1.
Hetman of Zaporizhian Host
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Hetman of Zaporizhian Host is a former historic government office and political institution of Cossack Hetmanate in Ukraine that was equivalent to a head of state. The office was liquidated on the edict of Russian Governing Senate of 17 November 1764, as a head of state the position was established at first by Bohdan Khmelnytsky during the Cossack Hetmanate in the mid 17th century. During that period the office was electoral, all elections except for the first one were adapted by the Senior Council in Chyhyryn which until 1669 served the capital of Hetmanate. Since the defeat of Petro Doroshenko in 1669 the Hetman title was adapted by pro-Russian elected hetmans who resided in Baturyn, the administration was moved to Hlukhiv where the Mazepas doll was publicly executed and anathema was laid against him by the Russian Orthodox Church. Later in the late 18th century it was disbanded by the Russian government during the expansion of the Russian territory towards the Black Sea coast. In 1764 the Russian Empress Catherine the Great issued an instruction to Prince Vyazemsky who was Procurator General of the Governing Senate. Some historians among which is Mykola Arkas question legitimacy of the Teterias elections accusing the later in corruption, also some sources claim election of Teteria having taken place in January 1663. The election of Teteria led to the Povoloch Regiment Uprising in 1663, moreover, the political crisis that followed the Pushkar–Barabash Uprising divided the Cossack Hetmanate completely on both bank of Dnieper River. Coincidentally, on 10 January 1663 the Tsardom of Muscovy created the new Little Russian Office within its Ambassadorial Office, in 1681 Mehmed IV appointed George Ducas the Hetman of Ukraine, replacing Khmelnytsky. Following the anathema on Mazepa and the election of Ivan Skoropadsky, upon the death of Skoropadsky, the Hetman elections were disrupted and were awarded as a gift and a type of princely titles, first to Moldavian nobleman and later to the Russian Empress favorite. On 5 April 1710 the council of cossacks, veterans of the battle at Poltava, Orlyk waged a guerrilla warfare at the southern borders of the Russian Empire with the support from Ottoman and Swedish empires. List of leaders of Ukraine Hetmans of Zaporizhian Cossacks Hetmans of Ukrainians Cossacks Hetman of Ukraine Dyadychenko, sketches of a social and political system of the Left-bank Ukraine at the end of 17th and the start of 18th centuries. Kiev 1959 Smoliy, V. Hetmanate Ukraine
2.
Yurii Khmelnytsky
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Yuri Khmelnytsky, younger son of the famous Ukrainian Hetman Bohdan Khmelnytsky and brother of Tymofiy Khmelnytsky, was a Zaporozhian Cossack political and military leader. Although he spent half of his life as a monk, he also was Hetman of Ukraine on several occasions — in 1659-1660 and 1678–1681. Yuri Khmelnytsky was born in 1641 in Subotiv near Chyhyryn in central Ukraine, in 1659 the Cossack Rada elected the 17-year-old Yurii as their hetman in Bila Tserkva, replacing the deposed Ivan Vyhovsky. The young hetman faced problems, the alliance with the Tsardom of Russia. In 1659 the parliament of Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth granted him nobility, on 24 March 1661 he became starost of Hadiach. During the latter conflict, Yuri Khmelnytskys Cossacks were defeated near the town of Korsun, he was captured by the Poles and this provoked a civil war within Ukraine in 1661, when the new ataman Yakym Somko led the pro-Moscow Cossacks against Yuri and his new Polish allies. At the battle near the town of Pereiaslav in the summer of 1662 Somkos Cossacks, after the defeat, Khmelnytsky entered an alliance with the Crimean Khanate, but this resulted in little beyond massive looting and raiding of Ukrainian towns and villagesby the Tatars. Thereupon Yuri gave up his title and became a monk at the Mharsky Monastery in the autumn of 1662. Between 1664 and 1667 the hetman Pavlo Teteria imprisoned him in Lviv, after his release, in 1672 he participated in a campaign against the Tatars and was captured near Uman and brought to Constantinople, where he was allowed to live in a Greek Orthodox monastery. In 1678 the Turkish army captured Chyhyryn and declared Yuri Khmelnytsky as a new hetman of Ukraine, Ottoman Turkish army with Yuri in tow captured and burned down Kaniv and other Ukrainian towns. Two years later, he was briefly re-instated by the Poles, finally in 1685 the Turks captured Yuri and executed him in Kamianets-Podilskyi. Unlike his father, Yuri was unable to master the complex situation he faced and was often manipulated by foreign powers. Hetmans of Ukrainian Cossacks List of Ukrainian rulers Kostomarov, Mykola, the Ruin, A Historical Monograph on the Life of Little Russia from 1663 to 1687 and Rus’ History in the Biographies of Its Important Figures - in Russian
3.
Subotiv
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Subotiv is a village in central Ukraine. It is located in the Chyhyryn Raion of the Cherkasy Oblast, the village is located on the right bank of the Tiasmyn River, a tributary of the Dnieper,7 km from Chyhyryn,21 km from Adamivka river port, and 38 km from Fundukliivka railway station. A local auto road 2414 runs through the village, the village name, Subotiv, according to one legend, took its roots from a live fire from oak firewood that was in front of Perun. According to another legend, it came from the name of the place where water from two tributaries combines, Subotiv is the birthplace of the Ukrainian Hetman Bohdan Khmelnytsky. Based on archeological studies, the place was settled as early as Bronze Age, at the place there are also traces of Early Slavic, and Kiev Rus settlements. In the documents the first known reference to the village is dated back to early 17th century, illinska Church, a church built by the order of Bohdan Khmelnytsky in 1653. It is also the place where Khmelnytsky is buried, the church is pictured on one of the paintings by Taras Shevchenko in 1845. The church is pictured on 5 hryvnia banknote, which is currently in circulation in Ukraine
4.
Kiev Voivodeship
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The voivodeship was established in 1471 under the order of King Casimir IV Jagiellon soon after the death of Semen Olelkovich. It had replaced the former Principality of Kiev, ruled by Lithuanian-Ruthenian Olelkovich princes and its first administrative center was Kiev, but when the city was given to Imperial Russia in 1667 by Treaty of Andrusovo, the capital moved to Zhytomyr, where it remained until 1793. It was the biggest voivodeship of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth by land area, covering, among others, the governor of the voivodeship was voivode. In the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth the other two major positions were castellan and bishop. 4, Urzędnicy województw kijowskiego i czernihowskiego XV-XVIII wieku, opracowali Eugeniusz Janas i Witold Kłaczewski, Kórnik, województwo kijowskie w czasach Zygmunta III Wazy, studium osadnictwa i stosunków własności ziemskiej. Napływ szlachty polskiej na Ukrainę 1569–1648, ISBN 83-86951-67-2 The Spatial Structure of the Kiev Voivodeship and its Impact on the Political and Social Life of the Gentry in 1569–1648. Struktura przestrzenna województwa kijowskiego i jej wpływ na życie polityczne i społeczne szlachty w latach 1569–1648, egzulanci w Rzeczypospolitej w ostatnich latach panowania Jana Kazimierza i za panowania Michała Korybuta Wiśniowieckiego. Dzieje rezydencji na dawnych kresach Rzeczypospolitej, boristhenem alias Dzikie Pola. by Joannis Janssonii. Der königlichen Republik Polen Woiwodschaft Kiow das ist die obere Polnische Ukraine oder Klein Polens oestlicher Theil, franz Johann Josef von Reilly 1791 Kiev Voivodeship in the Encyclopedia of History of Ukraine
5.
Chyhyryn
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Chyhyryn or Chigirin, is a city and important historic site located in the Cherkasy Oblast of central Ukraine. From 1648 to 1669 the city was the Hetman capital of the Cossack Hetmanate, the city lies at an altitude of 124 metres above mean sea level. Minor industries, such as food and furniture factories, exist in the town today, the area had been part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. It was ceded to the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth before the Union of Lublin and it was granted Magdeburg Rights in 1592 by Sigismund III Vasa. Chyhyryn is first mentioned as a fortified Cossack winter station, in 1638, Bohdan Khmelnytsky became its starosta, and in 1648 it became the newly elected Hetmans residence and the capital of the Cossack state, the Zaporozhian Host. In 1669 upon the election of Demian Mnohohrishny as the Hetman of Ukraine, during the Russo-Turkish War it was the center of two bloody campaigns. In 1678 the castle of Chyhyryn was blown up by the retreating Russian garrison that was stationed there, after this, it gradually lost its significance. It remained the center of the Chyhyryn regiment until 1712 and upon the incorporation into the Russian Empire it became part of the Kiev region. In 1917 a congress of Free Cossacks took place in Chyhyryn, at that congress by tradition Pavlo Skoropadsky was elected as the Hetman of the Cossacks. During World War II, Chyhyryn was occupied by the German Army from August 7,1941 to December 12,1943, the Trinity Monastery, built near Chyhyryn in 1627, was later destroyed by the Soviet authorities. Other historical landmarks, such as the hall and Khmelnytskys palace. After Ukraine regained independence, Hetmans residence was restored and became a museum
6.
Cossack Hetmanate
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The Cossack Hetmanate, officially known as the Ruthenian State or Zaporizhian Host, was a Ukrainian Cossack state in Central Ukraine between 1649 and 1764. For other names, please, see section Name, the Hetmanate was founded by the Hetman of Zaporizhian Host Bohdan Khmelnytsky during the Uprising of 1648–57. The official document, which symbolized union between Russia and Ukraine, however, was never preserved and is thought to be fictional. After a failed attempt to break the union with Russia by Ivan Mazepa in 1708, Catherine II of Russia officially abolished the institute of Hetman in 1764 and in 1764-1781 Cossack Hetmanate was incorporated as the Little Russia Governorate headed by Pyotr Rumyantsev. The official name of the Cossack Hetmanate was Zaporizhian Host, the historiographic term Hetmanate or Hetman state were coined in the late 19th century. It derives from the word hetman, the title of the general of the Zaporizhian Army, inhabitants of the Cossack Hetmanate referred to it in Ukrainian as Ukraine or Vkraine. In Muscovite diplomatic correspondence it was called the Little Russian State, in Polish, Ottoman, the Cossack Hetmanate was called the country of Ukraine by the Ottoman Empire. The founder of the Hetmanate, Bohdan Khmelnytsky, declared himself as the ruler of the Ruthenian state to the Polish representative Adam Kysil in February 1649 and he also called the Hetmanate as Ruthenian state in his letter to the Tsar on February 17,1654. His contemporary Metropolitan Sylvestr Kosiv recognized him as the leader and the commander of our land, Şerban he referred to himself as Clementiae divinae Generalis Dux Exercituum Zaporoviensium. He warned them about his intention to resume his military campaign, however, after obtaining an intelligence report of the superior cossack forces, the Polish troops retreated to Zbarazh to set a defense. The forces of Jeremi Wiśniowiecki reinforced the Zbarazh defenders while he took the lead of all Polish forces, Khmelnytsky besieged the city wearing down through series of random attacks and firing at it. The king while rushing to help Wisznewecki was ambushed with his newly gathered forces, Khmelnytsky leaving part of his army with Ivan Cherniata near Zbarazh moved together with İslâm III Giray to intercept the Polish reinforcements and block their way at a river crossing near Zboriv. Caught be some degree of surprise John Casimir started negotiations with the Tatars khan, bringing khan on his side they forced Khmelnytsky to start peace negotiations. Khmelnytsky signed the Treaty of Zboriv in August 1649 and was less than the cossack leader has anticipated from his campaign. As ruler of the Hetmanate, Khmelnytsky engaged in state-building across multiple spheres, in the military, administration, finance, economics, and culture. He invested the Zaporozhian Host under the leadership of its hetman with supreme power in the new Ruthenian state, the Hetmanate used Polish currency, and Polish as an administrative language and a language of command. This is known as the modern Ukrainian language, the treaty also led to the Russo-Polish War of 1654–1667. The period in Hetmanate history, known as the Ruin, which lasted from 1657 to 1687, was marked by constant civil wars throughout the state, at the end of Bohdan Khmelnytskys life, his son Yuri Khmelnytsky was elected to be his successor
7.
Ukrainians
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Ukrainians are an East Slavic ethnic group native to Ukraine, which is by total population the sixth-largest nation in Europe. The Constitution of Ukraine applies the term Ukrainians to all its citizens, also among historical names of the people of Ukraine Rusyns, Cossacks, etc. can be found. According to some definitions, a descriptive name for the inhabitants of Ukraine is Ukrainian or Ukrainian people. Belarusians and Russians are considered among the bloodline of Ukrainians, while Rusyns are another closely related group, the ethnonym Ukrainians became widely accepted only in the 20th century after their territory obtained distinctive statehood in 1917. People of these territories were usually called Rus or Rusyns, the Ukrainian language appeared in the 14th – 16th centuries, but at that time, it was mostly known as Ruthenian, like its brothers. In the 16th – 17th centuries, with the establishment of the Zaporizhian Sich, however, the ethnonym Ukrainians and the linguonym Ukrainian were used only occasionally, and the people of Ukraine usually continued to call themselves and their language Ruthenian. This official name did not spread widely among the peasantry constituted the majority of the population. Ukrainian peasants still referred to their country as Ukraine and to themselves, in areas outside the control of the Russian/Soviet state until the mid-20th century, Ukrainians were known by their pre-existing names for much longer. The modern name derives from Ukrayina, a name first documented in 1187. Several scientific theories attempt to explain the etymology of the term, according to some new alternative Ukrainian historians such as Hryhoriy Pivtorak, Vitaly Sklyarenko and other scholars, translate the term u-kraine as in-land, home-land or our-country. The name in this context derives from the word u-kraina in the sense of domestic region, in the last few centuries the population of Ukraine experienced periods of Polonization and Russification, but preserved a common culture and a sense of common identity. Most ethnic Ukrainians live in Ukraine, where make up over three-quarters of the population. The inhabitants of the Kuban, for example, have vacillated among three identities, Ukrainian, Russian, and Cossack, approximately 800,000 people of Ukrainian ancestry live in the Russian Far East in an area known historically as Green Ukraine. According to some assumptions, an estimated number of almost 2.1 million people of Ukrainian origin live in North America. Large numbers of Ukrainians live in Brazil, Moldova, Kazakhstan, Poland, Argentina, Belarus, Portugal, there are also Ukrainian diasporas in the UK, Australia, Germany, Latvia, Switzerland, Austria, Italy, Ireland, Sweden and the former Yugoslavia. Today, large ethnic Ukrainian minorities reside in Russia, Canada, Ukrainians have one of the largest diasporas in the world. The East Slavs emerged from the undifferentiated early Slavs with the Slavic migrations in the 6th and 7th centuries CE, the East Slavs were united in the Kievan Rus during the 9th to 13th centuries. East Slavic tribes cited as proto-Ukrainian include the Volhynians, Derevlianians, Polianians, and Siverianians and the less significant Ulychians, Tivertsians, the Gothic historian Jordanes and 6th-century Byzantine authors named two groups that lived in the south-east of Europe, Sclavins and Antes
8.
Ruthenians
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Ruthenians and Ruthenes are archaic English-language exonyms for a Slavic population known in medieval times as the Rus in various parts of Eastern Europe. Along with Lithuanians, Samogitians and Litvins constituted main population of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, from the 9th century, the state of, which was known later as Kievan Rus was known in Western Europe by a variety of names derived from Rus. From the 12th century, Rus was usually known in Western Europe by the Latinised name Ruthenia, in their broadest usage, Ruthenians or Ruthenes were used to refer to peoples now called Belarusians, Russians, members of the Rusyn minority and Ukrainians. By the end of the 18th century, the modern Ukrainian language had been codified, at the same time, however, many Rusyns did not accept the name Ukrainian or never regarded themselves as such, especially those in Carpathian Ruthenia and the Pannonian Rusyns. Contact with neighbouring languages, such as Slovak, Polish, Hungarian, Romanian and German had created significant linguistic rifts between the Rusyn language and Ukrainian, by the mid-19th century, the Rusyns of Galicia and Lodomeria had codified their language. Many people identifying as Rusyns now regard themselves as a minority, the majority of them live in south-western Ukraine, eastern Slovakia, south-east Poland, north-east Hungary, and north-west Romania. The related Pannonian Rusyns live in a region of Serbia and Croatia. Ruthenians and Ruthenes are now used by Rusyns or Ukrainians. From the 12th century, the land of Rus was usually known in Western Europe by the Latinised name Ruthenia, geographically, Ruthenia is a cross-border region centred on the northern Carpathian Mountains, including western Ukraine, eastern Slovakia, and southern Poland. This area coincides, to a degree, with a region sometimes known in English as Galicia. The name Ruthenian is also used by the Pannonian Rusyn minority in Serbia and Croatia, in contrast, the Rusyns of Romania are more likely to identify as Ukrainian. One of the earliest references to Rus in a Latinised form was in the 5th century, ruteni, a misnomer that was also the name of an extinct and unrelated Celtic tribe in Ancient Gaul, was used in reference to Rus is in the Annales Augustiani of 1089. An alternative early modern Latinisation, Rucenus was, according Boris Unbegaun and it too was applied to Rusyns and Ukrainians equally. However according to research studies is to come to conclusion that even after the 16th century the word Rutheni was associated with all East Slavs. Vasili III of Russia, who ruled the Grand Duchy of Moscow in the 16th century, was known in European Latin sources as Rhuteni Imperator, according to Jacques Margeret Moscovitae called themselves in the 16th century Ruthenians. Professor David Frick from the Harvard Ukrainian Research Institute has also found in Vilnius the documents from 1655, at the request of Mykhajlo Levitsky, in 1843 the term Ruthenian became the official name for the Rusyns and Ukrainians within the Austrian Empire. For example, Ivan Franko and Stepan Bandera in their passports were identified as Ruthenians, by 1900 more and more Ruthenians began to call themselves with the self-designated name Ukrainians. A number of Ukrainian members of the intelligentsia, such as Mykhailo Drahomanov and Ivan Franko, perceived the term as narrow-minded, provincial and Habsburg
9.
Ruthenian language
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Ruthenian was the group of varieties of Eastern Slavonic spoken in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and later in the East Slavic territories of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. The written form is also called Chancery Slavonic by Lithuanian linguists, scholars do not agree whether Ruthenian was a separate language, or a Western dialect or set of dialects of Old East Slavic, but it is agreed that Ruthenian has a close genetic relationship with it. Old East Slavic was the language used in Kievan Rus. Ruthenian can be seen as a predecessor of modern Belarusian, Rusyn, indeed, all these languages, from Old East Slavic to Rusyn, have been labelled as Ruthenian. In modern texts, the language in question is sometimes called Old Belarusian or starabelaruskaya mova, as Ruthenian was always in a kind of diglossic opposition to Church Slavonic, this vernacular language was and still is often called prosta mova, literally simple language. On the other hand, there exists a school of thought that Old Belarusian, names in contemporary use Ruthenian — by the contemporaries, but, generally, not in contemporary Russia. Simple Ruthenian or simple talk — publisher Grigoriy Khodkevich, Lithuanian — possibly, exclusive reference to it in the contemporary Russia. West Russian, language or dialect — chiefly by the supporters of the concept of the Proto-Russian phase, esp. since the end of the 19th century, e. g. by Karskiy, Russian Wikipedia uses the term West Russian written language. Belarusian — rarely in contemporary Russia, lithuanian-Russian — by 19th-century Russian researchers Keppen, archbishop Filaret, Sakharov, Karatayev. Lithuanian-Slavonic — by 19th-century Russian researcher Baranovskiy, ruski — used by Norman Davies in Vanished Kingdoms, The History of Half-Forgotten Europe. Both were usually called Ruskij or Slovenskij, only when a differentiation between the language of Muscovy and the one of Lithuania was needed was the former called Moskovskij Muscovite. After the Union of Lublin in 1569, the territories of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania came under direct administration by the Polish Crown. It is possible that this resulted in differences concerning the status of Ruthenian as an official language, in his 1827 Little Russian Folksongs Mykhaylo Maksymovych used a new orthography for the Ukrainian language which was based on etymology. Maksymovychivka looked quite similar to Russian, but it was a first step towards an independent orthography, the split between literary Ruthenian and the successor literary languages can be seen at once in the newly designed Belarusian and Ukrainian orthographies. After that Belarusian only survived as a spoken language with almost no written tradition until the mid-19th century. For disambiguation, in English these people are called by the native form of their name. Thus, in the 19th century, the literary Ruthenian language had evolved into three modern literary languages, for their further development, see Belarusian language, Rusyn language, and Ukrainian language. Ukrainian language Belarusian language Rusyn language East Slavic languages Brogi Bercoff, Giovanna, “Plurilingualism in Eastern Slavic culture of the 17th century, The case of Simeon Polockij. ”In, Slavia, Časopis pro slovanskou filologii, danylenko, Andrii, Prostaja mova, Kitab, and Polissian Standard
10.
Crown of the Kingdom of Poland
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The Crown of the Kingdom of Poland, or simply the Crown, is the common name for the historic Late Middle Ages territorial possessions of the King of Poland, including Poland proper. The kingdom has been dated back to c. 966, when Mieszko I and his pagan Slavic realm joined Christian Europe and his oldest son and successor, Prince Bolesław I Chrobry, Duke of Poland, became the first crowned King of Poland in 1025. The creation of the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland was a milestone in the evolution of Polish statehood and it represented the concept of the Polish kingdom as distinctly separate from the person of the monarch. A related concept that evolved soon afterward was that of Rzeczpospolita, the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland was also related to other symbols of Poland, such as the capital, the Polish coat of arms and the flag of Poland. The concept of the Crown also had a geographical aspects, particularly related to the indivisibility of the Polish - Crown -territory. It can be seen as a unit of administrative division. Parts formed part at the early Kingdom of Poland, then, at the same time, the Crown also referred to all lands that the Polish state could claim to have the right to rule over, including those that were not within Polish borders. The term distinguishes those territories federated with the Crown Grand Duchy of Lithuania from various fiefdom territories, such as the Duchy of Prussia and the Duchy of Courland. Prior to the 1569 Union of Lublin, Crown territories may be understood as those of Poland proper, inhabited by Poles, with the Union of Lublin, however, most of present-day Ukraine, passed onto Polish administration, thus becoming Crown territory. During that period, a term for a Pole from the Crown territory was koroniarz - or Crownlander in English - derived from Korona - the Crown and this often meant a distinction between persons loyal to the elected King and persons loyal to Polish magnate. Crown lands were divided into two provinces, Lesser Poland and Greater Poland and these were further divided into administrative units known as voivodeships. Royal Prussia included Pomerelia, Chełmno Land, Malbork Voivodeship, Gdańsk, Toruń, Polish historian Henryk Wisner writes that Royal Prussia belonged to the Province of Greater Poland. The towns affected were, Biała, Lubica, Wierzbów, Spiska Sobota, Poprad, Straże, Spiskie Włochy, Nowa Wieś, Spiska Nowa Wieś, Ruszkinowce, Wielka, Spiskie Podgrodzie, Maciejowce, Twarożne. Wenceslaus I sold the Duchy of Siewierz to the Archbishop of Kraków, Zbigniew Cardinal Oleśnicki, after that point it was considered to be associated with the Lesser Poland Province and was the only ecclesiastical duchy in Lesser Poland. In 1641 it became part of the Pomeranian Voivodeship of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the Duchy of Livonia was held as a condominium with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The Duchy of Courland and Semigallia was held as a condominium with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, jan Herburt, Statuta Regni Poloniae, in ordinem alphabeti digesta, Cracoviae 1563. Jan Dąbrowski, Korona Królestwa Polskiego w XIV wieku, studium z dziejów rozwoju polskiej monarchii stanowej, stanisław Szczur, Historia Polski Średniowiecze, Wydawnictwo Literackie 2002, ISBN 83-08-03272-9
11.
Ukraine
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Ukraine is currently in territorial dispute with Russia over the Crimean Peninsula which Russia annexed in 2014 but which Ukraine and most of the international community recognise as Ukrainian. Including Crimea, Ukraine has an area of 603,628 km2, making it the largest country entirely within Europe and it has a population of about 42.5 million, making it the 32nd most populous country in the world. The territory of modern Ukraine has been inhabited since 32,000 BC, during the Middle Ages, the area was a key centre of East Slavic culture, with the powerful state of Kievan Rus forming the basis of Ukrainian identity. Following its fragmentation in the 13th century, the territory was contested, ruled and divided by a variety of powers, including Lithuania, Poland, the Ottoman Empire, Austria-Hungary, and Russia. A Cossack republic emerged and prospered during the 17th and 18th centuries, two brief periods of independence occurred during the 20th century, once near the end of World War I and another during World War II. Before its independence, Ukraine was typically referred to in English as The Ukraine, following independence, Ukraine declared itself a neutral state. Nonetheless it formed a limited partnership with the Russian Federation and other CIS countries. In the 2000s, the government began leaning towards NATO, and it was later agreed that the question of joining NATO should be answered by a national referendum at some point in the future. Former President Viktor Yanukovych considered the current level of co-operation between Ukraine and NATO sufficient, and was against Ukraine joining NATO and these events formed the background for the annexation of Crimea by Russia in March 2014, and the War in Donbass in April 2014. On 1 January 2016, Ukraine applied the economic part of the Deep, Ukraine has long been a global breadbasket because of its extensive, fertile farmlands and is one of the worlds largest grain exporters. The diversified economy of Ukraine includes a heavy industry sector, particularly in aerospace. Ukraine is a republic under a semi-presidential system with separate powers, legislative, executive. Its capital and largest city is Kiev, taking into account reserves and paramilitary personnel, Ukraine maintains the second-largest military in Europe after that of Russia. Ukrainian is the language and its alphabet is Cyrillic. The dominant religion in the country is Eastern Orthodoxy, which has strongly influenced Ukrainian architecture, literature, there are different hypotheses as to the etymology of the name Ukraine. According to the older and most widespread hypothesis, it means borderland, while more recently some studies claim a different meaning, homeland or region. The Ukraine now implies disregard for the sovereignty, according to U. S. ambassador William Taylor. Neanderthal settlement in Ukraine is seen in the Molodova archaeological sites include a mammoth bone dwelling
12.
Khmelnytsky Uprising
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The Khmelnytsky Uprising was a Cossack rebellion within the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1648–1657, which led to the creation of a Cossack Hetmanate in Ukrainian lands. The insurgency was accompanied by atrocities committed by Cossacks against the civilian population, especially against the Roman Catholic clergy. The uprising has a meaning in the history of Ukraines relationship with Poland. The event triggered a period of turbulence and infighting in the Hetmanate known as the Ruin. With the creation of the Polish-Lithuanian Union in 1569, a number of Ruthenian lands were gradually absorbed under the control of a powerful aristocratic republic — the Rzeczpospolita. Although the local nobility was granted full rights within the Rzeczpospolita, local Orthodox traditions were also under siege from the assumption of ecclesiastical power by the Grand Duchy of Moscow in 1448. Born to a family, Bohdan Khmelnytsky attended Jesuit schools. At the age of 22 he joined his father in the service of the Commonwealth, after being held captive in Constantinople, he returned to life as a registered Cossack, settling in his hometown of Subotiv with a wife and several children. He participated in campaigns for Grand Crown Hetman Stanisław Koniecpolski, led delegations to King Władysław IV Vasa in Warsaw, the course of his life was altered, however, when Aleksander Koniecpolski, heir to Hetman Koniecpolskis magnate estate, attempted to seize Khmelnytskys land. In 1647 Chyhyryn starost Daniel Czapliński openly started to harass Khmelnytsky on behalf of the younger Koniecpolski in an attempt to force him off the land. He twice sought assistance from the king by traveling to Warsaw, having received no support from Polish officials, Khmelnytsky turned to his Cossack friends and subordinates. The case of a Cossack being unfairly treated by the Poles found a lot of not only in his regiment. All through the autumn of 1647 Khmelnytsky traveled from one regiment to the other and had numerous consultations with different Cossack leaders throughout Ukraine and his activity raised the suspicions of Polish authorities already used to Cossack revolts, and he was promptly arrested. Polkovnyk Mykhailo Krychevsky assisted Khmelnytsky in his escape, and with a group of supporters he headed for the Zaporozhian Sich. Cossacks were already on the brink of the new rebellion as plans for the new war with the Ottoman Empire advanced by the Polish king Władysław IV Vasa were cancelled by Sejm. Rumors about the hostilities with the infidels were greeted with joy. However, the Cossack rebellion might have fizzled in the manner as the great rebellions of 1637–1638. He realized that Cossacks, while having an excellent infantry, could not hope to match the Polish cavalry, however, combining Cossack infantry with Crimean Tatar cavalry could have provided a balanced military force and given the Cossacks a chance to beat the Polish army
13.
Magnate
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Magnate, from the Late Latin magnas, a great man, itself from Latin magnus, great, designates a noble or other man in a high social position, by birth, wealth or other qualities. In reference to the Middle Ages, the term is used to distinguish higher territorial landowners and warlords such as counts, earls, dukes. In England, the class went through a change in the later Middle Ages. It had previously consisted of all tenants-in-chief of the crown, a group of more than a hundred families, the emergence of Parliament led to the establishment of a parliamentary peerage that received personal summons, rarely more than sixty families. A similar class in the Gaelic world were the Flatha, in the Middle Ages a bishop sometimes held territory as a magnate, collecting the revenue of the manors and the associated knights fees. In the Tudor period, after Henry VII defeated Richard III at Bosworth Field, Henry VII would make parliament attaint undesirable nobles and magnates, thereby stripping them of their wealth, protection from torture, and power. Henry VII also used the Court of the Star Chamber to have powerful nobles executed, Henry VIII continued this approach in his reign, he inherited a survivalistic mistrust of nobles from his father. Henry VIII ennobled very few men and the ones he did were all new men, novi homines, greatly indebted to him, the term was specifically applied to the members of the Upper House in the Apostolic Kingdom of Hungary, the Főrendiház or House of Magnates. In the Early and High Middle Ages the highest title was vojvoda, during the Serbian Empire the higher court members held titles such as despot, sevastokrator and kesar. During foreign rule, under the Ottoman Empire, Habsburg Monarchy, Republic of Venice, and later in the Revolution, in Spain, since the late Middle Ages the highest class of nobility hold the appellation of Grandee of Spain. In Sweden, the wealthiest medieval lords were known as storman, great men, a similar description and meaning as the English term magnate. Aristocracy Szlachta, in Poland Boyar, in Eastern Europe Velikaš, in Serbia and Croatia Magnat This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh
14.
Treaty of Pereyaslav
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The exact nature of the relationship stipulated by the agreement between the Hetmanate and Russia is a matter of scholarly controversy. The council of Pereyaslav was followed by exchange of documents the March Articles. The Council was attended by a delegation from Moscow headed by Vasiliy Buturlin, interpreters were needed for the negotiations since the two sides couldnt understand each others language. The event was soon followed by the adoption in Moscow of the so-called March Articles that stipulated an autonomous status of the Hetmanate within the Russian state. The agreement precipitated the Russo-Polish War, in January 1648, a major anti-Polish uprising led by Bohdan Khmelnytskyi began in the Zaporizhia lands. However, the autonomy obtained by Khmelnytsky found itself squeezed between three Great powers, Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Tsardom of Muscovy and Ottoman Empire. Taking into consideration the economic and human resources, the uprising was taking place in regions of the Polish Crown, Kijow, Czernihow. The Crimean Khan, the ally, was not interested in a decisive victory of Cossacks. It is believed that negotiations to unite the Zaporizhia land with Russia started as early as in 1648, such idea is common among Soviet historians of Ukraine and Russia such as Mykola Petrovsky. June 18,1648 – the first known official letter of Bohdan Khmelnytskyi to the Tsar Alexis I, June 18,1648 – letter of Khmelnytskyi to the Muscovite voivode of Siveria, mention of favorable attitude of the Cossacks to the Tsar. The issue of allegiance to the Tsar is not raised, july 21,1648 – letter of Khmelnytskyi to the Muscovite voivode of Putivl, Pleshcheyev. Mention of motivation of the Tsar of Muscovy to the struggle for the Polish Crown, the issue of allegiance to the Tsar is not raised. End of December 1648 – departing of Khmelnytskyi delegation to Moscow, the delegation included the chief envoy Syluyan Muzhylovsky and Patriarch Paisius I of Jerusalem. But in the Muzhylovskys notes is mentioned only request for military assistance, April 1649 – meeting of Khmelnytskyi with the Tsars envoy Grigoriy Unkovsky in Chyhyryn. Hetman emphasized on the kinship of Ukraine with Moscow. from the baptizing by St. Vladimir we had with Moscow our one pious Christian faith, may 1649 – deportation of Khmelnytskyis envoys to Moscow headed by Chyhyryn Colonel Fedir Veshnyak. In accreditation letter it was expressed petition for protectorate of the Muscovite Tsar. take under own mercy, whole Ruthenia At the same time, similar delegation was sent to the Prince of Transylvania George II Rákóczi to encourage him to fight for the Polish Crown. August 16,1649 – hollow victory at the Battle of Zboriv, betrayed by Crimean Tatars, Bohdan Khmelnytskyi blamed Moscow for not sending help. March 1650 – Khmelnytskyi ignored orders of the King of Poland on preparations to a shared Polish-Crimean campaign against Moscow, summer-fall of 1650 – revival of the Turkish-Ukrainian dialogue to transfer under the Ottoman protectorate
15.
Tsardom of Russia
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From 1551 to 1700, Russia grew 35,000 km2 per year. After a military victory over Sweden and Poland, he implemented substantial reforms and proclaimed the Russian Empire in 1721. While the oldest endonyms of the Grand Duchy of Moscow used in its documents were Rus and the Russian land, in the 1480s Russian state scribes Ivan Cherny and Mikhail Medovartsev mention Russia under the name Росиа, Medovartsev also mentions the sceptre of Russian lordship. In England of the 16th century, it was both as Russia and Muscovy. In Northern Europe and at the court of the Holy Roman Empire, however, muscovites refute this, saying that their country was originally called Russia. When they are asked what nation they are, they respond Russac, which means Russians, and when they are asked what place they are from, by the 16th century, the Russian ruler had emerged as a powerful, autocratic figure, a Tsar. By assuming that title, the sovereign of Moscow tried to emphasize that he was a ruler or emperor on par with the Byzantine emperor or the Mongol khan. At first, the Byzantine term autokrator expressed only the meaning of an independent ruler. Ivan IV was crowned Tsar and thus was recognized, at least by the Russian Orthodox Church and that concept was to resonate in the self-image of Russians in future centuries. The development of the Tsars autocratic powers reached a peak during the reign of Ivan IV, Ivan strengthened the position of the Tsar to an exceptional degree, demonstrating the risks of unrestrained power in the hands of a mentally unstable individual. Although apparently intelligent and energetic, Ivan suffered from breakdowns of paranoia and depression, Ivan IV became Grand Prince of Moscow in 1533 at the age of three. The Shuysky and Belsky factions of the boyars competed for control of the regency until Ivan assumed the throne in 1547, reflecting Moscows new imperial claims, Ivans coronation as Tsar was a ritual modeled after those of the Byzantine emperors. With the continuing assistance of a group of boyars, Ivan began his reign with a series of useful reforms, in the 1550s, he declared a new law code, revamped the military, and reorganized local government. These reforms undoubtedly were intended to strengthen the state in the face of continuous warfare, the key documents prepared by the so-called Select Council of advisors and promulgated during this period are as follows. Muscovy remained a fairly unknown society in Western Europe until Baron Sigismund von Herberstein published his Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii in 1549 and this provided a broad view of what had been a rarely visited and poorly reported state. In the 1630s, the Russian Tsardom was visited by Adam Olearius, whose lively, further information about Russia was circulated by English and Dutch merchants. One of them, Richard Chancellor, sailed to the White Sea in 1553, upon his return to England, the Muscovy Company was formed by himself, Sebastian Cabot, Sir Hugh Willoughby, and several London merchants. Ivan the Terrible used these merchants to exchange letters with Elizabeth I, despite the domestic turmoil of the 1530s and 1540s, Russia continued to wage wars and to expand
16.
Coat of arms
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A coat of arms is an heraldic visual design on an escutcheon, surcoat, or tabard. The coat of arms on an escutcheon forms the central element of the heraldic achievement which in its whole consists of shield, supporters, crest. A coat of arms is traditionally unique to a person, family, state. The ancient Romans used similar insignia on their shields, but these identified military units rather than individuals, the first evidence of medieval coats of arms has been attributed to the 11th century Bayeux Tapestry in which some of the combatants carry shields painted with crosses. However, that heraldic interpretation remains controversial, coats of arms came into general use by feudal lords and knights in battle in the 12th century. By the 13th century, arms had spread beyond their initial battlefield use to become a flag or emblem for families in the social classes of Europe. Exactly who had a right to use arms, by law or social convention, in the German-speaking regions both the aristocracy and burghers used arms, while in most of the rest of Europe they were limited to the aristocracy. The use of spread to the clergy, to towns as civic identifiers. Flags developed from coats of arms, and the arts of vexillology, the coats of arms granted to commercial companies are a major source of the modern logo. Despite no widespread regulation, heraldry has remained consistent across Europe, some nations, like England and Scotland, still maintain the same heraldic authorities which have traditionally granted and regulated arms for centuries and continue to do so in the present day. In England, for example, the granting of arms is and has controlled by the College of Arms. Unlike seals and other emblems, heraldic achievements have a formal description called a blazon. Many societies exist that also aid in the design and registration of personal arms, in the heraldic traditions of England and Scotland, an individual, rather than a family, had a coat of arms. In those traditions coats of arms are legal property transmitted from father to son, wives, undifferenced arms are used only by one person at any given time. Other descendants of the bearer could bear the ancestral arms only with some difference. One such charge is the label, which in British usage is now always the mark of an apparent or an heir presumptive. Because of their importance in identification, particularly in seals on legal documents and this has been carried out by heralds and the study of coats of arms is therefore called heraldry. In time, the use of arms spread from military entities to educational institutes, the author Helen Stuart argues that some coats of arms were a form of corporate logo
17.
Nobility
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The privileges associated with nobility may constitute substantial advantages over or relative to non-nobles, or may be largely honorary, and vary from country to country and era to era. There is often a variety of ranks within the noble class. g, san Marino and the Vatican City in Europe. Hereditary titles often distinguish nobles from non-nobles, although in many nations most of the nobility have been un-titled, some countries have had non-hereditary nobility, such as the Empire of Brazil. The term derives from Latin nobilitas, the noun of the adjective nobilis. In modern usage, nobility is applied to the highest social class in pre-modern societies and it rapidly came to be seen as a hereditary caste, sometimes associated with a right to bear a hereditary title and, for example in pre-revolutionary France, enjoying fiscal and other privileges. Nobility is a historical, social and often legal notion, differing from high socio-economic status in that the latter is based on income. Being wealthy or influential cannot, ipso facto, make one noble, various republics, including former Iron Curtain countries, Greece, Mexico, and Austria have expressly abolished the conferral and use of titles of nobility for their citizens. Not all of the benefits of nobility derived from noble status per se, usually privileges were granted or recognised by the monarch in association with possession of a specific title, office or estate. Most nobles wealth derived from one or more estates, large or small and it also included infrastructure such as castle, well and mill to which local peasants were allowed some access, although often at a price. Nobles were expected to live nobly, that is, from the proceeds of these possessions, work involving manual labour or subordination to those of lower rank was either forbidden or frowned upon socially. In some countries, the lord could impose restrictions on such a commoners movements. Nobles exclusively enjoyed the privilege of hunting, in France, nobles were exempt from paying the taille, the major direct tax. In some parts of Europe the right of war long remained the privilege of every noble. During the early Renaissance, duelling established the status of a respectable gentleman, Nobility came to be associated with social rather than legal privilege, expressed in a general expectation of deference from those of lower rank. By the 21st century even that deference had become increasingly minimised, in France, a seigneurie might include one or more manors surrounded by land and villages subject to a nobles prerogatives and disposition. Seigneuries could be bought, sold or mortgaged, if erected by the crown into, e. g. a barony or countship, it became legally entailed for a specific family, which could use it as their title. Yet most French nobles were untitled, in other parts of Europe, sovereign rulers arrogated to themselves the exclusive prerogative to act as fons honorum within their realms. Nobility might be inherited or conferred by a fons honorum
18.
Eastern Orthodox Church
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The Eastern Orthodox Church teaches that it is the One, Holy, Catholic and Apostolic Church established by Jesus Christ in his Great Commission to the apostles. It practices what it understands to be the original Christian faith, the Eastern Orthodox Church is a communion of autocephalous churches, each typically governed by a Holy Synod. It teaches that all bishops are equal by virtue of their ordination, prior to the Council of Chalcedon in AD451, the Eastern Orthodox had also shared communion with the Oriental Orthodox churches, separating primarily over differences in Christology. Eastern Orthodoxy spread throughout the Roman and later Eastern Roman Empires and beyond, playing a prominent role in European, Near Eastern, Slavic, and some African cultures. As a result, the term Greek Orthodox has sometimes used to describe all of Eastern Orthodoxy in general. However, the appellation Greek was never in use and was gradually abandoned by the non-Greek-speaking Eastern Orthodox churches. Its most prominent episcopal see is Constantinople, there are also many in other parts of the world, formed through immigration, conversion and missionary activity. The official name of the Eastern Orthodox Church is the Orthodox Catholic Church and it is the name by which the church refers to itself in its liturgical or canonical texts, in official publications, and in official contexts or administrative documents. Orthodox teachers refer to the Church as Catholic and this name and longer variants containing Catholic are also recognized and referenced in other books and publications by secular or non-Orthodox writers. The common name of the Church, Eastern Orthodox Church, is a shortened practicality that helps to avoid confusions in casual use, for this reason, the eastern churches were sometimes identified as Greek, even before the great schism. After 1054, Greek Orthodox or Greek Catholic marked a church as being in communion with Constantinople and this identification with Greek, however, became increasingly confusing with time. Missionaries brought Orthodoxy to many regions without ethnic Greeks, where the Greek language was not spoken. Today, many of those same Roman churches remain, while a large number of Orthodox are not of Greek national origin. Eastern, then, indicates the element in the Churchs origin and development, while Orthodox indicates the faith. While the Church continues officially to call itself Catholic, for reasons of universality, the first known use of the phrase the catholic church occurred in a letter written about 110 AD from one Greek church to another. Quote of St Ignatius to the Smyrnaeans, Wheresoever the bishop shall appear, there let the people be, even as where Jesus may be, thus, almost from the very beginning, Christians referred to the Church as the One, Holy, Catholic and Apostolic Church. The Orthodox Church claims that it is today the continuation and preservation of that same Church, a number of other Christian churches also make a similar claim, the Roman Catholic Church, the Anglican Communion, the Assyrian Church and the Oriental Orthodox Churches. The Church of England separated from the Roman Catholic Church, not directly from the Orthodox Church, the depth of this meaning in the Orthodox Church is registered first in its use of the word Orthodox itself, a union of Greek orthos and doxa
19.
Julian calendar
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The Julian calendar, proposed by Julius Caesar in 46 BC, was a reform of the Roman calendar. It took effect on 1 January 45 BC, by edict, the Julian calendar gains against the mean tropical year at the rate of one day in 128 years. For the Gregorian the figure is one day in 3,030 years, the difference in the average length of the year between Julian and Gregorian is 0. 002%. The Julian calendar has a year of 365 days divided into 12 months. A leap day is added to February every four years, the Julian year is, therefore, on average 365.25 days long. It was intended to approximate the tropical year, as a result, the calendar year gains about three days every four centuries compared to observed equinox times and the seasons. This discrepancy was corrected by the Gregorian reform of 1582, consequently, the Julian calendar is currently 13 days behind the Gregorian calendar. Egypt converted on 20 December 1874/1 January 1875, turkey switched on 16 February/1 March 1917. Russia changed on 1/14 February 1918, Greece made the change for civil purposes on 16 February/1 March 1923 - the national day, which was a religious holiday, was to remain on the old calendar. Most Christian denominations in the west and areas evangelised by western churches have replaced the Julian calendar with the Gregorian as the basis for their liturgical calendars. However, most branches of the Eastern Orthodox Church still use the Julian calendar for calculating the date of Easter, some Orthodox churches have adopted the Revised Julian calendar for the observance of fixed feasts, while other Orthodox churches retain the Julian calendar for all purposes. The Julian calendar is used by the Berbers of the Maghreb in the form of the Berber calendar. In the form of the Alexandrian calendar, it is the basis for the Ethiopian calendar, during the changeover between calendars and for some time afterwards, dual dating was used in documents and gave the date according to both systems. In contemporary as well as texts that describe events during the period of change. The ordinary year in the previous Roman calendar consisted of 12 months, in addition, a 27- or 28-day intercalary month, the Mensis Intercalaris, was sometimes inserted between February and March. The net effect was to add 22 or 23 days to the year, some say the mensis intercalaris always had 27 days and began on either the first or the second day after the Terminalia. According to the later writers Censorinus and Macrobius, the ideal intercalary cycle consisted of ordinary years of 355 days alternating with intercalary years, alternately 377 and 378 days long. In this system, the average Roman year would have had 366 1⁄4 days over four years, Macrobius describes a further refinement whereby, in one 8-year period within a 24-year cycle, there were only three intercalary years, each of 377 days
20.
Courtier
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A courtier is a person who is often in attendance at the court of a king or other royal personage. The earliest historical examples of courtiers were part of the retinues of rulers, historically the court was the centre of government as well as the residence of the monarch, and the social and political life were often completely mixed together. Monarchs very often expected the more important nobles to spend much of the year in attendance on them at court, not all courtiers were noble, as they included clergy, soldiers, clerks, secretaries, and agents and middlemen of all sorts with regular business at court. All those who held a court appointment could be called courtiers and those personal favorites without business around the monarch, sometimes called the camarilla, were also considered courtiers. Promotion to important positions could be very rapid at court, the key commodities for a courtier were access and information, and a large court operated at many levels - many successful careers at court involved no direct contact with the monarch. The largest and most famous European court was that of the Palace of Versailles at its peak, although the Forbidden City of Beijing was even larger and more isolated from national life. Very similar features marked the courts of all very large monarchies, whether in Delhi, Topkapı Palace in Istanbul, Ancient Rome, Byzantium, early medieval European courts frequently traveled from place to place following the monarch as he traveled. This was particularly the case in the early French court, but, the European nobility generally had independent power and was less controlled by the monarch until roughly the 18th century, which gave European court life a more complex flavour. The earliest courtiers coincide with the development of definable courts beyond the rudimentary entourages or retinues of rulers, two of the earliest titles referring to the general concept of a courtier were likely the ša rēsi and mazzāz pāni of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. The imperial court of the Byzantine Empire at Constantinople would eventually contain at least a thousand courtiers, the courts systems became prevalent in other courts such as those in the Balkan states, the Ottoman Empire, and Russia. Byzantinism is a term that was coined for this spread of the Byzantine system in the 19th century, in modern literature, courtiers are often depicted as insincere, skilled at flattery and intrigue, ambitious and lacking regard for the national interest. More positive representations of the stereotype might include the role played by members of the court in the development of politeness, in modern English, the term is often used metaphorically for contemporary political favourites or hangers-on. Rosencrantz and Guildenstern from William Shakespeares Hamlet Sir Lancelot from Arthurian legend Gríma Wormtongue from J. R. R, Sir Nicholas de Mimsy-Porpington from J. K.36, No
21.
Abdank coat of arms
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Abdank is a Polish coat of arms. It was used by several families in the times of the Kingdom of Poland. Gules łękawica argent, crest, łąkawica as in arms, according to Kasper Niesiecki the beginning of this shield dates from the time of Krakus, a mythological Polish monarch who founded and gave his name to the city of Kraków. On Wawel Mount, where Krakóws castle stood, from the Wisła river side, one day a man called Skuba, a young shoemaker, took the skin of a flayed sheep, put tar and sulphur and fire-brand into it and threw it into the dragons lair. The dragon, not recognizing the deception, assumed it was a sacrifice from the people of Kraków, the fire in his belly ignited it and as a result the dragon became very thirsty. He drank and drank the water from the Wisła river until he finally exploded and died, for his heroic deed Krakus granted Skuba the letter W to his shield, standing either for wąż or for Wawel. This letter can be seen on the Abdank coat of arms, known recorded war cries are, Abdaniec. Tadeusz Gajl, Herbarz polski od średniowiecza do XX wieku, ponad 4500 herbów szlacheckich 37 tysięcy nazwisk 55 tysięcy rodów, bartosz Paprocki on Abdank Kasper Niesiecki on Abdank
22.
Syrokomla coat of arms
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Syrokomla - is a Polish coat of arms. It was used by several families in the times of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. After this victory he was awarded with a right to add a golden cross to his coat of arms, gules, Abdank Argent, with a cross Or attached above. In the crest the symbol repeated, notable bearers of this coat of arms include, Michał Grocholski Franciszek Grocholski Władysław Syrokomla, writer Polish heraldry Heraldry
23.
Sotnik
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Literally it means commander of hundred men in most Slavonic languages. In the Russian rank structure sotnik was developed into Poruchik which eventually turned into Lieutenant, the word is often translated as Captain, however the Lieutenant transliteration is also in common usage, and for the sake of the historical and social clarity the original rank name is used. Holders of the rank also served as leaders of territorial units, in the Cossacks paramilitary society of the Zaporozhian Host, Cossack Hetmanate, and Sloboda Ukraine, territories were organized along the lines of military organization and commanded by officers. During the Khmelnytsky Uprising and in the Cossack Hetmanate, sotnyks were leaders of territorial administrative subdivisions called sotnyas, such sotnyks were subordinated to polkovnyks who were in control of a polk and a regiment
24.
Dnieper
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It is the longest river of Ukraine and Belarus and the fourth longest river in Europe. The total length ranges between 2,145 km and 2,201 km with a basin of 504,000 square kilometres. The river is noted for its dams and hydroelectric stations, the Dnieper is an important navigable waterway for the economy of Ukraine and is connected via the Dnieper–Bug Canal to other waterways in Europe. In antiquity, the river was known to the Greeks as the Borysthenes and was part of the Amber Road, Arheimar, a capital of the Goths, was located on the Dnieper, according to the Hervarar saga. The name Dnieper is derived from Sarmatian Dānu apara the river on the far side, according to V. Abaev the name Dnieper derives from Scythian Dānu apr deep river, while the name Dniester is combination of Scythian Dānu and Thracian Ister, the old name of Dniester. In the three countries through which it flows it has essentially the name, albeit pronounced differently, Russian, Днепр, Belarusian, Дняпро or Днепр, Ukrainian. The late Greek and Roman authors called it Δάναπρις - Danapris and Danaper respectively - and its Old East Slavic name used at the time of Kievan Rus was Slavuta or Slavutych, the Huns called it Var, and Bulgars - Buri-Chai. The name in Crimean Tatar, Özü, the total length of the river is 2,145 kilometres, of which 485 km are within Russia,700 km are within Belarus, and 1,095 km are within Ukraine. Its basin covers 504,000 square kilometres, of which 289,000 km2 are within Ukraine,118,360 km2 are within Belarus, the source of the Dnieper is the sedge bogs of the Valdai Hills in central Russia, at an elevation of 220 m. For 115 km of its length, it serves as the border between Belarus and Ukraine and its estuary, or liman, used to be defended by the strong fortress of Ochakiv. On the Dnepr River to the south of Komarin urban-type settlement, Braghin District, the Dnieper has many tributaries with 89 being rivers of 100+ km. The water resources of the Dnieper basin compose around 80% out of all Ukraine, Dnieper Rapids were part of trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks, first mentioned in the Kiev Chronicle. The route was established in the late eighth and early ninth centuries. On the Dnieper the Varangians had to portage their ships round seven rapids, after Dnieper Hydroelectric Station was built in 1932, they were inundated by Dnieper Reservoir. The river is part of the Quagga mussels native range, the mussel has been accidentally introduced around the world where it has become an invasive species. From the mouth of the Prypiat River to the Kakhovka Hydroelectric Station, there are six sets of dams and hydroelectric stations, the first constructed was the Dnieper Hydroelectric Station near Zaporizhia, built in 1927–1932 with an output of 558 MW. It was destroyed during World War II, but was rebuilt in 1948 with an output of 750 MW, the Dnieper River in different regions Major cities, over 100,000 in population, are in bold script. Cities and towns located on the Dnieper are listed in order from the source to its mouth, Arheimar
25.
Zaporizhian Sich
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The Zaporozhian Sich was a semi-autonomous polity of Cossacks in the 16th to 18th centuries, centred in the region around todays Kakhovka Reservoir spanning the lower Dnieper river in Ukraine. In different periods the area came under the sovereignty of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the Ottoman Empire, the Tsardom of Russia, the Zaporozhian Sich traditionally started from a fortress built on the Khortytsia island in the middle of the Dnieper River in the present-day Zaporozhia region of Ukraine. The term Zaporozhian Sich can also refer metonymically and informally to the whole organisation of the Zaporozhian Cossack Host. Prince Dmytro Vyshnevetsky established the first Zaporizhian Sich on the island of Small Khortytsia in 1552, building a fortress at Niz Dnieprovsky, in 1558, however, Tatar forces destroyed that fortress. Soon another sich was created on the island of Tomakovka as a fortified encampment 40 miles south. With the destruction of Tomakovska Sich, the third Sich was created on the Bazavluk island in 1593 that today is flooded as well and it survived until 1638, when a Polish expeditionary force destroyed it while suppressing a Cossack uprising. Another sich, first mentioned in 1628, stood at Nikitin Rog, from here Bohdan Khmelnytskys uprising began in 1648. Chertomlykska Sich was liquidated after the Battle of Poltava, then another sich was built at the mouth of the Kamianets river, which also was destroyed by Russian Empire government in 1711. The Cossacks then fled to the Crimean Khanate to avoid persecution, in 1734, however, they were allowed to return to the Russian Empire. Suffering from discrimination in the Khanate, Cossacks gladly accepted the offer to return, russias government needed no more service from the Zaporozhian Cossacks for protection of the borders in that area. A minority of the Cossacks left Zaporozhia to serve the Ottoman Empire at the mouth of the Danube River and he was able to gather almost 12,000 Cossacks and called them the Black Sea Cossacks. After the conflict was over, rather than allow the Cossacks to settle across Southern Ukraine, in 1860, they changed their name to the Kuban Cossacks. He was aided by a secretary, head judge. During the military operations the Otaman carried an unlimited power supported by his staff as the military collegiate and he decided with an agreement from the Rada whether or not to support a certain Hetman or other leaders of state. Some sources refer to the Zaporozhian Sich as a Cossack republic, because the highest power in it belonged to the assembly of all its members, the Cossacks formed a society that consisted of kurins. A Cossack military court severely punished violence and stealing among compatriots, the bringing of women to the Sich, the consumption of alcohol in periods of conflict, the administration of the Sich provided Orthodox churches and schools for the religious and secular education of children. The population of Sich had a component, as apart from Ukrainians it included Moldavians, Tatars, Poles, Lithuanians, Jews, Russians. The social structure was complex, consisting of destitute gentry and boyars, szlachta, merchants, peasants, outlaws of every sort, runaway slaves from Turkish galleys
26.
Kiev
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Kiev or Kyiv is the capital and largest city of Ukraine, located in the north central part of the country on the Dnieper River. The population in July 2015 was 2,887,974, Kiev is an important industrial, scientific, educational, and cultural centre of Eastern Europe. It is home to many industries, higher education institutions. The city has an infrastructure and highly developed system of public transport. The citys name is said to derive from the name of Kyi, during its history, Kiev, one of the oldest cities in Eastern Europe, passed through several stages of great prominence and relative obscurity. The city probably existed as a centre as early as the 5th century. A Slavic settlement on the trade route between Scandinavia and Constantinople, Kiev was a tributary of the Khazars, until seized by the Varangians in the mid-9th century. Under Varangian rule, the city became a capital of the Kievan Rus, completely destroyed during the Mongol invasion in 1240, the city lost most of its influence for the centuries to come. It was a capital of marginal importance in the outskirts of the territories controlled by its powerful neighbours, first the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, followed by Poland. The city prospered again during the Russian Empires Industrial Revolution in the late 19th century, in 1917, after the Ukrainian National Republic declared independence from the Russian Empire, Kiev became its capital. From 1919 Kiev was an important center of the Armed Forces of South Russia and was controlled by the White Army. From 1921 onwards Kiev was a city of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, which was proclaimed by the Red Army, during World War II, the city again suffered significant damage, but quickly recovered in the post-war years, remaining the third largest city of the Soviet Union. During the countrys transformation to an economy and electoral democracy. Kievs armament-dependent industrial output fell after the Soviet collapse, adversely affecting science, Kiev emerged as the most pro-Western region of Ukraine where parties advocating tighter integration with the European Union dominate during elections. As a prominent city with a history, its English name was subject to gradual evolution. The early English spelling was derived from Old East Slavic form Kyjev, the name is associated with that of Kyi, the legendary eponymous founder of the city. Early English sources use various names, including Kiou, Kiow, Kiew, on one of the oldest English maps of the region, Russiae, Moscoviae et Tartariae published by Ortelius the name of the city is spelled Kiou. On the 1650 map by Guillaume de Beauplan, the name of the city is Kiiow, in the book Travels, by Joseph Marshall, the city is referred to as Kiovia
27.
Society of Jesus
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The Society of Jesus Latin, Societas Iesu, S. J. SJ or SI) is a religious congregation of the Catholic Church which originated in Spain. The society is engaged in evangelization and apostolic ministry in 112 nations on six continents, Jesuits work in education, intellectual research, and cultural pursuits. Jesuits also give retreats, minister in hospitals and parishes, and promote social justice, Ignatius of Loyola founded the society after being wounded in battle and experiencing a religious conversion. He composed the Spiritual Exercises to help others follow the teachings of Jesus Christ, ignatiuss plan of the orders organization was approved by Pope Paul III in 1540 by a bull containing the Formula of the Institute. Ignatius was a nobleman who had a background, and the members of the society were supposed to accept orders anywhere in the world. The Society participated in the Counter-Reformation and, later, in the implementation of the Second Vatican Council, the Society of Jesus is consecrated under the patronage of Madonna Della Strada, a title of the Blessed Virgin Mary, and it is led by a Superior General. The Society of Jesus on October 3,2016 announced that Superior General Adolfo Nicolás resignation was officially accepted, on October 14, the 36th General Congregation of the Society of Jesus elected Father Arturo Sosa as its thirty-first Superior General. The headquarters of the society, its General Curia, is in Rome, the historic curia of St. Ignatius is now part of the Collegio del Gesù attached to the Church of the Gesù, the Jesuit Mother Church. In 2013, Jorge Mario Bergoglio became the first Jesuit Pope, the Jesuits today form the largest single religious order of priests and brothers in the Catholic Church. As of 1 January 2015, Jesuits numbered 16,740,11,986 clerics regular,2,733 scholastics,1,268 brothers and 753 novices. In 2012, Mark Raper S. J. wrote, Our numbers have been in decline for the last 40 years—from over 30,000 in the 1960s to fewer than 18,000 today. The steep declines in Europe and North America and consistent decline in Latin America have not been offset by the significant increase in South Asia, the Society is divided into 83 Provinces with six Independent Regions and ten Dependent Regions. On 1 January 2007, members served in 112 nations on six continents with the largest number in India and their average age was 57.3 years,63.4 years for priests,29.9 years for scholastics, and 65.5 years for brothers. The current Superior General of the Jesuits is Arturo Sosa, the Society is characterized by its ministries in the fields of missionary work, human rights, social justice and, most notably, higher education. It operates colleges and universities in countries around the world and is particularly active in the Philippines. In the United States it maintains 28 colleges and universities and 58 high schools and he ensured that his formula was contained in two papal bulls signed by Pope Paul III in 1540 and by Pope Julius III in 1550. The formula expressed the nature, spirituality, community life and apostolate of the new religious order, the meeting is now commemorated in the Martyrium of Saint Denis, Montmartre
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Lviv
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Lviv, the largest city in western Ukraine and the seventh largest city in the country overall, is one of the main cultural centres of Ukraine. Named in honor of the Leo, the eldest son of Rus King Daniel of Galicia. It was the capital of the Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia from 1272 to 1349, from 1434, it was the regional capital of the Ruthenian Voivodeship in the Kingdom of Poland and was known as Lwów. In 1772, after the First partition of Poland, the city became the capital of the Habsburg Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria and was renamed to Lemberg, in 1918 in a short time was the capital of the West Ukrainian Peoples Republic. Between the wars, the city was again as Lwów and was the centre of the Lwów Voivodeship in the Second Polish Republic. After World War II, it part of the Soviet Union. Administratively, Lviv serves as the center of Lviv Oblast and has the status of city of oblast significance. Lviv was the centre of the region of Galicia. The historical heart of the city, with its old buildings and cobblestone streets, survived Soviet, the city has many industries and institutions of higher education such as Lviv University and Lviv Polytechnic. Lviv is also the home of many cultural institutions, including a philharmonic orchestra. The historic city centre is on the UNESCO World Heritage List, Lviv celebrated its 750th anniversary with a son et lumière in the center of the city in September 2006. Lviv is located on the edge of the Roztochia Upland, approximately 70 kilometers from the Polish border and 160 kilometers from the eastern Carpathian Mountains, the average altitude of Lviv is 296 meters above sea level. Its highest point is the Vysokyi Zamok,409 meters above sea level and this castle has a commanding view of the historic city centre with its distinctive green-domed churches and intricate architecture. The old walled city was at the foothills of the High Castle on the banks of the River Poltva, in the 13th century, the river was used to transport goods. Lvivs climate is continental with cold winters and mild summers. The average temperatures are −3.1 °C in January and 18.3 °C in July, the average annual rainfall is 745 mm with the maximum being in summer. Lviv approximately receives 1,804 hours of sunshine annually, archaeologists have demonstrated that the Lviv area was settled by the 5th century. The area between the Castle Hill and the river Poltva was continuously settled since the 9th century, in 1977 it was discovered that the Orthodox church of St. Nicholas had been built on a previously functioning cemetery
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Crimean Tatar language
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Crimean Tatar, also called Crimean Turkish or simply Crimean, is a language spoken for centuries in Crimea. It is a Turkic language spoken in Crimea and the Crimean Tatar diasporas of Uzbekistan, Turkey, Romania and Bulgaria, as well as communities in the United States. It should not be confused with Tatar proper, spoken in Tatarstan and adjacent regions in Russia, though only distantly related, it has been extensively influenced by nearby Oghuz Turkic languages such as Turkish, Turkmen, and Azerbaijani. Today, more than 260,000 Crimean Tatars live in Crimea, approximately 150,000 reside in Central Asia, where their ancestors had been exiled in 1944 during World War II by the Soviet Union. However, of all people, mostly the older generations are the only ones still speaking Crimean Tatar. In 2013, the language was estimated to be on the brink of extinction, Turkey has provided support to Ukraine, to aid in bringing the schools teaching in Crimean Tatar to a modern state. An estimated 5 million people of Crimean origin live in Turkey, descendants of those who emigrated in the 19th, of these an estimated 2,000 still speak the language. Smaller Crimean Tatar communities are found in Romania, Bulgaria. Crimean Tatar is one of the endangered languages in Europe. Almost all Crimean Tatars are bilingual or multilingual, using as their first language the dominant languages of their home countries, such as Ukrainian, Turkish, Uzbek. Each of the three groups of the Crimean Tatars has its own dialect. The dialect of the Nogays, the inhabitants of the Crimean steppe, is of Kypchak–Nogay origin. The Yalıboylus, who lived on the southern coast of Crimea before 1944, the Tat Tatars from the Crimean Mountains use a middle dialect of Kypchak–Cuman origin. The dialect is a descendant of the Cuman language. The modern Crimean Tatar written language is based on Tat because the Tats comprise about 55% of the total Crimean Tatar population, the forming of the Crimean Tatar spoken dialects began with the first Turkic invasions of Crimea and ended during the period of the Crimean Khanate. However, the written languages of the Crimean Khanate were Chagatai. After Islamization, Crimean Tatars wrote with an Arabic script, in 1876, the different Turkic Crimean dialects were made into a uniform written language by Ismail Gasprinski. A preference was given to the Oghuz dialect of the Yalıboylus, in 1928, the language was reoriented to the middle dialect spoken by the majority of the people
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Principality of Pereyaslavl
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The Principality of Pereyaslavl was a regional principality of Kievan Rus from the end of 9th century until 1323, based in the city of Pereyaslavl on the Trubizh River. The Principality of Pereyaslavl was usually administrated by younger sons of the Grand Prince of Kiev, the Russian Primary Chronicle dates the foundation of the city of Pereyaslavl to 992, the archaeological evidence suggests it was founded not long after this date. In its early days Pereyaslavl was one of the important cities in Kievan Rus behind the Principality of Chernigov, the city was located at a ford where Vladimir the Great fought a battle against the nomad Pechenegs. The Primary Chronicle records that in 988 Vladimir assigned the lands to Yaroslav. Pereyaslavl was destroyed by the Mongols in March 1239, the first Rus city to fall in the Mongol invasion of Rus
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Yuriy Khmelnytsky
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Yuri Khmelnytsky, younger son of the famous Ukrainian Hetman Bohdan Khmelnytsky and brother of Tymofiy Khmelnytsky, was a Zaporozhian Cossack political and military leader. Although he spent half of his life as a monk, he also was Hetman of Ukraine on several occasions — in 1659-1660 and 1678–1681. Yuri Khmelnytsky was born in 1641 in Subotiv near Chyhyryn in central Ukraine, in 1659 the Cossack Rada elected the 17-year-old Yurii as their hetman in Bila Tserkva, replacing the deposed Ivan Vyhovsky. The young hetman faced problems, the alliance with the Tsardom of Russia. In 1659 the parliament of Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth granted him nobility, on 24 March 1661 he became starost of Hadiach. During the latter conflict, Yuri Khmelnytskys Cossacks were defeated near the town of Korsun, he was captured by the Poles and this provoked a civil war within Ukraine in 1661, when the new ataman Yakym Somko led the pro-Moscow Cossacks against Yuri and his new Polish allies. At the battle near the town of Pereiaslav in the summer of 1662 Somkos Cossacks, after the defeat, Khmelnytsky entered an alliance with the Crimean Khanate, but this resulted in little beyond massive looting and raiding of Ukrainian towns and villagesby the Tatars. Thereupon Yuri gave up his title and became a monk at the Mharsky Monastery in the autumn of 1662. Between 1664 and 1667 the hetman Pavlo Teteria imprisoned him in Lviv, after his release, in 1672 he participated in a campaign against the Tatars and was captured near Uman and brought to Constantinople, where he was allowed to live in a Greek Orthodox monastery. In 1678 the Turkish army captured Chyhyryn and declared Yuri Khmelnytsky as a new hetman of Ukraine, Ottoman Turkish army with Yuri in tow captured and burned down Kaniv and other Ukrainian towns. Two years later, he was briefly re-instated by the Poles, finally in 1685 the Turks captured Yuri and executed him in Kamianets-Podilskyi. Unlike his father, Yuri was unable to master the complex situation he faced and was often manipulated by foreign powers. Hetmans of Ukrainian Cossacks List of Ukrainian rulers Kostomarov, Mykola, the Ruin, A Historical Monograph on the Life of Little Russia from 1663 to 1687 and Rus’ History in the Biographies of Its Important Figures - in Russian
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Cossacks
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Cossacks are a group of predominantly East Slavic-speaking people who became known as members of democratic, self-governing, semi-military communities, predominantly located in Ukraine and in Russia. The origins of the first Cossacks are disputed, though the 1710 Constitution of Pylyp Orlyk claimed Khazar origin, the Zaporizhian Sich were a vassal people of Poland–Lithuania during feudal times. Under increasing pressure from the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, in the century the Sich declared an independent Cossack Hetmanate. Afterwards, the Treaty of Pereyaslav brought most of the Ukrainian Cossack state under Russian rule, the Sich with its lands became an autonomous region under the Russian-Polish protectorate. The Don Cossack Host, which had established by the 16th century. Together they began a systematic conquest and colonisation of lands in order to secure the borders on the Volga, the whole of Siberia, and the Yaik, Cossack communities had developed along the latter two rivers well before the arrival of the Don Cossacks. By the 18th century, Cossack hosts in the Russian Empire occupied effective buffer zones on its borders, the expansionist ambitions of the Empire relied on ensuring the loyalty of Cossacks, which caused tension given their traditional exercise of freedom, democratic self-rule, and independence. By the end of the 18th century, Cossack nations had transformed into a special military estate. The government provided only firearms and supplies for them, Cossack service was considered the most rigorous one. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the Tsarist regime used Cossacks extensively to perform police service and they also served as border guards on national and internal ethnic borders. During the Russian Civil War, Don and Kuban Cossacks were the first nations to open war against the Bolsheviks. By 1918, Cossacks declared the independence of their nations and formed the independent states, the Ukrainian State, the Don Republic. The Cossack troops formed the core of the anti-Bolshevik White Army. With the victory of the Red Army, the Cossack lands were subjected to Decossackization, after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the Cossacks made a systematic return to Russia. Many took a part in Post-Soviet conflicts and Yugoslav Wars. In Russias 2010 Population Census, Cossacks have been recognized as an ethnicity, there are Cossack organizations in Russia, Kazakhstan, Ukraine, Poland, and the United States. Max Vasmers etymological dictionary traces the name to the Old East Slavic word козакъ, kozak, the ethnonym Kazakh is from the same Turkic root. In written sources the name is first attested in Codex Cumanicus from the 13th century, in English, Cossack is first attested in 1590
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Amur Cossacks
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The Amur Cossack Host, a Cossack host created in the Amur region and Primorye in the 1850s on the basis of the Cossacks relocated from the Transbaikal region and freed miners of Nerchinsk region. The first Cossack stanitsa was created in 1858, a decree announcing the creation of the Amur Cossack Host was issued in 1860. Initially the host was subordinate to the governor of the Amur Oblast. In 1879 it became responsible to the governor of the Amur Oblast, subsequently the Amur Cossack army became the responsibility of the Governor-General of the Amur region and the Commander of the armies of the military district of the Amur region. The headquarters of the Amur Cossack Host was located in Blagoveshchensk, the Amur Cossack Host patrolled the borders along the Amur River and Ussuri River It also staffed the Amur-Ussuri flotilla, created in 1897. The Amur Cossacks possessed 5,8 million desyatinas of land, the Cossack population numbered 49,200 people. In times of peace, the Amur Cossack Host supplied 1 mounted regiment and 1 platoon of local guards, in times of war this contribution expanded to two mounted regiments,1 platoon of guards,5 special and 1 reserve sotnyas and 1 infantry battalion. These made up a total of 3,600 men, the Amur Cossack Host took part in the suppression of the Boxer Rebellion in China, the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905 and World War I. During the Russian Civil War, a significant number of the Amur Cossacks fought on the side of the Soviets. The distinguishing colour of the Amur Cossack Host was yellow, worn on the cap bands, high fleece hats were worn on occasion with yellow cloth tops. White blouses and cap covers were worn in summer, in 1911 their parade uniform comprised a dark green chessman with yellow piping on cuffs and collar, the fleece hat and blue-grey breeches with yellow stripes. The field service dress worn during World War I consisted of a tunic or blouse. In common with other cossacks, no spurs were worn by the Amur Host, albazin Cossacks Amur-Ussuri Cossacks Nikolay Muravyov-Amursky
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Azov Cossack Host
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Azov Cossack Host was a Cossack host that existed on the northern shore of the Sea of Azov, between 1832 and 1862. The host was made up of several Cossack groups who were re-settled there, the most numerous were the former Danubian Sich Cossacks, who came under Russian Patronage in 1828. The host was the one in the Russian Empire whose primary task was Naval Coast Guard duties, participating extensively in the course of the Caucasus. Led by their Kosh ataman Osip Gladky, some of the Cossacks, chose to defect to Russia, the Tsar formed a Special Zaporozhian Host out of them, who took extensive part in the war. After Russias victory, a newly created Danube Cossack Host was deemed sufficient to safeguard the borders. The Tsar instead allowed the Cossacks to remain in Novorossiya provided they find an empty land. Gladky found the territory adjacent to the west of the Don Cossack Host land on the Northern coast of the Azov Sea between Berdyansk and Mariupol. Thus in 1832 Gladky moved his host to Priazovye which numbered 2,336 Cossacks, and they were the only Cossack Host that had a naval role and were tasked in guarding the Black Sea coasts of the Caucasus and Crimea. Because of their small size, the peasants of Novospasovka selo were also incorporated into the host. They were joined by volunteers from the Chernigov governorate and in 1839 a group of 217 Nekrasov Cossacks were added to their host. A defence line was proposed from Anapa all the way to Sukhum, the first marine landings by the Russian Black Sea Fleet took place in 1830 near Gagra, prior to the formation of the Azov Host. However, despite the success in 1839 Imam Shamil sent his naib Magomet-Amin who instead of rallying the Circassians on the northern Kuban approach, despite the unsuccessful operation in building the line, the Russian evacuation did not affect the Azov Cossacks role in patrolling the Black Sea Coast. In 1845 the 26 commands were re-organized into two groups, during the following years, as quoted by General M. Rayevsky The Azov Cossacks recommended themselves as a potent force and stroke fear to the captains of contraband ships and Circassian galleys. The success of the Azov Cossacks, led to a plan being drawn in 1843 to once again re-settle them to the whole Black Sea Coast from Mingrelia to the mouth of the Kuban river. After the events of 1848 it became clear that Russia was en route to another conflict between Ottoman Empire and her new allies Britain and France. The Azov Cossack Hosts first job was to sabotage the remaining Russian strongholds on the Caucasus coast, the Azov Host was tasked with preventing the enemy from reaching the Don, a task which they accomplished. However the weakly defended Strait of Kerch meant that in May 1855 a squadron of 57 English and French ships easily overpowered the Russian garrison there, afterwards the enemy approached Berdyansk and bombarded the city from the sea. Similar attacks were experienced by Petrovskaya Stanitsa, Mariupol and numerous locations on the coast of the northern Azov
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