorated by the placement of the Padrao stone monument at the bank of the Ciliwung River in 1522, although the treaty with the Portuguese had been established, it could not come to realization. Sunda Kalapa harbour fell under the alliance of the Sultanate of Demak, in 1524/1525, their troops under Sunan Gunung Jati also seized the port of Banten and established the Sultanate of Banten which was affiliating with the Sultanate of Demak. The war between the Sunda kingdom with Demak and Cirebon sultanates then continued for five years until a treaty were made in 1531 between King Surawisesa and Sunan Gunung Jati. From 1567 to 1579, under the last king Raja Mulya, alias Prabu Surya Kencana, after 1576, the kingdom could not maintain its capital at Pakuan Pajajaran and gradually the Sultanate of Banten took over the former Sunda kingdoms region. The Mataram Sultanate from central Java also seized the Priangan region, in the sixteenth century, the Dutch and the British trading companies established their trading ships in West Java after the falldown of Sultanate of Banten. For the next three hundred years, West Java fell under the Dutch East Indies administration, West Java was officially declared as a province of Indonesia in 1950, referring to a statement from Staatblad number 378. On October 17,2000, as part of nationwide political decentralization, Banten was separated from West Java, there have been recent proposals to rename the province Pasundan after the historical name for West Java. Since the creation of West Bandung Regency in 2008, the Province of West Java has been subdivided into 9 cities and 17 regencies and these 26 cities and regencies are divided into 620 districts, which comprise 1,576 urban villages and 4,301 rural villages. West Java borders Jakarta and Banten province to the west, to the north is the Java Sea. To the south is the Indian Ocean, unlike most other provinces in Indonesia which have their capitals in coastal areas, the provincial capital, Bandung, is located in the mountainous area in the centre of the province. Banten Province was formerly part of West Java Province but was created a province in 2000
6.
Java
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Java is an island of Indonesia. With a population of over 141 million or 145 million as of 2015 Census released in December 2015, the Indonesian capital city, Jakarta, is located on western Java. Much of Indonesian history took place on Java and it was the center of powerful Hindu-Buddhist empires, the Islamic sultanates, and the core of the colonial Dutch East Indies. Java was also the center of the Indonesian struggle for independence during the 1930s and 1940s, Java dominates Indonesia politically, economically and culturally. Formed mostly as the result of eruptions, Java is the 13th largest island in the world. A chain of mountains forms an east–west spine along the island. Three main languages are spoken on the island, Javanese, Sundanese, of these, Javanese is the dominant, it is the native language of about 60 million people in Indonesia, most of whom live on Java. Furthermore, most residents are bilingual, speaking Indonesian as their first or second language, while the majority of the people of Java are Muslim, Java has a diverse mixture of religious beliefs, ethnicities, and cultures. Java is divided into four provinces, West Java, Central Java, East Java, and Banten, the origins of the name Java are not clear. One possibility is that the island was named after the plant, which was said to be common in the island during the time. There are other sources, the word jaú and its variations mean beyond or distant. And, in Sanskrit yava means barley, a plant for which the island was famous, Yawadvipa is mentioned in Indias earliest epic, the Ramayana. Sugriva, the chief of Ramas army dispatched his men to Yawadvipa and it was hence referred to in India by the Sanskrit name yāvaka dvīpa. Java is mentioned in the ancient Tamil text Manimekalai by Chithalai Chathanar that states that Java had a kingdom with a capital called Nagapuram, another source states that the Java word is derived from a Proto-Austronesian root word, Iawa that meaning home. The great island of Iabadiu or Jabadiu was mentioned in Ptolemys Geographia composed around 150 CE Roman Empire, Iabadiu is said to mean barley island, to be rich in gold, and have a silver town called Argyra at the west end. The name indicate Java, and seems to be derived from Hindu name Java-dvipa, Java lies between Sumatra to the west and Bali to the east. Borneo lies to the north and Christmas Island is to the south and it is the worlds 13th largest island. Java is surrounded by the Java Sea to the north, Sunda Strait to the west, Java is almost entirely of volcanic origin, it contains thirty-eight mountains forming an east–west spine that have at one time or another been active volcanoes
7.
Indonesia
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Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a unitary sovereign state and transcontinental country located mainly in Southeast Asia with some territories in Oceania. Situated between the Indian and Pacific oceans, it is the worlds largest island country, with more than seventeen thousand islands. At 1,904,569 square kilometres, Indonesia is the worlds 14th-largest country in terms of area and worlds 7th-largest country in terms of combined sea. It has an population of over 260 million people and is the worlds fourth most populous country. The worlds most populous island, Java, contains more than half of the countrys population, Indonesias republican form of government includes an elected legislature and president. Indonesia has 34 provinces, of which five have Special Administrative status and its capital and countrys most populous city is Jakarta, which is also the most populous city in Southeast Asia and the second in Asia. The country shares land borders with Papua New Guinea, East Timor, other neighbouring countries include Singapore, Vietnam, the Philippines, Australia, Palau, and the Indian territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Despite its large population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that support the second highest level of biodiversity. The country has abundant natural resources like oil and natural gas, tin, copper, agriculture mainly produces rice, palm oil, tea, coffee, cacao, medicinal plants, spices and rubber. Indonesias major trading partners are Japan, United States, China, the Indonesian archipelago has been an important region for trade since at least the 7th century, when Srivijaya and then later Majapahit traded with China and India. Local rulers gradually absorbed foreign cultural, religious and political models from the early centuries CE, Indonesian history has been influenced by foreign powers drawn to its natural resources. Indonesia consists of hundreds of native ethnic and linguistic groups. The largest – and politically dominant – ethnic group are the Javanese, a shared identity has developed, defined by a national language, ethnic diversity, religious pluralism within a Muslim-majority population, and a history of colonialism and rebellion against it. Indonesias national motto, Bhinneka Tunggal Ika, articulates the diversity that shapes the country, Indonesias economy is the worlds 16th largest by nominal GDP and the 8th largest by GDP at PPP, the largest in Southeast Asia, and is considered an emerging market and newly industrialised country. Indonesia has been a member of the United Nations since 1950, Indonesia is a member of the G20 major economies and World Trade Organization. The name Indonesia derives from the Greek name of the Indós, the name dates to the 18th century, far predating the formation of independent Indonesia. In 1850, George Windsor Earl, an English ethnologist, proposed the terms Indunesians—and, his preference, in the same publication, one of his students, James Richardson Logan, used Indonesia as a synonym for Indian Archipelago. However, Dutch academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to use Indonesia, they preferred Malay Archipelago, the Netherlands East Indies, popularly Indië, the East, and Insulinde
8.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
9.
Provinces of Indonesia
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Indonesian territory is composed of 34 provinces. A province is the highest tier of the local government divisions of Indonesia, provinces are further divided into regencies and cities, which are in turn subdivided into sub-districts. Each province has its own government, headed by a governor. The governor and members of representative bodies are elected by popular vote for five-year terms. Five provinces have special status, Aceh, for the use of the law as the regional law of the province. Special Region of Yogyakarta, a sovereign monarchy within Indonesia with the sultan Hamengkubuwono as hereditary Governor, SR Yogyakarta refused to call themselves as the province according to Law No. 12/2012 about The Speciality of Special Region of Yogyakarta, Papua, for implementation of sustainable development. West Papua, for granting implementation of sustainable development, the provinces are officially grouped into seven geographical units. This clickable map shows provinces of Indonesia as of 25 October 2012, click on a province name to go to its main article. A considerable number of new provinces have been proposed in addition to the 34 existing provinces of Indonesia, as of 2013, the government has targeted the creation of eight new provinces by 2020, by splitting several of the existing provinces. On 25 October 2013, the Indonesian House of Representatives began reviewing draft laws on the establishment of 57 prospective regencies and 8 new provinces
10.
National Mandate Party
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The National Mandate Party is a moderate Islamist political party in Indonesia. It was founded by reformists, including Amien Rais, chairman of the Muhammadiyah organization, the party contested the 2009 elections under the chairmanship of Sutrisno Bachir. At the time, Amien Rais said that MARA would assess the performance of president Suhartos cabinet over the six months. At the time of the downfall of the Suharto regime in 1998, many new parties were being established and some of them wanted Amien Rais, one of these was the Crescent Star Party whose eventual leader Yusril Ihza Mahendra tried to persuade Amien Rais to establish a party. When he refused the offer, the party went its own way, on July 27,1998, Amien Rais announced the establishment of a new party to be called the Peoples Mandate Party. This was changed to the current name after a voting process. The new party had its roots in the principles of morality, humanity and prosperity. In the 1999 elections, PAN won 7.4 percent of the vote and 34 seats in the legislature, however, PANs support for Abdurrahman Wahid did not last long. Not long after that, Abdurrahman Wahid was voted out of office, for the 2004 elections, the party set a target of 15 percent of the vote. In order to promote his candidacy, Amien Rais made a series of visits around the country. He also said that he was convinced that a military officer should be his vice-president. However, in the election, the party won 6. 4% of the popular vote and 52 out of 550 legislative seats. For the presidential election, Amien Rais stood with Siswono Yudo Husodo as his running mate, the party came fifth in the 2009 legislative election with 6.0 percent of the votes. It will have 43 seats in the Peoples Representative Council, PAN is open to all elements of society, regardless of gender, ethnicity or religion. It also wants to realize good and clean governance that protects all the people and brings prosperity, the party wants to play a part in implementing world order based on independence, eternal peace and social justice, and wants Indonesian to be respected in the international community
11.
Time in Indonesia
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The Indonesian archipelago geographically stretches across four time zones from UTC+6 in Aceh to UTC+9 in Western Papua. The border between central and eastern time zones runs north from the tip of Timor to the eastern tip of Sulawesi. Daylight saving time is not currently observed in almost all of Indonesia due to its tropical location, the only unofficial exception of this is Muara Teweh and Maurainu, which unofficially uses Western Indonesian Daylight Time. All provinces in the island of Java including major cities such as, Bandung, Surabaya, Jakarta, Semarang, two provinces in Kalimantan island, West Kalimantan and Central Kalimantan. Including major cities such as, Pontianak, Palangkaraya, and Sampit, Muara Teweh and Maurainu unofficially uses Western Indonesian Daylight Time, which has the same time as Central Indonesian Time. All provinces in the Lesser Sunda Islands including major cities such as, Denpasar, Mataram, three provinces in Kalimantan island, North Kalimantan, East Kalimantan and South Kalimantan, including major cities such as, Balikpapan, Banjarmasin, Samarinda, and Tarakan. IANA time zone identifier is Asia/Makassar Indonesia Eastern Standard Time is observed in, Maluku Islands including major cities such as, Ambon City, Ternate City. All provinces in West Papua including major cities such as, Jayapura, Biak, all provinces in Papua including all major islands in the province. IANA time zone identifier is Asia/Jayapura It observed since January 1,1988. Central and Southern Sumatra Time, was observed in Bengkulu, Palembang and Lampung, Java, Bali, and Borneo Time, was observed in Java, Bali, Madura and Kalimantan. Celebes Time, was observed in Sulawesi and Lesser Sunda Islands, moluccan Time, was observed in Ternate, Namlea, Ambon, Sofifi and Banda. West Irian Time was observed in West Irian and it observed during November 1,1932 to August 31,1944. Dutch New Guinea Time, was observed in West Irian during named Dutch New Guinea because Netherlands still hold West Irian. It observed from September 1,1944 to December 31,1963, Daylight saving time was observed in Jakarta from May 1,1948 to May 1,1950. Its UTC offset during daylight saving time is UTC+08,00. tab, asia/Jakarta Asia/Pontianak Asia/Makassar Asia/Jayapura ASEAN Common Time Time in Malaysia Time in the Philippines Time in Singapore UTC+8 Indonesian Standard Time
12.
Vehicle registration plate
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A vehicle registration plate, also known as a number plate or a license plate, is metal or plastic plate attached to a motor vehicle or trailer for official identification purposes. The registration identifier is a numeric or alphanumeric ID that uniquely identifies the owner within the issuing regions database. The first two letters indicate the state to which the vehicle is registered, the next two digit numbers are the sequential number of a district. Due to heavy volume of vehicle registration, the numbers were given to the RTO offices of registration as well, the third part indicates the year of registration of the vehicle and is a 4 digit number unique to each plate. In some countries, the identifier is unique within the entire country, whether the identifier is associated with a vehicle or a person also varies by issuing agency. In the vast majority of jurisdictions, the government holds a monopoly on the manufacturing of vehicle registration plates for that jurisdiction. Thus, it is illegal for private citizens to make and affix their own plates. Alternately, the government will merely assign plate numbers, and it is the owners responsibility to find an approved private supplier to make a plate with that number. In some jurisdictions, plates will be assigned to that particular vehicle for its lifetime. If the vehicle is destroyed or exported to a different country. Other jurisdictions follow a policy, meaning that when a vehicle is sold the seller removes the current plate from the vehicle. Buyers must either obtain new plates or attach plates they already hold, as well as register their vehicles under the buyers name, a person who sells a car and then purchases a new one can apply to have the old plates put onto the new car. One who sells a car and does not buy a new one may, depending on the laws involved, have to turn the old plates in or destroy them. Some jurisdictions permit the registration of the vehicle with personal plates, in some jurisdictions, plates require periodic replacement, often associated with a design change of the plate itself. Vehicle owners may or may not have the option to keep their original plate number, alternately, or additionally, vehicle owners have to replace a small decal on the plate or use a decal on the windshield to indicate the expiration date of the vehicle registration. Plates are usually fixed directly to a vehicle or to a frame that is fixed to the vehicle. Sometimes, the plate frames contain advertisements inserted by the service centre or the dealership from which the vehicle was purchased. Vehicle owners can also purchase customized frames to replace the original frames, in some jurisdictions licence plate frames are illegal
13.
Sundanese language
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Sundanese /sʌndəˈniːz/ is the language of about 39 million people from the western third of Java or about 15% of the Indonesian population. Sundanese appears to be most Closely related to Madurese and Malay, priangan, which covers the largest area of Sunda, is the most widely spoken type of Sundanese language, taught in elementary till senior-high schools in West Java and Banten Province. Sundanese can be written in different writing systems, the Old Sundanese script and Pegon in historical times, and in times the Latin script. There are seven vowels, a /ɑ/, é /ɛ/, i /i/, o /ɔ/, u /ʊ/, e /ə/, and eu /ɤ/. The consonantal phonemes are transcribed with the p, b, t, d, k, g, c, j /d͡ʒ/, h, ng, ny /ɲ/, m, n, s /s/, w, l, r /r~ɾ/. Other consonants that appear in Indonesian loanwords are mostly transferred into native consonants, f → p, v → p, sy → s, sh → s, z → j. However, Sundanese inserts the ar infix into the stem word, if the stem word starts with l, or contains r following the infix, the infix ar becomes al. Also, as with other Sundanese infixes, if the word starts with vowel, examples, Mangga A, tarahuna haneut keneh, The plural form of tahu tofu is formed by infixing ar after the initial consonant. Barudak leutik lalumpatan, formed from budak with the ar infix and modified to barudak to create plural child, ieu kaen batik aralus sadayana, formed from alus with the infix ar that becomes a prefix because alus starts with a vowel. It denotes the adjective beautiful for the plural subject/noun, siswa sakola eta mah balageur, formed from bageur with the infix ar to denote the adjective well-behaved for plural students. However, it is reported that use of al instead of ar does not to occur if the r is in onset of a neighbouring syllable. For example, the form of the adjective curiga is caruriga and not *caluriga. The prefix can be repeated twice to denote very-, or the plural of groups, for example, bararudak denotes many, many children or many groups of children. Another example, balalageur denotes plural adjective of very well-behaved, most of active form in Sundanese verb are in their root verb like diuk or dahar. Explanation, From the above example, henteu is used for negative term, buku abdi mah sanes nu ieu. Explanation, From the above example, sanes is used for negative term, Dupi - example, saya Polite- Dupi Bapa aya di bumi. Explanation, dibantun and ngabantun The other examples, Pulpen ditambut ku abdi, soal ieu digawekeun ku abdi. example, teuas, tiis, hipu, lada, haneut, etc
14.
Dutch language
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It is the third most widely spoken Germanic language, after English and German. Dutch is one of the closest relatives of both German and English and is said to be roughly in between them, Dutch vocabulary is mostly Germanic and incorporates more Romance loans than German but far fewer than English. In both Belgium and the Netherlands, the official name for Dutch is Nederlands, and its dialects have their own names, e. g. Hollands, West-Vlaams. The use of the word Vlaams to describe Standard Dutch for the variations prevalent in Flanders and used there, however, is common in the Netherlands, the Dutch language has been known under a variety of names. It derived from the Old Germanic word theudisk, one of the first names used for the non-Romance languages of Western Europe. It literarily means the language of the people, that is. The term was used as opposed to Latin, the language of writing. In the first text in which it is found, dating from 784, later, theudisca appeared also in the Oaths of Strasbourg to refer to the Germanic portion of the oath. This led inevitably to confusion since similar terms referred to different languages, owing to Dutch commercial and colonial rivalry in the 16th and 17th centuries, the English term came to refer exclusively to the Dutch. A notable exception is Pennsylvania Dutch, which is a West Central German variety called Deitsch by its speakers, Jersey Dutch, on the other hand, as spoken until the 1950s in New Jersey, is a Dutch-based creole. In Dutch itself, Diets went out of common use - although Platdiets is still used for the transitional Limburgish-Ripuarian Low Dietsch dialects in northeast Belgium, Nederlands, the official Dutch word for Dutch, did not become firmly established until the 19th century. This designation had been in use as far back as the end of the 15th century, one of them was it reflected a distinction with Hoogduits, High Dutch, meaning the language spoken in Germany. The Hoog was later dropped, and thus, Duits narrowed down in meaning to refer to the German language. g, in English, too, Netherlandic is regarded as a more accurate term for the Dutch language, but is hardly ever used. Old Dutch branched off more or less around the same time Old English, Old High German, Old Frisian and Old Saxon did. During that period, it forced Old Frisian back from the western coast to the north of the Low Countries, on the other hand, Dutch has been replaced in adjacent lands in nowadays France and Germany. The division in Old, Middle and Modern Dutch is mostly conventional, one of the few moments linguists can detect somewhat of a revolution is when the Dutch standard language emerged and quickly established itself. This is assumed to have taken place in approximately the mid-first millennium BCE in the pre-Roman Northern European Iron Age, the Germanic languages are traditionally divided into three groups, East, West, and North Germanic. They remained mutually intelligible throughout the Migration Period, Dutch is part of the West Germanic group, which also includes English, Scots, Frisian, Low German and High German
15.
Cities of Indonesia
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This is the list of regencies and cities of Indonesia. Both regencies and cities are second-level administrative subdivision in Indonesia, immediately below the provinces, in Indonesia, both regency and city are at the same administration level, each having their own local government and legislative body. The difference between a regency and a city lies in demography, size and economy, generally, a regency comprises a rural, larger area than a city. A city usually has non-agricultural economic activities, a regency is headed by a regent, known locally as bupati, while a city is headed by a mayor. All regents, mayors and members of legislatures are elected via elections to serve for a five year term which can be renewed once. Each regency or city is divided further into districts more commonly known as kecamatan, an administrative city is a city without its own local legislatures. The mayor of a city is directly appointed by the Governor. This type of city in Indonesia is only found in Jakarta which consisted of 5 administrative cities and 1 administrative regency, following the implementation of decentralization beginning on 1 January 2001, regencies and municipalities became the key administrative units responsible for providing most governmental services. The list below groups regencies and cities in Indonesia by provinces, each regency has an administrative centre, the regency seat. The Indonesian title of bupati is originally a loanword from Sanskrit originating in India, related titles which were also used in precolonial Indonesia are adipati and senapati. A regency is a subdivision of a province in Indonesia. The Indonesian term kabupaten is also translated as municipality. Regencies and cities are divided into Districts, the English name regency comes from the Dutch colonial period, when regencies were ruled by bupati and were known as regentschap. Bupati had been regional lords under the pre-colonial monarchies of Java, when the Dutch abolished or curtailed those monarchies, the bupati were left as the most senior indigenous authority. They were not strictly speaking native rulers because the Dutch claimed full sovereignty over their territory, regencies in Java territorial units were grouped together into Residencies headed by exclusively European Residents. After the independence of Indonesia in 1945, the terms bupati, since the start of Reformasi in 1998 a remarkable secession of district governments has arisen in Indonesia. This process has become known as pemekaran, following the surge of support for decentralisation across Indonesia which occurred following the end of the Soeharto era in 1998, key new decentralisation laws were passed in 1999. Subsequently, there was a jump in the number of regencies from around 300 at the end of 1998 to over 490 in 2008 ten years later, the agreement will be forwarded on for government approval
16.
Jakarta
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Jakarta /dʒəˈkɑːrtə/, officially the Special Capital Region of Jakarta, is the capital and most populous city of the Republic of Indonesia. Located on the northwest coast of the worlds most populous island of Java, Jakarta is the economic, cultural and political centre. The official metropolitan area, known as Jabodetabek, is the second largest in the world, established in the fourth century, the city became an important trading port for the Kingdom of Sunda. It was the de facto capital of the Dutch East Indies, today, the city has continued as the capital of Indonesia since the countrys independence was declared in 1945. Jakarta is listed as a city in the 2012 Globalization and World Cities Study Group. Based on the global metro monitor by the Brookings Institution, in 2014, Jakarta has grown more rapidly than Kuala Lumpur, Beijing, and Bangkok. Jakarta has been home to multiple settlements along with their names, Sunda Kelapa, Jayakarta, Batavia, Djakarta. Its current name derives from the word Jayakarta, the origins of this word can be traced to the Old Javanese and ultimately to the Sanskrit language. Jayakarta translates as victorious deed, complete act, or complete victory, Jakarta is nicknamed the Big Durian, the thorny strongly-odored fruit native to the region, as the city is seen as the Indonesian equivalent of the US city of New York. In the colonial era, the city was known as Koningin van het Oosten, initially in the 17th century for the urban beauty of downtown Batavias canals, mansions. After expanding to the south in the 19th century, this came to be more associated with the suburbs, with their wide lanes, many green spaces. The area in and around modern Jakarta was part of the fourth century Sundanese kingdom of Tarumanagara, following the decline of Tarumanagara, its territories, including the Jakarta area, became part of the Hindu Kingdom of Sunda. From 7th to early 13th century port of Sunda was within the sphere of influence of the Srivijaya maritime empire. According to the Chinese source, Chu-fan-chi, written circa 1225, Chou Ju-kua reported in the early 13th century Srivijaya still ruled Sumatra, the source reports the port of Sunda as strategic and thriving, pepper from Sunda being among the best in quality. The people worked in agriculture and their houses were built on wooden piles, the harbour area became known as Sunda Kelapa and by the fourteenth century, it was a major trading port for Sunda kingdom. The first European fleet, four Portuguese ships from Malacca, arrived in 1513 when the Portuguese were looking for a route for spices, in 1527, Fatahillah, a Javanese general from Demak attacked and conquered Sunda Kelapa, driving out the Portuguese. Sunda Kelapa was renamed Jayakarta, and became a fiefdom of the Sultanate of Banten which became a major Southeast Asia trading centre, through the relationship with Prince Jayawikarta from the Sultanate of Banten, Dutch ships arrived in Jayakarta in 1596. In 1602, the English East India Companys first voyage, commanded by Sir James Lancaster, arrived in Aceh and this site became the centre of English trade in Indonesia until 1682
17.
Jabodetabek
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Jabodetabek is an official and administrative definition of the urban area or megacity surrounding the Indonesia capital city, Jakarta. Also included were the Kota independent municipalities of Bogor, Depok, Bekasi, Tangerang, the name of the region is taken from the first two letters of each citys name, Jabotabek from Jakarta, Bogor, Tangerang and Bekasi. The population share of Jabodetabek to national population was increased from 6. 1% in 1961 to 11. 26% in 2010, the region is the center of government, culture, education, and economy of Indonesia. It has pulled many people from throughout of Indonesia to come, live and its economic power makes Jabodetabek the countrys premier center for finance, manufacture and commerce. The region was established in 1976 through Presidential Instruction No.13 in response to the needs to sustain the population of capital city. Indonesias government established Jabotabek Cooperation Body of the joint secretariat of Government of DKI Jakarta, the generic term Greater Jakarta refers to the urban region surrounding Jakarta, it is not specific to any official or administrative designations. On the contrary, dependent on context, it may refer to the area around Jakarta. The population is increasing due to migration from other parts of Indonesia. The proportion of city population to the total population of metropolitan area also declined significantly. In 2010, the population of Jakarta only 35. 5% to the population of Jabodetabek area. However, there has been relative shifting of in migration destination from Jakarta city to cities in Jabodetabek area. Nowadays, about 20% of Indonesias urban population is concentrated in the Jabodetabek area, common names for Greater Jakarta, W. J. The region accounts for 25. 52% of total gross domestic product and 42. 8% to the total GDP of Java Island in 2010. There are three dominant sectors which have high contribution to the total Jabodetabeks GDP comprising, industrial sector, financial sector as well as trade, hotel, prime business and commercial centers is Golden Triangle in central Jakarta. There are countrys premier center, Sudirman Central Business District, Mega Kuningan, Rasuna Epicentrum as well as along Jenderal Sudirman, M. H Thamrin. Jakartas Golden Triangle also known to expatriates and local populates as a center of the metropolis. There are countless high end boutiques, fine restaurants, coffee shops, kelapa Gading is the newest business district, lifestyle center and residential areas, located in the north-eastern part of Jakarta city. It has several bars and entertainment places that open up until late night, the development of large scale residential areas and industrial parks in the Jabodetabek has been induced by infrastructure development, especially toll roads and railways
18.
Middle Ages
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In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or Medieval Period lasted from the 5th to the 15th century. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and merged into the Renaissance, the Middle Ages is the middle period of the three traditional divisions of Western history, classical antiquity, the medieval period, and the modern period. The medieval period is subdivided into the Early, High. Population decline, counterurbanisation, invasion, and movement of peoples, the large-scale movements of the Migration Period, including various Germanic peoples, formed new kingdoms in what remained of the Western Roman Empire. In the seventh century, North Africa and the Middle East—once part of the Byzantine Empire—came under the rule of the Umayyad Caliphate, although there were substantial changes in society and political structures, the break with classical antiquity was not complete. The still-sizeable Byzantine Empire survived in the east and remained a major power, the empires law code, the Corpus Juris Civilis or Code of Justinian, was rediscovered in Northern Italy in 1070 and became widely admired later in the Middle Ages. In the West, most kingdoms incorporated the few extant Roman institutions, monasteries were founded as campaigns to Christianise pagan Europe continued. The Franks, under the Carolingian dynasty, briefly established the Carolingian Empire during the later 8th, the Crusades, first preached in 1095, were military attempts by Western European Christians to regain control of the Holy Land from Muslims. Kings became the heads of centralised nation states, reducing crime and violence, intellectual life was marked by scholasticism, a philosophy that emphasised joining faith to reason, and by the founding of universities. Controversy, heresy, and the Western Schism within the Catholic Church paralleled the conflict, civil strife. Cultural and technological developments transformed European society, concluding the Late Middle Ages, the Middle Ages is one of the three major periods in the most enduring scheme for analysing European history, classical civilisation, or Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and the Modern Period. Medieval writers divided history into periods such as the Six Ages or the Four Empires, when referring to their own times, they spoke of them as being modern. In the 1330s, the humanist and poet Petrarch referred to pre-Christian times as antiqua, leonardo Bruni was the first historian to use tripartite periodisation in his History of the Florentine People. Bruni and later argued that Italy had recovered since Petrarchs time. The Middle Ages first appears in Latin in 1469 as media tempestas or middle season, in early usage, there were many variants, including medium aevum, or middle age, first recorded in 1604, and media saecula, or middle ages, first recorded in 1625. The alternative term medieval derives from medium aevum, tripartite periodisation became standard after the German 17th-century historian Christoph Cellarius divided history into three periods, Ancient, Medieval, and Modern. The most commonly given starting point for the Middle Ages is 476, for Europe as a whole,1500 is often considered to be the end of the Middle Ages, but there is no universally agreed upon end date. English historians often use the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485 to mark the end of the period
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Sunda Kingdom
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The Kingdom of Sunda was a Hindu kingdom located in western Java from 669 to around 1579, covering the area of present-day Banten, Jakarta, West Java, and the western part of Central Java. According to primary historical records, the Bujangga Manik manuscript, the border of the Sunda Kingdom was the Pamali River. Most accounts of the Sunda Kingdom come from historical records from the 16th century. Several stone inscriptions also mention the kingdom, such as Jayabupati, Kawali, the earliest reference to the name Sunda being used to identify a kingdom is the Kebon Kopi II inscription dated 854 Saka. The inscription was in old Javanese script, but the language used was old Malay, another reference to the kingdom is the Jayabupati inscription which consists of 40 lines written on four pieces of stone found on the Cicatih river bank in Cibadak, Sukabumi. The inscription is written in old Javanese script, the four inscriptions are now stored at the National Museum in Jakarta, under the codes D73, D96, D97 and D98. The contents of the inscriptions, The date of the Jayabupati inscription may be 11 October 1030, According to Pustaka Nusantara, Parwa III sarga 1, Sri Jayabupati reigned for 12 years, from 952 to 964 saka. The inscription has an East Javanese style in lettering, language, and style, copperplate letters dating to the 15th century, including royal instructions, also imply the existence of the Sunda Kingdom. Prasasti Kebantenan III copperplate announces the king of Sundas sanctions of holy construction in Sunda Sembawa, the primary source that contains informations about the daily life of late 15th to early 16th century Sunda Kingdom was found in Bujangga Manik manuscript. The names of places, culture and customs, was described in great detail, it is one of the important specimen of Old Sundanese literature. The main character is Prince Jaya Pakuan alias Bujangga Manik, a Sundanese Hindu hermit, as a hermit he made two journeys from Pakuan Pajajaran to central and eastern Java and back, the second one including a visit to Bali. After his return he practised asceticism on a mountain in western Java, the manuscript dated from pre-Islamic Sunda. The language represents a stage of Sundanese. It displays a marked influence from Javanese but does not contain one word which is tracable to Arabic, in the content of the story, too, Islam is completely absent. According to F. Hirt and W. W. Rockhill, at the time of the Southern Sung Dynasty, the inspector of trade with foreign countries, Chau Ju-kua, collected reports from sailors and merchants who had visited foreign countries. His report on far countries, Chu-fan-chi, written from 1178 to 1225 AD, Chu-fan-chi reported that, According to this source, the kingdom of Sunda produced high quality black pepper. The kingdom located in the parts of Java near Sunda Strait, corresponds to today Banten, Jakarta. According to this source, the port of Sunda was under Srivijaya mandala domination, port of Sunda was highly possible refer to port of Banten instead of Kalapa
20.
Indonesian language
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Indonesian is the official language of Indonesia. It is a register of Malay, an Austronesian language that has been used as a lingua franca in the multilingual Indonesian archipelago for centuries. Indonesia is the fourth most populous nation in the world, of its large population, the majority speak Indonesian, making it one of the most widely spoken languages in the world. However, most formal education, and nearly all national mass media, governance, administration, judiciary, the Indonesian name for the language is Bahasa Indonesia or sometimes simplified as Bahasa. This term is occasionally found in English and other languages. Indonesian is a register of Riau Malay, which despite its common name is not the Malay dialect native to Riau. Originally spoken in Northeast Sumatra, Malay has been used as a lingua franca in the Indonesian archipelago for half a millennium and it might be attributed to its ancestor, the Old Malay language. The Kedukan Bukit Inscription is the oldest surviving specimen of Old Malay, trade contacts carried on by various ethnic peoples at the time were the main vehicle for spreading the Old Malay language, which was the main communications medium among the traders. Ultimately, the Old Malay language became a lingua franca and was spoken widely by most people in the archipelago, Indonesian is essentially the same language as the official Malaysian, Singaporean and Brunei standards of Malay. However, it does differ from Malaysian in several respects, with differences in pronunciation and these differences are due mainly to the Dutch and Javanese influences on Indonesian. Indonesian was also influenced by the Melayu pasar, which was the lingua franca of the archipelago in colonial times, and thus indirectly by other spoken languages of the islands. Malaysian Malay claims to be closer to the classical Malay of earlier centuries, even though modern Malaysian has been influenced, in lexicon as well as in syntax. The question of whether High Malay or Low Malay was the parent of the Indonesian language is still in debate. Some linguists have argued that it was the more common Low Malay that formed the base of the Indonesian language, however, the language had never been dominant among the population of the Indonesian archipelago as it was limited to mercantile activity. The VOC adopted the Malay language as the language of their trading outpost in the east. Following the bankruptcy of the VOC the Dutch crown took control of the colony in 1799 and it was then that education in. Even then, Dutch administrators were reluctant to promote the use of Dutch compared to other colonial regimes. Dutch thus remained the language of a elite, in 1940
21.
Dutch East Indies
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The Dutch East Indies was a Dutch colony. It was formed from the colonies of the Dutch East India Company. During the 19th century, Dutch possessions and hegemony were expanded and this colony was one of the most valuable European colonies under the Dutch Empires rule, and contributed to Dutch global prominence in spice and cash crop trade in the 19th to early 20th century. The colonial social order was based on racial and social structures with a Dutch elite living separate from. The term Indonesia came into use for the location after 1880. In the early 20th century, local intellectuals began developing the concept of Indonesia as a nation state, Japans World War II occupation dismantled much of the Dutch colonial state and economy. Following the Japanese surrender in August 1945, Indonesian nationalists declared independence which they fought to secure during the subsequent Indonesian National Revolution, the word Indies comes from Latin, Indus. The original name Dutch Indies was translated by the English as the Dutch East Indies, the name Dutch Indies is recorded in the Dutch East India Companys documents of the early 1620s. Scholars writing in English use the terms Indië, Indies, the Dutch East Indies, the Netherlands Indies, centuries before Europeans arrived, the Indonesian archipelago supported various states, including commercially oriented coastal trading states and inland agrarian states. The first Europeans to arrive were the Portuguese in the late 15th century, following disruption of Dutch access to spices in Europe, the first Dutch expedition set sail for the East Indies in 1595 to access spices directly from Asia. When it made a 400% profit on its return, other Dutch expeditions soon followed, recognising the potential of the East Indies trade, the Dutch government amalgamated the competing companies into the United East India Company. The VOC was granted a charter to wage war, build fortresses, a capital was established in Batavia, which became the centre of the VOCs Asian trading network. Smuggling, the expense of war, corruption, and mismanagement led to bankruptcy by the end of the 18th century. The company was dissolved in 1800 and its colonial possessions in the Indonesian archipelago were nationalised under the Dutch Republic as the Dutch East Indies. From the arrival of the first Dutch ships in the late 16th century, to the declaration of independence in 1945, although Java was dominated by the Dutch, many areas remained independent throughout much of this time, including Aceh, Bali, Lombok and Borneo. Piracy remained a problem until the mid-19th century, finally in the early 20th century, imperial dominance was extended across what was to become the territory of modern-day Indonesia. In 1811, British forces occupied several Dutch East Indies ports including Java, Dutch control was restored in 1816. Under the 1824 Anglo-Dutch Treaty, the Dutch secured British settlements such as Bengkulu in Sumatra, in exchange for ceding control of their possessions in the Malay Peninsula, the resulting borders between British and Dutch possessions remain between Malaysia and Indonesia
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Governor-general
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Governor-General or governor general, in modern usage, is the title of an office-holder appointed to represent the monarch of a sovereign state in the governing of an independent realm. Governors-General have also previously been appointed in respect of major colonial states or other territories held by either a monarchy or republic, in modern usage, the term governor-general originated in those British colonies which became self-governing within the British Empire. In these cases, the Crowns representative in the federated Dominion was given the title of governor general. Another non-federal state, Newfoundland, was a Dominion for 16 years with the Kings representative retaining the title of governor throughout this time, since 2016, the title governor-general has been given to all representatives of the sovereign in independent Commonwealth realms. In these countries the governor-general acts as the representative, performing the ceremonial and constitutional functions of a head of state. The only other nation which uses the designation is Iran. In Iran, the authority is headed by a governor general. As such they held the prerogative powers of the monarch. The monarch or imperial government could overrule any governor-general, though this could often be cumbersome, the governors-general are entitled to wear a unique uniform, which are not generally worn today. If of the rank of general, equivalent or above. The report resulting from the 1926 Imperial Conference stated, in other words, the political reality of a self-governing Dominion within the British Empire with a governor-general answerable to the sovereign became clear. British interference in the Dominion was not acceptable and independent country status was clearly displayed, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand were clearly not controlled by the United Kingdom. The governor-general, however, is appointed by the monarch. Executive authority is vested in the monarch, though much of it can be exercisable only by the governor-general on behalf of the sovereign of the independent realm. Except in rare cases, the only acts in accordance with constitutional convention and upon the advice of the national prime minister. The governor-general is still the representative of the sovereign and performs the same duties as they carried out historically. In some realms, the monarch could in principle overrule a governor-general, in Australia the present Queen is generally assumed to be head of state, since the governor-general and the state governors are defined as her representatives. However, since the governor-general performs almost all national regal functions, to a lesser extent, uncertainty has been expressed in Canada as to which officeholder—the monarch, the governor general, or both—can be considered the head of state
23.
Pakuan Pajajaran
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Pakuan Pajajaran was the fortified capital city of Sunda kingdom. The location is roughly corresponds to modern Bogor city in West Java, Indonesia, the site is revered as the spiritual home of Sundanese people as it contains much of shared identity and history of Sundanese people. The city was settled since at least the 10th century, in 1513, the city was visited by its first European visitor, Tomé Pires, the Portuguese envoy. Pakuan Pajajaran was destroyed by the Sultanate of Banten in 1579, in Sundanese language the word Pakuan derived from the term paku which means nail, and it also could means fern plant. According to Carita Waruga Guru manuscript, the name was derived from pakujajar or rows of pakis haji or cycas plant, in Sundanese pakis haji means kings fern to refer to cycas plant. This theory was supported by K. F. Holle in his book De Batoe Toelis te Buitenzorg, mentioned that in Buitenzorg area there is a village called Cipaku, rouffaer in his book Encyclopedie van Niederlandsch Indie editie Stibbe argued that the term Pakuan should be derived from the word paku which means nail. The nail represent the king as spijker der wereld and this is in line with ancient Sundanese tradition that regarded their king as the nail or center of their realm. The tradition to refer the king as nail is also found in Javanese Surakarta Sunanate tradition that refer their king as Pakubuwono. Rouffaer further suggested that the term Pajajaran derived from the term sejajar, poerbatjaraka in his writings De Batoe-Toelis bij Buitenzorg explained that the term Pakuan derived from Old Javanese word pakwwan, which refer to camp or palace. Thus he suggested that the name Pakuan Pajajaran means aanrijen staande hoven, suggesting that the buildings, Ten Dam in his work Verkenningen Rondom Padjadjaran, argued that the term Pakuan has something to do with stone phallic symbol of lingam. This erected stone monument, which in Indic beliefs symbolized Shiva, is believed once stood near Batutulis inscription as the symbol of kings power and this is also in line with menhir stone monument — supposedly megalithic culture was still prevailed in ancient Sundanese society. Ten Dam also refer to Carita Parahyangan which mentions names of Sundanese kings, Sang Haluwesi, Ten Dam further argued that Pakuan was not a name, but it refer to hoffstad. Referring to the report of Kapiten Wikler, Ten Dam suggested that the term Pajajaran describes the position of the capital. Pajajaran derived from stem word jajar, which means parallel and this might refer to its location between two parallel rivers, Cisadane and Ciliwung. For a few kilometres in Bogor vicinity, both rivers runs parallel, and this is believed as the location of Pakuan Pajajaran, other than native sources, the account of Pakuan Pajajaran was also mentioned in European sources. The capital of Daio of Sunda kingdom, was visited by a Portuguese envoy Tomé Pires in the early 16th century, the Javanese Babad dated from Mataram Sultanate period circa 17th century, still referred the area and the kingdom of West Java as Pajajaran. The area near modern Bogor, in the valleys of Cisadane
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Tarumanagara
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Tarumanagara or Taruma Kingdom or just Taruma is an early Sundanese Indianised kingdom, whose 5th-century ruler, Purnawarman, produced the earliest known inscriptions on Java island. In his inscriptions, Purnavarman associated himself with Vishnu, and Brahmins ritually secured the hydraulic project, Tarumanagara is believed was existed between 358–669 CE in Western Java region, in and around modern day Bogor, Bekasi and Jakarta, roughly corresponds to modern Greater Jakarta area. The earliest known records of Tarumanagara existence were inscribed in stone inscriptions. Inscribed stone is called prasasti in Indonesian, numbers of stone inscriptions dated from Tarumanagara period was discovered in Western Java region. In 1863, Dutch East Indies, a boulder of inscribed stone was spotted near Ciampea not far from Buitenzorg. The stone inscription was discovered on the bed of Ciaruteun river. It is today known as Ciaruteun inscription, dated from the 5th century, written in Vengi letters and this is the earliest inscription that clearly mentioned the kingdoms name Tarumanagara. The inscription reports the most famous king of Tarumanagara, located nearby is the Prasasti Kebon Kopi I, also called Telapak Gadjah stone, with an inscription and the engraving of two large elephant footprints. The inscription read, These elephant foot soles, akin to those of the strong Airwata, belongs to Tarumanagara King who is successful, not only stones testify of the existence of King Purnawarman and his Tarumanagara kingdom. There are also Chinese historical sources, since Tarumanagara maintained extended trade and he reported that the Law of Buddha was not much known, but that the Brahmans flourished, and heretics too. Between the period 528 to 669, Tarumanagara sent their embassy to Chinese court, the kingdom was mentioned in the annals of the Sui dynasty, the king of To-lo-mo has sent diplomatic mission, which arrived in China in 528 and 535. It was mentioned that the kingdom is located far south of China, the annals of Tang dynasty also mentioned in the year 666 and 669 the envoys of To-lo-ma has visited the court of Tang. The name Tarumanagara was found in inscriptions in the Western Java region dated from circa 4th century. The Chinese chronicle also recorded the name To-lo-ma or To-lo-mo which suggest the Chinese pronunciation of Taruma, Tarumanagara means the kingdom of Taruma. The name Taruma itself is connected to the Citarum River of West Java, in Sundanese language, ci means water or river while tarum means indigo plant. Tarum is local name of indigo plant that used to create the indigo dyeing pigment, according to the book Nusantara, Maharshi Rajadirajaguru Jayasingawarman founded the Tarumanagara kingdom in 358. Jayasingawarman originated from Salankayana, India that collapsed after the invasion of Samudragupta from Gupta Empire, after re-settling in Western Java, he married a Sundanese princess daughter of King Dewawarman VIII of Salakanagara. He died in 382 and was buried at the bank of Kali Gomati river and his son, Dharmayawarman ruled from 382 to 395
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History of Indonesia
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The history of Indonesia has been shaped by its geographic position, its natural resources, a series of human migrations and contacts, wars and conquests, as well as by trade, economics and politics. Indonesia is a country of 17,000 to 18000 islands stretching along the equator in South East Asia. The countrys strategic sea-lane position fostered inter-island and international trade, trade has since fundamentally shaped Indonesian history, the area of Indonesia is populated by peoples of various migrations, creating a diversity of cultures, ethnicities, and languages. The archipelagos landforms and climate significantly influenced agriculture and trade, the boundaries of the state of Indonesia represent the 20th century borders of the Dutch East Indies. Fossilised remains of Homo erectus and his tools, popularly known as the Java Man, austronesian people, who form the majority of the modern population, are thought to have originally been from Taiwan and arrived in Indonesia around 2000 BCE. From the 7th century CE, the powerful Srivijaya naval kingdom flourished bringing Hindu, the agricultural Buddhist Sailendra and Hindu Mataram dynasties subsequently thrived and declined in inland Java. The last significant non-Muslim kingdom, the Hindu Majapahit kingdom, flourished from the late 13th century, for the most part, Islam overlaid and mixed with existing cultural and religious influences. Europeans such as the Portuguese arrived in Indonesia from the 16th century seeking to monopolise the sources of valuable nutmeg, cloves, in 1602 the Dutch established the Dutch East India Company and became the dominant European power by 1610. Following bankruptcy, the VOC was formally dissolved in 1800, by the early 20th century, Dutch dominance extended to the current boundaries. The Japanese invasion and subsequent occupation in 1942–45 during WWII ended Dutch rule, two days after the surrender of Japan in August 1945, nationalist leader, Sukarno, declared independence and became president. An attempted coup in 1965 led to a violent army-led anti-communist purge in which half a million people were killed. General Suharto politically outmanoeuvred President Sukarno, and became president in March 1968 and his New Order administration garnered the favour of the West whose investment in Indonesia was a major factor in the subsequent three decades of substantial economic growth. In the late 1990s, however, Indonesia was the country hardest hit by the East Asian Financial Crisis which led to popular protests, political and economic instability, social unrest, corruption, natural disasters, and terrorism have slowed progress. Although relations among different religious and ethnic groups are largely harmonious, acute sectarian discontent, in 2007 analysis of cut marks on two bovid bones found in Sangiran, showed them to have been made 1.5 to 1.6 million years ago by clamshell tools. This is the oldest evidence for the presence of man in Indonesia. In 1977 another H. erectus skull was discovered at Sambungmacan. In 2003, on the island of Flores, fossils of a new small hominid dated between 74,000 and 13,000 years old and named Flores Man were discovered much to the surprise of the scientific community. This 3 foot tall hominid is thought to be a descended from Homo erectus
26.
Srivijaya
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Srivijaya was a dominant thalassocratic city-state based on the island of Sumatra, Indonesia, which influenced much of Southeast Asia. Srivijaya was an important centre for the expansion of Buddhism from the 8th to the 12th century, Srivijaya was the first unified kingdom to dominate much of Malay archipelago. In Sanskrit, śrī means fortunate, prosperous, or happy, the earliest reference to it dates from the 7th century. A Tang Chinese monk, Yijing, wrote that he visited Srivijaya in 671 CE for six months, the earliest known inscription in which the name Srivijaya appears also dates from the 7th century in the Kedukan Bukit inscription found near Palembang, Sumatra, dated 16 June 682 CE. Between the late 7th and early 11th century, Srivijaya rose to become a hegemon in Southeast Asia and it was involved in close interactions, often rivalries, with the neighbouring Java, Kambuja and Champa. Srivijayas main foreign interest was nurturing lucrative trade agreements with China which lasted from the Tang to the Song dynasty, Srivijaya had religious, cultural and trade links with the Buddhist Pala of Bengal, as well as with the Islamic Caliphate in the Middle East. The kingdom ceased to exist in the 13th century by various factors, including the expansion of the rival Javanese Singhasari, after Srivijaya fell, it was largely forgotten. It was not until 1918 that French historian George Cœdès, of École française dExtrême-Orient, little physical evidence of Srivijaya remains. There had been no continuous knowledge of the history of Srivijaya even in Indonesia, Cœdès noted that the Chinese references to Sanfoqi, previously read as Sribhoja, and the inscriptions in Old Malay refer to the same empire. The Buddhist pilgrim Yijings account is important on describing Srivijaya. The 7th-century siddhayatra inscriptions discovered in Palembang and Bangka island are also vital primary historical sources, also, regional accounts that some might be almost tales and legends, such as the Legend of the Maharaja of Javaka and the Khmer King also provides a glimpse of the kingdom. Besides, some Indian and Arabic accounts also describes vaguely about the riches, Srivijaya had become a symbol of early Sumatran importance as a great empire to balance Javas Majapahit in the east. Srivijaya, and by extension Sumatra, had been known by different names to different peoples, the Chinese called it Sanfoqi or Che-li-fo-che, and there was an even older kingdom of Kantoli, which could be considered the predecessor of Srivijaya. Sanskrit and Pali texts referred to it as Yavades and Javadeh, the Arabs called it Zabag or Sribuza and the Khmers called it Melayu. While the Javanese called them Suvarnabhumi, Suvarnadvipa or Malayu and this is another reason why the discovery of Srivijaya was so difficult. While some of names are strongly reminiscent of the name of Java. According to the Kedukan Bukit inscription, dated 605 Saka, Srivijaya was first established in the vicinity of todays Palembang and it mentions that Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa came from Minanga Tamwan. The exact location of Minanga Tamwan is still a subject of discussion, the Palembang theory as the place where Srivijaya was first established was presented by Cœdes and supported by Pierre-Yves Manguin
27.
Ci Liwung
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Ciliwung, written as Tji Liwung in Dutch, is a 119 km long river in the western region of Java where it flows through two provinces, West Java and the special region of Jakarta. The etymology of Ciliwung is uncertain, the two least implausible assumptions are the whirlpool or the meandering one. It is possible that the name originated one of the many epithets of the king of Pajajaran Sri Baduga Maharaja, among them is Prabu Haliwung. The name Ci Haliwung was recorded in the map of C. M, Ciliwung is 119 km long with a catchment area of 476 km2. The Ciliwung river has its source at Mandalawangi in Bogor Regency with the highest peak at 3,002 m. The main tributaries in the catchment area are the Ciesek and Ciluar rivers with respective lengths 9.7 km and 21.0 km. Ciliwung river basin has a narrow and elongated shape. The 17.2 km length of the area has a very steep slope, The 25.4 km length in the middle-reach has a slope of 0.01. In general the geology of the upstream of Ciliwung river basin is dominated by Tuffaceous Breccia and older deposits lahar, the middle-reach consists mainly of Quaternary period alluvial fans and volcanic rocks. The downstream area is dominated by alluvial and beach ridge deposits, mean rainfall reaches 3,125 mm, with mean annual discharge of 16 m3/s as measured at Ciliwung Ratujaya observation station. With such topographical, geological and hydrological features the Ciliwung river is often overflowing and inundating parts of Jakarta, the population along the Ciliwung river basin reaches 4.088 million which can be regarded as the most densely populated area. The natural flow of Ciliwung was diverted into canals by the Dutch during the settlement of Jakarta. Beginning in area that is now Istiqlal Mosque, the Ciliwung was diverted into two canals, one flowing northwest and one flowing northeast, the western branch flows along the canal of Jalan Veteran and then through the canal of Jalan Gajah Mada. This 2 km straight canal is known as Batang Hari canal, previously known as Molenvliet, eventually the water ends up in Sunda Kelapa harbor after passing through the canals of Jakarta Old Town. The eastern branch flows along the canal of Jalan Antara, passing the Gedung Kesenian Jakarta, the water ends up in Ancol. Initially a canal links the eastern and the branches of Ciliwung. Today this canal, which is now located on the side of Jalan Tol Pelabuhan, was filled with slum settlement due to careless planning after the independence period. After the 1918 Jakartas big flood, a new canal, the Banjir canal, was constructed in 1922 to divert the water of rivers of Jakarta, which includes Ciliwung, Cideng
28.
Sanskrit
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Sanskrit is the primary liturgical language of Hinduism, a philosophical language of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, and a literary language and lingua franca of ancient and medieval South Asia. As a result of transmission of Hindu and Buddhist culture to Southeast Asia and parts of Central Asia, as one of the oldest Indo-European languages for which substantial written documentation exists, Sanskrit holds a prominent position in Indo-European studies. The body of Sanskrit literature encompasses a rich tradition of poetry and drama as well as scientific, technical, philosophical, the compositions of Sanskrit were orally transmitted for much of its early history by methods of memorization of exceptional complexity, rigor, and fidelity. Thereafter, variants and derivatives of the Brahmi script came to be used, Sanskrit is today one of the 22 languages listed in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution of India, which mandates the Indian government to develop the language. It continues to be used as a ceremonial language in Hindu religious rituals and Buddhist practice in the form of hymns. The Sanskrit verbal adjective sáṃskṛta- may be translated as refined, elaborated, as a term for refined or elaborated speech, the adjective appears only in Epic and Classical Sanskrit in the Manusmṛti and the Mahabharata. The pre-Classical form of Sanskrit is known as Vedic Sanskrit, with the language of the Rigveda being the oldest and most archaic stage preserved, Classical Sanskrit is the standard register as laid out in the grammar of Pāṇini, around the fourth century BCE. Sanskrit, as defined by Pāṇini, evolved out of the earlier Vedic form, the present form of Vedic Sanskrit can be traced back to as early as the second millennium BCE. Scholars often distinguish Vedic Sanskrit and Classical or Pāṇinian Sanskrit as separate dialects, although they are quite similar, they differ in a number of essential points of phonology, vocabulary, grammar and syntax. Vedic Sanskrit is the language of the Vedas, a collection of hymns, incantations and theological and religio-philosophical discussions in the Brahmanas. Modern linguists consider the metrical hymns of the Rigveda Samhita to be the earliest, for nearly 2000 years, Sanskrit was the language of a cultural order that exerted influence across South Asia, Inner Asia, Southeast Asia, and to a certain extent East Asia. A significant form of post-Vedic Sanskrit is found in the Sanskrit of Indian epic poetry—the Ramayana, the deviations from Pāṇini in the epics are generally considered to be on account of interference from Prakrits, or innovations, and not because they are pre-Paninian. Traditional Sanskrit scholars call such deviations ārṣa, meaning of the ṛṣis, in some contexts, there are also more prakritisms than in Classical Sanskrit proper. There were four principal dialects of classical Sanskrit, paścimottarī, madhyadeśī, pūrvi, the predecessors of the first three dialects are attested in Vedic Brāhmaṇas, of which the first one was regarded as the purest. In the 2001 Census of India,14,035 Indians reported Sanskrit to be their first language, in India, Sanskrit is among the 14 original languages of the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution. The state of Uttarakhand in India has ruled Sanskrit as its official language. In October 2012 social activist Hemant Goswami filed a petition in the Punjab. More than 3,000 Sanskrit works have been composed since Indias independence in 1947, much of this work has been judged of high quality, in comparison to both classical Sanskrit literature and modern literature in other Indian languages
29.
Pallava dynasty
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The Pallava dynasty was a South Indian dynasty that existed from 275 CE to 897 CE, ruling a portion of what is today southern India. They gained prominence after the eclipse of the Satavahana dynasty, whom the Pallavas served as feudatories, Pallavas are most noted for their patronage of architecture, the finest example being the Shore Temple, a UNESCO World Heritage Site in Mahabalipuram. The Pallavas, who left behind magnificent sculptures and temples, established the foundations of medieval South Indian architecture and they developed the Pallava script from which Grantha ultimately descended. The Pallava script gave rise to other southeast Asian scripts. Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsang visited Kanchipuram during Pallava rule and extolled their benign rule, the Pallavas themselves claimed to descend from Brahma and Ashvatthama. Though Manimekalai posits Ilam Tiriyan as a Chola, not a Pallava, thence, came into existence the race of Pallavas. Vīrakūrcha, of celebrated name, who simultaneously with the daughter of the chief of serpents grasped also the insignia of royalty. The Proceedings of the First Annual Conference of South Indian History Congress also notes, The word Tondai means a creeper, historian K. R. Subramanian says the Pallavas were originally a Telugu power rather than a Tamil one. Telugu sources know of a Trilochana Pallava as the earliest Telugu king, the first Chalukya king is said to have been met, repulsed and killed by the same Trilochana near Mudivemu. A Buddhist story describes Kala the Nagaraja, resembling the Pallava Kalabhartar as a king of the region near Krishna district, the Pallava Bogga may be identified with the kingdom of Kala in Andhra which had close and early maritime and cultural relations with Ceylon. K. A. K. P. Jayaswal also proposed a North Indian origin, the Pallavas captured Kanchi from the Cholas as recorded in the Velurpalaiyam Plates, around the reign of the fifth king of the Pallava line Kumaravishnu I. Thereafter Kanchi figures in inscriptions as the capital of the Pallavas, the Cholas drove the Pallavas away from Kanchi in the mid-4th century, in the reign of Vishugopa, the tenth king of the Pallava line. The Pallavas re-captured Kanchi in the century, possibly in the reign of Simhavishnu, the fourteenth king of the Pallava line. Thereafter the Pallavas held on to Kanchi until the 9th century, until the reign of their last king, the Pallavas were in conflict with major kingdoms at various periods of time. A contest for political supremacy existed between the early Pallavas and the Kadambas, numerous Kadamba inscriptions provide details of Pallava-Kadamba hostlities. During the reign of Vishnugopavarman II, political convulsion engulfed the Pallavas due to the Kalabhra invasion of the Tamil country, towards the close of the 6th century, the Pallava Simhavishnu stuck a blow against the Kalabhras. Thereafter the Tamil country was divided between the Pallavas in the north with Kanchipuram as their capital, and Pandyas in the south with Madurai as their capital, the royal custom of using a series of descriptive honorific titles, Birudas, was particularly prevalent among the Pallavas. The birudas of Mahendravarman I are in Sanskrit, Tamil and Telugu, the Telugu birudas show Mahendravarmans involvement with the Andhra region continued to be strong at the time he was creating his cave-temples in the Tamil region
30.
Sri Baduga Maharaja
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Sri Baduga Maharaja or Sang Ratu Jaya Dewata or popularly known as King Siliwangi was the great king of the Hindu Sunda kingdom in West Java, reigned 1482 to 1521 from his capital in Pakuan Pajajaran. He brought his kingdom greatness and prosperity, the inscription was created not during Sri Badugas reign, but later in 1533 by Sri Badugas son, King Surawisesa, to honor and commemorate his late father. He is also known as a legendary character, King Siliwangi. Some accounts of his life are taken from the Pantun Sunda oral tradition that describe his reign as an era for the Sundanese people. The stylized name, Sri Baduga Maharaja Ratu Haji di Pakwan Pajajaran Sri Sang Ratu Dewata literally means His Majesty Maharaja King of Pakuan Pajajaran, His Excellency King of deities. Most of literature recognize his name as Sri Baduga Maharaja while other argues that it was only the title to address the king, as Baduga corresponds to paduka, the footwear of kings. According to Hindu etiquette the king is held so high that people should not directly address the king by his name. Thus his real name is Sang Ratu Jaya Dewata, on the other hand, he is also known in his popular name as King Siliwangi. A liguistical theory suggests that Siliwangi is derived from the Sundanese words of Silih Wangi, according to Kidung Sunda and Carita Parahyangan, King Wangi is identified as King Lingga Buana, a king of Sunda that died at Majapahit in 1357 AD in the Battle of Bubat. Hayam Wuruk, the Majapahit king, intended to marry Dyah Pitaloka Citraresmi, the Sunda royal family came to Majapahit to marry the princess to Hayam Wuruk. However, Gajah Mada, prime minister of the Majapahit Empire and he demanded that the princess not be treated as the queen of Majapahit, but merely as a concubine, as a sign of Sundas submission. Angered by Gajah Madas insult, the Sunda royal family fought the overwhelming Majapahit forces to the death to defend their honor, after his death, King Lingga Buana was named King Wangi because of his heroic deed to defend his kingdoms honor. His descendants with the quality of greatness were called Silihwangi. Some other historians are of the opinion that Siliwangi is derived from the Sundanese word Asilih Wewangi, according to Batutulis inscription, he is the son of Rahyang Niskala and the grandson of Rahyang Niskala Wastu Kancana. There are many legends about King Siliwangi as the king of Sunda. One of the stories tells about prince Ratu Jayadewata, the son of Prabu Anggalarang, king of Galuh, during his youth the prince was known as Raden Pamanah Rasa. The name suggests that he was a charming and strikingly handsome young man, people easily fell in love with him. The tradition says he was a master of literature, music, dance, and the arts, as well as pencak silat martial arts, an usurper of evil ambition overthrows King Anggalarang and murders him, taking over the throne
31.
Banten Sultanate
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The Banten Sultanate was founded in the 16th century and centred in Banten, a port city on the northwest coast of Java, the contemporary English spelling of both was Bantam. It is said to have founded by Sunan Gunungjati, who had previously founded Cirebon. Once a great trading centre in Southeast Asia, especially of pepper, its importance was overshadowed by Batavia and its core territory now forms the Indonesian province of Banten. Today, in Old Banten, the Grand Mosque of Banten is an important destination for tourists and for pilgrims from across Indonesia and it was known as Banten Girang, meaning Banten-up-the-river owing to its location. Sunan Gunungjati was an ulama, a class of Muslim legal scholars. He was educated in Middle East, and can trace his ancestry to the Kingdom of Sunda, Sharif Hidayatullah become the Sultan of Cirebon in 1479. In 1482 Sharif Hidayatullah sent a letter to King of Sunda, previously Cirebon settlement was founded in 1445 by his uncle Prince Cakrabuana. In the early 16th century, Gunungjati arrived in the town with the intention of spreading the word of Islam in this still-Hindu area. Although at first well received by Sunda authorities, after news of the Portuguese-Sunda alliance in 1522 became known, Gunungjati nevertheless asked Demak sultanate to send troops to Banten. It was likely his son, Hasanudin, who commanded this military operation in 1527, just as the Portuguese fleet was arriving of the coast at Sunda Kelapa, to capture these towns. Sunan Gunungjati had Hasanudin named king of Banten by the Sultan of Demak who, in turn, thus, a new dynasty was born at the same time as a new kingdom was created. Banten was the capital of kingdom, held as a province under Sultanate of Cirebon. From the beginning it was obviously Hasanuddin’s intention to revive the fortunes of the ancient kingdom of Sunda for his own benefit. One of his earliest decision was to travel to southern Sumatra, which had belonged to the kingdom of Sunda. Having established control over the ports and the trade, Hasanuddin decided to build a new capital. On the advice of his father, Sunan Gunungjati, he choose to construct it on the coast at the mouth of the Cibanten River. That a settlement already existed at this place is evidence by its harbour activities, the royal city was founded on the delta, formed by the two arms of the river. Two main streets running north-south and east-west divided the city into quarters, the royal palace surrounded by residences of the principal minister of state, was built on the south side of the royal square and the great mosque on the west side
32.
Dutch East India Company
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It is often considered to be the worlds first truly transnational corporation and the first company in history to actually issue bonds and shares of stock to the general public. In other words, the VOC was officially the first publicly traded company of the world, the company was also considered by many to be the very first major and the greatest corporation in history. Statistically, the VOC eclipsed all of its rivals in international trade for almost 200 years of existence. Between 1602 and 1796 the VOC sent almost a million Europeans to work in the Asia trade on 4,785 ships, the VOC enjoyed huge profits from its spice monopoly through most of the 17th century. Having been set up in 1602, to profit from the Malukan spice trade, in 1619 the VOC established a capital in the city of Jayakarta. Over the next two centuries the Company acquired additional ports as trading bases and safeguarded their interests by taking over surrounding territory and it remained an important trading concern and paid an 18% annual dividend for almost 200 years. Around the world and especially in English-speaking countries, the VOC is widely known as the Dutch East India Company, the name ‘Dutch East India Company’ is used to make a distinction with the East India Company and other East Indian companies. The abbreviation VOC stands for Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie or Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie in Dutch, the VOC monogram was possibly the first globally-recognized corporate logo. The logo of the VOC consisted of a large capital V with an O on the left and it appeared on various corporate items, such as cannon and coins. The first letter of the hometown of the conducting the operation was placed on top. An Australian vintner has used the VOC logo since the late 20th century, the flag of the company was orange, white, and blue, with the company logo embroidered on it. Before the Dutch Revolt, Antwerp had played an important role as a centre in northern Europe. At the same time, the Portuguese trade system was unable to supply to satisfy growing demand. Demand for spices was relatively inelastic, and therefore each lag in the supply of pepper caused a rise in pepper prices. These three factors motivated Dutch merchants to enter the spice trade themselves. Further, a number of Dutchmen like Jan Huyghen van Linschoten and Cornelis de Houtman obtained first hand knowledge of the secret Portuguese trade routes and practices, thereby providing opportunity. The stage was set for Houtmans 1595 four-ship exploratory expedition to Banten, the main pepper port of West Java. Houtmans expedition then sailed east along the north coast of Java, losing twelve crew to a Javanese attack at Sidayu, half the crew were lost before the expedition made it back to the Netherlands the following year, but with enough spices to make a considerable profit
33.
Sundanese people
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The Sundanese are an ethnic group native to the western part of the Indonesian island of Java. They number approximately 40 million, and are the second most populous of all the nations ethnicities, in their own language, Sundanese, the group is referred to as Urang Sunda, and Orang Sunda or Suku Sunda in the national language, Indonesian. The Sundanese have traditionally been concentrated in the provinces of West Java, Banten, Jakarta, Sundanese migrants can also be found in Lampung and South Sumatra. The provinces of Central Java and East Java are home to the Javanese, the name Sunda derives from the Sanskrit prefix su- which means goodness or possessing good quality. The example is used to describe gold. Sunda is also name for Hindu God Vishnu. In Sanskrit, the term Sundara or Sundari means beautiful or excellence, the term Sunda also means bright, light, purity, cleanness and white. The Sundanese are of Austronesian origins who are thought to have originated in Taiwan, migrated though the Philippines, the Sunda Wiwitan belief contains the mythical origin of Sundanese people, Sang Hyang Kersa, the supreme divine being in ancient Sundanese belief created seven bataras in Sasaka Pusaka Buana. The oldest of these bataras is called Batara Cikal and is considered the ancestor of the Kanekes people, other six bataras ruled various locations in Sunda lands in Western Java. This legend suggested the Parahyangan highland as the playland or the abode of gods, the earliest historical polity appeared in Sundanese realm in Western part of Java was the kingdom of Tarumanagara, flourished between 4th to 7th century. Hindu influences have reached Sundanese people as early as the 4th century CE as evident in Tarumanagara inscriptions, the adoption of these dharmic faith in Sundanese way of life however, was never as intense as their Javanese counterpart. It seems that despite the court began to adopt Hindu-Buddhist culture and institution. By the 4th century, the megalithic culture probably still alive. Court cultures flourished in ancient times, for example, during the era of Sunda Kingdom, however, the Sundanese appear not to have had the resources nor desire to construct large religious monuments similar to those built by Javanese in Central and East Java. Geographic constrains that isolate each regions, also led Sundanese village to enjoy their simple way of life and that was probably the factors that would contribute to the carefree nature, egalitarian, conservative, independent and somewhat individualistic social outlook of Sundanese people. The Sundanese seems to love and revere their nature in spiritual ways, the conservative tendency and somewhat their opposition of foreign influences, is demonstrated in extreme isolationist measures adopted keenly by Kanekes or Baduy people. They have these rules against interacting to outsiders and adopting foreign ideas, technology and they also has set some taboos, such as not to cut the trees nor harm the forest creatures, in order to conserve their natural ecosystem. One of the earliest historical record that mention the name Sunda appear in Sanghyang Tapak inscription dated 952 saka discovered in Cibadak, near Sukabumi
34.
Mount Salak
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Mount Salak is an eroded volcano in West Java, Indonesia. It has several satellite cones on its southeast flank and the northern foot, Mount Salak has been evaluated for geothermal power development. Mount Salak can be translated to Silver Mountain, Mount Salak offers several routes for climbing. The route most often climbed is Curug Nangka, in the part of the range. Peak I is visited via easier routes from the east, through Cimelati, Peak I also can be reached by more challenging routes, from Peak II via Sukamantri and Ciapus. An additional alternate route is the way through Cidahu, Sukabumi. Mount Salak is popular for mountain climbing clubs, especially Route II. Climbers bring water with them, especially through Post I at Kawah Ratu Route, a water source, supplied by rain, exists at an altitude of 2,211 metres on this route. Cimelati can be reached from Cibuntu Village, water is scarce in parts of this region. An irrigation system ensures that water is plentiful until Post/Shelter III, beyond this point, travelers must carry water. The route itself is scenic, with several waterfalls as well as a large villa appearing before reaching Post/Shelter I, Mount Salak is a habitat for a variety of animal species, including frogs, toads, reptiles, birds, and mammals. During research, D. M. Nasir from KSH forest faculty IPB found 11 frog and toad species in Lingkungan S at Ciapus Leutik, Desa Taman Sari, the findings did not include tree toads and other mountain toads that might also be found there. At Cidahu, bangkong bertanduk and katak terbang were found, many reptiles, including lizards and snakes, live on Mount Salak. These include the chameleons Bronchocela jubata, Bronchocela cristatella, Kadal Kebun, some snakes living in Mount Salak are Ular Tangkai, Ular Siput, Ular Sanca Kembang, and many more. Mount Salak has become famous for its habitat for birds, there are at least 232 birds species in total, the notes about mammals indicate that there are not many living on Mount Salak, aside from leopards, silvery gibbons, Javan surilis, and sunda pangolins. In 2012, The Jakarta Post dubbed Mount Salak an airplane graveyard, high turbulence and fast-changing weather conditions of the mountainous terrain are cited as contributing factors to multiple aviation crashes in the area. There were seven aviation crashes around Mount Salak between 2002 and 2012, one person was killed in the crash of a small aircraft in October 2002, seven in October 2003, two in April 2004, and five in June 2004. Eighteen people were killed in a crash of an Indonesian Air Force military plane in 2008, media related to Mount Salak at Wikimedia Commons Mount Halimun Salak National Park List of volcanoes in Indonesia
35.
Abraham van Riebeeck
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Abraham van Riebeeck was a merchant with the Dutch East India Company and the Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies from 1709 to 1713. Abraham van Riebeeck was born on 18 October 1653 in the Dutch Cape Colony and his father was Jan van Riebeeck, commander of the Cape, and his mother was Maria van Riebeeck. When his father moved to Batavia in the Dutch East Indies in 1662, he sent Van Riebeeck and he studied law at Leiden University from 1673 to 1676. After his studies, he became a merchant with the Dutch East India Company and travelled on the ship De Vrijheyt to Batavia and he married Elisabeth van Oosten in 1678. They had six children, Johanna Maria, Johannes, Elisabeth and he was Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies from 1709 until his death in 1713. He was an explorer, who undertook several smaller and a few larger voyages in the Indies. After he became the first person to reach the summit of Tangkuban Perahu and he was unable to recover from the disease and died on 17 November 1713 in Batavia in the Dutch East Indies. Media related to Abraham van Riebeeck at Wikimedia Commons
36.
Cape Town
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Cape Town is a coastal city in South Africa. It is the second-most populous urban area in South Africa after Johannesburg and it is also the capital and primate city of the Western Cape province. As the seat of the Parliament of South Africa, it is also the capital of the country. It forms part of the City of Cape Town metropolitan municipality, the city is famous for its harbour, for its natural setting in the Cape Floristic Region, and for such well-known landmarks as Table Mountain and Cape Point. As of 2014, it is the 10th most populous city in Africa and it is one of the most multicultural cities in the world, reflecting its role as a major destination for immigrants and expatriates to South Africa. The city was named the World Design Capital for 2014 by the International Council of Societies of Industrial Design, in 2014, Cape Town was named the best place in the world to visit by both the American New York Times and the British Daily Telegraph. Located on the shore of Table Bay, Cape Town was first developed by the Dutch East India Company as a station for Dutch ships sailing to East Africa, India. Jan van Riebeecks arrival on 6 April 1652 established the first permanent European settlement in South Africa, Cape Town quickly outgrew its original purpose as the first European outpost at the Castle of Good Hope, becoming the economic and cultural hub of the Cape Colony. Until the Witwatersrand Gold Rush and the development of Johannesburg, Cape Town was the largest city in South Africa, the earliest known remnants in the region were found at Peers Cave in Fish Hoek and date to between 15,000 and 12,000 years ago. It was later renamed by John II of Portugal as Cape of Good Hope because of the optimism engendered by the opening of a sea route to India. Vasco da Gama recorded a sighting of the Cape of Good Hope in 1497, in the late 16th century, Portuguese, French, Danish, Dutch and English but mainly Portuguese ships regularly stopped over in Table Bay en route to the Indies. They traded tobacco, copper and iron with the Khoikhoi in exchange for fresh meat, the settlement grew slowly during this period, as it was hard to find adequate labour. This labour shortage prompted the authorities to import slaves from Indonesia, many of these became ancestors of the first Cape Coloured communities. Some of these, including grapes, cereals, ground nuts, potatoes, apples and citrus, had an important, the Dutch Republic being transformed in Revolutionary Frances vassal Batavian Republic, Great Britain moved to take control of its colonies. Britain captured Cape Town in 1795, but the Cape was returned to the Dutch by treaty in 1803, British forces occupied the Cape again in 1806 following the Battle of Blaauwberg. In the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814, Cape Town was permanently ceded to Britain and it became the capital of the newly formed Cape Colony, whose territory expanded very substantially through the 1800s. With expansion came calls for independence from Britain, with the Cape attaining its own parliament. Suffrage was established according to the non-racial, but sexist Cape Qualified Franchise, the discovery of diamonds in Griqualand West in 1867, and the Witwatersrand Gold Rush in 1886, prompted a flood of immigrants to South Africa
37.
Jan van Riebeeck
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Johan Anthoniszoon Jan van Riebeeck was a Dutch colonial administrator and founder of Cape Town. Van Riebeeck was born in Culemborg, as the son of a surgeon and he grew up in Schiedam, where he married 19-year-old Maria de la Quellerie on 28 March 1649. She died in Malacca, now part of Malaysia, on 2 November 1664, the couple had eight or nine children, most of whom did not survive infancy. Their son Abraham van Riebeeck, born at the Cape, later became Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies, joining the Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie in 1639, he served in a number of posts, including that of an assistant surgeon in the Batavia in the East Indies. He was head of the VOC trading post in Tonkin, Indochina, in 1643, Riebeeck travelled with Jan van Elseracq to the VOC outpost at Dejima in Japan. Seven years later in 1650, he proposed selling hides of South African wild animals to Japan, in 1651 he volunteered to undertake the command of the initial Dutch settlement in the future South Africa. He landed three ships at the future Cape Town on 6 April 1652 and fortified the site as a way-station for the VOC trade route between the Netherlands and the East Indies. The primary purpose of this way-station was to provide provisions for the VOC fleets sailing between the Dutch Republic and Batavia, as deaths en route were very high. The Walvisch and the Oliphant arrived later in 1652, having had 130 burials at sea, in the Kirstenbosch National Botanical Garden in Cape Town there are a few Wild Almond trees still surviving. The initial fort, named Fort de Goede Hoop was made of mud, clay and timber and this fort was replaced by the Castle of Good Hope, built between 1666 and 1679 after van Riebeeck had left the Cape. Van Riebeeck was joined at the Cape by a fellow Culemborger Roelof de Man who arrived in January 1654 on board the ship Naerden, Roelof came as the colony bookkeeper and was later promoted to second-in-charge. Van Riebeeck reported the first comet discovered from South Africa, C/1652 Y1, some of these, including grapes, cereals, ground nuts, potatoes, apples and citrus, had an important and lasting influence on the societies and economies of the region. The daily diary entries kept throughout his time at the Cape provided the basis for future exploration of the natural environment, careful reading of his diaries indicate that some of his knowledge was learned from the indigenous peoples inhabiting the region. He died in Batavia on Java in 1677, Jan van Riebeeck is of cultural and historical significance to South Africa. Many of the Afrikaner population view him as the father of their nation. The image used on the notes was not that of Van Riebeeck. 6 April used to be known as Van Riebeecks Day, and later as Founders Day and his image no longer features on any official currency or stamps, but statues of him and his wife remain in Adderley Street, Cape Town. The coat of arms of the city of Cape Town is based on the Van Riebeeck family coat of arms, many South African towns and villages have streets named after him
38.
Great Post Road
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The Great Post Road is the name for the historical road that runs across Java that connects Anyer and Panarukan. It was built during the reign of Herman Willem Daendels, governor-general of the Dutch East Indies, la Grande Route, as Daendels called it, was a military road which was laid down under the order of King Lodewijk Napoleon who ruled the Kingdom of Holland at that time. France was at war with England and the road was intended to ease military support, e. g. transfer of soldiers, in 1750, before the road was constructed, connections existed between Batavia and Semarang and onwards to Surabaya. A North-south connection between Semarang, Surakarta and onwards to Yogyakarta was also available at that time, however, these connection paths were not easily passable as heavy tropical rainfall frequently destroyed them. Daendels faced difficult conditions in the Dutch East Indies when he started the road construction, the British posed a major threat. Furthermore, there were uprisings in Bantam and Cirebon, and some of Daendels opponents actively frustrated his endeavours, many of Daendels opponents became historical sources of the harsh conditions during the road construction. Major William Thorn wrote that about 12,000 natives are said to have perished during the construction, furthermore, Engelhard criticized Daendels for the thousand casualties resulting from the road construction in the woods of Weleri in Pekalongan region. Today the present Javanese North Coast Road follows by and large the Java Great Post Road, however the original post road runs through the Preanger highlands, from Meester Cornelis south to Buitenzorg, and east to Cianjur, Bandung, Sumedang, and Cirebon. The current north coast road runs through coastal northern West Java and was built after the construction of Daendels post road. It connects Bekasi, Karawang, Pamanukan, and Cirebon, the road originally ran from Anyer, present day Banten, but formerly West Java to Panarukan, East Java, but later was extended to Banyuwangi. In its current form the Java main road extends through five provinces, Banten, DKI Jakarta, West Java, Central Java, the road initially served as the backbone of Javas transportation and logistic. In 1996, the Dutch producer Pieter van Huystee produced the film De Groote Postweg and this film was shown in several cinemas in the Netherlands, Italy and France. The Indonesian writer Pramoedya Ananta Toer did the narration for this film
39.
Gustaaf Willem van Imhoff
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Gustaaf Willem, Baron van Imhoff was a Dutch colonial administrator for the Dutch East India Company. He served as Governor of Ceylon from 1736 to 1740 and as Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies from 1743 until his death in 1750 at Istana Cipanas, Van Imhoff was born into an East Frisian aristocratic family. His father, Wilhelm Heinrich Freiherr von Imhoff, came from the town of Leer in northwestern Germany, in 1725 Van Imhoff entered into the service of the Dutch East India Company in Batavia, then colonial capital of the Dutch East Indies. Van Imhoff was promoted several times within the company before being appointed governor in Ceylon on 23 July 1736. Van Imhoffs tenure as governor of Ceylon put an end to the chaos that had pervaded the previous administration and he established constructive relations with Vira Narendra Sinha, King of Kandy. King Narendra was married to a Tamil princess of Madurai, and their child, in his letters, Van Imhoff expressed his surprise that the Sinhalese people had accepted such a king, considering their haughty attitude towards the Tamils of India. However, Van Imhoff saw an opportunity in this turn of events. They rejected the proposition as war was deemed as too costly, despite the profitable production of spices, the colony was always in a state of deficit because its profits were allotted to the VOC in general, not to the colony itself. This practice prevented the Governors from becoming too extravagant in their habits, in January 1739, Imhoff travelled to the port of Cochin on the south west coast of India with a view to authoring a report on the state of Dutch Malabar for the VOCs governors in Batavia. Imhoff demanded that Marthanda Varma restore the kingdom of Kayamkulam to its former ruling princess. Marthanda Varma countered that he would overcome any Dutch forces that were sent to his kingdom, the situation on the Malabar Coast triggered the Travancore–Dutch War, a conflict unauthorised by the Dutch government in Batavia. On 12 March 1740, Willem Maurits Bruyninck replaced Van Imhoff as governor of Ceylon and Imhoff returned to Batavia, former Governor-General Adriaan Valckenier believed that the Chinese population in the area around Batavia had grown too large. Vackenier had then responded with a counter-attack on 9 October 1740 that was meant to put insurgents under control, Van Imhoff voiced opposition to this brutal policy, which led to his arrest and deportation back to the Dutch Republic. However, upon his arrival, the Lords Seventeen decided to name him Governor-general of the Dutch East Indies, Van Imhoff proposed improving education efforts and the work of the Protestant Church in the colony. In May 1743, Van Imhoff began his tenure in Batavia, the Javanese princes took advantage of the chaotic situation following Valckeniers actions to begin a war against the VOC. Van Imhoff succeeded in reestablishing peace and began several reforms and he founded a Latin school, opened the first post offices in the Dutch East Indies, built a hospital and launched a newspaper. He also founded the city of Buitenzorg and suppressed opium trade, in 1746, Imhoff embarked on a tour of Java to inspect the companys holdings and decided on several institutional reforms. Van Imhoffs tenure was marked by catastrophe
40.
First French Empire
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The First French Empire, Note 1 was the empire of Napoleon Bonaparte of France and the dominant power in much of continental Europe at the beginning of the 19th century. Its name was a misnomer, as France already had colonies overseas and was short lived compared to the Colonial Empire, a series of wars, known collectively as the Napoleonic Wars, extended French influence over much of Western Europe and into Poland. The plot included Bonapartes brother Lucien, then serving as speaker of the Council of Five Hundred, Roger Ducos, another Director, on 9 November 1799 and the following day, troops led by Bonaparte seized control. They dispersed the legislative councils, leaving a rump legislature to name Bonaparte, Sieyès, although Sieyès expected to dominate the new regime, the Consulate, he was outmaneuvered by Bonaparte, who drafted the Constitution of the Year VIII and secured his own election as First Consul. He thus became the most powerful person in France, a power that was increased by the Constitution of the Year X, the Battle of Marengo inaugurated the political idea that was to continue its development until Napoleons Moscow campaign. Napoleon planned only to keep the Duchy of Milan for France, setting aside Austria, the Peace of Amiens, which cost him control of Egypt, was a temporary truce. He gradually extended his authority in Italy by annexing the Piedmont and by acquiring Genoa, Parma, Tuscany and Naples, then he laid siege to the Roman state and initiated the Concordat of 1801 to control the material claims of the pope. Napoleon would have ruling elites from a fusion of the new bourgeoisie, on 12 May 1802, the French Tribunat voted unanimously, with exception of Carnot, in favour of the Life Consulship for the leader of France. This action was confirmed by the Corps Législatif, a general plebiscite followed thereafter resulting in 3,653,600 votes aye and 8,272 votes nay. On 2 August 1802, Napoleon Bonaparte was proclaimed Consul for life, pro-revolutionary sentiment swept through Germany aided by the Recess of 1803, which brought Bavaria, Württemberg and Baden to Frances side. The memories of imperial Rome were for a time, after Julius Caesar and Charlemagne. The Treaty of Pressburg, signed on 26 December 1805, did little other than create a more unified Germany to threaten France. On the other hand, Napoleons creation of the Kingdom of Italy, the occupation of Ancona, to create satellite states, Napoleon installed his relatives as rulers of many European states. The Bonapartes began to marry into old European monarchies, gaining sovereignty over many nations, in addition to the vassal titles, Napoleons closest relatives were also granted the title of French Prince and formed the Imperial House of France. Met with opposition, Napoleon would not tolerate any neutral power, Prussia had been offered the territory of Hanover to stay out of the Third Coalition. With the diplomatic situation changing, Napoleon offered Great Britain the province as part of a peace proposal and this, combined with growing tensions in Germany over French hegemony, Prussia responded by forming an alliance with Russia and sending troops into Bavaria on 1 October 1806. In this War of the Fourth Coalition, Napoleon destroyed the armies of Frederick William at Jena-Auerstedt, the Eylau and the Friedland against the Russians finally ruined Frederick the Greats formerly mighty kingdom, obliging Russia and Prussia to make peace with France at Tilsit. The Treaties of Tilsit ended the war between Russia and the French Empire and began an alliance between the two empires that held power of much of the rest of Europe, the two empires secretly agreed to aid each other in disputes
41.
Stamford Raffles
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Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles, FRS was a British statesman, Lieutenant-Governor of British Java and Governor-General of Bencoolen, best known for his founding of Singapore. He was also involved in the conquest of the Indonesian island of Java from Dutch and French military forces during the Napoleonic Wars. He was also a writer and wrote a book titled The History of Java. Raffles was born on the ship Ann off the coast of Port Morant, Jamaica, to Captain Benjamin Raffles and his father was a Yorkshireman who had a burgeoning family and little luck in the West Indies trade during the American Revolution, sending the family into debt. The little money the family had went into schooling Raffles, in 1795, at the age of 14, Raffles started working as a clerk in London for the British East India Company, the trading company that shaped many of Britains overseas conquests. In 1805 he was sent to what is now Penang in the country of Malaysia, then called the Prince of Wales Island and he started with a post under the Honourable Philip Dundas, the Governor of Penang. At this time he made the acquaintance of Thomas Otho Travers. His knowledge of the Malay language, as well as his wit and ability, gained him favour with Lord Minto, Governor-General of India, and he was sent to Malacca. Then, in 1811, after the invasion and annexation of the Kingdom of Holland by France during Napoleons war, Raffles had no choice and he mounted a military expedition against the Dutch and French in Java, Indonesia. The British, led by Colonel Gillespie, stormed the fort, janssens attempted to escape inland but was captured. The British invasion of Java took a total of forty-five days and he took his residence at Buitenzorg and despite having a small subset of Britons as his senior staff, he kept many of the Dutch civil servants in the governmental structure. During the relatively brief British rule in Java, Raffles negotiated peace, Most significant of these was the 21 June 1812 assault on Yogyakarta, one of the two most powerful indigenous polities in Java. During the attack the Yogyakarta kraton was badly damaged and extensively looted by British troops, Raffles seized much of the contents of the court archive. The event was unprecedented in Javanese history and it was the first time an indigenous court had been taken by storm by a European army, and the humiliation of the local aristocracy was profound. Under Raffless aegis, a number of ancient monuments in Java were systematically catalogued for the first time. The first detailed English-language account of Prambanan was prepared by Colin Mackenzie while Borobudur was surveyed and cleared of vegetation by H. C, under the harsh conditions of the island, his wife, Olivia, died on 26 November 1814, an event that devastated Raffles. In 1815, he left again for England shortly before the island of Java was returned to control of the Netherlands following the Napoleonic Wars, under the terms of the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814. He sailed to England in early 1816 to clear his name and, en route, visited Napoleon, who was in exile at St. Helena, but found him unpleasant and unimpressive
42.
Baedeker
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Verlag Karl Baedeker, founded by Karl Baedeker on July 1,1827, is a German publisher and pioneer in the business of worldwide travel guides. 1827−1859, Karl Baedeker had three sons, Ernst, Karl and Fritz and after his death each, in turn, dictated by events, 1859−1861, Following the death of Karl Baedeker, his eldest son Ernst Baedeker became the head of the firm. After his training as a bookseller in Braunschweig, Leipzig and Stuttgart, on New Years Day,1859, he had joined his fathers publishing firm as a partner and just ten months later he was running it on his own. Ernst Baedeker died unexpectedly on 23 July 1861 of sunstroke in Egypt and his brother, Karl. 1861−1877, Karl Baedeker II continued the started by his brother Ernst. In addition to the revision of existing guides, he published 14 new guides, four in German, seven in English. In 1877 Karl, afflicted with a mental condition, moved to a sanatorium near Esslingen am Neckar where he remained for the rest of his life. 1869−1925, Under Fritz Baedeker the company grew rapidly, in 1870, the Baedeker bookselling business was sold. In 1872, he moved the headquarters from Koblenz to Leipzig. The new company was named Wagner and Debes with offices adjacent to the new Baedeker address. He added, By and large, it was the technical skill of the staff at Wagner & Debes that kept the Baedeker guides well ahead of their rivals in this particular aspect of publishing. Michael Wild, the Baedeker chronicler, refers to the Baedeker maps as a feast for the eye, the expansion was fast and furious. Plans to publish guides on China and Japan had to be abandoned when war broke out in 1914, at home, the list of guides on German regions and cities continued to grow. His was the age of Baedeker travel guides. Fritz also had the fortune to have three of his four sons − Hans, Ernst and Dietrich − beside him in the firm. Karl Baedeker III, the son, entered academia and rose to become a professor of physics at the University of Jena. It was his son Karl Friedrich who revived Verlag Karl Baedeker after the Second World War, during his reign, which lasted over 50 years, Fritz produced 73 new Baedekers, as they came to be known universally. The Baedeker travel guides became so popular that baedekering became an English-language term for the purpose of traveling in a country to write a guide or travelogue about it
Indonesia
West Java
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Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Buitenzorg". Encyclopædia Britannica. 4 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 770.
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "
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